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Fuel, • A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other, substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or, to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to, those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since, also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear, energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion)., • The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks, by Homo erectus nearly 2,000,000 (two million) years ago., • Charcoal, a wood derivative, has been used since at least 6,000, BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived, from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around, the 18th century. Charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a, fuel for barbecue cooking., • Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China.

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Chemical fuels, • Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by, reacting with substances around them, most notably by, the process of combustion. Most of the chemical energy, released in combustion was not stored in the chemical, bonds of the fuel, but in the weak double bond of, molecular oxygen., • Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First, by their, physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly,, on the basis of their occurrence: primary (natural, fuel) and secondary (artificial fuel). Thus, a general, classification of chemical fuels is:

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General types of chemical fuels

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Solid fuel, •, , Solid fuel, , •, , Refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to release energy, providing heat and light through the process, of combustion. examples of solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, wood, pellets, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid fuels are also extensively used in rocketry as solid propellants., , •, , Wood, , •, , Wood fuel can refer to several fuels such as firewood, charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets, and sawdust. The particular form, used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application., Biomass, Although wood is a form of biomass, the term usually refers to other natural plant material that can be burnt for fuel., Common biomass fuels include waste wheat, straw, nut shells and other fibrous material., Peat, Peat fuel is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that can be burnt once sufficiently dried., Coal, Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called, coal beds or coal seams., Coke, Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the, solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. Cokes made, from coal are grey, hard, and porous. While coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The, form known as petroleum coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes., Municipal waste, Municipal solid waste commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and as rubbish in Britain, is a waste, type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. With the correct technology it can be gasified and, converted to a viable fuel source. However, this is technology heavy and can only be used where the waste is known not, to contain toxic materials., , •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , •, •

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Benefits/Disadvantages of solid fuel, • Solid fuels, compared to liquid fuels or gaseous fuels, are often, cheaper, easier to extract, more stable to transport and in many, places are more readily available. Coal, in particular, is utilized in, the generation of 38.1% of the world’s electricity because it is less, expensive and more powerful than its liquid and gas counterparts., • However, solid fuels are also heavier to transport, require more, destructive methods to extract/burn and often have higher carbon,, nitrate and sulphate emissions. With the exception of sustainable, wood/biomass solid fuel is normally considered non-renewable as it, requires thousands of years to form.

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Liquid Fuels, • Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be, harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy;, they also must take the shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid, fuels that are flammable instead of the fluid. Most liquid fuels in, widespread use are derived from fossil fuels; however, there are several, types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, and biodiesel,, which are also categorized as a liquid fuel. Many liquid fuels play a, primary role in transportation and the economy., • Liquid fuels are contrasted with solid fuels and gaseous fuels., • General properties, • Some common properties of liquid fuels are that they are easy to transport,, and can be handled with relative ease. Also they are relatively easy to use, for all engineering applications, and home use. (Fuels like Kerosene are, rationed and available in government subsidized shops in India for home, use.) Liquid fuels are also used most popularly in Internal combustion, engines., • Some very technically important properties include: flash point, fire, point, cloud point, and pour point.

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Petroleum's, •, , Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable of these is gasoline., Scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals, by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust., • Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it is known in United States and Canada,, or petrol virtually everywhere else, is made of hydrocarbon molecules (compounds that contain hydrogen, and carbon only) forming aliphatic compounds, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached., • Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes place, without, any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection of fuel. (Glow plugs, grid, heaters and heater blocks help achieve high temperatures for combustion during engine start-up in cold, weather.) Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and, thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their air, supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, their efficiency still remains very high., • Types, Petroleum diesel, Synthetic diesel, Biodiesel, Hydrogenated oils and fats, DME, • Uses, Trucks, Railroad, Aircraft, Military vehicles, Cars, Tractors and heavy equipment, , •, , Kerosene, , Kerosene, also known as paraffin, lamp oil, and coal oil (an obsolete term), is, a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum, widely used as a fuel in industry as well, as households. Its name derives from Greek: keros meaning wax, and was registered as a trademark, by Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a generalized trademark. It is sometimes spelled kerosene in, scientific and industrial usage

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Natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas, • Compressed natural gas, Natural gas, composed chiefly of methane, can be compressed to a, liquid and used as a substitute for other traditional liquid fuels. Its, combustion is very clean compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, but the, fuel's low boiling point requires the fuel to be kept at high pressures to, keep it in the liquid state. Though it has a much lower flash point than, fuels such as gasoline, it is in many ways safer due to its, higher autoignition temperature and its low density, which causes it to, dissipate when released in air., • Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), LP gas is a mixture of propane and butane, both of which are easily, compressible gases under standard atmospheric conditions. It offers, many of the advantages of compressed natural gas (CNG), but is denser, than air, does not burn as cleanly, and is much more easily compressed., Commonly used for cooking and space heating, LP gas and compressed, propane are seeing increased use in motorized vehicles; propane is the, third most commonly used motor fuel globally.

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Non-petroleum fossil fuels, •, , When petroleum is not easily available, chemical processes such as the Fischer-Tropsch process can be, used to produce liquid fuels from coal or natural gas. Synthetic fuels from coal were strategically, important during World War II for the German military. Today synthetic fuels produced from natural gas, are manufactured, to take advantage of the higher value of liquid fuels in transportation., Biodiesel, • Biodiesel is similar to diesel, but has differences akin to those between petrol and ethanol. For instance,, biodiesel has a higher cetane rating (45-60 compared to 45-50 for crude-oil-derived diesel) and it acts as, a cleaning agent to get rid of dirt and deposits. It has been argued that it only becomes economically, feasible above oil prices of $80 (£40 or €60 as of late February, 2007) per barrel. This does however, depend on locality, economic situation, government stance on biodiesel and a host of other factors- and it, has been proven to be viable at much lower costs in some countries. Also, it yields about 10% less energy, than ordinary diesel., Alcohols, • Generally, the term alcohol refers to ethanol, the first organic chemical produced by humans, but any, alcohol can be burned as a fuel. Ethanol and methanol are the most common, being sufficiently, inexpensive to be useful., Methanol, • Methanol is the lightest and simplest alcohol, produced from the natural gas component methane. Its, application is limited primarily due to its toxicity (similar to gasoline), but also due to its, high corrosivity and miscibility with water. Small amounts are used in some gasoline's to increase, the octane rating. Methanol-based fuels are used in some race cars and model airplanes., • Methanol is also called methyl alcohol or wood alcohol, the latter because it was formerly produced from, the distillation of wood. It is also known by the name methyl hydrate.

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Non-petroleum fossil fuels, Ethanol, •, , Ethanol, also known as grain alcohol or ethyl alcohol, is commonly found in alcoholic beverages. However, it, may also be used as a fuel, most often in combination with gasoline. For the most part, it is used in a 9:1 ratio of, gasoline to ethanol to reduce the negative environmental effects of gasoline.[citation needed], • There is increasing interest in the use of a blend of 85% fuel ethanol blended with 15% gasoline. This fuel blend, called E85, has a higher fuel octane than most premium gasolines. When used in a modern Flexible fuel vehicle,, it delivers more performance to the gasoline it replaces at the expense of higher fuel consumption due to, ethanol's lesser specific energy content.[, • Ethanol for use in gasoline and industrial purposes may be considered a fossil fuel because it is often synthesized, from, the, petroleum, product, ethylene,, which, is, cheaper, than, production, from fermentation of grains or sugarcane., Butanol, • Butanol is an alcohol which can be used as a fuel in most gasoline internal combustion engines without engine, modification. It is typically a product of the fermentation of biomass by the bacterium Clostridium, acetobutylicum (also known as the Weizmann organism). This process was first delineated by Chaim, Weizmann in 1916 for the production of acetone from starch for making cordite, a smokeless gunpowder., • The advantages of butanol are its high octane rating (over 100) and high energy content, only about 10% lower, than gasoline, and subsequently about 50% more energy-dense than ethanol, 100% more so than methanol., Butanol's only major disadvantages are its high flashpoint (35 °C or 95 °F), toxicity (note that toxicity levels, exist but are not precisely confirmed), and the fact that the fermentation process for renewable butanol emits a, foul odour., • On June 20, 2006, DuPont and BP announced that they were converting an existing ethanol plant to produce 9, million gallons (34 000 cubic meters) of butanol per year from sugar beets. DuPont stated a goal of being, competitive with oil at $30–$40 per barrel ($0.19-$0.25 per liter) without subsidies, so the price gap with ethanol, is narrowing.

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Non-petroleum fossil fuels, Gaseous fuels, • Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous., Many, fuel, gases, are, composed, of, hydrocarbons, (such, as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such, gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily, transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the, place of consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels,, though some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous, nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and, the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is, possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the, risk of a gas explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so, that they may be detected by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in, current use is natural gas.

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Non-petroleum fossil fuels, Biofuels, • Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived, from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known, as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be, replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials, are used for biofuel manufacture., • Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled, fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is unknown, which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early species, of Homo were present at the sites. As a fuel, wood has remained in use up until the, present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other sources., Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg., • Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for, example Bioethanol and Biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about, how carbon efficient these fuels are.

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Fossil fuels, • Extraction, of, petroleum, Fossil, fuels, are, hydrocarbons,, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed, from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to, high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over, hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes, hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from, biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly, known as mineral fuels., • Fossil, fuels, contain, high, percentages, of, carbon, and, include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. They range from volatile, materials with low carbon: hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid, petroleum to non-volatile materials composed of almost pure carbon,, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone,, associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels, formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and, pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic, theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and, later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

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Energy, The amount of energy from different types of fuel depends on the stoichiometric ratio,, the chemically correct air and fuel ratio to ensure complete combustion of fuel, and, its specific energy, the energy per unit mass., , Energy capacities of common types of fuel, Specific, energy, (MJ/kg), , Fuel, , AFR stoich., , FAR stoich., , Energy, @ λ=1 (MJ/kg, (Air)), , Diesel, , 48, , 14.5 : 1, , 0.069 : 1, , 3.310, , Ethanol, , 26.4, , 9:1, , 0.111 : 1, , 2.933, , Gasoline, , 46.4, , 14.7 : 1, , 0.068 : 1, , 3.156, , Hydrogen, , 142, , 34.3 : 1, , 0.029 : 1, , 4.140, , Kerosene, , 46, , 15.6 : 1, , 0.064 : 1, , 2.949, , LPG, , 46.4, , 17.2 : 1, , 0.058 : 1, , 2.698, , Methanol, , 19.7, , 6.47 : 1, , 0.155 : 1, , 3.045, , Nitromethane, , 11.63, , 1.7 : 1, , 0.588 : 1, , 6.841

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Nuclear, •, , •, , •, , •, , Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy., Technically speaking, All matter can be a nuclear fuel because any element, under the right conditions will release nuclear energy,[dubious – discuss] but the, materials commonly referred to as nuclear fuels are those that will produce, energy without being placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel is a, material that can be 'burned' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear, energy. Nuclear fuel can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for, example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material,, mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials., Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of, nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn, capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a, self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a controlled rate in, a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear, weapon., Nuclear fuel is a substance that is used in nuclear power stations to, produce heat to power turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel, undergoes nuclear fission., Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of, nuclear fission, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239. When the unstable, nuclei of these atoms are hit by a slow-moving neutron, they split, creating, two daughter nuclei and two or three more neutrons. These neutrons then, go on to split more nuclei. This creates a self-sustaining chain reaction that, is controlled in a nuclear reactor, or uncontrolled in a nuclear weapon.

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Coal, • With the energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released, through combustion, but the concept development of the steam engine in, the United Kingdom in 1769, coal came into more common use as a power, source. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th, century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting, in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the primary use of coal is to, generate electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply, in 2005., • Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually, occurring in rock strata in layers or veinscalled coal beds or coal seams., The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic, rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal, is composed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities of other, elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.[1] A fossil fuel,, coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is, converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous, coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and geological, processes that take place over time.

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Formation, •, , •, , At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas. Due to, natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil, deposited over them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper., As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation, usually by, mud or acidic water. This trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and, deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly, converted to coal. As coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called, carbonization., The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation,, although coal is known from most geological periods. The exception is the coal gap in the Permian–, Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate, land plants—this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae.

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Types of Coal, 1. Peat:, a. contains the highest percentage of moisture, gives, more smoke, has less than 40 per cent carbon and,, , 3.Bituminous (Black-Coal):, a. When coal is buried very deep, the moisture gets, expelled., b. The seam subjected to increased temperatures, b. therefore, is the lowest and most inferior quality of, results into the formation of bituminous coal., coal., c. dense, compact and black in colour., c. represents the first stage of coal formation., d. The traces of original vegetation from which it has, 2. Lignite (Brown-Coal):, been formed are found in this coal., a. Superior to peat., e. Containing 60 to 80 per cent carbon,, b. Under the increasing pressure and heat, with the, f. the most popular coal in commercial use., passage of time, peat is converted into lignite., g. The name is derived after a liquid called bitumen, released after heating., c. contains 40 to 60 per cent carbon. It is mainly found in h. used in making coke (coking coal), gas coal, and, steam coal., Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Palna (Rajasthan), Lakhimpur, (Assam), Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya), Nagaland, Kerala, i. Coking coal results from the heating of coal in the, absence of oxygen, which burns off volatile gases, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, and the union, and is mainly j. j. used in iron and steel industry., territory of Pondicherry., k. found in Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, West, Bengal and Madhya Pradesh, d. deposits in India estimated around 38930 million, tonnes, out of which 4150 million tonnes are in Neyveli 4.Anthracite (Hard Coal), a. highest quality of coal containing 80 to 90 per cent, area of Tamil Nadu (2010)., carbon. b. very little volatile matter and insignificant, e. also found in Assam, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir,, proportion of moisture., Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Rajasthan., c. short blue flame. d. the most expensive.

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RANKS, As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under, suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade increases successively into:, •, Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in, some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is, a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also, used as a conditioner for soil to make it more able to retain and slowly release, water., •, Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively, as fuel for electric power generation., –, , •, , •, , •, , •, , Jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an, ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic., , Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of, bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation, and is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical, synthesis industry., Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark, brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material; it is used, primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities, used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke., "Steam coal" is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely, used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use, it is sometimes, known as "sea coal" in the US. Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or, DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating., Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a harder, glossy black coal used, primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided, further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and "petrified oil", as, from the deposits in Pennsylvania.

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Classification of Coal by Rank, (ASTM D388-12), Classification of Coal by Rank (ASTM D388-12), Coal Rank, , Antracite Class, , Bituminous, , Subbituminous, , Lignite, , Meta- Anthracite, Anthracite, Semi-Anthracite, (Lean Coal), Low Volatile, Bituminous, Medium Volatile, Bituminous, High Volatile A, Bituminous, High Volatile B, Bituminous, High Volatile C, Bituminous, High Volatile C, Bituminous, Subbituminous A, coal, Subbituminous B, coal, Subbituminous C, coal, Lignite A, , Fix Carbon, Limits, %, dmmf, ≥98%, 92 to 98%, , Volatile Content Gross Calorific Value Limits, %, dmmf, <2%, 2 to 8%, , Btu/lb, Moisture mmf, , MJ/kg, moisture mmf, , Agglomerating, Characteristics, , Non-agglomerating, , 86 to 92%, , 8 to 14%, , 78 to 86%, , 14 to 22%, , 69 to 78%, , 22 to 31%, , <69%, , >31%, , ≥14,000, , ≥32.557, , <69%, , >31%, , 13,000 to 14,000, , 30.232 to 32.557, , <69%, , >31%, , 11,500 to 13,000, , 26.743 to 30.232, , >31%, , 10,500 to 11,500, , 24.418 to 26.743, , 10,500 to 11,500, , 24.418 to 26.743, , 9,500 to 10,500, , 22.09 to 24.418, , 8,300 to 9,500, , 19.30 to 22.09, , 6,300 to 8,300, , 14.65 to 19.30, , Commonly agglomerating, , Agglomerating, , Non-agglomerating, , Non-agglomerating

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World Coal Reserves, •, , The 948 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information, Administration are equal to about 4,196 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent). The, amount of coal burned during 2007 was estimated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179, quadrillion BTUs. This is an average of 18.8 million BTU per short ton. In terms of heat, content, this is about 57,000,000 barrels (9,100,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day. By, comparison in 2007, natural gas provided 51,000,000 barrels (8,100,000 m3) of oil, equivalent per day, while oil provided 85,800,000 barrels (13,640,000 m3) per day.

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Coal Reserve in India, Distribution of Coalfields in India:, 1.Jharkhand:, accounting for about 29 per cent, has the first rank in coal, reserves and its production., belongs to the Gondwana period., Main coal mining centres are Auranga, Bokaro, Daltenganj,, Dhanbad, Giridih, Hutar, Jharia, Karanpur, and Ramgarh ., (a) The Jharia:, 1. Jharia is the largest and most important coal producing, mine, which sprawls over an area of about 460 sq km., 2. contains the best metallurgical coal (bituminous)., 3. Nearly 90 per cent of the coking coal is produced from the, Jharia mine., 4. coal is mainly supplied to the iron and steel plants of, Asansol, Bokaro, Durgapur, and Jamshedpur., (b)The Bokaro Coalfield:, 1. stretches in the valley of Bokaro river in Hazaribagh, district,, 2. mainly supplied to the iron and steel plant of Bokaro., (c) The Giridih or Karharbari Coalfield:, stretches in the district of Hazaribagh., coal is supplied to the Bokaro and Jamshedpur steel plants., (d) The Karanpur Coalfield:, (e) The Ramgarh Coalfield:, (f) The Hutar Coalfield:, (g) The Daltenganj Coalfield;, (h) Deogarh Coalfields:, mainly used in the brick kilns.

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Coal Reserve in India, •, , Orissa:, •, 1.The state of Orissa has more than 24 per cent of the total, coal reserves and produces about 15 per cent of the total, coal production of the country., 2. In Orissa most of the coal deposits are found in, Dhenkanal, Sambalpur, and Sundargarh districts., The Talcher Coalfield:, 3. Stretching over Dhenkanal and Sambalpur districts, the, Talcher coalfield covers an area of about 500 sq km., 4. the second largest coal reserves in the country after, Raniganj. ., 5. mainly utilised in the thermal power and fertiliser plants, of Talcher., , •, , Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh:, , •, , The state of Chhattisgarh has the third largest coal reserves, (about 17 per cent of all India) in the country after, Jharkhand and Orissa, but it holds the first rank in its, •, production., The Singrauli Coalfield:, The Korba Coalfield:, The Pech-Kanha-Tawa Coalfield:, Umaria Coalfield:, , West Bengal:, 1.West Bengal has about 11 per cent of the total coal, reserves of India., 2.The coal deposits of West Bengal lie in Bankura,, Bardhman, Birbhum, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and, Puruliya districts., 3. The most important of coal reserves and mining, coalfield of West Bengal is Raniganj., Raniganj Coalfield:, •Stretching over 185 sq km in the Bardhman and, Birbhum district to the north-west of Kolkata, it is the, most important coalfield of West Bengal., 1. known for the good quality of coking coal., 2. contains 50 to 65 per cent of carbon., 3. used in the metallurgical industry, especially in the, Durgapur iron and steel plant., The Darjeeling Coalfield:, powder form with coking quality., Madhya Pradesh:, About 8 per cent of the coal reserves of India are found, in Madhya Pradesh,, The main coal deposits lie at Singrauli, Muhpani,, Satpura, Sohagpur and Pench-Kanhan.

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Coal Reserve in India, Andhra Pradesh:, About 7 per cent of the coal reserves of India are found in, Andhra Pradesh., found in the Godavari valley., The Singareni coalfield lying about 185 km to the east of, Hyderabad is the main mining area of coal in Andhra, Pradesh., Another important coal producing centre is at Kottagudam., Its coal seam is of about 18 metres and the coal is of good, quality., Maharashtra:, lie in the Wardha valley, stretching over the Nagpur, (Kampte-coalfield), and Yavatmal districts., utilised by the railways and the thermal power stations of, Trombay, Chola (Kalyan), Khaperkheda, Paras, Ballarshah,, Nasik and Koradi, Coal Deposits of the Tertiary Period, came into existence during the Eocene, the Oligocene, and, Miocene periods., found in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,, and Jammu and Kashmir states., also known as brown coal., Containing more moisture, it has less carbon content., Tamil Nadu:, the largest deposits of lignite at Neyveli in the South Arcot, district., , Rajasthan:, Lignite deposits are found in the districts of Bikaner (Palana, and Khari mines)., It is of inferior quality and used mostly in the thermal power, plants and railways., Gujarat:, Found in Bharauch district and Kachchh., poor quality with about 35 per cent carbon and more, moisture., Jammu and Kashmir:, found at Raithan of the Shaliganga, Handwara, Baramulla,, Riasi and Udhampur districts, and the karewas of Badgam, and Srinagar., inferior quality., West Bengal:, lignite deposits of the Tertiary period are found in Burza, Hills of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts., Scattered deposits of lignite have also been discovered in, Pondicherry., Problems of Coal Industry in India:, The main problems of the coal mining industry are as under:, Unequal Distribution of Coal, Poor Quality of Coal, Less Efficient Transport System, Obsolete Method of Mining., Shortage of Power Supply, Fires and Water-logging

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Conservation of Coal, • Conservation of Coal, • The coking and good quality coal should be reserved only for, metallurgical industry., • Low grade coal should be washed and impurities removed by, modern techniques., • Selective mining should be stopped by an act of law. All possible, grades of coal should be obtained from all the mines., • Environmental safety laws should be effectively implemented., • The thermal power plants should be located at the pit-heads to, enhance power generation., • The pilferages and theft of electricity should be minimised., • New reserves should be discovered. 8. The non-conventional, sources of energy should be popularised.

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Proved recoverable coal reserves at end-2008, or 2011 (Million Tonnes), Country, , Anthracite &, Bituminous, , SubBituminou, s, , Lignite, , Total, , Percenta, ge of, World, Total, , Year, , United States, , 108,501, , 98,618, , 30,176, , 237,295, , 22.6, , 2011, , Russia, , 49,088, , 97,472, , 10,450, , 157,010, , 14.4, , 2011, , China, , 62,200, , 33,700, , 18,600, , 114,500, , 12.6, , 2011, , Australia, , 37,100, , 2,100, , 37,200, , 76,400, , 8.9, , 2011, , India, , 56,100, , 0, , 4,500, , 60,600, , 7.0, , 2011, , Germany, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, South Africa, , 99, 15,351, 21,500, 30,156, , 0, 16,577, 0, 0, , 40,600, 1,945, 12,100, 0, , 40,699, 33,873, 33,600, 30,156, , 4.7, 3.9, 3.9, 3.5, , World Total, , 403,197, , 287,333, , 201,000, , 891,530, , 100, , 2011

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Production of Coal by Country and year, (Million Tonnes), Major coal consumers, Countries with annual consumption higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For comparison,, data for the European Union is also shown. Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil, equivalent.

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Major Coal Exporters, Major Coal Exporters, Countries with annual gross export higher than 10 million tonnes are shown. In terms of, net export the largest exporters are still Australia (328.1 millions tonnes), Indonesia, (316.2) and Russia (100.2).

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Major Coal Importers, Major coal importers, • Countries with annual gross import higher than 20 million tonnes are shown., In terms of net import the largest importers are still Japan (206.0 millions, tonnes), China (172.4) and South Korea (125.8)

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FUEL PRORETIES, Properties of Liquid Fuels, Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used in industrial application., The various properties of liquid fuels are given below., Density, This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference temperature of, 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for, quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3., Specific gravity, This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same, volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water, is called, specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio,, it has no units. The measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer., Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights and volumes. The specific, gravity of various fuel oils are given in Table 1.1

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FUEL PRORETIES, Viscosity, The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on, temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosity has no, meaning unless the temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes., Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Say bolt or Redwood. Each type of oil has its own, temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of viscosity is made with an instrument, called Viscometer., Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influences, the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is, too viscous, it may become difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and tough to operate., Poor atomization may result in the formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the, walls. Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization., Flash Point, The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the, vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point for, furnace oil is 66°C., Pour Point, The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled, under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which, fuel oil is readily pumpable.

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•, , Specific Heat, Specific heat is the amount of kCals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1°C. The unit of specific heat is, kCal/kg°C. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specific gravity. The specific heat determines how much, steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas, heavier oils have a higher specific heat., , •, , Calorific Value, The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either as gross calorific value or net, calorific value. The difference being the latent heat of condensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion, process. Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process is fully condensed., Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without fully being, condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value. The calorific value of coal varies considerably, depending on the ash, moisture content and the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent., The typical Gross Calorific Values of some of the commonly used liquid fuels are given below:, , •, , Sulphur, The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining, process. The normal sulphur content for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4 %. Typical figures are:, , •, , The main disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during and after combustion, and, condensing in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre heater and economiser.

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FUEL PRORETIES, Ash Content, The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash levels of distillate fuels, are negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-forming constituents. These salts may be, compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminium, nickel, etc., Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03–0.07%. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can cause, fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips,, causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature, corrosion and fouling of equipment's., Carbon Residue, Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot, surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporisable constituents evaporate., Residual oil contain carbon residue ranging from 1 percent or more., Water Content, Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the product at refinery site, is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the standard., Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to the inside furnace, surfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause spluttering, of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing the flame and reducing the flame, temperature or lengthening the flame.

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FUEL PRORETIES, Typical specification of fuel oil is summarised in the Table 1.2.

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FUEL PRORETIES, Properties of Coal, Coal Classification, • Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. However, there is no clear demarcation between them and coal is also further classified as semi, anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal from, geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little volatile content, and practically no moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective. It is a, soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low fixed carbon., Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements. Volatile, matter refers to those combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated., The common coals used in Indian industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal., The gradation of Indian coal based on its calorific value is as follows:, , •, •, •, •, , Normally D, E and F coal grades are available to Indian Industry., The chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility. The properties, of coal are broadly classified as, 1. Physical properties, 2. Chemical properties

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FUEL PRORETIES, Physical Properties, Heating Value:, The heating value of coal varies from coal field to coal field. The typical GCVs for various, coals are given in the Table 1.4., , Analysis of Coal, • There are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate analysis. The ultimate analysis determines, all coal component elements, solid or gaseous and the proximate analysis determines only the fixed, carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. The ultimate analysis is determined in a, properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist, while proximate analysis can be determined, with a simple apparatus. It may be noted that proximate has no connection with the word, “approximate”., Measurement of Moisture, • Determination of moisture is carried out by placing a sample of powdered raw coal of size 200micron size in an uncovered crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at 108±2°C along with the, lid. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again. The loss in weight, represents moisture.

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FUEL PRORETIES, Measurement of Volatile Matter, • Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and, heated in a furnace at 900 ± 15°C. For the methodologies including that for, carbon and ash, refer to IS 1350 part I:1984, part III, IV. The sample is, cooled and weighed. Loss of weight represents moisture and volatile matter., The remainder is coke (fixed carbon and ash)., Measurement of Carbon and Ash, • The cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and the crucible, is heated over the Bunsen burner until all the carbon is burned. The residue, is weighed, which is the incombustible ash. The difference in weight from, the previous weighing is the fixed carbon. In actual practice Fixed Carbon or, FC derived by subtracting from 100 the value of moisture, volatile matter, and ash., •

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FUEL PRORETIES, Proximate Analysis, Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash, and, Moisture Content in coal. The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter directly, contribute to the heating value of coal. Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generator during burning., High volatile matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel. The ash content is important in the, design of the furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution control equipment and ash handling, systems of a furnace. A typical proximate analysis of various coal is given in the Table 1.5.

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FUEL ANALYSIS, A fuel is basically a source of heat.The usual method of producing heat, from fuel is by the process of combustion, which is a chemical reaction, between fuel and oxidant., We can analyze a fuel in three ways….., 1.Proximate analysis, 2.Ultimate Analysis, 3.Orast Analysis

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FUEL ANALYSIS, PROXIMATE ANALYSIS, The proximate analysis of a fuel indicates the moisture,volatile matter, fixed carbon and, ash content of the fuel in terms of percentage by weight., •Moisture means the water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing, any chemical change to the fuel., •Volatile matter is the loss in weight minus the moisture when the fuel is heated out of, contact with air to a sufficiently high temperature under specified conditions., PROXIMATE ANALYSIS, •Ash is the inorganic residue left when the fuel is completely burnt in air under specified, conditions. It is different from the original mineral matter associated with the coal because of, changes that take place during incineration., •Fixed carbon is the residue obtained by subtracting the sum of the percentages by weight of, moisture, volatile matter and ash from 100.It is essentially carbon containing minor amounts of, nitrogen, Sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen.

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FUEL ANALYSIS, ULTIMATE ANALYSIS, The ultimate analysis of a fuel gives its elementary composition. It is the analysis in terms of the, percentage by weight of the elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur which, constitute the pure feel, free from moisture and inorganic constituents., ORAST ANALYSIS, The composition of a gaseous of a gaseous fuel may be determined by analysis in a standard, apparatus known as the Orast apparatus. The Orast analysis normally reports the percentage, quantities of carbon di-oxide, oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen., Importance of Flue Gas Analysis:, (i) The analysis gives the idea of whether a combustion process is complete or not., (ii) The C and H present in a fuel undergo combustion forming CO2 and H2O respectively. Any, N present is not at all involved in the combustion. ie., the products of combustion are CO2, H2O, and N2., (iii) If analysis of a flue gas indicates the presence of CO; it is suggestive of incomplete, combustion. (wastage of heat is inferred)., (iv) If there is considerable amount of oxygen, it shows that there is excess supply of O2 although, combustion would have been complete.

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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS, Significance of Various Parameters in Proximate Analysis, (a) Fixed carbon:, Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It consists, mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen not driven off, with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating value of coal., (b) Volatile Matter:, Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and, incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the volatile matter is, an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to 35%. Volatile, Matter,, • Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal., • Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume., • Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects., • Influences secondary oil support, (c) Ash Content, Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40% Ash, • Reduces handling and burning capacity., • Increases handling costs., • Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency, • Causes clinkering and slagging.

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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS, Significance of ash content:, 1) Ash in the combination product of mineral matter in the coal. It consists mainly SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 with varying amount of other oxides such as Na2O, CaO, MgO etc., 2) Ash containing the oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt easily., 3) High ash content in coal is undesirable because it, i) increases transporting, handling and storage costs, ii) is harder and stronger, iii) has lower calorific value, (d) Moisture Content:, Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces combustible matter,, it decreases the heat content per kg of coal. Typical range is 0.5 to 10% Moisture, • Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour, • Helps, to a limit, in binding fines., • Aids radiation heat transfer., , (e) Sulphur Content:, Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally., • Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies, • Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers, • Limits exit flue gas temperature.

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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS, Significance of Hydrogen: It increases the calorific value of the coal. It is associated, with the volatile matter of the coal. When the coal containing more of hydrogen is heated, it, combines with nitrogen present in coal forming ammonia. Ammonia is usually recovered as, (NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer, , Significance of Nitrogen: Presence of nitrogen decreases the calorific value of the coal., However, when coal is carbonized, its N2 and H2 combine and form NH3. Ammonia is recovered, as (NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer., Significance of oxygen in coal, The less the oxygen content, the better is the coal. As the oxygen content increases, its moisture, holding capacity also increases.

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ULTIMATE ANALYSIS, The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical constituents such as Carbon,, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the quantity of air required for, combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases. This information is, required for the calculation of flame temperature and the flue duct design etc. Typical ultimate, analyses of various coals are given in the Table 1.6.

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ULTIMATE ANALYSIS, Storage, Handling and Preparation of Coal, Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequent, handling. Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, space, constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated with, the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss. A 1% oxidation of coal has the same, effect as 1% ash in coal, wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 – 1.0% of the total loss., The main goal of good coal storage is to minimise carpet loss and the loss due to spontaneous, combustion. Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal, dust, and soil causes carpet loss. On, the other hand, gradual temperature builds up in a coal heap, on account of oxidation may lead to, spontaneous combustion of coal in storage., The measures that would help in reducing the carpet losses are as follows:, 1. Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked upon., 2. Preparing standard storage bays out of concrete and brick., In process Industry, modes of coal handling range from manual to conveyor systems., It would be advisable to minimise the handling of coal so that further generation of fines and, segregation effects are reduced.

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Preparation of Coal, Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for achieving good, combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:, 1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature., 2. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss., 3. Increase of unburnt in the ash., 4. Low thermal efficiency., (a) Sizing of Coal, Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion. Proper, coal sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even, burning, reduced ash losses and better combustion efficiency., Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economical, for smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system,, crushing is limited to a top size of 6 or 4 mm. The devices most commonly used for, crushing are the rotary breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill., It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to, the crusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended, practices in coal crushing are:, 1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine, generation in crushing., 2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may, damage the crusher.

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The Table 1.8 gives the proper size of coal for various types of firing systems

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Combustion, Combustion, Principle of Combustion, Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat, and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate, supply of oxygen., , Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air. Rapid, fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to, a gas before they will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel, gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present., Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements., Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing dilutant that must be present to obtain the, oxygen required for combustion.

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Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and, diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchange, surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to travel, through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel air, mixture., This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) to, produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants., Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon, dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing 8084 kCals, 28922 kCals & 2224 kCals of, heat respectively. Under certain conditions, Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to form, Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller quantity of heat (2430 kCals/kg of, carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per pound of fuel than when CO or smoke, are produced., , Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat.(8084-2430)

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Molecular Weight Calculation and, Equation, Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air, Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace oil. The chemical reactions are:, Element, C, O2, H2, S, N2, CO2, SO2, H2O, , Molecular Weight, kg / kg mole, 12, 32, 2, 32, 28, 44, 64, 18

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C + O2, H2 + 1/2O2, S + O2, , CO2, H2O, SO2, , Constituents of fuel, C + O2, CO2, 12 + 32, 44, 12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 kg, of carbon requires 32/12 kg i.e 2.67 kg of oxygen., (85.9) C + (85.9 × 2.67) O2, , 315.25 CO2, , 2H2 + O2, 2H2O, 4 + 32, 36, 4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of hydrogen, requires 32/4 kg i.e 8 kg of oxygen, (12) H2 + (12 × 8) O2, (12 x 9 ) H2O, S + O2, SO2, 32 + 32, 64, 32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 64 kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 kg of, sulphur requires 32/32 kg i.e 1 kg of oxygen., (0.5) S + (0.5 × 1) O2, 1.0 SO2

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Numerical Part, For Numerical Part Please Refer to Second part of this Topic from, Slide Share.com, with below Mentioned Title and Link:, Combustion of Fuel (Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis of fuel), , https://www.slideshare.net/rayvarun/combustion-of-fuel-proximateanalysis-and-ultimate-analysis-of-fuel