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Unit- 1 : Communicative competence:, Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately. ... The approach pioneered by Hymes is now known as the ethnography of communication., Communicative competence is a linguistic term for the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language to form correct utterances, but also to know when to use these utterances appropriately. The term was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reacting against the inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance., The concept of communicative competence (a term coined by linguist Dell Hymes in 1972) grew out of resistance to the concept of linguistic competence introduced by Noam Chomsky., Communicative competence refers to a learner's ability to use language to communicate successfully. Canale and Swain (1980) defined it as composing competence in four areas:, Words and rules, Appropriate, Cohesion and coherence, Use of communication strategies, According to a 1980 paper by Canale and Swain which has become canonical in applied linguistics, communicative competence consists of four components:, 1. Grammatical competence: words and rules, 2. Sociolinguistic competence: appropriateness, 3. Discourse competence: cohesion and coherence, 4. Strategic competence: appropriate use of communication strategies, A more recent survey of communicative competence by Bachman (1990) divides it into the broad headings of "organizational competence," which includes both grammatical and discourse (or textual) competence, and "pragmatic competence," which includes both sociolinguistic and "illocutionary" competence., Through the influence of communicative language teaching, it has become widely accepted that communicative competence should be the goal of language education. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. The understanding of communicative competence has been influenced by the field of pragmatics and the philosophy of language concerning speech acts as described in large part by John Searle and J.L. Austin., James C. McCroskey, “Communication Comptence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 259. The ability to communicate effectively is often included as a primary undergraduate learning goal along with other key skills like writing, critical thinking, and problem solving., Communication competence refers to the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication patterns and the ability to use and adapt that knowledge in various contexts. Ralph E. Cooley and Deborah A. Roach, “A Conceptual Framework,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 25. To better understand this definition, let’s break apart its components., Developing communication competence can bring many rewards, but it also requires time and effort., The first part of the definition we will unpack deals with knowledge. The cognitive elements of competence include knowing how to do something and understanding why things are done the way they are.OwenHargie, Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 9. People can develop cognitive competence by observing and evaluating the actions of others. Cognitive competence can also be developed through instruction., The second part of the definition of communication competence that we will unpack is the ability to use. Individual factors affect our ability to do anything. Not everyone has the same athletic, musical, or intellectual ability. At the individual level, a person’s physiological and psychological characteristics affect competence. In terms of physiology, age, maturity, and ability to communicate affect competence. In terms of psychology, a person’s mood, stress level, personality, and level of communication apprehension (level of anxiety regarding communication) affect competence., The third part of the definition we will unpack is ability to adapt to various contexts. What is competent or not varies based on social and cultural context, which makes it impossible to have only one standard for what counts as communication competence.Ralph E. Cooley and Deborah A. Roach, “A Conceptual Framework,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach, ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 26.Social variables such as status and power affect competence. In a social situation where one person—say, a supervisor—has more power than another—for example, his or her employee—then the supervisor is typically the one who sets the standard for competence. Cultural variables such as race and nationality also affect competence. A Taiwanese woman who speaks English as her second language may be praised for her competence in the English language in her home country but be viewed as less competent in the United States because of her accent. In summary, although we have a clear definition of communication competence, there are not definitions for how to be competent in any given situation, since competence varies at the individual, social, and cultural level., Despite the fact that no guidelines for or definitions of competence will be applicable in all situations, the National Communication Association (NCA) has identified many aspects of competence related to communication. The primary focus has been on competencies related to speaking and listening, and the NCA notes that developing communication competence in these areas will help people in academic, professional, and civic contexts.SherwynMorreale, Rebecca B. Rubin, and Elizabeth Jones, Speaking and Listening Competencies for College Students (Washington, DC: National Communication Association, 1998), n.p.\, Four Elements of Definition of Communication Competence, 1 – Grammatical Competence: words and rules. Knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and, vocabulary of a language., 2 – Sociolinguistic Competence: appropriateness. ..., 3 – Discourse Competence: cohesion and coherence. ..., 4 – Strategic Competence: appropriate use of communicative strategies., 1 – Grammatical Competence: words and rules, Knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language. Linguistic competence asks: What words do I use? How do I put them into phrases and sentences?), 2 – Sociolinguistic Competence: appropriateness, Knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately, given the setting, the topic, and the relationships among the people communicating. Sociolinguistic competence asks: Which words and phrases fit this setting and this topic? How can I express a specific attitude (courtesy, authority, friendliness, respect) when I need to? How do I know what attitude another person is expressing?, 3 – Discourse Competence: cohesion and coherence, Knowing how to interpret the larger context and how to construct longer stretches of language so that the parts make up a coherent whole. Discourse competence asks: How are words, phrases and sentences put together to create conversations, speeches, email messages, newspaper articles?, 4 – Strategic Competence: appropriate use of communicative strategies, Knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns, how to work around gaps in one’s knowledge of the language, and how to learn more about the language and in the context. Strategic competence asks: How do I know when I’ve misunderstood or when someone has misunderstood me? What do I say then? How can I express my ideas if I don’t know the name of something or the right verb form to use., Developing Competence. Knowing the dimensions of competence is an important first step toward developing competence. ... Communication competence is needed in order to understand communication ethics, to develop cultural awareness, to use computer-mediated communication, and to think critically., Unit- 2 Intercultural communication, Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from two different cultures. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people from different cultures create shared meanings., The term “intercultural communication” represents broad ideas that are difficult to express in just one way. Thus we present several working definitions as starting points for exploring this topic:, Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from two different cultures. (Chen & Starosta, 1998), Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process, in which people from different cultures create shared meanings. (Lustig & Koester, 2007), Intercultural communication refers to the effects on communication behavior, when different cultures interact together. Hence, one way of viewing intercultural communication is as communication that unfolds in symbolic intercultural spaces. (Arasaratnam, 2013), Intercultural communication offers the ability to deal across cultures, which is increasingly important, as the world gets smaller. ... Being able to deal with this cultural difference peacefully, never mind creatively and innovatively, is becoming a survival issue to thrive in a global world as a global leader., Intercultural communication is the exchange of cultural information between people with significantly different cultures. Intracultural communication is the exchange of meaningful messages between members of the same cultural group., Intercultural communication is the communication between people with several cultural contexts. ... Conditions for effective, intercultural communication are the following: respect for other cultures. awareness of other cultures and own culture., “If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.” Nelson Mandela, --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Verbal and Non-verbal communication, Meaning of verbal communication, When messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal communication. Verbal communication may be two types: written and oral communication. Verbal communication takes place through face- to-face conversations, group discussions, counseling, interview, radio, television, calls, memos, letters, reports, notes, email etc., Definitions of verbal communications are as follows:, “Verbal communication is the expression of information through language which is composed of words and grammar.” Bovee and others, “Verbal communication consists of sharing thoughts thought the meaning of words.”Penrose and others, So, verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or message between two or more persons through written or oral words., Characteristics of Effective Verbal Communication:, Consider the objective, Be sincere, Use simple language, familiar words, Be brief and precise, assume nothing, Use polite words and tone, Say something interesting and pleasing, Merits of Verbal Communication:, More personal and informal, Makes immediate impact, Provides opportunity for interaction and feedback, Help us correct ourselves (our messages according to the feedback and non-verbal cues from the listener), It is fastest and less expensive, Demerits of Verbal Communication:, It can be quickly forgotten., A word once uttered cannot be taken back, There is no legal evidence of oral communication, Impact may be short lived, Very difficult to be conscious of our body language, Barriers to effective verbal communication:, STATUS- formal and informal status levels affects effectiveness of face to face communication, COMPLEXES- lack of confidence or sense of superiority., ABSTRACTING- it is partial and selective listening, leading to loss of information, LANGUAGE BARRIER- listener should be familiar with the language used by the speaker., Meaning of non-verbal communication :, When messages or information is exchanged or communicated without using any spoken or written word is known as nonverbal communication. Non- verbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages., Non-verbal communication is a powerful arsenal in the face-to-face communication encounters, expressed consciously in the presence of others and perceived either consciously or unconsciously. Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional people are not even aware that they are sending messages. Non-verbal communication takes place though gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, physical proximity, touching etc., Definitions of non-verbal communication are as follows:, “Non-verbal communication is communication that takes place through non-verbal cues: through such form of non-verbal communication as gesture, eye contact, facial expression, clothing and space; and through the non-verbal vocal communication known as Para-language.” L. C. Bove and others,, “Nonverbal communication means all communication that occurs without words (body movements, space, time, touch, voice patterns, color, layout, design of surroundings.)” Lesikar and Pettit, “Non-verbal communication includes any communication occurring without the use of words.” Himstreet and Baty, So, non-verbal communication is the exchanged of information or message between two or more persons through gestures, facial expressions eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word., Importance of Non-Verbal Communication:, Nonverbal communication flows through all acts of speaking or writing., They are the wordless messages., Is a creative activity, which comes through stimuli, produced by the mind?, A person to have quality communication skills must possess the knowledge of non-verbal communication. As compared to words and vocal variety non-verbal communication matters a lot., Appropriate use of non-verbal communication:, Facial expressions, The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures., Body movements and posture, Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand, or hold their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements., Gestures, Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon, and use our hands when we’re arguing or speaking animatedly—expressing ourselves with gestures often without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be careful to avoid misinterpretation., Eye contact, Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction., Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s interest and response., Touch, We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about the messages given by the following: a weak handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring slap on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on the arm., Space, Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other person was standing too close and invading your space? We all have a need for physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy and affection, aggression or dominance., Voice, It’s not just what you say, it’s how you say it. When we speak, other people “read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. Things they pay attention to include your timing and pace, how loud you speak, your tone and inflection, and sounds that convey understanding, such as “ahh” and “uh-huh.” Think about how someone's tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or confidence., Unit- 3, Barriers to Communication:, Communication is not always successful. The smooth functioning of all the elements in communication cycle results in successful communication. Any obstacle, hurdle, disturbance partly or fully cause ineffective communication. The problems may be in medium, in the sender, or message itself. Because of barriers communication is not possible or it may lead to miscommunication. If sender sends the message and it does not reach to the receiver, it means there is obstacle on the way. Several barriers are categorized into groups. They are physical, psychological, mechanical, semantic, cultural and linguistic barriers., Physical Barriers (External):, Mostly physical barriers are external in nature. Because of physical and environmental objects communication is not possible, they are called physical barriers. They hamper communication cycle from outside that is why they are called external barriers. Some of physical barriers are listed below.., Noise : Noise is main obstacle in the communication process. Loud noise of machines creates difficulty in communication. Telephone noise, loud speaker system; the noise of old printers often disturbs the communication., Physical Distance and Time : It can barriers to communication. In the absence of any mechanical device, communication is not possible between people of long distance. Several companies have shifts. It is difficult to communicate with the people working in different shifts., Environmental Conditions : The environmental conditions like extreme cold or hot, strong wind, heavy rain, fog or mist, humidity and lack of ventilation also effect on communication and become barrier., Physical Subjective ness: Our physical Subjective ness like influence of intoxicants, dull mood, sleeplessness, health problems and over burden contribute in distortion of communication cycle., Defects in the Medium : We use varies mediums of communication like telephone, postal system, the courier services or e-mail. If it fail and creates obstacle in communication., Information Overload : When there is too much information, it is blocked in transmitting. In the case of advertising and sales , if information in so much communication is done about products and it may not have good deal with buyers., Semantic and Language Barriers:, Language deeply influence man thought. It is most important and powerful tool of communication. When we open good dictionary and see how many meanings are used for single word. The word ‘Ring’ has many meanings. The real hurdle is to guess the meaning without context. The following elements come under semantic and language barrier., Technical Term: Technical term can be a barrier to communication. The technical words are used in technical technical work. Think of new meaning given to dictionary words by computer technology. People who are not familiar with computers, Mouse is only animal for them., Different Meanings: In the language there are so many words having different meanings. Murphy and Peck in their book “Effective Business Communication” noted 71 meanings of the word ‘Run’. So it is difficult to get exact meaning. Age, education, background etc factors influence the meaning we give to words., Bypassed Instruction: Bypassing occurs when sender and receiver of the message have different meanings to the same word. Example: Take it our stockroom and burn it. Here in this example manager has in his mind to take a copy on a company machine., Denotation and Connotation: Words have two types of meaning denotative and connotative meaning., The literal meaning of the word is called denotative meaning. Example: table, books etc., Connotative meanings are the meanings interpreted by the receiver with personal reaction. Example: cheap, Socio- Psychological Barriers:, Psychology is the basic instinct of any human being. Varies experiences in the childhood, family background, social environment shapes the frame or references of man. He analyses, evaluates and standardizes the things before him through his frame. He draws the meaning and takes the decision and come to the conclusion on that basis. The barriers resulted from psychological set up of man known as psychological barriers. And the barrier occurred because of social background are social barriers. Socio-Psychological barriers are listed below.., Attitudes and Opinions: Sometimes man’s attitudes and opinion creates problem in communication. A person who has highly self-centered attitude fails to build up good relationships with the people., Self-Image: Every one possesses his own psychological image and he tries to keep it. A self-image is built up over the years and it is difficult to accept any idea which goes against it. A person accepts only those things which please him and forget which are unpleasant., Closed Mind: Persons with a closed mind have limited understanding of human nature. It is difficult to communicate with people of closed mind., Such people do not take any suggestion for change. Closed mind people will not accept the suggestions and may say, “I have been in this line for the last twenty years. What can you teach me?”, Status Consciousness: It proves to be very serious barrier to communication. People in senior positions often develop the feeling that they know everything. They don’t accept the opinion of their juniors. Many good ideas are wasted only because of status consciousness., Emotions: Emotional states of mind plays important role in communication. If the sender is worried, excited afraid, nervous, he will not communicate properly. If person is in angry mood he will not take the message in proper light., Defensiveness: Many times man’s defensiveness nature doesn’t allow to him to play active role in an event. In spite of having potential he does not dare to use it. His defensive nature becomes major barrier to communication., Resistance to Change: The risk factor involved in change and acceptance of new idea frightens us. A person becomes resistance to change and want to keep old beliefs., Filtering: It is the process of reducing the details or aspects of the message. Each person who passes the message according to his or her own understanding of the situation., The source of Communication: If the receiver has a suspicion or prejudice against the source of communication, there is a barriers to communication., State of Health: Physical condition can affect your efficiency in all Communication skills. If you are not physically fit or if you have a pain or fever. It may affect and become obstacle in communication., Faulty Transmission : When a sender sends the message , many times it does not reach to the receiver because of many problems. Faulty transmission create problem in communication. In oral communication 30 percent of the information is lost., Inattentiveness : Unconsciously we become inattentive. If the communication contains a new idea and our mind refused to respond to it. In such situations there is difficulty in communication., Poor Retention : Because of poor retention especially oral messages are lost and become barrier to communication., Cross Cultural Barriers:, The influence of culture many times becomes barrier to communication. In understanding the concepts, which are outside of his own culture or other culture. Cross cultural factors naturally increase the possible problems of communication. Culture is a shared set of values and attributes of a group and transmitted from one generation to another. Culture is so much part of an individual’s manner of talking, behaving and thinking. Some of the most significant differences between cultures are, National Character/ basic personality, Language, Values and norms of behavior, Social relationships, Thinking Process, Perception, 7. Non-verbal Communication, Mechanical Barriers:, The mechanical barriers are found in the using instruments. Many times physical transmission disturbs easy communication. The faulty communication channel like telephone, internet sped, fax machine, causes barrier to communication. The speech of the person may be disturbed because of problems in mechanical devices . the problems of obstacles occurred because of mechanical devices are called mechanical barriers., Overcoming Barriers:, Constant organizational effort is needed to overcome barriers. If we want to overcome these barriers the channels must be kept in good working condition; the intercoms, notice boards must be kept up to date. Many companies which can offer it maintain sound proof rooms for meetings., For overcoming language and sematic barriers, it can be done only by being careful with the use of language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple sentences and also by using visual- aids whenever possible., Socio-psychological barriers can be overcome by making conscious efforts and by training by better communication. To reduce misunderstanding some of the points are useful- don’t assume similarity until you are sure, depend on description rather than evaluation., To overcome cultural barriers understanding the different cultures is important solutions., These are some of the ways of overcoming barriers. It is not so easy to overcome all barriers ; for that matter everyone has to make efforts., Group Discussion/ Team Work, The concept of Group Discussion has not been a part of the regular academic curriculum in Colleges and Universities. So, students usually face a lot of problem in this area of the Selection Process. Let us first understand why Group Discussion is conducted., Most institutes today are very clear about the skills and knowledge that they look for in a student while screening. This was not the case a couple of years ago. Group Discussion has been a part of the Selection process for admission into most of the top Business Schools., , The skills that are usually assessed in a Group Discussion are:, Interpersonal Skills, Leadership Skills, Motivational Skills, Tolerance, Clarity over Ambiguity, Divergent Thinking, Listening skills, Analytical / Logical skills, So, it's important to assess your current strengths in all these areas and accordingly put efforts to strengthen your weaknesses., , GDs are used to assess certain  that cannot be evaluated in an . These include reasoning ability, leadership ability, Inspiring ability, flexibility, creativity/out-of-the-box thinking,, listening and articulation skills, situational handling ability, interpersonal ability to function as a team player, body language and attitude. These are the skills which are very much required to become a successful professional which in turn works as an asset for the institutes at time of campus placements., , Another important reason for institutes to keep GD as an elimination round is because of the crowd factor. At the peak time of admissions, an institute has to deal with 1000s of aspiring students. In a GD, they can analyze upto 15 aspirants in 10 minutes., , Most of the institutes use  as the next step in the selection process after written examination. That is the reason why Group Discussion has become so very important criteria for selection and rejection of candidates in institutes as well as during campus placements. GD is basically a methodology used by an institution to gauge whether a candidate has certain  and/or skills that it desires in its students. Normally, the group of candidates is given a topic or a situation, given a few minutes to think about the same, and then asked to discuss it among themselves for some time. Topics can be from a wide range of issues. It could be a topic on  or anything very general. The wider your reading interests, the better prepared you will be to face the group discussion. A Group discussion tests how you ., , Here are some tips for effective participation in a GD:, Understand - Understand the topic before attempting to contribute., Speak - Try and get a chance to speak. If you can't get a chance to speak make your chance., Initiate - Take the initiative to begin the discussion, if possible., Structure - Structure arguments logically - justify your stand., Summaries- Summaries the discussion effectively, Involve- Take active part throughout the GD., Assert- Be assertive., Articulate- Work continuously towards articulating your ideas into meaningful sentences to make the best impact. Be clear in your speech., Emphasize.-Use non-verbal communication to emphasize points., Listen- Be an attentive listener., Quality, not quantity matters- it's not 'how much' you say, but 'what' you say that's important., To prepare for a group discussion, keep track of happenings around the world. Being aware of  and issues and happenings, which affect our lives, however remotely, shows a well-rounded personality. Make a habit of reading newspapers and magazines, watch interesting documentaries and profiles on television to get a wider perspective on issues. As an individual, your intelligence, general knowledge and core competencies are measured through the aptitude test. As a team player, your ability to lead and play in team is measured in the GD., , You will have to pursue the following points if you want to be successful in a group discussion. The points are as follows:, Make sure that you read as much news as possible. Generally the topic is chosen from some of the current happenings. Hence you should make sure that you have a look at all of them., Make sure that you speak loudly and clearly. This is one of the most important things and you could find yourself in difficulty if you do not speak loudly and clearly in a GD., You should know that you are not really bounded to think in one way. You are free to think on your own and put forward some new ideas. It is good for your chances and also for the GD since new ideas will definitely make it interesting., You should know what the topic is really about. If you have some confusion then you should wait for some time and let the other speak at first. When the matter is quiet clear and the GD is in midst then you should start speaking with new ideas in mind., Knowledge:, , Knowledge about the subject can never be replaced in a GD. No matter how good you might be communicating, but if your sentences don't reflect that you are knowledge bank then it's probably not going to work out. You are required to talk in a GD but inputs that don't contain any substantial value will not help in any way. One has to keep himself updated by knowing what all is happening around the globe., Alertness and presence of mind:, In a GD you are required to carefully listen to the other person's thoughts and keep an argument, example or a supportive statement, fact, example ready to participate in the discussion. This shows how alert you are, how much importance you give to when someone is putting his or her point forward. This also shows how good listener you are, at time, things turn up to be a mess when you feel that what is being said is not making sense. Don't get irritated. Remember that you need to be calm and composed. Many times after a mess happening in a GD, candidates who are calm are selected., , Out of the box thinking:, Yes! This the something that can help you get further selected because this reflects that you have a different way of looking at things. You need to be creative and have to put points that might amaze the panel. Remember, while working there are times when we need to find out solutions to the problem in a better way, thinking out of the box helps you finding smart and good solutions at times., , Tips for Group Discussion DO's and Don'ts, Group strength is usually 8 to 12 members, When the group discussion topic is announced and if you do not get the topic properly, just request to repeat the topic. Do not show surprises., Correctly saying what you want to say- speaking effectively and efficiently is very important., General Principles, Be a good listener, Do not use high vocabulary, Never use technical language while speaking, Not knowing is not a problem , do not try to bluff, Things to avoid, Do not criticize on religion, Do not get personal with anyone, Do not criticize foreign policy of India, Never ever try to bluff, Note:, » Argument is - exchange of ignorance, » Discussion is - exchange of knowledge, Persuasive Communication:, Persuasive communication is any message whose sole purpose is to get the listener to support and transform their thinking in favor of the presenter's perspective. It is about creating an attitude change to influence social behavior. Your audience’s thoughts are critical to the process so you need to think about your listeners potential perspective then it is often helpful to present refuting arguments before they are brought up. This can add credibility to the speaker., Effective persuasive communication addresses the audience's needs, values and desires. Audiences respond better to persuasive communication when they feel the person speaking is similar to them in some way, whether it's in age, occupation or socio-economic status., Persuasion skills refer to the talent of changing the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a person or group towards another person, group, event, object, or idea. ... Whether it is a college presentation or a sales pitch to potential buyer, persuasion skills are essential for success in every stage of life., The term ‘persuasion’ means to force someone into something., The art of persuasion is the art of finding the best available means of moving a specific audience in a specific situation to a specific decision., Persuasive communication means, persuading others to understand what one is trying to communicate., Persuasive communication has one core purpose: get the readers to support, believe, and act in favor of presenter., How do you become a persuasive communicator?, Here are their tips., Establish Your Goal Early. The first step in persuasive writing is to know your audience. ..., Get to the Point. Your point is not a buried treasure, so don't make your audience dig for it. ..., Forget the Jargon. ..., Write in the Active Voice. ..., Ask for What You Want. ..., Practice Makes Perfect, Persuasive Sentences., Organizational Communication?, Organizational communication simply refers to communication that takes place in business environments., We define organizational communication’ as the sending and receiving of messages among interrelated individuals within a particular environment or setting to achieve individual and common goals. Organizational communication is highly contextual and culturally dependent. Individuals in organizations transmit messages through face-to face, written, and mediated channels., Formal vs. Informal Communication, Formal communication is associated with the formal organizational structure of the company. Ideally, communication flows smoothly, accurately and timely through the proper channel appropriate to the specific company. For instance, seniority will dictate how communication will flow from one department to another or from specific managers to specific employees. Certain tools and technologies are often used to aid in formal communication., Formal communication can have several forms., Meetings, Conferences, Telephone calls, Company newsletters, Performance reviews, The strength of formal communication is that it standardizes communication, ideally benefiting the clarity of each message. Its primary weakness is that it undermines the free and uninterrupted flow of communication, which is what defines informal communication., Informal communication includes casual, social and personal messages in the organization. Also referred to as the grapevine, informal communication and messages involve person-to-person communication networks of employees that are not officially sanctioned by the organization. This type of communication cannot be prevented. The strength and weakness of informal communication is that it is spontaneous and quick. This can lead to meaningful insights or inaccurate, misinterpreted and distorted information., Downward, Upward or Horizontal Communication, There are three general types of directional communication that take place in organizations., Downward communication flows from superiors to subordinates. This typically takes the form of orders, instructions and policy directives to people at lower levels in the company. Examples include feedback on job performance and information about policy and procedures., Upward communication flows from subordinates to superiors. This is the opposite of downward communication; it originates from people at lower levels and is directed to those who are above them. Examples include suggestion statements, reactions, reports and proposals., Horizontal communication flows from people who are on the same level of the organization. This type of directional communication enables people to interact with their peers without involving people at other levels in the company. Examples include the communication between subordinates of one boss or between managers., Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication., Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication., Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually said - the language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages sent through tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language., When two or more people are in the same place and are aware of each other's presence, then communication is taking place, no matter how subtle or unintentional., Without speech, an observer may be using cues of posture, facial expression, and dress to form an impression of the other's role, emotional state, personality and/or intentions. Although no communication may be intended, people receive messages through such forms of non-verbal behaviour., Elements of Interpersonal Communication, Much research has been done to try to break down interpersonal communication into a number of elements in order that it can be more easily understood. Commonly these elements include:, The Communicators, For any communication to occur there must be at least two people involved. It is easy to think about communication involving a sender and a receiver of a message. However, the problem with this way of seeing a relationship is that it presents communication as a one-way process where one person sends the message and the other receives it. While one person is talking and another is listening, for example., , In fact communications are almost always complex, two-way processes, with people sending and receiving messages to and from each other simultaneously. In other words, communication is an interactive process. While one person is talking the other is listening - but while listening they are also sending feedback in the form of smiles, head nods etc., The Message, Message not only means the speech used or information conveyed, but also the non-verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures and body language. Non-verbal behaviour can convey additional information about the spoken message. In particular, it can reveal more about emotional attitudes which may underlie the content of speech, Noise, Noise has a special meaning in communication theory. It refers to anything that distorts the message, so that what is received is different from what is intended by the speaker. Whilst physical 'noise' (for example, background sounds or a low-flying jet plane) can interfere with communication, other factors are considered to be ‘noise’. The use of complicated jargon, inappropriate body language, inattention, disinterest, and cultural differences can be considered 'noise' in the context of interpersonal communication. In other words, any distortions or inconsistencies that occur during an attempt to communicate can be seen as noise., Feedback, Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns, which allows the sender to know how accurately the message has been received, as well as the receiver's reaction. The receiver may also respond to the unintentional message as well as the intentional message. Types of feedback range from direct verbal statements, for example "Say that again, I don't understand", to subtle facial expressions or changes in posture that might indicate to the sender that the receiver feels uncomfortable with the message. Feedback allows the sender to regulate, adapt or repeat the message in order to improve communication., Context, All communication is influenced by the context in which it takes place. However, apart from looking at the situational context of where the interaction takes place, for example in a room, office, or perhaps outdoors, the social context also needs to be considered, for example the roles, responsibilities and relative status of the participants. The emotional climate and participants' expectations of the interaction will also affect the communication., Channel, The channel refers to the physical means by which the message is transferred from one person to another. In a face-to-face context the channels which are used are speech and vision, however during a telephone conversation the channel is limited to speech alone., Uses of Interpersonal Communication, Most of us engage in some form of interpersonal communication on a regular basis, often many times a day, how well we communicate with others is a measure of our interpersonal skills., Interpersonal communication is a key life skill and can be used to:, Give and collect information., Influence the attitudes and behaviour of others., Form contacts and maintain relationships., Make sense of the world and our experiences in it., Express personal needs and understand the needs of others., Give and receive emotional support., Make decisions and solve problems., Anticipate and predict behaviour., Regulate power., Leadership:, Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common . In a business setting, this can mean directing workers and colleagues with a strategy to meet the company's needs., This leadership definition captures the essentials of being able to inspire others and being prepared to do so. Effective leadership is based upon ideas (whether original or borrowed), but won't happen unless those ideas can be communicated to others in a way that engages them enough to act as the leader wants them to act., Put even more simply, the leader is the inspiration and director of the action. He or she is the person in the group that possesses the combination of personality and leadership skills that makes others want to follow his or her direction., Definitions of Leadership:, “Leadership occurs when one person induces others to work toward some predetermined objectives.” —Massie, “Leadership is the ability of a superior to influence the behavior of a subordinate or group and persuade them to follow a particular course of action.” — Chester Bernard, “Leadership is the art to of influencing and directing people in such a way that will win their obedience, confidence, respect and loyal cooperation in achieving common objectives.” — U. S. Air Force, “The first job of a leader is to define a vision for the organization…. Leadership of the capacity to translate vision into reality.” — Warren Bennis,, “The ultimate test of practical leadership is the realization of intended, real change that meets people’s enduring needs.” — James MacGregor Burns, “Managers have subordinates — leaders have followers.” — Murray Johannsen, “If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader.” John Quincy Adams, “Leadership is a two-way street, loyalty up and loyalty down. Respect for one’s superiors; care for one’s crew.” — Grace Hopper, Leadership Qualities That Make Good Leaders, Everybody defines leadership differently but I really like the way John C Maxwell defines leadership, “A leader is one who knows the way, goes the way, and shows the way.” Irrespective of how you define a leader, he or she can prove to be a difference maker between success and failure. A good leader has a futuristic vision and knows how to turn his ideas into real-world success stories. In this article, we take an in-depth look at some of the that separate good leaders from a bad one., 1. Honesty and Integrity, “The supreme quality of leadership is unquestionably integrity. Without it, no real success is possible, no matter whether it is on a section gang, a football field, in an army, or in an office.” Honesty and integrity are two important ingredients which make a good leader. How can you expect your followers to be honest when you lack these qualities yourself? Leaders succeed when they stick to their values and core beliefs and without ethics, this will not be possible., 2. Confidence, To be an , you should be confident enough to ensure that other follow your commands. If you are unsure about your own decisions and qualities, then your subordinates will never follow you. As a leader, you have to be oozing with confidence, show some swagger and assertiveness to gain the respect of your subordinates. This does not mean that you should be overconfident, but you should at least reflect the degree of confidence required to ensure that your followers trust you as a leader., 3. Inspire Others, Probably the most difficult job for a leader is to persuade others to follow. It can only be possible if you inspire your followers by setting a good example. When the going gets tough, they look up to you and see how you react to the situation. If you handle it well, they will follow you. As a leader, should think positive and this positive approach should be visible through your actions. Stay calm under pressure and keep the . As John Quincy Adams puts it, “If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader.” If you are successful in inspiring your subordinates, you can easily overcome any current and future challenge easily., 4. Commitment and Passion, Your teams look up to you and if you want them to give them their all, you will have to be passionate about it too. When your teammates see you getting your hands dirty, they will also give their best shot. It will also help you to gain the respect of your subordinates and infuse new energy in your team members, which helps them to perform better. If they feel that you are not fully committed or lacks passion, then it would be an uphill task for the leader to motivate your followers to achieve the goal., 5. Good Communicator, Until you clearly communicate your vision to your team and tell them the strategy to achieve the goal, it will be very difficult for you to get the results you want. Simply put, if you are unable to communicate your message effectively to your team, you can never be a good leader. A good communicator can be a good leader. Words have the power to motivate people and make them do the unthinkable. If you use them effectively, you can also achieve better results., 6. Decision-Making Capabilities, Apart from having a futuristic vision, a leader should have the ability to take the right decision at the right time. Decisions taken by leaders have a profound impact on masses. A leader should think long and hard before taking a decision but once the decision is taken, stand by it. Although, most leaders take decisions on their own, but it is highly recommended that you before taking a decision. After all, they are the ones who will benefit or suffer from your decisions., 7. Accountability, When it comes to accountability, you need to follow the approach highlighted by Arnold H Glasow when he said, “A good leader takes little more than his share of the blame and little less than his share of the credit.” Make sure that every one of your subordinates is accountable for what they are doing. If they do well, give them a pat on the back but if they struggle, make them realize their mistakes and work together to improve. Holding them accountable for their actions will create a sense of responsibility among your subordinates and they will go about the business more seriously., 8. Delegation and Empowerment, You cannot do everything, right. It is important for a leader to focus on key responsibilities while leaving the rest to others. By that, I mean empowering your followers and delegating tasks to them. If you continue to micromanage your subordinates, it will develop a lack of trust and more importantly, you will not be able to focus on important matters, as you should be. Delegate tasks to your subordinates and see how they perform. Provide them with all the resources and support they need to achieve the objective and give them a chance to bear the responsibility., 9. Creativity and Innovation, “Innovation distinguishes between a leader and a follower.” In order to get ahead in today’s fast-paced world, a leader must be creative and innovative at the same time. Creative thinking and constant innovation is what makes you and your team stand out from the crowd. Think out of the box to come up with unique ideas and turn those ideas and goals into reality., 10. Empathy, Last but certainly not the least, is empathy. Leaders should develop empathy with their followers. Unfortunately, most leaders follow a dictatorial style and neglect empathy altogether. Due to this, they fail to make a closer connection with their followers. Understanding the problems of your followers and feeling their pain is the first step to become an effective leader. Even that is not enough until you work hard and provide your followers with the suitable solution to their problems., Conclusion, To become a good leader, you must have all these qualities but if you lack some of these qualities, then you might struggle to make the mark in the world of leadership. You will have to set a good example for others to follow. That is where your commitment, passion, empathy, honesty and integrity come into play. Good communication skills and decision-making capabilities also play a vital role in success and failure of a leader. Lastly, innovation and creative thinking, as well as the futuristic vision, are a couple of key traits which make a leader stand out., 4 Different Types of Leadership Styles, The total pattern of leaders’ actions as perceived by their employees is called leadership style. It represents the leaders’ philosophy, skills and attitudes in practice., It is necessary to study the different leadership styles from which an appropriate style can be selected, depending upon the situation in which leadership is to be exercised and the nature of the followers involved., Positive and Negative Leaders or Bosses, There are different ways in which leaders approach people to motivate them. If the approach emphasizes rewards, the leader uses positive leadership. If the approach emphasizes penalties, the leader is applying negative leadership. Negative leaders should be called bosses rather than leaders., There are three classes of supervisory techniques – autocratic, participative or consultative and free-rein and corresponding to these three techniques, there are three management styles – autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. To these one more may be added-paternalistic style., 1. Autocratic or Authoritarian leadership, An autocratic leader centralizes power and decision-making in himself. He gives orders, assigns tasks and duties without consulting the employees. The leader takes full authority and assumes full responsibility., Autocratic leadership is negative, based on threats and punishment. Subordinates act as he directs. He neither cares for their opinions nor permits them to influence the decision. He believes that because of his authority he alone can decide what is best in a given situation., Autocratic leadership is based upon close supervision, clear-cut direction and commanding order of the superior. It facilitates quick decisions, prompt action and unity of direction. It depends on a lesser degree of delegation. But too much use of authority might result in strikes and industrial disputes. It is likely to produce frustration and retard the growth of the capacity of employees., The employees work as hard as is necessary to avoid punishment. They will thus produce the minimum which will escape punishment., This leadership style is less likely to be effective because (i) the new generation is more independent and less submissive and not amenable to rigid control; (ii) people look for ego satisfactions from their jobs and (iii) revolution of rising expectations changed the attitude of the people., Autocratic leadership may be divided into three classes:, (A) The hard-boiled autocrat who relies mainly on negative influences uses the force of fear and punishment in directing his subordinates towards the organisational goals. This is likely to result in employees becoming resentful., (B) The benevolent autocrat who relies mainly on positive influences uses the reward and incentives in directing his subordinates towards the organisational goals. By using praise and pats on the back he secures the loyalty of subordinates who accept his decisions., (C) The manipulative autocrat who makes the employees feels that they are participating in decision-making though the manager himself has taken the decision. McGregor labels this style as Theory X., 2. Democratic or Participative leadership, Participative or democratic leaders decentralise authority. It is characterised by consultation with the subordinates and their participation in the formulation of plans and policies. He encourages participation in decision-making., He leads the subordinates mainly through persuasion and example rather than fear and force. Sometimes the leader serves as a moderator of the ideas and suggestions from his group. McGregor labels this style as Theory Y., Taylor’s scientific management was based on the inability of the ordinary employees to make effective decisions about their work. Hence the decision-making power was vested with the management. But recent studies indicate the need for participation by subordinates. The modern trend favours sharing the responsibility with the employees., This will foster enthusiasm in them. The employees feel that management is interested in them as well as in their ideas and suggestions. They will, therefore, place their suggestions for improvement., Advantages for democratic leadership are as follows:, higher motivation and improved morale, (ii) increased co-operation with the management, (iii) improved job performance, (iv) reduction of grievances, (v) Reduction of absenteeism and employee turnover., 3. The Laissez-faire or Free-rein leadership, Free-rein leaders avoid power and responsibility. The laissez-faire or non-interfering type of leader passes on the responsibility for decision-making to his subordinates and takes a minimum of initiative in administration. He gives no direction and allows the group to establish its own goals and work out its own problems., The leader plays only a minor role. His idea is that each member of the group when left to himself will put forth his best effort and the maximum results can be achieved in this way. The leader acts as an umpire. But as no direction or control is exercised over the people, the organisation is likely to flounder., An experiment conducted among Boy Scout Clubs of the USA in 1940 shows autocratic leadership is likely to rouse antagonism in the group and produce hostility towards the leader. In democratic groups, the absence of the leader made little difference, while in autocratic groups productive work dropped to a minimum, when the leader was out of the room., Democratic leadership is more likely to win the loyalty of the group. The laissez-faire groups also developed friendly approaches to the leader as in the democratic group. But suggestions from the groups were very low and they were also less productive., 4. Paternalistic leadership, Under this management style the leader assumes that his function is fatherly or paternal. Paternalism means papa knows best. The relationship between the leader and his group is the same as the relationship between the head of the family and the members of the family. The leader guides and protects his subordinates as members of his family., As the head of the family he provides his subordinates with good working conditions and fringe benefits. It is assumed that workers will work harder out of gratitude. This leadership style was admirably successful in Japan with her peculiar social background., This leadership style has still been widely prevalent in small firms in India. However, this paternalistic approach is unlikely to work with mature adult employees, many of whom do not like their interests to be looked after by a “godfather.” Instead of gratitude, it might generate antagonism and resentment in the subordinates., Collaboration Skills:, Collaboration is essential in almost all aspects of life and work. Nearly every imaginable job in business today entails at least some joint effort among . This makes cooperation an essential skill in most sectors of the professional world., Building collaboration means building trust. Those most effective at building trust know how to understand a variety of perspectives, manage priorities from everyone in the group, and then decisively meet expectations as a reliable member of a team., What are Collaboration Skills?, The definition of the word ‘collaboration’ refers to working with someone else in order to create or produce something., Collaboration skills enable people within an organization (or outside an organization) to engage with each other productively and efficiently., Successful collaboration requires a cooperative spirit and mutual respect. Employers typically seek employees that function effectively as part of a team and are willing to balance personal achievement with group goals., In some cases, teams that collaborate include members of the same department coordinating on an ongoing activity. In other situations, interdepartmental teams are assembled to form cross-functional teams tasked with completing special projects within a prescribed period of time., Elements of Successful Collaboration, The idea of collaboration seems easy enough. Doesn’t it just imply “working together.” But there’s more to it. If you are working with others on a project, take note of these elements of healthy collaboration:, Establish clear definitions and agreements on the roles of partners in the collaborative process., Keep communication open within teams, never withholding information necessary to carry out tasks., Reach consensus about goals and methods for completing projects or tasks. Don’t move forward until all members are in agreement., Offer recognition of, and respect for, the contributions of all collaborators. It’s important to give credit where credit is due., Carefully identify obstacles and address problems cooperatively as they occur. Teamwork is essential at all times., Place group goals above personal satisfaction and/or recognition, especially if you are the leader. It’s crucial to put the desired project results at the forefront. Collaboration isn’t about individual goals., Be willing to apologize for missteps and forgive others for mistakes. Holding a grudge or sabotaging the efforts of other team members destroys collaboration., Types of Collaboration Skills, Communication :Getting your point across is not always as easy as you think. Among individuals that do not take the time to understand one another, misunderstanding is a common distraction from project goals., Being able to collaborate means paying attention to verbal and nonverbal cues, and then learning how to speak directly to the issue at hand., You can’t be afraid to share your perspective, and neither can you try to impose your viewpoint on everyone else., Focus, Confidence, Emotional Intelligence, (or EQ) is quickly becoming one of the most sought-after  in the workplace. Those with strong emotional intelligence are able to understand the “hidden” needs of themselves and others., When a team member is moody and snaps at another team member, those with emotional intelligence are able to surmise that the irritability could be evidence of the moody member’s need for rest or help. Even issues such as laziness or stubbornness are seen by those with emotional intelligence as merely symptoms of a bigger problem that everyone can work together to address., Resilience, Not Easily Offended, Able to Detach from Their Own Strong Emotions, Curiosity, Empathy, Compassion, Identify Systematic Problems, Respect for Diversity, Economies from multiple continents are beginning to merge. More and more businesses do business with companies overseas. Even within the U.S., more women and minorities are running key roles within an organization. As such, team members that collaborate well are open-minded about all walks of life., Respect for diversity does not mean that people must let go of their religious beliefs or their own convictions. It does mean, however, that everyone respects each other’s perspectives as being equal. All voices matter, and each team member is sensitive to behaviors or decisions that could be subtle forms of discrimination against a certain group of people., Open Communication, Sensitivity to Ethnic and Religious Backgrounds, Building and Managing Expectations, Facilitating Group Discussion, Agreeing on Roles that Capitalize on Individual Strengths, Building Consensus, Eliciting Viewpoints from Reluctant Team Members, More Collaboration Skills, Analyzing Problems Without Assigning Blame, Assessing the Strengths and Weaknesses of Team Members, Brainstorming, Compromising, Defining Mutually Acceptable Roles, Responding to Constructive Criticism, Reliable, Identifying Obstacles to Success, Resource Management, Humor, Managing Deadlines, Assigning Roles, Documenting Team Progress, Diligence, Emotional Stability, Recognizing and Rewarding Group Achievements, Creativity, Innovation, Organization