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Unit IV, Nahida Naseem, Assistant Professor (Education), , SOCIAL INTERACTION AND ITS TYPES., Interaction or mutual activity is the essence of social life. Interaction between, individuals and groups occurs in the form of social process. Social processes, therefore refer to forms of social interaction that occur again and again., Meaning of Social Interaction:, The concept of social interaction was introduced by Erving Goffman in, sociology. Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which not only, influence the interacting individuals but also the quality of relationships., According to Gillin and Gillin, “By social interaction we refer to social relations, of all sorts in functions – dynamic social relations of all kinds – whether such, relations exist between individual and individual, between group and group and, group and individual, as the case may be”., Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is the, general process whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact-as a, result of which their behaviour is modified, however, slightly”., C.H.Persell “The way people behave in relation to one another by means of, language, gestures and symbols is social interaction.”, The mere placing of individuals in physical proximity, although it usually results, in at least a medium of interaction, does not weld them into a social unit or group., Social interaction may then be defined as that dynamic interplay of forces in, which contact between persons and groups result in modifications of the attitudes, and behaviour of the participants., The two basic condition of social interaction are (i) social contact and (ii), communication. In the words of Gillin and Gillin, “social contact is the first, phase of interaction”. Social contacts are always established through the medium, of sense organs., An object can be perceived by the sense organ only when that object causes, communication with that sense organ. Hence the means of communication are, essential adjuncts of social contact. Communication may be the form of direct, person to person or it may take place through some medium of long-range contact, such as the telephone, telegraph, television etc., COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION:, 1. Opponents: people or groups involved in interaction.

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2. Social situation: the situation in which opponents are involved., 3. Change in the internal or external situation: mental or physical change., 4. Communication: exchange of ideas, thoughts etc. through verbal or nonverbal means., FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION, 1., 2., 3., 4., , Individual to individual social interaction, Individual to group social interaction, Group to group social interaction, Individual to culture social interaction, , SOCIAL PROCESS, Social processes are the ways in which individuals or groups interact, adjust and, readjust and establish relationships and patterns of behaviour. It refers to, repetitive forms of behaviour, which are commonly found in social life., It also means those activities, actions and operations that involve interaction, between people., Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur repeatedly. By, social processes we mean those ways in which individuals and groups interact, and establish social relationships. There are various of forms of social interaction, such as cooperation, conflict, competition and accommodation etc. According to, As Ginsberg says, “Social processes mean the various modes of interaction, between individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social, differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay”., According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers to the repetitive, form of behaviour which are commonly found in social life”., MacIver observes, “social process is the manner in which the relations of the, members of a group, are brought together to acquire a certain distinctive, character. According to Gillin and Gillin, “by social processes we mean those, ways of interacting by which we can establish system of relationships or find out, what happens when changes of relationships occur or what happens when, changes disturb already existing modes of life.”, , TYPES OF SOCIAL PROCESSES OR SOCIAL INTERACTION

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two types of social processes such as associative social processes and dissociative, social processes., A. Associative Social Processes, Associative social processes are the social processes which work for the, integration and development of society. The associative processes of social, interaction are of positive type of interaction. The associative process is always, worked for the integration and benefit of society. These processes bring progress, and stability in society. Associative processes are also called as conjunctive, processes. The associative processes include cooperation, accommodation,, adaptation, adjustment, integration and assimilation., B. Dissociative Social Process, The processes that make special contribution towards social differentiation,, antagonism and division are called dissociative processes. The dissociative, processes of social interaction are of negative type of interaction. These are also, called disintegration of society. It hinders the progress and development of, society. Conflict, competition, disintegration, isolation are some of the types of, dissociative social processes., , COOPERATION, Cooperation is one of the fundamental processes of social life. It is a form of social, process in which two or more individuals or groups work together jointly to, achieve common goals. Cooperation is the form of social interaction in which all, participants benefit by attaining their goals., The term ‘cooperation’ has been derived from two Latin words – ‘Co’ meaning, ‘together and Operary meaning ‘to work’. Hence, cooperation means working, together for the achievement of a common goal or goals. When two or more, persons work together to gain common goal, it is called cooperation. Co-operation, means working together in the pursuit of like or common interests. It is defined, by Green as “the continuous and common Endeavour of two or more persons to, perform a task to reach a goal that is commonly cherished., According to Merrill and Eldregde, “Cooperation is a form of social interaction, wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”., Cooperation involves two elements: (i) Common end and (ii) Organized effort., When different persons have the same goals and also realize that individually they, cannot achieve these goals, they work jointly for the fulfilment of these goals.

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Characteristics of cooperation:,  Cooperation is an associative process of social interaction which takes, place between two or more individuals or groups.,  Cooperation is a conscious process in which individuals or groups have to, work consciously.,  Cooperation is a personal process in which individuals and groups, personally meet and work together for a common objective.,  Cooperation is a continuous process. There is continuity in the collective, efforts in cooperation.,  Cooperation is a universal process which is found in all groups, societies, and nations.,  Cooperation is based upon two elements such as common end and, organised effort.,  Common ends can be better achieved by cooperation and it is necessary for, the progress of individual as well as society., Types of Cooperation:, Cooperation is of different types. Maclver and Page have divided cooperation into, two main types namely, (i) Direct Cooperation (ii) Indirect Cooperation., (i) Direct Cooperation:, Under direct cooperation may be included all those activities in which people do, like things together. For example, playing together, working together, carrying a, load together or pulling the car out of mud together. The essential character of this, kind of cooperation is that people do such identical function which they can also, do separately. This type of cooperation is voluntary e.g., cooperation between, husband and wife, teacher and student, master and servant etc., (ii) Indirect Cooperation:, Under indirect cooperation are in included those activities in which people do, unlike tasks together towards a common end. For example, when carpenters,, plumbers and masons cooperate to build a house. This cooperation is based on the, principle of the division of labour., In it people perform different functions but for the attainment of the common, objective. In the modern technological age, specialization of skills and function

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are more required for which indirect cooperation is rapidly replacing direct, cooperation., A.W. Green has classified cooperation into three main categories such as (i), Primary cooperation (ii) Secondary cooperation (iii) Tertiary cooperation., (i) Primary Cooperation:, This type of cooperation is found in primary groups such as the family. In this, form, there is an identify of interests between the individuals and the group. The, achievement of the interests of the group includes the realization of the, individual’s interests., (ii) Secondary Cooperation:, Secondary cooperation is found in secondary groups such as Government,, industry, trade union and church etc. For example, in an industry, each may work, in cooperation with others for his own wages, salaries, promotion, profits and in, some cases prestige and power. In this form of cooperation there is disparity of, interests between the individuals., (iii) Tertiary Cooperation:, This type of cooperation is ground in the interaction between the various big and, small groups to meet a particular situation. In it, the attitudes of the cooperating, parties are purely opportunistic; the organisation of their cooperation is both loose, and fragile. For example, two political parties with different ideologies may get, united to defeat their rival party in an election., Role or Importance of Cooperation:,  Cooperation is the most elementary form of social process without which, society cannot exist. According to Kropotkin, it is so important in the life, of an individual is that it is difficult to survive without it.,  Cooperation is the foundation of our social life. The continuation of the, human race requires the cooperation of male and female for reproduction, and upbringing of children.,  Cooperation for human beings is both a psychological and social necessity., It is needed at every step in our life.,  The physical mental and even the spiritual needs of the individual remain, unsatisfied if he does not agree to cooperate with his fellow-members.,  The outstanding progress in science and technology, agriculture and, industry, transport and communication would not have been possible, without Cooperation.

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ACCOMMODATION:, Adjustment is the way of life. It can take place in two ways such as adaptation, and accommodation. Adaptation refers to the process of biological adjustment., Accommodation, on the other hand, implies the process of social adjustment., “Accommodation is the achievement of adjustment between people that permits, harmonious acting together in social situation. It is Foundation of Human, Relations, achieved by an individual through the acquisition of behaviour, patterns, habits and attitudes which are transmitted to him socially., It is a process through which individuals or groups make adjustment to the, changed situation to overcome difficulties faced by them. As Maclver and Page, say, “the term accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man, attains sense of harmony with his environment”., According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Accommodation is a term used by, sociologist to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or groups.”, In the words of Gillin and Gillin “Accommodation is the process by which, competing and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their relationship to each, other in order to overcome the difficulties which arise in competition,, contravention or conflict”., It is the termination of competing or conflicting relations between individuals,, groups and other human relationship structures. It is a way of inventing social, arrangement which enable people to work together whether they like it or not., This led Sumner to refer to accommodation as ‘antagonistic cooperation’., Characteristics:,  It is an associative social process,  It is the End-result of Conflict,  It is both Conscious and Unconscious Process,  It is a Universal Activity,  It is a Continuous Process,  It is a Mixture of both Love and Hatred:, Forms or Methods of Accommodation:, (i) Admission of one’s Defeat or yielding to coercion: This method of, accommodation is applicable between the conflicting parties of unequal strength.

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The stronger group can pressurize the weaker group by its strength. The weaker, party submits to the stronger one out of fear or because of fear of being overpowered., (ii) Compromise: This method is applicable when the combatants are of equal, strength. In compromise, each party to the dispute makes some concessions and, yields to some demand of the other. The “all or nothing” attitude gives way to a, willingness to yield certain points in order to gain others., (iii) Arbitration and Conciliation: Accommodation is also achieved by means, of arbitration and conciliation which involves attempts of the third party to, resolve the conflict between the contending parties., (iv) Toleration: Toleration is the method of accommodation in which there is no, settlement of dispute but there is only the avoidance of overt conflict or open, conflict. Toleration is found in the field of religion where different religious, groups exist side by side, having different policies and ideologies., (v) Conversion: Conversion is a method of accommodation in which one of the, contending parties tries to convent his opponents to his view of point by proving, that he is right and they are wrong. As a result, the party which has been, convinced is likely to accept the view point of other party., (vi) Rationalization: Accommodation can be achieved by rationalization. It is a, method which involves the withdrawal of contending party from the conflict on, the basis of some imaginary explanations to justify his action. In other words it, means an individual or a group rationalizes has behaviour by plausible exercises, and explanations., (vii) Sublimation: it involves the substitution of non-aggressive behaviour and, attitude by aggressive one., Importance of Accommodation:, Accommodation is the way which enable people to work together whether they, like it or not. Society can hardly go on without accommodation. Since conflict, disturbs social integration, disrupts social order and damages social stability,, accommodation is essential to check conflict and to maintain cooperation which, is the sine qua non of social life., It not only reduces or controls conflict but also enables the individuals and groups, to adjust themselves to changed conditions. It is the basis of social organization.

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Accommodation makes for group life. It is indispensable in modem complex, society. In accommodation the barriers between the parties have been partially, broken down, social distance weakened and formal relations established whereby, groups can work together., , ASSIMILATION:, Assimilation is a fundamental social process; it is that process by which, individuals belonging to different cultures are united into one. Successful, accommodation sets the stage for an additional consequences of human, interactions, namely assimilation. This implies the complete merging and fusion, of two or more bodies into a single common body, a process analogous to, digestion, in which we say that food is assimilated., For instance, American Indians adopted cultural elements of whites abandoning, their own culture. But assimilation is not limited to this single field only. For, example, husbands and wives with dissimilar background often develop a, surprising unity of interest and purpose., Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It takes quite some time before, individuals or groups once dissimilar becomes similar. Acculturation is the first, step to assimilation. Acculturation is Foundation of Human Relations the name, given to the stage when the cultural group which is in contact with another, borrows from it certain cultural elements and incorporates them into its own, culture., The contact between the two groups inevitably affects both; though it is natural, that culturally weaker group would do more of the borrowing from and would, give very little to the culturally stronger group. When two cultures meet, the, dominant culture becomes the common culture of the two interacting cultures., Some of the definitions of assimilation are given below:, According to Biesanz and Biesanz, “Assimilation is the social process whereby, individuals or groups come to share the same sentiments and goals”., “Assimilation”, says E.S. Bogardus, “is a process whereby attitudes of many, persons are united, and thus, develop into a united group”., As Ogburn and Nimkoff define, “Assimilation is the process whereby individuals, or groups once dissimilar become similar, that it become identified in the interests, and outlook”., Characteristics of Assimilation:,  Assimilation is an associative process.

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 Assimilation is a universal process. It is found in every place and at all, times.,  Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual, comes to share the expectations of another group and slowly acquires a, new set of values.,  Assimilation is an unconscious process. Individuals are not conscious that, the discard their own values and acquire new set of values.,  Assimilation is a two-way process. It is based on the principle of give and, take. Assimilation takes place when groups of individuals borrow cultural, elements from each other and incorporates them to their own culture., Factors Conducive for Assimilation:, The following factors may account for the ready occurrence of assimilation:, (i) Toleration: Tolerance helps people to come together, to develop contacts and, to participate in common cultural and social activities. When the dominant group, is hospitable and tolerant towards differences, the minority groups have a greater, opportunity to participate in the total community life., (ii) Close Social Contact: When the people or group of different cultures come, into close proximity with each other, the assimilation process takes place very, easily. The close social contact creates a good understanding among the people, and the group and this creates a healthy atmosphere in which people exchange, their views in a better way. For instance, in India the assimilation between, Hinduism and Buddhism is possible due to the close social contact among the, members of these two religious groups. Thus, the close physical proximity plays, a vital role in promoting the assimilation process., (iii) Amalgamation: Amalgamation is another promoting factor of assimilation., By amalgamation we mean, individuals or groups come into close contact to one, another. It occurs when two different cultural groups establish matrimonial, relationship among themselves., (iv) Equal Economic Opportunity: The inequality of economic status among, the people of different cultural groups hinder the process of assimilation. But the, equal economic opportunities facilitate assimilation process. The people or, groups having equal economic position become more easily intimate. Thus,, intimate relationship promotes assimilation.

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(v) Common Physical Traits: Common physical traits or qualities of the people, of different cultures also promote the process of assimilation. The foreign, immigrants of the same race can more easily assimilate than those with different, races. For instance, the Indians who live in America permanently can easily, assimilate with the Indian culture., (vi) Cultural similarity: Cultural similarities between two groups of individuals, promote assimilation. If there are similarities between culture groups,, assimilation is quick to take place. Similarly, assimilation occurs most readily, when two culture groups have common language. Without knowledge of, language, the individual remains outside the adopted society. The first step in, assimilation into a new society is, therefore, to a lean language., Factors Hindering Assimilation:, Merely bringing persons of different backgrounds together does not assure that a, fusion of cultures and personalities take place. Sometimes it results in conflict, rather than fusion between the contiguous groups. There are various factors that, retard assimilation. These factors are discussed below., (i) Physical Differences: Differences in features, complexion of skin and other, physical trait may also help or hinder in assimilation. Generally, the adjustment, problems are the easiest for those immigrants who in appearance are supposedly, most like the people of the new land., (ii) Cultural Differences: Language and religion are usually considered to be, main constituents of culture, Immigrants having the same religion and language, can easily adjust themselves in other area or country., (iii) Prejudice: Prejudice is a barrier to assimilation. Prejudice is the attitude on, which segregation depends for its success. As long as the dominant group, prejudices those who have been set apart, neither they as a group nor their, individual members can easily become assimilated to the general culture., Prejudice also impedes assimilation between constituent elements within a given, society., (iv) Sense of superiority and inferiority: Assimilation is hindered by the, feelings of superiority and inferiority. The people who have strong feelings of, superiority, generally hate the people who suffer from a sense of inferiority. Due, to this reason intimate relationship between two groups of people become, difficult. Hence, assimilation is retarded.

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(v) Domination and subordination: Assimilation between two groups of people, is almost impossible where one group dominate the other. In this case social, relation which is essential for assimilation does not develop among the people of, dominant and subordinate groups. The dominant group always considers the, people of subordinate group as inferior and exercises its power over them. As a, result jealousy, hatred, suspicion and conflict etc. develop among them. All these, hinder the process of assimilation., (vi) Isolation: Isolation also hinders assimilation. People who live in isolation, fail to establish social contacts with others. The isolated people cut off entire, social relationship with other people in society. Therefore, the process of, assimilation becomes very difficult., In short, it can be summed up that assimilation is a slow process of adoption and, adjustment on the part of individuals. There is no abrupt change in the way of, life. In short, assimilation is a process of cultural adoption and adjustment., , CONFLICT, The conflict process is little praised but widely practiced. It develops whenever a, person or group seeks to gain a reward not by surpassing other competitors, but, by preventing them from effectively competing. It is formally defined as the, process of seeking to obtain rewards by eliminating or weakening the, competitors., Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations. It may be solved at one, level as when there is agreement on ends and break out afresh over the question, of means. You may raise a profound question as to why conflict is such a constant, feature of human society. The answer lies in the basic nature of human society., Human society is not a tightly compressed affair but instead has a loose, integration. The integration is not on a biological but on a mental level. It must, be renewed and maintained constantly through psychological processes such as, indoctrination, inspiration and repetition. It must somehow rest on the possession, of common and extra-personal ends on the part of its members. These ends cannot, come from man's biological but only from communicative contact with his, fellows. Therefore, they differ greatly from one society to another because they, are associated with differences of culture. This, then, gives first basis of conflict

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- ethnocentrism - the dislike of people with different culture and different ultimate, ends from one's own. Those with the same set of ultimate ends cling together and, identify themselves with one another, while those with a different set of ends also, do the same. A social group, furthermore, has a corporate character a name, a, common leadership, a determinate structure, a sense of familiarity. Individuals, identify themselves with this corporate entity and conceive their ultimate duty as, loyalty to it, whether it be a clan, a tribe, a city-state, a religious sect, or a nation., Types of Conflict, Conflict expresses itself in numerous ways and in various degrees and over, varying range of human contact. "Social Conflict" includes all activity in which, men contend against one another for any objective. Its two fundamental types are, direct and indirect conflict., i) Direct Conflict: When individuals or groups thwart or impede or restrain or, injure or destroy one another in an effort to attain some goal, or frustration of goal, attainment is involved in such forms as litigation, polemic, propagandistic, activity and much of the struggle of the organized economic groups for larger, stakes., ii) Indirect Conflict: When individuals or groups do not actually impede the, efforts of one another but nevertheless seek to attain their ends in ways which, obstruct the attainment of the same ends by others, indirect conflict occurs., Competition is impersonal conflict between individuals for attainment of any, objects of desire that are limited in supply, whether income or academic honours, or beautiful women for social prestige. The competition does not as such directly', interfere with the efforts of another to attain such goals but only indirectly with, the other person's success., George simmel has distinguished four types of conflicts:, 1. War: it represents a deep seated antagonistic impulse in man., 2. Feud: it is an intragroup conflict. It may arise because of the injustice, alleged to have been done by one group to another., 3. Litigation: it is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right, to possessions., 4. Conflict of impersonal ideas: it is a conflict carried by an individual not, for themselves but for an ideal., Apart from the above mentioned conflicts the following conflicts can be generally, observed in our societies. Corporate and Personal conflict, Latent and Overt, conflict, Class conflict, Racial conflict, Caste conflict, Group conflict and, International conflict.

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Nature and characteristics of conflict,  Conflict is a dissociative process.,  Conflict is a universal process. It is found in every place and at all times.,  Assimilation is a slow and gradual process. It is gradual as the individual, comes to share the expectations of another group and slowly acquires a, new set of values.,  Conflict is a conscious process. Individuals are conscious that they are, conflicting.,  Conflict is personal.,  Conflict is not continuous but intermittent. It takes place occasionally.,  Conflict can be personal or impersonal., Mechanisms to Deal with Conflict, There are of course social mechanisms that smoothen conflict. One of these is, humour, which removes the tension that might otherwise expend itself in, physical violence. Another is social distance or avoidance. A third is sentiment, formation, which overcomes the conflict of interests of the antagonistic parties., Fourth is variety, and change, for an existing situation is more tolerable if it is, known that it will not last long. Fifth is organized rivalry, which provides an, opportunity for simulated battle, for intense group loyalty, for the manifestation, of prowess in vanquishing others, and yet because the interaction has a set form, and definite conclusion, it allows the energies to be expended either harmlessly, or to the advantage of the society., , COMPETITION, In contrast to conflict, which aims to destroy or do away with the opponent,, competition simply aims to out-do the competitor in achieving some mutually, desired goal. It is thus a modified form of struggle. It implies that there are rules, of the game to which the competitors must conform and that behind these rules,, justifying and maintaining them, is a common set of values superior to the

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competitive interest. It also implies an absence of coercion. The rules are so, arranged that the ends must be obtained by other methods than fraud or physical, force. The rules of competition limit the means that may be used to gain the, competitive end; they tend especially to eliminate force and fraud. When, competition breaks through the rules it transforms itself into conflict. According, to Biesanz “Competition is the striving of two or more persons for the same goal, which is limited so that all cannot share”., According to Horton and Hunt “Competition is the struggle for possession of, rewards, which are limited in supply, money, goods, status, power, and loveanything”. It may be formally defined as the process of seeking to obtain a reward, by surpassing other rivals. While competition is present to some degree in all the, societies, it differs greatly in degree from society to society. Whenever and, wherever commodities which people want are in a limited supply, there is, competition., Nature and characteristics of competition,  Scarcity is a condition of competition: whenever there are commonly, desired goods and services, there is competition.,  Competition and affluence: competitions may be found even in the, circumstances of abundance or affluence. In a time of full employment, competitions may take place for status or top place.,  Competition is universal. It is found everywhere in world from low level, positions to the highest ones. Competition for status, fame or wealth is, found almost in all societies.,  Competition is continuous,  Competition may be personal or impersonal.,  Competition can be constructive or destructive., Types of competition, 1. Social competition: Here people compete to get higher status or, position. Competition of this type is observed in open societies., Democratic nations encourage such competition., 2. Economic competition: it is witnessed in the process of production,, distribution and consumption of goods. People compete for jobs,, customers, clients, patients, wages, salaries, increments, money,, wealth, property etc. man always struggles for higher standards of, living. It can be observed at individual as well as group levels.

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3. Political competition: it is competition for political power. Such a, competition becomes apparent at the time of elections., 4. Cultural competition: It may take place between two or more, cultural groups., Competition in a Contemporary Society, Competition is extremely dynamic. It stimulates achievement by lifting the level, of aspiration, by threatening failure as well as promising success, and by adding, an element of rivalry. For this reason, it becomes particularly strong in complex, and changing societies. Present day society is characterized by excessive amount, of competition. Today man overlooks the institutions and rules, which alone make, competition to work- the protection of property, the enforcement of contracts, the, prevention of fraud. He overlooks the common ends and values which are not, competitive but which are superior to those that are. He forgets that competition, can be vicious as well as beneficent, that it can lead to starvation in the midst of, plenty, to fear and insecurity, to instability and panic. Today we have forgotten, that unlimited competition leads inevitably to monopoly, that the very success of, strong leads to gigantic power over the weak and creates such inequality that a, mockery is made of free contract.