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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , Mechanical Measurements and Metrology – 10ME42B, UNIT – 3:, Comparators and Angular measurement, Chapter Outline,  Comparators, – Introduction to comparators, – Characteristics, – Uses of Comparators, – Classification of comparators, – Mechanical comparators, • Dial indicator, • Johnson Mikrokator, • Sigma comparators,  Optical comparators, – Principles,, – Zeiss ultra optimeter,,  Electric and electronic comparators principles,, – LVDT,,  Pneumatic comparators,, – Back pressure gauges,, – Solex comparators.,  Angular Measurements, – Introduction,, – Bevel protractor,, – Sine principle, – Uses of sine bars,, – Sine centre,, – Use of angle gauges, – Numerical on building of angles,, – Clinometers., Comparators can give precision measurements, with consistent accuracy by, eliminating human error. They are employed to find out, by how much the dimensions of the, given component differ from that of a known datum. If the indicated difference is small, a, suitable magnification device is selected to obtain the desired accuracy of measurements. It is, an indirect type of instrument and used for linear measurement. If the dimension is less or, greater, than the standard, then the difference will be shown on the dial. It gives only the, difference between actual and standard dimension of the workpiece. To check the height of, the job H2 ,with the standard job of height H1, , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 2

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , Initially, the comparator is adjusted to zero on its dial with a standard job in position, as shown in Figure(a). The reading H1is taken with the help of a plunger. Then the standard, job is replaced by the work-piece to be checked and the reading H2 is taken. If H1and H2 are, different, then the change i~ the dimension will be shown on the dial of the comparator. Thus, difference is then magnified 1000 to 3000 X to get the clear variation in the standard and, actual job., In short, Comparator is a device which, (1) Picks up small variations in dimensions., (2) Magnifies it., (3) Displays it by using indicating devices, by which comparison can be made with some, standard value., Classification:, 1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc., 2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator works by using high pressure air, valves,, back pressure etc., 3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using lens, mirrors, light source etc., 4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up, step down transformers., 5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using amplifier, digital signal etc., 6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of the above types can give the best, result., Characteristics of Good Comparators:, 1. It should be compact., 2. It should be easy to handle., 3. It should give quick response or quick result., 4. It should be reliable, while in use., 5. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator., 6. Its weight must be less., 7. It must be cheaper., 8. It must be easily available in the market., 9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement., 10. The design should be robust., 11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform response., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 3

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, 12. It should have less maintenance., 13. It should have hard contact point, with long life., 14. It should be free from backlash and wear., Mechanical Comparator:, It is self controlled and no power or any other form of energy is required. It employs, mechanical means for magnifying the small movement of the measuring stylus. The, movement is due to the difference between the standard and the actual dimension being, checked, , The method for magnifying the small stylus movement in all the mechanical, comparators is by means of levers, gear trains or combination of these. They are available of, different make and each has it's own characteristic. The various types of mechanical, comparators are dial indicator, rack and pinion, sigma comparator, Johansson mikrokator., a. Dial Indicator:, It operates on the principle, that a very slight upward pressure on the spindle at the, contact point is multiplied through a system of gears and levers. It is indicated on the face of, the dial by a dial finger. Dial indicators basically consists of a body with a round graduated, dial and a contact point connected with a spiral or gear train so that hand on the dial face, indicates the amount of movement of the contact point. They are designed for use on a wide, range of standard measuring devices such as dial box gauges, portal dial, hand gauges, dial, depth gauges, diameter gauges and dial indicator snap gauge., , Corresponds to a spindle movement of 1 mm. The movement mechanism of the, instrument is housed in a metal case for it's protection. The large dial scale is graduated into, 100 divisions. The indicator is set to zero by the use of slip gauges representing the basic size, of part., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 4

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , Requirements of Good Dial Indicator:, 1. It should give trouble free and dependable readings over a long period., 2. The pressure required on measuring head to obtain zero reading must remain constant, over the whole range., 3. The pointer should indicate the direction of movement of the measuring plunger., 4. The accuracy of the readings should be within close limits of the various sizes and ranges, 5. The movement of the measuring plunger should be in either direction without affecting, the accuracy., 6. The pointer movement should be damped, so that it will not oscillate when the readings, are being taken., Applications:, 1. Comparing two heights or distances between narrow limits., 2. To determine the errors in geometrical form such as ovality, roundness and taper., 3. For taking accurate measurement of deformation such as intension and compression., 4. To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism, squareness and alignment., 5. To check the alignment of lathe centers by using suitable accurate bar between the, centers., 6. To check trueness of milling machine arbours and to check the parallelism of shaper arm, with table surface or vice., b) Johansson Mikrokator :, This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson., Principle:, It works on the principle of a Button spring, spinning on a loop of string like in the case of, Children’s toys., , Construction:, The method of mechanical magnification is shown in Figure. It employs a twisted, metal strip. Any pull on the strip causes the centre of the strip to rotate. A very light pointer, made of glass tube is attached to the centre of the twisted metal strip. The measuring plunger, is on the slit washer and transmits its motion through the bell crank lever to the twisted metal, strip. The other end of the twisted metal strip is fastened to the cantilever strip. The, overhanging length of the cantilever strip can be varied to adjust the magnification of the, instrument. The longer the length of the cantilever, the more it will deflect under the pull of, the twisted metal strip and less rotation of the pointer is obtained., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 5

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward direction the bell crank lever, turns to the right hand side. This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change in, its length by making it further twist or untwist. Hence the pointer at the centre rotates by, some amount. Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by this comparator, Advantages of Mechanical Comparator:, 1. They do not require any external source of energy., 2. These are cheaper and portable., 3. These are of robust construction and compact design., 4. The simple linear scales are easy to read., 5. These are unaffected by variations due to external source of energy such air, electricity, etc., Disadvantages:, 1. Range is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale., 2. Pointer scale system used can cause parallax error., 3. There are number of moving parts which create problems due to friction, and ultimately, the accuracy is less., 4. The instrument may become sensitive to vibration due to high inertia., c) Mechanical - Optical Comparator:, Principle:, In mechanical optical comparator, small variation in the plunger movement is, magnified: first by mechanical system and then by optical system., Construction:, The movement of the plunger is magnified by the mechanical system using a pivoted, lever. From the Figure the mechanical magnification = x2 / x1. High optical magnification is, , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 6

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, possible with a small movement of the mirror. The important factor is that the mirror used is, of front reflection type only., , The back reflection type mirror will give two reflected images as shown in Figure,, hence the exact reflected image cannot be identified., Advantages:, 1. These Comparators are almost weightless and have less number of moving parts, due to, this there is less wear and hence lessfriction.70, 2. Higher range even at high magnification is possible as the scale moves past the index., 3. The scale can be made to move past a datum line and without having any parallax errors., 4. They are used to magnify parts of very small size and of complex configuration such as, intricate grooves, radii or steps., Disadvantages:, 1. The accuracy of measurement is limited to 0.001 mm, 2. They have their own built in illuminating device which tends to heat the instrument., 3. Electrical supply is required., 4. Eyepiece type instrument may cause strain on the operator., 5. Projection type instruments occupy large space and they are expensive., 6. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to take the instrument to a dark, room in order to take the readings easily., d) Sigma Comparator:, The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the bending plates at the, top and bottom portion as shown in Figure (a), , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 7

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction. A knife edge is fixed to the bar., The knife edge is attached to the sapphire plate which is attached to the moving block. The, knife edge extorts a force on the moving block through sapphire plate. Moving block is, attached to the fixed block with the help of crossed strips as shown in Figure (b). When the, force is applied on the moving block, it will give an angular deflection. A Y-arm which is, attached to the moving block transmits the rotary motion to the driving drum of radius r. This, deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted., If l = Distance from hinge pivot to the knife edge, L = Length of y-arm, R = Driving drum radius, D Length of the pointer, Then the total magnification = (L/l) *(D/R), Electrical Comparators:, Electrical comparators give a wide range of advantages. As we know, components, like levers, gears, racks and pinions, activate mechanical devices. The accuracy and life of the, instruments are affected as they are subjected to wear and friction, , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 8

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , Electrical comparators have no moving parts. Thus a high degree of reliability is, expected from these instruments. Generally there are two important applications of electrical, comparators:1. Used as measuring heads2. Used for electrical gauging heads, to provide, usual indication to check the dimensions within the limits laid down. The first application is, very important when there is a requirement for precise measurement for e.g. Checking or, comparison of workshop slip gauges against inspection slip gauges. The second application is, used to indicate with a green light if a dimension is within the limits. A red lamp indicates an, undersize dimension; a yellow lamp indicates an oversize dimension. So the operator is not, required to be aware of the actual tolerances on the dimension. After setting the instrument, correctly, all that needs to be done is to place the component under the plunger of the gauging, head. The signal lamps provide in standard positive indication of the acceptability of the, dimension under test, Advantages:, 1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units., 2. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement., 3. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long periods., 4. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical comparator., 5. Compact sizes of probes arc available., Disadvantages:, 1. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be affect due to temperature, and humidity., 2. It is not a self contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply for its operation., 3. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter calibration., 4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator, , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 9

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge):, Principle:, It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by the air flow. Air is, supplied at constant pressure through the orifice and the air escapes in the form of jets, through a restricted space which exerts a back pressure. The variation in the back pressure is, then used to find the dimensions of a component., Working:, As shown in Figure (a) the air is compressed in the compressor at high pressure which, is equal to Water head H. The excess air escapes in the form of bubbles. Then the metric, amount of air is passed through the orifice at the constant pressure. Due to restricted area, at, A1 position, the back pressure is generated by the head of water displaced in the manometer, tube. To determine the roundness of the job, the job is rotated along the jet axis, if no, variation in the pressure reading is obtained then we can say that the job is perfectly circular, at position A1., Then the same procedure is repeated at various positions A2, A3, A4, position and, variation in the pressure reading is found out. Also the diameter is measured at position A1, corresponding to the portion against two jets and diameter is also measured at various, position along the length of the bore, , Figure (b), , Any variation in the dimension changes the value of h, e.g. Change in dimension of, 0.002 mm changes the value of h from 3 to 20 mm. Moderate and constant supply pressure is, required to have the high sensitivity of the instrument., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 10

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, Advantages:, 1. It is cheaper, simple to operate and the cost is low., 2. It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear., 3. The magnification can be obtained as high as 10,000 X., 4. The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work., 5. Indicating and measuring is done at two different places., 6. Tapers and ovality can be easily detected., 7. The method is self cleaning due to continuous flow of air through the jets and this, makes the method ideal to be used on shop floor for online controls., Disadvantages:, 1. They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity changes., 2. The accuracy may be influenced by the surface roughness of the component being, checked., 3. Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs., 4. Auxiliary equipments such as air filters, pressure gauges and regulators are needed., 5. Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of back, pressure is linear, over only a small range of the orifice size variation., Introduction to Angular Measurements:, For measuring the angle, no absolute standard is required. The measurement is done, in degrees, minutes and seconds. The measurement of angular and circular divisions is an, important part of inspection. It is concerned with the measurement of individual angles,, angular changes and deflections on components, gauges and tools. For precision, measurement of angles more skill is required. Like linear measurement, angular, measurements have their own importance. The basic difference between the linear and, angular measurement is that no absolute standard is required for angular measurement. There, are several methods of measuring angles and tapers. The various instruments used are angle, gauges, clinometers, bevel protractor, sine bar, sine centers, taper plug and ring gauges, Sine Bars:, It is used for measurement of an angle of a given job or for setting an angle. They are, hardened and precision ground tools for accurate angle setting. It can be used in conjunction, with slip gauge set and dial gauge for measurement of angles and tapers from horizontal, surface. As shown in Figure, two accurately lapped rollers are located at the extreme position., The center to center distance between the rollers or plugs is available for fixed distance i.e., l = 100, 200, 250, 300 mm. The diameter of the plugs or roller must be of the same size and, the center distance between them is accurate. The important condition for the sine bar is that, the surface of sine bar must be parallel to the center lines of the plug, , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 11

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , As shown in Fig. 2.47, the taper angle 8 of the job WX YZ is to be measured by the, sine bar., Principle of Working:, As shown in Figure the taper angle θ of the job WX YZ is to bemeasured by the sine, bar. The job is placed over the surface plate. Thesine bar is placed over the job with plug or, roller of one end of the bar touching the surface plate. One end of the sine bar is rested on the, surface plate and the other end is rested on the slip gauges, , The angle of the job is then first measured by some non-precision instrument, such as, bevel protector. That angle gives the idea of the approximate slip gauges required, at the, other end of sine bar. And finally the exact number of slip gauges are added equal to height h,, such that, the top most slip gauges touches the lower end of the roller. The height of the slip, gauges required is then measured. Then the taper angle can be measured by making sine bar, as a hypotenuse of right angle triangle and slide gauge as the opposite side of the triangle as, shown in Figure, h = Height in mm, L = Center distance in mm, Sinθ = Opp / Hyp = (h/ L), , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 12

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , When the size of the job is large having taper then we use slip gauges for the both the, side to find the taper angle of the job, , For a small component, the component or work piece can be placed over a sine bar as, shown in Figure. The job is held on the sine bar with some suitable accessories. The dial, indicators are provided at the top position and the reading is taken at A position. The dial, indicator is then moved to the right hand side and the reading is taken at position B. If there is, a difference between reading at position A and B, then the height of the slip gauges is, adjusted until the dial indicator shows the same reading at A and B. Then the angle is, calculated similar to previous method as, Sinθ = Opp / Hyp = (h/ L), , Use of Sine Bar., (1) Measuring known angles or locating any work to, a given angle., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 13

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , For this purpose the surface plate is assumed to be having a perfectly flat surface, so, that its surface could be treated as horizontal. One of the cylinders or rollers of sine bar is, placed on the surface plate and other roller is placed on the slip gauges of height h. Let the, sine bar be set at an angle θ. Then sin θ = h/l, where l is the distance between the centres of, the rollers. Thus knowing θ, h can be found out and any work could be set at this angle as the, top face of sine bar is inclined at angle θ to the surface plate. The use of angle plates and, clamps could also be made in case of heavy components. For better results, both the rollers, could also be placed on slip gauges, of height h1 and h2 respectively., Then sin θ= (h2-h1)/l, (2) Checking of unknown angles., , Many a times, angle of a component to be checked is unknown. In such a case, it is, necessary to first find the angle approximately with the help of a bevel protractor. Let the, angle be θ. Then the sine bar is set at an angle θ and clamped to an angle plate. Next, the, work is placed on the sine bar and clamped to the angle plate as shown in Fig. and a dial, indicator is set at one end of the work and moved to the other, and deviation is noted. Again, slip gauges are so adjusted (according to this deviation) that dial indicator reads zero across, the work surface., If deviation noted down by the dial indicator is δh over a length l‘ of work, then, height of slip gauges by which it should be adjusted is equal to δh * (l/ l‘), , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 14

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, (3) Checking of unknown angles of heavy component., , In such cases where components are heavy and can’t be mounted on the sine bar, then, sine bar is mounted on the component as shown in Fig. The height over the rollers can then, be measured by a vernier height gauge ; using a dial test gauge mounted on the anvil of, height gauge as the fiducial indicator to ensure constant measuring pressure. The anvil on, height gauge is adjusted with probe of dial test gauge showing same reading for the topmost, position of rollers of sine bar. Fig. 8.18 shows the use of height gauge for obtaining two, readings for either of the roller of sine bar. The difference of the two readings of height gauge, divided by the centre distance of sine bar gives the sine of the angle of the component to be, measured. Where greater accuracy is required, the position of dial test gauge probe can be, sensed by adjusting a pile of slip gauges till dial indicator indicates same- reading over roller, of sine bar and the slip gauges., Advantages of sine bar:, 1. It is used for accurate and precise angular measurement., 2. It is available easily., 3. It is cheap., Disadvantages:, 1. The application is limited for a fixed center distance between two plugs or rollers., 2. It is difficult to handle and position the slip gauges., 3. If the angle exceeds 45°, sine bars are impracticable and inaccurate., 4. Large angular error may results due to slight error in sine bar., Sine Centers:, It is the extension of sine bars where two ends are provided on which centers can be, clamped, as shown in Figure. These are useful for testing of conical work centered at each, end, up to 60°. The centers ensure correct alignment of the work piece. The procedure of, setting is the same as for sine bar. The dial indicator is moved on to the job till the reading is, same at the extreme position. The necessary arrangement is made in the slip gauge height and, the angle is calculated as θ = Sin-1 (h/L), , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 15

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , Universal Bevel Protractor:, It is used to measure angles accurately to 5 minutes. it is finely made tool with dial,, graduated in degrees, a base and a sliding blade. The blade can be locked against dial by, tightening the blade clamp nut. The blade and dial can be rotated as one unit to any position, and locked by tightening the dial clamp nut for accurate measurement, a vernier or a fine, adjustment device, is fitted on the dial. The dial is graduated into, I treads, , The vernier scale, is divided into twelve equal parts on each side of zero, every third division is numbered 0, 15,, 30, 45, 60 representing minutes., , Angle Gauges:, In this method, the auto collimator used in conjunction with the angle gauges. It, compares the angle to be measured of the given component with the angle gauges. Angles, gauges are wedge shaped block and can be used as standard for angle measurement. They, reduce the set uptime and minimize the error. These are 13 pieces, divided into three types, such as degrees, minutes and seconds. The first series angle are 1°, 3°, 9°, 27° and 41 ° And, the second series angle are 1', 3', 9' and27' And the third series angle are 3", 6", 18" and 30", These gauges can be used for large number of combinations by adding or subtracting these, gauges, from each other., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 16

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, , Nominal angles of combination angle gauges, Degrees, 1, 1, Minutes, 0.05, Fraction of minute, 3, (or seconds), , 3, 3, 0.1, 6, , 9, 9, 0.3, 18, , 27, 27, 0.5, 30, , 41, -, , Clinometer:, A clinometer is a special case of the application of spirit level. In clinometer, the spirit, level is mounted on a rotary member carried in a housing. One face of the housing forms the, base of the instrument. On the housing, there is a circular scale. The angle of inclination of, the rotary member carrying the level relative to its. base can be measured by this circular, scale. The clinometer mainly used to determine the included angle of two adjacent faces of, workpiece. Thus for this purpose, the instrument base is placed on one face and the rotary, body adjusted till zero reading of the bubble is obtained. The angle of rotation is then noted, on the circular scale against the index. A second reading is then taken in the similar manner, on the second face of workpiece. The included angle between the faces is then the difference, between the two readings., Clinometers are also used for checking angular faces, and relief angles on large, cutting tools and milling cutter inserts., These can also be used for setting inclinable table on jig boring; machines and angular, work on grinding machines etc., The most commonly used clinometer is of the Hilger and Watts type. The circular, glass scale is totally enclosed and is divided from 0° to 360° at 10′ intervals. Sub -division of, 10′ is possible by the use of an optical micrometer. A coarse scale figured every 10 degrees is, provided outside the body for coarse work and approximate angular reading. In some, instruments worm and quadrant arrangement is provided so that reading upto 1′ is possible., In some clinometers, there is no bubble but a graduated circle is supported on accurate, ball bearings and it is so designed that when released, it always takes up the position relative, to the true vertical. The reading is taken against the circle to an accuracy of 1 second with the, aid of vernier., 1. Precision Microptic Clinometer. These are used for measurement and checking of:, angular faces, gauges, relief angles on large cutting tools, angle of milling cutter inserts, jigs, and fixtures, levels of machine ways and bed plates, and for setting of inclinable tables on jig, boring machines, and adjustable angle plates angular work on grinding and lapping machines., With the appropriate accessories these can be used for measuring angular displacements of, small parts, and setting out angles., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 17

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, The special features of precision microptic clinometer are direct reading over the, range 0°—360°, optical reading system ;totally enclosed glass circles and easy-to-read scales;, main scale and micrometer scale visible simultaneously in the eyepiece external scale for, rapid coarse setting, slow motion screw for fine setting, eyepiece rotatable to most convenient, viewing position, and hardened ground steel base, , Fig (a), , ., Fig (b), , Fig (c), , Precision Microptic Clinometer utilises bubble unit with a prismatic coincidence, reader which presents both ends of the bubble as adjacent images in a split field of view. As, the vial is levelled, the two half-mages move into coincidence, making it very easy to see, when the bubble is exactly centered, without reference to any graduations. [Refer Fig(b)]., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 18

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Mechanical Measurements and Metrology, To determine the inclination of the clinometer, the bubb is levelled and the scales, read. On looking through the eyepiece, three apertures can be seen. The upper aperture, contains two pairs of double lines and two single lines ; to set the micrometer, the knob is, turned until the single lines are brought exactly central B between the double lines. The scales, can then be read, the required angle being the sum of the readings of the main scale and the, micrometer scale. [Refer Fig(c)]., The double lines are imaged from one side of the circle and the single ones from a, point diametrically opposite ; by using the double lines as an index for the single line, any, residual centring error of the circle is cancelled out., The scales are illuminated by an integral low voltage lamp. The bubble unit is, daylight illuminated, but is also provided with a lamp for alternative illumination., A locating face on the back allows the instrument to be used horizontally with the, accessory worktable or reflector unit., The reference for inclination is the bubble vial. In order to measure the inclination of, a surface, the vial—to which the circle is attached is turned—until it is approximately level ;, then the slow motion screw is used for a final adjustment to centre the bubble., To measure the angle between two surfaces, the clinometer is placed on each surface, in turn and the difference in angle can be calculated., The clinometer can be used as a precision setting tool to set a tool head or table at a, specific angle. First the micrometer scale is set and then the glass scale is rotated to bring the, relevant graduation to the index, using the slow motion screw for final adjustment. This sets, the clinometer for the required angle. Then the work surface it tilted until the bubble is, exactly centred. The work surface is thus set to the specified angle relative to a level plane., , Dr. K V S Rajeswara Rao, Dept. of IEM, RVCE, Bangalore-59., , 19