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Chapter II, , Socialism in Europe and, the Russian Revolution, 1 The Age of Social Change, , Socialism, inthe Russian, Europe, Socialism in Europe and, Revolution and the Russian Revolution, , In the previous chapter you read about the powerful ideas of freedom, and equality that circulated in Europe after the French Revolution., The French Revolution opened up the possibility of creating a, dramatic change in the way in which society was structured. As you, have read, before the eighteenth century society was broadly divided, into estates and orders and it was the aristocracy and church which, controlled economic and social power. Suddenly, after the revolution,, it seemed possible to change this. In many parts of the world including, Europe and Asia, new ideas about individual rights and who, controlled social power began to be discussed. In India, Raja, Rammohan Roy and Derozio talked of the significance of the French, Revolution, and many others debated the ideas of post-revolutionary, Europe. The developments in the colonies, in turn, reshaped these, ideas of societal change., Not everyone in Europe, however, wanted a complete transformation, of society. Responses varied from those who accepted that some, change was necessary but wished for a gradual shift, to those who, wanted to restructure society radically. Some were ‘conservatives’,, others were ‘liberals’ or ‘radicals’. What did these terms really mean, in the context of the time? What separated these strands of politics, and what linked them together? We must remember that these terms, do not mean the same thing in all contexts or at all times., We will look briefly at some of the important political traditions of, the nineteenth century, and see how they influenced change. Then, we will focus on one historical event in which there was an attempt, at a radical transformation of society. Through the revolution in, Russia, socialism became one of the most significant and powerful, ideas to shape society in the twentieth century., , 1.1 Liberals, Radicals and Conservatives, One of the groups which looked to change society were the liberals., Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions. We should, remember that at this time European states usually discriminated in, 2021–22, , 25

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favour of one religion or another (Britain favoured the Church of, England, Austria and Spain favoured the Catholic Church). Liberals, also opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They wanted, to safeguard the rights of individuals against governments. They, argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, subject, to laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent, of rulers and officials. However, they were not ‘democrats’. They, did not believe in universal adult franchise, that is, the right of every, citizen to vote. They felt men of property mainly should have the, vote. They also did not want the vote for women., In contrast, radicals wanted a nation in which government was based, on the majority of a country’s population. Many supported women’s, suffragette movements. Unlike liberals, they opposed the privileges, of great landowners and wealthy factory owners. They were not, against the existence of private property but disliked concentration, of property in the hands of a few., Conservatives were opposed to radicals and liberals. After the French, Revolution, however, even conservatives had opened their minds to, the need for change. Earlier, in the eighteenth century, conservatives, had been generally opposed to the idea of change. By the nineteenth, century, they accepted that some change was inevitable but believed, that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about, through a slow process., , India and the Contemporary World, , Such differing ideas about societal change clashed during the social, and political turmoil that followed the French Revolution. The, various attempts at revolution and national transformation in the, nineteenth century helped define both the limits and potential of, these political tendencies., , 1.2 Industrial Society and Social Change, These political trends were signs of a new time. It was a time of, profound social and economic changes. It was a time when new cities, came up and new industrialised regions developed, railways expanded, and the Industrial Revolution occurred., Industrialisation brought men, women and children to factories. Work, hours were often long and wages were poor. Unemployment was, common, particularly during times of low demand for industrial goods., Housing and sanitation were problems since towns were growing, rapidly. Liberals and radicals searched for solutions to these issues., 26, , 2021–22, , New words, Suffragette movement – A movement to, give women the right to vote.

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Fig.1 – The London poor in the mid-nineteenth century as seen by a, contemporary., From: Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, 1861., , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , Almost all industries were the property of individuals. Liberals and, radicals themselves were often property owners and employers., Having made their wealth through trade or industrial ventures, they, felt that such effort should be encouraged – that its benefits would, be achieved if the workforce in the economy was healthy and citizens, were educated. Opposed to the privileges the old aristocracy had by, birth, they firmly believed in the value of individual effort, labour, and enterprise. If freedom of individuals was ensured, if the poor, could labour, and those with capital could operate without restraint,, they believed that societies would develop. Many working men and, women who wanted changes in the world rallied around liberal and, radical groups and parties in the early nineteenth century., Some nationalists, liberals and radicals wanted revolutions to put an, end to the kind of governments established in Europe in 1815. In, France, Italy, Germany and Russia, they became revolutionaries and, worked to overthrow existing monarchs. Nationalists talked of, revolutions that would create ‘nations’ where all citizens would have, 2021–22, , 27

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equal rights. After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, conspired, with others to achieve this in Italy. Nationalists elsewhere – including India, – read his writings., , 1.3 The Coming of Socialism to Europe, Perhaps one of the most far-reaching visions of how society should be, structured was socialism. By the mid - nineteenth century in Europe, socialism, was a well-known body of ideas that attracted widespread attention., Socialists were against private property, and saw it as the root of all social ills, of the time. Why? Individuals owned the property that gave employment, but the propertied were concerned only with personal gain and not with, the welfare of those who made the property productive. So if society as a, whole rather than single individuals controlled property, more attention, would be paid to collective social interests. Socialists wanted this change and, campaigned for it., How could a society without property operate? What would be the basis of, socialist society?, , India and the Contemporary World, , Socialists had different visions of the future. Some believed in the idea of, cooperatives. Robert Owen (1771-1858), a leading English manufacturer,, sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana, (USA). Other socialists felt that cooperatives could not be built on a wide, scale only through individual initiative: they demanded that governments, encourage cooperatives. In France, for instance, Louis Blanc (1813-1882), wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist, enterprises. These cooperatives were to be associations of people who, produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work, done by members., Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) added other ideas, to this body of arguments. Marx argued that industrial society was ‘capitalist’., Capitalists owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists, was produced by workers. The conditions of workers could not improve, as long as this profit was accumulated by private capitalists. Workers had to, overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property. Marx believed that, to free themselves from capitalist exploitation, workers had to construct a, radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled. This, would be a communist society. He was convinced that workers would, triumph in their conflict with capitalists. A communist society was the natural, society of the future., 28, , 2021–22, , Activity, List two differences between the capitalist, and socialist ideas of private property.

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1.4 Support for Socialism, , Workers in England and Germany began forming associations to, fight for better living and working conditions. They set up funds to, help members in times of distress and demanded a reduction of working, hours and the right to vote. In Germany, these associations worked closely, with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and helped it win parliamentary, seats. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed a Labour Party in, Britain and a Socialist Party in France. However, till 1914, socialists never, succeeded in forming a government in Europe. Represented by strong, figures in parliamentary politics, their ideas did shape legislation, but, governments continued to be run by conservatives, liberals and radicals., , Activity, Imagine that a meeting has been called in, your area to discuss the socialist idea of, doing away with private property and, introducing collective ownership. Write the, speech you would make at the meeting if you, are:, Ø a poor labourer working in the fields, Ø a medium-level landowner, Ø a house owner, , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , By the 1870s, socialist ideas spread through Europe. To coordinate, their efforts, socialists formed an international body – namely, the, Second International., , Fig.2 – This is a painting of the Paris Commune of 1871 (From Illustrated London News, 1871). It portrays a scene from the, popular uprising in Paris between March and May 1871. This was a period when the town council (commune) of Paris was, taken over by a ‘peoples’ government’ consisting of workers, ordinary people, professionals, political activists and others., The uprising emerged against a background of growing discontent against the policies of the French state. The ‘Paris, Commune’ was ultimately crushed by government troops but it was celebrated by Socialists the world over as a prelude to a, socialist revolution.The Paris Commune is also popularly remembered for two important legacies: one, for its association with, the workers’ red flag – that was the flag adopted by the communards ( revolutionaries) in Paris; two, for the ‘Marseillaise’,, originally written as a war song in 1792, it became a symbol of the Commune and of the struggle for liberty., , 2021–22, , 29

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2 The Russian Revolution, In one of the least industrialised of European states this situation was, reversed. Socialists took over the government in Russia through the, October Revolution of 1917. The fall of monarchy in February 1917, and the events of October are normally called the Russian Revolution., How did this come about? What were the social and political, conditions in Russia when the revolution occurred? To answer these, questions, let us look at Russia a few years before the revolution., , 2.1 The Russian Empire in 1914, , Fig.3 – Tsar Nicholas II in the White, Hall of the Winter Palace,, St Petersburg, 1900., Painted by Earnest Lipgart (1847-1932), , India and the Contemporary World, , In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire. Besides the, territory around Moscow, the Russian empire included current-day, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine and, Belarus. It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today’s Central, Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The majority, religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity – which had grown out, of the Greek Orthodox Church – but the empire also included, Catholics, Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists., , Fig.4 – Europe in 1914., The map shows the Russian empire and the European countries at war during the First, World War., , 30, , 2021–22

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2.2 Economy and Society, At the beginning of the twentieth century, the vast majority of, Russia’s people were agriculturists. About 85 per cent of the Russian, empire’s population earned their living from agriculture. This, proportion was higher than in most European countries. For instance,, in France and Germany the proportion was between 40 per cent and, 50 per cent. In the empire, cultivators produced for the market as, well as for their own needs and Russia was a major exporter of grain., Industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were, St Petersburg and Moscow. Craftsmen undertook much of the, production, but large factories existed alongside craft workshops., Many factories were set up in the 1890s, when Russia’s railway, network was extended, and foreign investment in industry increased., Coal production doubled and iron and steel output quadrupled. By, the 1900s, in some areas factory workers and craftsmen were almost, equal in number., , Fig.5 – Unemployed peasants in pre-war, St Petersburg., Many survived by eating at charitable, kitchens and living in poorhouses., , Workers were a divided social group. Some had strong links with, the villages from which they came. Others had settled in cities, permanently. Workers were divided by skill. A metalworker of St., Petersburg recalled, ‘Metalworkers considered themselves aristocrats, among other workers. Their occupations demanded more training, and skill . . . ’ Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour, force by 1914, but they were paid less than men (between half and, three-quarters of a man’s wage). Divisions among workers showed, themselves in dress and manners too. Some workers formed, associations to help members in times of unemployment or financial, hardship but such associations were few., , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , Most industry was the private property of industrialists. Government, supervised large factories to ensure minimum wages and limited hours, of work. But factory inspectors could not prevent rules being broken., In craft units and small workshops, the working day was sometimes, 15 hours, compared with 10 or 12 hours in factories. Accommodation, varied from rooms to dormitories., , Fig.6 – Workers sleeping in bunkers in a, dormitory in pre-revolutionary Russia., They slept in shifts and could not keep their, families with them., , Despite divisions, workers did unite to strike work (stop work) when, they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions., These strikes took place frequently in the textile industry during, 1896-1897, and in the metal industry during 1902., In the countryside, peasants cultivated most of the land. But the, nobility, the crown and the Orthodox Church owned large, properties. Like workers, peasants too were divided. They were also, 2021–22, , 31

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deeply religious. But except in a few cases they had no respect for the, nobility. Nobles got their power and position through their services, to the Tsar, not through local popularity. This was unlike France, where, during the French Revolution in Brittany, peasants respected, nobles and fought for them. In Russia, peasants wanted the land of, the nobles to be given to them. Frequently, they refused to pay rent, and even murdered landlords. In 1902, this occurred on a large scale, in south Russia. And in 1905, such incidents took place all, over Russia., Russian peasants were different from other European peasants in, another way. They pooled their land together periodically and their, commune (mir) divided it according to the needs of individual families., , 2.3 Socialism in Russia, , India and the Contemporary World, , All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914. The Russian, Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists, who respected Marx’s ideas. However, because of government, policing, it had to operate as an illegal organisation. It set up a, newspaper, mobilised workers and organised strikes., Some Russian socialists felt that the Russian peasant custom of dividing, land periodically made them natural socialists. So peasants, not, workers, would be the main force of the revolution, and Russia could, become socialist more quickly than other countries. Socialists were, active in the countryside through the late nineteenth century. They, formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900. This party struggled, for peasants’ rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles be, transferred to peasants. Social Democrats disagreed with Socialist, Revolutionaries about peasants. Lenin felt that peasants were not, one united group. Some were poor and others rich, some worked as, labourers while others were capitalists who employed workers. Given, this ‘differentiation’ within them, they could not all be part of a, socialist movement., The party was divided over the strategy of organisation. Vladimir, Lenin (who led the Bolshevik group) thought that in a repressive, society like Tsarist Russia the party should be disciplined and should, control the number and quality of its members. Others (Mensheviks), thought that the party should be open to all (as in Germany)., , 2.4 A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution, Russia was an autocracy. Unlike other European rulers, even at the, beginning of the twentieth century, the Tsar was not subject to, 32, , 2021–22, , Source A, Alexander Shlyapnikov, a socialist, worker of the time, gives us a description, of how the meetings were organised:, ‘Propaganda was done in the plants and, shops on an individual basis. There were, also discussion circles … Legal meetings, took place on matters concerning [official, issues], but this activity was skilfully, integrated into the general struggle for, the liberation of the working class. Illegal, meetings were … arranged on the spur, of the moment but in an organised way, during lunch, in evening break, in front, of the exit, in the yard or, in, establishments with several floors, on, the stairs. The most alert workers would, form a “plug” in the doorway, and the, whole mass piled up in the exit. An, agitator would get up right there on the, spot. Management would contact the, police on the telephone, but the, speeches would have already been, made and the necessary decision taken, by the time they arrived ...’, Alexander Shlyapnikov, On the Eve of, 1917., Reminiscences, from, the, Revolutionary Underground.

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parliament. Liberals in Russia campaigned to end this state of affairs., Together with the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries,, they worked with peasants and workers during the revolution of, 1905 to demand a constitution. They were supported in the empire, by nationalists (in Poland for instance) and in Muslim-dominated, areas by jadidists who wanted modernised Islam to lead their societies., The year 1904 was a particularly bad one for Russian workers. Prices, of essential goods rose so quickly that real wages declined by 20 per, cent. The membership of workers’ associations rose dramatically., When four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers, which, had been formed in 1904, were dismissed at the Putilov Iron Works,, there was a call for industrial action. Over the next few days over, 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike demanding a, reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages, and improvement in working conditions., , During the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of an, elected consultative Parliament or Duma. For a brief while during, the revolution, there existed a large number of trade unions and, factory committees made up of factory workers. After 1905, most, committees and unions worked unofficially, since they were declared, illegal. Severe restrictions were placed on political activity. The Tsar, dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second, Duma within three months. He did not want any questioning of his, authority or any reduction in his power. He changed the voting, laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals, and revolutionaries were kept out., , Activity, Why were there revolutionary disturbances in, Russia in 1905? What were the demands of, revolutionaries?, , New words, , 2.5 The First World War and the Russian Empire, In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances – Germany,, Austria and Turkey (the Central powers) and France, Britain and, Russia (later Italy and Romania). Each country had a global empire, 2021–22, , Jadidists – Muslim reformers within the, Russian empire, Real wage – Reflects the quantities of, goods which the wages will actually buy., , 33, , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , When the procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the, Winter Palace it was attacked by the police and the Cossacks. Over, 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded. The incident,, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of events that became known, as the 1905 Revolution. Strikes took place all over the country and, universities closed down when student bodies staged walkouts,, complaining about the lack of civil liberties. Lawyers, doctors,, engineers and other middle-class workers established the Union of, Unions and demanded a constituent assembly.

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and the war was fought outside Europe as well as, in Europe. This was the First World War., In Russia, the war was initially popular and people, rallied around Tsar Nicholas II. As the war, continued, though, the Tsar refused to consult the, main parties in the Duma. Support wore thin. AntiGerman sentiments ran high, as can be seen in the, renaming of St Petersburg – a German name – as, Petrograd. The Tsarina Alexandra’s German, origins and poor advisers, especially a monk called, Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular., , India and the Contemporary World, , The First World War on the ‘eastern front’ differed, from that on the ‘western front’. In the west, armies, fought from trenches stretched along eastern, France. In the east, armies moved a good deal and, fought battles leaving large casualties. Defeats were, shocking and demoralising. Russia’s armies lost, badly in Germany and Austria between 1914 and, 1916. There were over 7 million casualties by 1917., As they retreated, the Russian army destroyed, crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from, being able to live off the land. The destruction of, crops and buildings led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. The, situation discredited the government and the Tsar. Soldiers did not, wish to fight such a war., The war also had a severe impact on industry. Russia’s own industries, were few in number and the country was cut off from other suppliers, of industrial goods by German control of the Baltic Sea. Industrial, equipment disintegrated more rapidly in Russia than elsewhere in, Europe. By 1916, railway lines began to break down. Able-bodied, men were called up to the war. As a result, there were labour shortages, and small workshops producing essentials were shut down. Large, supplies of grain were sent to feed the army. For the people in the, cities, bread and flour became scarce. By the winter of 1916, riots at, bread shops were common., , 34, , 2021–22, , Fig.7 – Russian soldiers during the First, World War., The Imperial Russian army came to be known, as the ‘Russian steam roller’. It was the, largest armed force in the world. When this, army shifted its loyalty and began supporting, the revolutionaries, Tsarist power collapsed., , Activity, The year is 1916. You are a general in the, Tsar’s army on the eastern front. You are, writing a report for the government in, Moscow. In your report suggest what you, think the government should do to improve, the situation.

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3 The February Revolution in Petrograd, In the winter of 1917, conditions in the capital, Petrograd, were grim., The layout of the city seemed to emphasise the divisions among its, people. The workers’ quarters and factories were located on the right, bank of the River Neva. On the left bank were the fashionable areas,, the Winter Palace, and official buildings, including the palace where, the Duma met. In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in, the workers’ quarters. The winter was very cold – there had been, exceptional frost and heavy snow. Parliamentarians wishing to, preserve elected government, were opposed to the Tsar’s desire to dissolve, the Duma., , On Sunday, 25 February, the government, suspended the Duma. Politicians spoke out against, the measure. Demonstrators returned in force to, the streets of the left bank on the 26th. On the, 27th, the Police Headquarters were ransacked. The, streets thronged with people raising slogans about, bread, wages, better hours and democracy. The, government tried to control the situation and, called out the cavalry once again. However, the, cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators. An, officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and, three other regiments mutinied, voting to join the, striking workers. By that evening, soldiers and, , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , On 22 Febr uar y, a lockout took place at a, factory on the right bank. The next day, workers, in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy., In many factories, women led the way to strikes., This came to be called the International Women’s, Day. Demonstrating workers crossed from the, factory quarters to the centre of the capital – the, Nevskii Prospekt. At this stage, no political party, was actively organising the movement. As the, fashionable quarters and official buildings were, surrounded by workers, the government imposed, a curfew. Demonstrators dispersed by the evening,, but they came back on the 24th and 25th. The, government called out the cavalry and police to, keep an eye on them., , Fig.8 – The Petrograd Soviet meeting in the Duma, February 1917., , 2021–22, , 35

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striking workers had gathered to form a ‘soviet’ or ‘council’ in the, same building as the Duma met. This was the Petrograd Soviet., The very next day, a delegation went to see the Tsar. Military, commanders advised him to abdicate. He followed their advice and, abdicated on 2 March. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a, Provisional Government to run the country. Russia’s future would, be decided by a constituent assembly, elected on the basis of universal, adult suffrage. Petrograd had led the February Revolution that, brought down the monarchy in February 1917., Box 1, Women in the February Revolution, ‘Women workers, often ... inspired their male co-workers … At the Lorenz telephone, factory, … Marfa Vasileva almost single handedly called a successful strike. Already that, morning, in celebration of Women’s Day, women workers had presented red bows to the, men … Then Marfa Vasileva, a milling machine operator stopped work and declared an, impromptu strike. The workers on the floor were ready to support her … The foreman, informed the management and sent her a loaf of bread. She took the bread but refused to, go back to work. The administrator asked her again why she refused to work and she, replied, “I cannot be the only one who is satiated when others are hungry”. Women, workers from another section of the factory gathered around Marfa in support and, gradually all the other women ceased working. Soon the men downed their tools as well, and the entire crowd rushed onto the street.’, From: Choi Chatterji, Celebrating Women (2002)., , India and the Contemporary World, , 3.1 After February, Army officials, landowners and industrialists were influential in, the Provisional Government. But the liberals as well as socialists, among them worked towards an elected government. Restrictions, on public meetings and associations were removed. ‘Soviets’, like, the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common, system of election was followed., In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to, Russia from his exile. He and the Bolsheviks had opposed the war, since 1914. Now he felt it was time for soviets to take over power., He declared that the war be brought to a close, land be transferred, to the peasants, and banks be nationalised. These three demands, were Lenin’s ‘April Theses’. He also argued that the Bolshevik Party, rename itself the Communist Party to indicate its new radical aims., Most others in the Bolshevik Party were initially surprised by the, April Theses. They thought that the time was not yet ripe for a, 36, , 2021–22, , Activity, Look again at Source A and Box 1., Ø List five changes in the mood of the, workers., Ø Place yourself in the position of a woman, who has seen both situations and write, an account of what has changed.

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socialist revolution and the Provisional Government needed to be, supported. But the developments of the subsequent months changed, their attitude., Through the summer the workers’ movement spread. In industrial, areas, factory committees were formed which began questioning, the way industrialists ran their factories. Trade unions grew in, number. Soldiers’ committees were formed in the army. In June,, about 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress, of Soviets. As the Provisional Government saw its power reduce, and Bolshevik influence grow, it decided to take stern measures, against the spreading discontent. It resisted attempts by workers, to run factories and began arresting leaders. Popular, demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were sternly, repressed. Many Bolshevik leaders had to go into hiding or flee., , Fig.9 – A Bolshevik image of Lenin, addressing workers in April 1917., , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , Meanwhile in the countryside, peasants and their Socialist, Revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Land, committees were formed to handle this. Encouraged by the, Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and, September 1917., , Fig.10 – The July Days. A pro-Bolshevik demonstration on 17 July 1917 being fired upon by the army., , 2021–22, , 37

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3.2 The Revolution of October 1917, , Box 2, , As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the, Bolsheviks grew, Lenin feared the Provisional Government would, set up a dictatorship. In September, he began discussions for an, uprising against the government. Bolshevik supporters in the army,, soviets and factories were brought together., On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and, the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A, Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet, under Leon Trotskii to organise the seizure. The date of the event, was kept a secret., The uprising began on 24 October. Sensing trouble, Prime Minister, Kerenskii had left the city to summon troops. At dawn, military, men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik, newspapers. Pro-government troops were sent to take over telephone, and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace. In a swift, response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its, supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. Late in, the day, the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace. Other vessels, sailed down the Neva and took over various military points. By, nightfall, the city was under the committee’s control and the, ministers had surrendered. At a meeting of the All Russian Congress, of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action., Uprisings took place in other cities. There was heavy fighting –, especially in Moscow – but by December, the Bolsheviks controlled, the Moscow-Petrograd area., , Date of the Russian Revolution, Russia followed the Julian calendar until, 1 February 1918. The country then changed to, the Gregorian calendar, which is followed, everywhere today. The Gregorian dates are, 13 days ahead of the Julian dates. So by our, calendar, the ‘February’ Revolution took place, on 12th March and the ‘October’ Revolution, took place on 7th November., , Some important dates, 1850s -1880s, Debates over socialism in Russsia., 1898, Formation of the Russian Social Democratic, Workers Party., 1905, The Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of, 1905., 1917, 2nd March - Abdication of the Tsar., 24th October - Bolshevik unprising in, Petrograd., 1918-20, The Civil War., 1919, Formation of Comintern., , India and the Contemporary World, , 1929, Beginning of Collectivisation., , Fig.11 – Lenin (left) and Trotskii (right) with, workers at Petrograd., , 38, , 2021–22

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4 What Changed after October?, The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most, industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917. This meant, that the government took over ownership and management. Land, was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the, land of the nobility. In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of, large houses according to family requirements. They banned the, use of the old titles of aristocracy. To assert the change, new, uniforms were designed for the army and officials, following a, clothing competition organised in 1918 – when the Soviet hat, (budeonovka) was chosen., , 2021–22, , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party, (Bolshevik). In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the, elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain, majority support. In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik, measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly. He thought the All, Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic than an assembly Fig.12 – A soldier wearing the Soviet hat, (budeonovka)., elected in uncertain conditions. In March 1918, despite opposition, by their political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany, at Brest Litovsk. In the years that, followed, the Bolsheviks became, the only party to participate in the, elections to the All Russian, Congress of Soviets, which became, the Parliament of the country., Russia became a one-party state., Trade unions were kept under, party control. The secret police, (called the Cheka first, and later, OGPU and NKVD) punished, those who criticised the, Bolsheviks. Many young writers, and artists rallied to the Party, because it stood for socialism and, for change. After October 1917,, this led to experiments in the arts, and architecture. But many became, disillusioned because of the, censorship the Party encouraged., Fig.13 – May Day demonstration in Moscow in 1918., 39

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Box 3, The October Revolution and the Russian Countryside: Two Views, ‘News of the revolutionary uprising of October 25, 1917, reached the village the following day and, was greeted with enthusiasm; to the peasants it meant free land and an end to the war. ...The day, the news arrived, the landowner’s manor house was looted, his stock farms were “requisitioned”, and his vast orchard was cut down and sold to the peasants for wood; all his far buildings were, torn down and left in ruins while the land was distributed among the peasants who were prepared, to live the new Soviet life’., From: Fedor Belov, The History of a Soviet Collective Farm, , A member of a landowning family wrote to a relative about what happened at the estate:, ‘The “coup” happened quite painlessly, quietly and peacefully. …The first days were unbearable.., Mikhail Mikhailovich [the estate owner] was calm...The girls also…I must say the chairman, behaves correctly and even politely. We were left two cows and two horses. The servants tell them, all the time not to bother us. “Let them live. We vouch for their safety and property. We want them, treated as humanely as possible….”, …There are rumours that several villages are trying to evict the committees and return the estate, to Mikhail Mikhailovich. I don’t know if this will happen, or if it’s good for us. But we rejoice that, there is a conscience in our people...’, From: Serge Schmemann, Echoes of a Native Land. Two Centuries of a Russian Village (1997)., , Activity, , 4.1 The Civil War, , India and the Contemporary World, , Read the two views on the revolution in the, , When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army, began to break up. Soldiers, mostly peasants, wished to go home for, the redistribution and deserted. Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and, supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. Their, leaders moved to south Russia and organised troops to fight the, Bolsheviks (the ‘reds’). During 1918 and 1919, the ‘greens’ (Socialist, Revolutionaries) and ‘whites’ (pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the, Russian empire. They were backed by French, American, British, and Japanese troops – all those forces who were worried at the growth, of socialism in Russia. As these troops and the Bolsheviks fought a, civil war, looting, banditry and famine became common., Supporters of private property among ‘whites’ took harsh steps with, peasants who had seized land. Such actions led to the loss of popular, support for the non-Bolsheviks. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks, controlled most of the former Russian empire. They succeeded due, 40, , 2021–22, , countryside. Imagine yourself to be a witness, to the events. Write a short account from the, standpoint of:, Ø an owner of an estate, Ø a small peasant, Ø a journalist

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to cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists., Cooperation did not work where Russian colonists themselves turned, Bolshevik. In Khiva, in Central Asia, Bolshevik colonists brutally, massacred local nationalists in the name of defending socialism. In, this situation, many were confused about what the Bolshevik, government represented., Partly to remedy this, most non-Russian nationalities were given, political autonomy in the Soviet Union (USSR) – the state the, Bolsheviks created from the Russian empire in December 1922. But, since this was combined with unpopular policies that the Bolsheviks, forced the local government to follow – like the harsh discouragement, of nomadism – attempts to win over different nationalities were, only partly successful., , New words, Autonomy – The right to govern, themselves, Nomadism – Lifestyle of those who do, not live in one place but move from area, to area to earn their living, , Activity, Why did people in Central Asia respond to the Russian Revolution in, different ways?, , Source B, , Central Asia of the October Revolution: Two Views, M.N.Roy was an Indian revolutionary, a founder of the Mexican Communist Party, and prominent Comintern leader in India, China and Europe. He was in Central, Asia at the time of the civil war in the 1920s. He wrote:, , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , ‘The chieftain was a benevolent old man; his attendant … a youth who … spoke, Russian … He had heard of the Revolution, which had overthrown the Tsar and, driven away the Generals who conquered the homeland of the Kirgiz. So, the, Revolution meant that the Kirgiz were masters of their home again. “Long Live the, Revolution” shouted the Kirgiz youth who seemed to be a born Bolshevik. The, whole tribe joined.’, , ‘The Kirghiz welcomed the first revolution (ie February Revolution) with joy and the, second revolution with consternation and terror … [This] first revolution freed them, from the oppression of the Tsarist regime and strengthened their hope that …, autonomy would be realised. The second revolution (October Revolution) was, accompanied by violence, pillage, taxes and the establishment of dictatorial power, … Once a small group of Tsarist bureaucrats oppressed the Kirghiz. Now the same, group of people … perpetuate the same regime ...’, Kazakh leader in 1919, quoted in Alexander Bennigsen and Chantal Quelquejay,, Les Mouvements Nationaux chez les Musulmans de Russie, (1960)., , 2021–22, , Source, , M.N.Roy, Memoirs (1964)., , 41

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4.2 Making a Socialist Society, During the civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks, nationalised. They permitted peasants to cultivate the land that had, been socialised. Bolsheviks used confiscated land to demonstrate what, collective work could be., A process of centralised planning was introduced. Officials assessed, how the economy could work and set targets for a five-year period., On this basis they made the Five Year Plans. The government fixed, all prices to promote industrial growth during the first two ‘Plans’, , Box 4, Socialist Cultivation in a Village in the Ukraine, ‘A commune was set up using two [confiscated] farms as a base. The commune, consisted of thirteen families with a total of seventy persons … The farm tools taken, from the … farms were turned over to the commune …The members ate in a communal, dining hall and income was divided in accordance with the principles of “cooperative, communism”. The entire proceeds of the members’ labor, as well as all dwellings and, facilities belonging to the commune were shared by the commune members.’, Fedor Belov, The History of a Soviet Collective Farm (1955)., , India and the Contemporary World, , (1927-1932 and 1933-1938). Centralised planning led to economic, growth. Industrial production increased (between 1929 and 1933 by, 100 per cent in the case of oil, coal and steel). New factory cities, came into being., However, rapid construction led to poor working conditions. In, the city of Magnitogorsk, the construction of a steel plant was achieved, in three years. Workers lived hard lives and the result was 550, stoppages of work in the first year alone. In living quarters, ‘in the, wintertime, at 40 degrees below, people had to climb down from the, fourth floor and dash across the street in order to go to the toilet’., An extended schooling system developed, and arrangements were, made for factory workers and peasants to enter universities. Crèches, were established in factories for the children of women workers., Cheap public health care was provided. Model living quarters were, set up for workers. The effect of all this was uneven, though, since, government resources were limited., 42, , 2021–22, , Fig.14 – Factories came to be seen as a, symbol of socialism., This poster states: ‘The smoke from the, chimneys is the breathing of Soviet Russia.’

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Fig.16 – A child in Magnitogorsk during the, First Five Year Plan., He is working for Soviet Russia., , Fig.15 – Children at school in Soviet Russia in the, 1930s., They are studying the Soviet economy., , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , Fig.17 – Factory dining hall in the 1930s., , Source C, , Dreams and Realities of a Soviet Childhood in 1933, My family is large, there are four children. We don’t have a father – he died, fighting, for the worker’s cause, and my mother … is ailing … I want to study very much, but, I cannot go to school. I had some old boots, but they are completely torn and no, one can mend them. My mother is sick, we have no money and no bread, but I want, to study very much. …there stands before us the task of studying, studying and, studying. That is what Vladimir Ilich Lenin said. But I have to stop going to school., We have no relatives and there is no one to help us, so I have to go to work in a, factory, to prevent the family from starving. Dear grandfather, I am 13, I study well, and have no bad reports. I am in Class 5 …, Letter of 1933 from a 13-year-old worker to Kalinin, Soviet President, From: V. Sokolov (ed), Obshchestvo I Vlast, v 1930-ye gody (Moscow, 1997)., , 2021–22, , Source, , Dear grandfather Kalinin …, , 43

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4.3 Stalinism and Collectivisation, The period of the early Planned Economy was linked to, the disasters of the collectivisation of agriculture. By 19271928, the towns in Soviet Russia were facing an acute, problem of grain supplies. The government fixed prices, at which grain must be sold, but the peasants refused to sell their, grain to government buyers at these prices., Stalin, who headed the party after the death of Lenin, introduced, firm emergency measures. He believed that rich peasants and traders, in the countryside were holding stocks in the hope of higher prices., Speculation had to be stopped and supplies confiscated., , India and the Contemporary World, , In 1928, Party members toured the grain-producing areas, supervising, enforced grain collections, and raiding ‘kulaks’ – the name for wellto-do peasants. As shortages continued, the decision was taken to, collectivise farms. It was argued that grain shortages were partly due, to the small size of holdings. After 1917, land had been given over to, peasants. These small-sized peasant farms could not be modernised., To develop modern farms, and run them along industrial lines with, machinery, it was necessary to ‘eliminate kulaks’, take away land, from peasants, and establish state-controlled large farms., , Fig.18 – A poster during collectivisation. It, states: ‘We shall strike at the kulak working for, the decrease in cultivation.’, , What followed was Stalin’s collectivisation programme. From 1929,, the Party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz)., The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership, of collective farms. Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz, profit was shared. Enraged peasants resisted the authorities and, destroyed their livestock. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of, cattle fell by one-third. Those who resisted collectivisation were, severely punished. Many were deported and exiled. As they resisted, collectivisation, peasants argued that they were not rich and they, were not against socialism. They merely did not want to work in, collective farms for a variety of reasons. Stalin’s government allowed, some independent cultivation, but treated such cultivators, unsympathetically., In spite of collectivisation, production did not increase immediately., In fact, the bad harvests of 1930-1933 led to one of most devastating, famines in Soviet history when over 4 million died., New words, Deported – Forcibly removed from one’s own country., Exiled – Forced to live away from one’s own country., , 44, , 2021–22, , Fig.19 – Peasant women being gathered to, work in the large collective farms.

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Source D, , Official view of the opposition to collectivisation and the government response, ‘From the second half of February of this year, in various regions of the Ukraine, … mass insurrections of the peasantry have taken place, caused by distortions, of the Party’s line by a section of the lower ranks of the Party and the Soviet, apparatus in the course of the introduction of collectivisation and preparatory, work for the spring harvest., Within a short time, large scale activities from the above-mentioned regions, carried over into neighbouring areas – and the most aggressive insurrections, have taken place near the border., The greater part of the peasant insurrections have been linked with outright, demands for the return of collectivised stocks of grain, livestock and tools …, , Source, , Between 1st February and 15th March, 25,000 have been arrested … 656 have, been executed, 3673 have been imprisoned in labour camps and 5580 exiled …’, Report of K.M. Karlson, President of the State Police Administration of the Ukraine, to the Central Committee of the Communist Party, on 19 March 1930., From: V. Sokolov (ed), Obshchestvo I Vlast, v 1930-ye gody, , Many within the Party criticised the confusion in industrial, production under the Planned Economy and the consequences of, collectivisation. Stalin and his sympathisers charged these critics with, conspiracy against socialism. Accusations were made throughout the, country, and by 1939, over 2 million were in prisons or labour camps., Most were innocent of the crimes, but no one spoke for them. A, large number were forced to make false confessions under torture, and were executed – several among them were talented professionals., Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , Source E, , This is a letter written by a peasant who did not want to join the collective farm., ‘… I am a natural working peasant born in 1879 … there are 6 members in my, family, my wife was born in 1881, my son is 16, two daughters 19, all three go, to school, my sister is 71. From 1932, heavy taxes have been levied on me that, I have found impossible. From 1935, local authorities have increased the taxes, on me … and I was unable to handle them and all my property was registered:, my horse, cow, calf, sheep with lambs, all my implements, furniture and my, reserve of wood for repair of buildings and they sold the lot for the taxes. In, 1936, they sold two of my buildings … the kolkhoz bought them. In 1937, of two, huts I had, one was sold and one was confiscated …’, Afanasii Dedorovich Frebenev, an independent cultivator., From: V. Sokolov (ed), Obshchestvo I Vlast, v 1930-ye gody., , 2021–22, , Source, , To the newspaper Krestianskaia Gazeta (Peasant Newspaper), , 45

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5 The Global Influence of the Russian, Revolution and the USSR, Existing socialist parties in Europe did not wholly approve of the, way the Bolsheviks took power – and kept it. However, the possibility, of a workers’ state fired people’s imagination across the world. In, many countries, communist parties were formed – like the, Communist Party of Great Britain. The Bolsheviks encouraged, colonial peoples to follow their experiment. Many non-Russians from, outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of, the East (1920) and the Bolshevik-founded Comintern (an international, union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties). Some received education in, the USSR’s Communist University of the Workers of the East. By, the time of the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had, given socialism a global face and world stature., Yet by the 1950s it was acknowledged within the country that the, style of government in the USSR was not in keeping with the ideals, of the Russian Revolution. In the world socialist movement too it, was recognised that all was not well in the Soviet Union. A backward, country had become a great power. Its industries and agriculture, had developed and the poor were being fed. But it had denied the, essential freedoms to its citizens and carried out its developmental, projects through repressive policies. By the end of the twentieth, century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist, country had declined though it was recognised that socialist ideals, still enjoyed respect among its people. But in each country the ideas, of socialism were rethought in a variety of different ways., , India and the Contemporary World, , Box 5, Writing about the Russian Revolution in India, Among those the Russian Revolution inspired were many Indians. Several, attended the Communist University. By the mid-1920s the Communist Party was, formed in India. Its members kept in touch with the Soviet Communist Party., Important Indian political and cultural figures took an interest in the Soviet, experiment and visited Russia, among them Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath, Tagore, who wrote about Soviet Socialism. In India, writings gave impressions of, Soviet Russia. In Hindi, R.S. Avasthi wrote in 1920-21 Russian Revolution, Lenin,, His Life and His Thoughts, and later The Red Revolution . S.D. Vidyalankar, wrote The Rebirth of Russia and The Soviet State of Russia. There was much, that was written in Bengali, Marathi, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu., , 46, , 2021–22, , Fig.20 – Special Issue on, Lenin of the Indo-Soviet, Journal., Indian communists, mobilised support for the, USSR during the Second, World War.

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Source F, , An Indian arrives in Soviet Russia in 1920, ‘For the first time in our lives, we were seeing Europeans, mixing freely with Asians. On seeing the Russians mingling, freely with the rest of the people of the country we were, convinced that we had come to a land of real equality., We saw freedom in its true light. In spite of their poverty,, imposed by the counter-revolutionaries and the imperialists,, the people were more jovial and satisfied than ever before., The revolution had instilled confidence and fearlessness in, them. The real brotherhood of mankind would be seen here, among these people of fifty different nationalities. No, barriers of caste or religion hindered them from mixing freely, with one another. Every soul was transformed into an orator., One could see a worker, a peasant or a soldier haranguing, like a professional lecturer.’, Shaukat Usmani, Historic Trips of a Revolutionary., , Source G, , Rabindranath Tagore wrote from Russia in 1930, , Activity, Compare the passages written by Shaukat, , Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution, , ‘Moscow appears much less clean than the other, European capitals. None of those hurrying along the, streets look smart. The whole place belongs to the, workers … Here the masses have not in the least been, put in the shade by the gentlemen … those who lived in, the background for ages have come forward in the open, today … I thought of the peasants and workers in my, own country. It all seemed like the work of the Genii in, the Arabian Nights. [here] only a decade ago they were, as illiterate, helpless and hungry as our own masses …, Who could be more astonished than an unfortunate Indian, like myself to see how they had removed the mountain of, ignorance and helplessness in these few years’., , Usmani and Rabindranath Tagore. Read, them in relation to Sources C, D and E., Ø What did Indians find impressive about, the USSR ?, Ø What did the writers fail to notice?, , 2021–22, , 47

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Activities, 1. Imagine that you are a striking worker in 1905 who is being tried in court, for your act of rebellion. Draft the speech you would make in your defence., Act out your speech for your class., 2. Write the headline and a short news item about the uprising of 24 October, 1917 for each of the following newspapers, Ø a Conservative paper in France, Ø a Radical newspaper in Britain, , 3. Imagine that you are a middle-level wheat farmer in Russia after, collectivisation. You have decided to write a letter to Stalin, explaining your objections to collectivisation. What would you write about, the conditions of your life? What do you think would be Stalin’s response, to such a farmer?, , Activities, , Ø a Bolshevik newspaper in Russia, , Questions, 1. What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before, 1905?, 2. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other, countries in Europe, before 1917?, 3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?, 4. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February, India and the Contemporary World, , Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October, Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the, leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet history., 5. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately, after the October Revolution?, 6. Write a few lines to show what you know about:, Ø kulaks, Ø the Duma, Ø women workers between 1900 and 1930, Ø the Liberals, Ø Stalin’s collectivisation programme., , 48, , 2021–22, , ?