Page 1 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , FOCUS AREA STUDY MATERIAL, , GEOGRAPHY 2021 – 22, PART 1, FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY, No., , Chapters, , 1, , Human Geography – Nature, and Scope, , , , , , , Human Geography – Definitions, Environmental Determinism, Possibilism, Neo Determinism, , 2, , The World Population –, Distribution, Density, and, Growth, , , , , , Density of population – Definition, Factors influencing the distribution of populations, Demographic Transition, , 3, , Population Composition, , , , , Sex Ratio – Definition and Formula, Age Sex Pyramid, , 4, , Human Development, , , , , Human Development – Definition, The four pillars of Human Development, , 5, , Primary Activities, , , , , , , , Pastoralism – Transhumance, Commercial Livestock Rearing, Primitive Subsistence Agriculture, Plantation Agriculture, Mining, , 6, , Secondary Activities, , , , Classification of Manufacturing Industries, , 7, , Tertiary and Quaternary, Activities, , , , , , Tertiary, Quaternary, Quinary Activities, , 8, , Transport and, Communications, , , , , , , , , , Modes of Transportation, Advantages of Road Transport, Trans Siberian Railway, North Atlantic Sea Route, Suez canal, The Rhine Waterway, Advantages of Air Transport, , 9, , International Trade, , , , , , Balance of Trade, Types of International Trade, Types of Ports – On the Basis of Specialised Functions, , 10, , Human settlements, , , , Rural settlement patterns on the basis of Forms or, Shape, Problems of Urban Settlements, , Focus Area, , , , Definitions, only, , Prepared by, Anupama K Joseph, Hsst(Jr). Geography, GHSS Thiruvali

Page 2 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 1 - HUMAN GEOGRAPHY-NATURE AND SCOPE, DEFINITIONS OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY, 1. “Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human, societies and earth’s surface”. -Ratzel, * Synthesis has been emphasised, 2. “Human geography is the study of “the changing relationship between the, unresting man and the unstable earth.” -Ellen C. Semple, * Dynamism has been emphasised, 3. “Conception resulting from a more synthetic knowledge of the physical laws, governing our earth and of the relations between the living beings which inhabit it”., - Paul Vidal de la Blache, * Interrelationship has been emphasised., , CONCEPTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM, POSSIBILISM AND NEO, DETERMINISM, 1. ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM, * In the early stages, human were greatly adapted to the dictates of Nature because, the level of technology was very low., * There is direct dependence of human beings on nature for resources which sustained, them., * The physical environment for such societies became the “ Mother Nature”., * This type of interaction between primitive human society and strong forces of nature was, termed as Environmental determinism., * At that stage of very low technological development, human got naturalised who listened, to Nature, was afraid of its fury and worshipped it., 2. POSSIBILISM, * with the social and cultural development, humans develop better and more efficient, technology., * They move from a state of necessity to a state of freedom., * Human creates possibilities with the resources obtained from the environment, * Here man is capable to modify his environment by making use of numerous, possibilities offered by nature., * Such a man- nature relationship is termed as Possibilism., * Nature provides opportunities and human being make use of these and slowly nature, gets humanised, 3. NEO DETERMINISM/STOP AND GO DETERMINISM, * Developed by Grifith Taylor., * It is a middle path concept between environmental determinism and possibilism., * As per this concept, neither there is a situation of absolute necessity nor is there a, condition of absolute freedom., * It means that possibilities can be created within the limits which do not harm the, environment and there is no free run without accidents., * The Neo -Determinism attempts to bring a balance nullifying the “either” “or”, dichotomy., 2

Page 3 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 2 - THE WORLD POPULATION – DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND, GROWTH, DENSITY OF POPULATION, ● Density of population is the ratio between the numbers of people to the size of land., ● It is usually measured in persons per sq km., ● Density of population = Population, Area, FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, Factors influencing the distribution of population are classified as :1. Geographical factors, a. Availability of water, b. Landforms, c. Climate, d. Soils, 2. Economic factors, a. Minerals, b. Urbanization, c. Industrialisation, 3. Social and cultural factors, a. Religious factors, b. Political factors, I. Geographical Factors, a. Availability of water, It is the most important factor for life. So, people prefer to live in areas where fresh, water is easily available, b. Landforms, People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes. Such areas are favourable for, the production of crops and to build roads and industries., c. Climate, An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts are uncomfortable for human, habitation. Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation, attract more people., d. Soils, Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities. The areas which have, fertile loamy soils have more people living on them as these can support intensive, agriculture., II. Economic Factors, a. Minerals, Areas with mineral deposits attract industries. Mining and industrial activities, generate employment. So, skilled and semi–skilled workers move to these areas and, make them, densely populated., Eg:- Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa, b. Urbanization, Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities,, better means of transport and communication. Good civic amenities and the attraction of, 3

Page 4 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , city life draw people to the cities., c. Industrialisation, Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people., Eg: The Kobe-Osaka region in Japan, lll. Social and Cultural Factors, a. Religious factors, Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural, significance., Eg:- Mecca, Varanasi,, Amritsar, b.Political factors, People tend to move away from places where there is social and Political unrest, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ● Demographic transition theory is used to describe and predict the future population of, any area, ● The theory tells us that population of any region changes from high births and, high deaths to low births and low deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian, and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society, ● These changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle, , 4

Page 5 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , STAGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION THEORY, STAGE -1, •, •, •, •, •, •, , High fertility and high mortality, People reproduce more to compensate for the deaths due to epidemics and, variable food supply, The population growth is slow, Most of the people are engaged in agriculture, Life expectancy is low, People are mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology., STAGE –2, , •, •, •, , Fertility remains high in the beginning but it declines with time., Improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead to decline in mortality, Population growth is high, STAGE –3, , •, •, •, •, , Both fertility and mortality decline considerably, The population is either stable or grows slowly, The population becomes urbanised, literate and has high technical know-how, Deliberately controls the family size., , X -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- X, , CHAPTER 3 - POPULATION COMPOSITION, •, •, , The diversity in attributes of a population can be termed as population, composition., It can be of their age, sex, occupation, residence etc., , SEX RATIO, The ratio between the number of women and men in the population is called the Sex, Ratio, , In India, the sex ratio is calculated using the formula :- Female Population × 1000, Male Population, i.e the number of females per thousand males, In some countries,, sex ratio is calculated using the formula :- Male Population × 1000, Female Population, i.e the number of males per thousand females, AGE – SEX PYRAMID, * A population pyramid is used to show the age-sex structure of the population, * The shape of the population pyramid reflects the characteristics of the population., * The left side shows the percentage of males while the right side shows the percentage of, women in each age group., 5

Page 6 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ✔ There are 3 different types of population pyramids ., 1. Expanding Population, 2. Constant Population, 3. Declining Population, EXPANDING POPULATION, * Triangular shaped pyramid with a wide base and is typical of less developed, countries., * Larger populations in lower age groups due to high birth rates., * Eg:- Bangladesh and Mexico, , CONSTANT POPULATION, * Age-sex pyramid is bell shaped and tapered towards the top., * This shows birth and death rates are almost equal leading to a near constant population., * Eg :- Australia, , DECLINING POPULATION, * Age –sex pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top, * Shows low birth and death rates., * Eg :- Japan, , 6

Page 7 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 4 - HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, The CONCEPT of HUMAN DEVELOPMENT,  The concept of Human Development was introduced by Dr. Mahbub Ul Huq,  Dr Huq has described human development as development that enlarges, people’s choices and improves their lives. (Definition),  People are central to all development under this concept,  The United Nations Development Programme has used concept of human, development of each countries to publish the Human Development Index annually, since 1990.,  The basic goal of development is to create conditions where people can live, meaningful lives.,  The factors or key areas of Human development are access to resources, access, to health, access to education., The FOUR PILLARS of HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, ➢, ➢, ➢, ➢, , Equity, Sustainability, Productivity, Empowerment, , 1. Equity, * Equity refers to making equal access to opportunities available to everybody., * The opportunities available to people must be equal irrespective of their gender, race,, income and in the Indian case, caste., 2. Sustainability, * Sustainability means continuity in the availability of opportunities., * To have sustainable human development, each generation must have the same, opportunities., 3. Productivity, * Productivity here means human labour productivity or productivity in terms of human, work., * Such productivity must be constantly enriched by building capabilities in people., 4. Empowerment, * Empowerment means to have the power to make choices., * Such power comes from increasing freedom and capability, * The empowerment of socially and economically disadvantaged groups is of special, importance., , 7

Page 8 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 5 - PRIMARY ACTIVITIES, MAJOR PRIMARY ACTIVITIES, ➢ Hunting and Gathering, ➢ Pastoralism, ➢ Agriculture, ➢ Mining, PASTORALISM / ANIMAL REARING, ● Domestication of animals, ● Depending on the geographical factors, and technological development, animal, rearing today is practised either at the subsistence or at the commercial level., Two types of Pastoralism, a) Nomadic Herding or Pastoral nomadism, b) Commercial Livestock Rearing, , TRANSHUMANCE, ✗ The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during, summers and again from mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is, known as transhumance., ✗ Eg:- Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas, ✗ Similarly, in the tundra regions, the nomadic herders move from south to north, in summers and from north to south in winters, Q) The number of pastoral nomads has been decreasing and the areas operated by, them shrinking. Why?, , a) Imposition of political boundaries, b) New settlement plans by different countries, COMMERCIAL LIVESTOCK REARING, ➔ More organised and capital intensive., ➔ Associated with western cultures, ➔ Practised on permanent ranches, , ➔ These ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels,, which are fenced to regulate the grazing, ➔ When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another, parcel., ➔ The number of animals in a pasture is kept according to the carrying capacity, of the pasture., ➔ Only one type of animal is reared., ➔ Important animals include sheep, cattle, goats and horses, ➔ Products such as meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed, scientifically and exported to different world markets, ➔ The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease, control and health care of the animals, ➔ New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and United States of, 8

Page 9 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ➔ America are important countries where commercial livestock rearing is, , practised, , SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE, * Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all of the, products locally grown., * It can be grouped in two categories, I. Primitive Subsistence Agriculture, II. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture., PRIMITIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE/ SHIFTING CULTIVATION / SLASH AND, BURN AGRICULTURE, ➢ This cultivation method is widely practised by many tribes in the tropics,, especially in Africa, south and central America and south east Asia, ➢ The vegetation is cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil., Because of this, it is also called slash and burn agriculture., ➢ The cultivated patches are very small and cultivation is done with very primitive, tools such as sticks and hoes., ➢ When the soil looses its fertility the farmer shifts to another patch and clear the, forest for cultivation, and thus, the method is also known as shifting cultivation., Different Names of Shifting Cultivation, Jhuming - North Eastern states of India, Milpa - Central America and Mexico, Ladang - Indonesia and Malaysia, , 9

Page 10 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , PLANTATION AGRICULTURE, ✔ Plantation agriculture was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in, the tropics., ✔ Some of the important plantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil, palm, sugarcane, bananas and pineapples., ✔ The characteristic features of this type of farming are large estates or, plantations, large capital investment, managerial and technical support,, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and, a good system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and, markets for the export of the products., ✔ Large coffee plantations in Brazil – Fazendas, MINING, The actual development of mining began with the industrial revolution, Factors Affecting Mining Activity, (i) Physical factors - the size, grade and the mode of occurrence of the deposits., (ii) Economic factors - the demand for the mineral, technology available and used,, capital to develop infrastructure and the labour and transport costs., Methods of Mining, Depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of the ore, mining is of two types:a) Surface mining / opencast mining, b) Underground mining / shaft mining, a) Surface mining, ● It is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to the, surface, ● The over all costs for safety precautions and, equipment is relatively low, ● The output is both large and rapid, , 10

Page 11 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , b) Underground mining, ● When the ore lies deep below the surface, underground mining method has to be, used, ● Vertical shafts have to be sunk and minerals are extracted and transported to the, surface through these passages, ● Requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system for, safety and efficient movement of people and material, ● This method is risky, Q) The developed economies are retreating from mining. Why?, Ans :- 1) Due to high labour costs, 2) This method is risky, 3) Poisonous gases, fires, floods and caving in lead to fatal accidents, But, the developing countries with large labour force and striving for higher standard of, living are, becoming more important. So, mining is an important economic activity there., X ============================================================ X, , CHAPTER 6 - SECONDARY ACTIVITIES, CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, ➔ Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of their, ✔, ✔, ✔, ✔, , Size, Inputs / raw materials, Output / product, Ownership, , 11

Page 12 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES BASED ON SIZE, ● The size of industry is determined by :a) The amount of capital invested, b) Number of workers employed, c) Volume of production, ● Based on size, industries may be classified into:a) Household or cottage industries, b) Small-scale industries, c) Large-scale industries, a) Household Industries OR Cottage Manufacturing, ➢ The smallest manufacturing unit., ➢ The artisans use local raw materials., ➢ Produce everyday goods in their homes with the help of family members or part, time labour., ➢ Finished products may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in, local (village) markets, or, for barter., ➢ Most of the tools are devised locally., ➢ Eg :- foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers, tools, furniture, shoes etc., b) Small Scale Manufacturing, ✗ It is distinguished from household industries by its production techniques and, place of manufacture (a workshop outside the home/cottage of the producer), ✗ Uses local raw material, ✗ Uses simple power -driven machines and semi-skilled labour, ✗ Provides employment and raises local purchasing power, Countries like India, China, Indonesia and Brazil, etc. have developed labour- intensive, small scale manufacturing in order to provide employment to their population., c) Large Scale Manufacturing, Large scale manufacturing involves :• A large market, • Various raw materials, • Enormous energy, • Specialised workers, • Advanced technology, • Assembly-line mass production, • Large capital, On the basis of the system of large scale manufacturing, the world’s major, industrial regions may be grouped under two broad types :(i) Traditional large-scale industrial regions which are thickly clustered in a few more, developed countries., (ii) High-technology large scale industrial regions which have diffused to less, developed countries., , 12

Page 13 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , II. CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES BASED ON INPUTS or RAW MATERIALS, ● On the basis of the raw materials used, the industries are classified as ;, (a) Agro- based Industries, (b) Mineral based Industries, (c) Chemical based Industries, (d) Forest based Industries, (e) Animal based Industries, (a) Agro- based Industries, ➔ Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the, farm into finished products for rural and urban markets., ➔ Major agro- processing industries are food processing, sugar, beverages (tea,, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats, textiles, rubber, etc., Food Processing, Agro processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and confectionery., While some preserving techniques, such as drying, fermenting and pickling, have been, known since ancient times, , AGRI-BUSINESS, Agri-business is commercial farming on an industrial scale often financed by, business whose main interests lie outside agriculture., Eg. Large corporations in tea plantation business., Characteristics, ● farms are mechanised, ● large in size, ● highly structured, ● reliant on chemicals, ● may be described as ‘agro-factories’, (b) Mineral based Industries,  These industries use minerals as a raw material,  Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals. Eg:- Iron and Steel Industries,  Some use non-ferrous metallic minerals. Eg :- jewellery industries,  Many industries use non- metallic minerals. Eg:- cement and pottery industries., (c) Chemical based Industries, ➔ Such industries use natural chemical minerals, e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is, used in petro- chemical industry., ➔ Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained from wood and, coal., ➔ Salts, sulphur and potash, synthetic fibre, plastic, etc. are other examples of, chemical based industries., , 13

Page 14 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , d) Forest based raw Material using Industries,  The forests provide many major and minor products which are used as raw, material.,  Timber for furniture industry, wood, bamboo and grass for paper industry, lac for, lac industries come from forests., (e) Animal based Industries, ✗ Leather for leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from, animals., ✗ Besides, ivory is also obtained from elephant’s tusks., , III. CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES BASED ON OUTPUT or PRODUCT, ● Based on output or product, industries are of two types;, a) Basic Industries, b) Consumer goods Industries, a) Basic Industries, ➢ The industry whose products are used to make other goods by using them as, raw materials are basic industries., ➢ Eg :- Some machines and tools made of iron or steel. The raw material for such, machines and tools is iron and steel which is an industry itself., b) Consumer goods Industries / Non – Basic Industries, ● The industries which produce goods that are consumed by consumers directly, are consumer goods industries., ● Eg:- industries producing breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries, paper for, writing, televisions, etc., IV. CLASSIFICATION OF INDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIP, ● Based on ownership, industries are of three types;, a) Public Sector Industries, b) Private Sector Industries, c) Joint Sector Industries, (a) Public Sector Industries, • Theses industries are owned and managed by governments., • In India, there were a number of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist, countries have many state owned industries., (b) Private Sector Industries,  These industries are owned by individual investors.,  These are managed by private organisations.,  In capitalist countries, industries are generally owned privately., (c) Joint Sector Industries, • Joint sector industries are managed by joint stock companies or sometimes the, private and public sectors together establish and manage the industries., , 14

Page 15 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 7 - TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES, DEFINITIONS, TERTIARY ACTIVITIES, ➔ Tertiary activities are related to the service sector., ➔ Tertiary activities involve the commercial output of services, ➔ Tertiary activities involves expertise provided by services relies more heavily, on specialised skills, experience and knowledge of the workers, ➔ Eg:- plumber, electrician, technician, launderer, barber, shopkeeper, driver, cashier,, teacher, doctor, lawyer etc., QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES, ➢ Quaternary activities involve either collection or production or dissemination of, information, ➢ Quaternary activities centre around research, development and may be seen as, an advanced form of services involving specialised knowledge and technical, skills., ➢ Eg:- tax consultants, software developers ,statisticians etc., QUINARY ACTIVITIES, ✗ The highest level of decision makers or policy makers perform quinary, activities, ✗ Quinary activities are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and, interpretation of new and existing ideas; data interpretation and the use and, evaluation of new technologies., ✗ Eg:-senior business executives, government officials, research scientists, financial, and legal consultants, etc., X ================================================================= X, , CHAPTER 8 - TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION, MODES OF TRANSPORTATION, , 1.LAND, TRANSPORT, , ROADS, , 2. WATER, TRANSPORT, , 3. AIR, TRANSPORT, , RAILWAYS, , SEA ROUTES, , SHIPPING, CANALS, 15, , INLAND, WATERWAYS, , 4. PIPELINE, TRANSPORT

Page 16 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ADVANTAGES OF ROAD TRANSPORT, ➔ Road transport is the most economical for short distances compared to railways., ➔ It offers door-to-door service., ➔ Roads play a vital role in a nation’s trade and commerce and for promoting tourism, ADVANTAGES OF WATER TRANSPORT, ● It is the cheapest means of transport, ● Most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky material, ● It does not require route construction., ● The energy cost of water transportation is lower., ● It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport, ADVANTAGES OF AIR TRANSPORT, ➢ The fastest means of transportation, ➢ Being fast,it is preferred by passengers for long-distance travel., ➢ It has reduced distances by minimising the travel time, ➢ Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly on a world-wide scale., ➢ It is often the only means to reach inaccessible areas., ➢ Air transport has brought about a connectivity revolution in the world., ADVANTAGES OF PIPELINE TRANSPORT, ✔ Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and, gases over long distances, ✔ Uninterrupted flow of liquids and gases is possible, ✔ Pipelines can also be used to transport liquidified coal, TRANS CONTINENTAL RAILWAYS, • Trans–continental railways run across the continent and link its two ends, •, , Important trans-continental Railways,  Trans–Siberian Railway,  Trans–Canadian Railways,  The Union and Pacific Railway,  The Australian Trans–Continental Railway,  The Orient Express, , TRANS–SIBERIAN RAILWAY,  Major rail route of Russia,  Runs from St. Petersburg in the West to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast in the, East,  Passing through Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk.,  It is the most important route in Asia and the longest (9,332 km) double-tracked, and electrified trans– continental railway in the world,  It has helped in opening Asian region to West European markets, , 16

Page 17 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , WATER TRANSPORT IS DIVIDED INTO TWO :(i) SEA ROUTES, (ii) INLAND WATERWAYS, , ➢, ➢, ➢, ➢, ➢, ➢, , Important Sea Routes, The Northern Atlantic Sea Route, The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean Sea Route, The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route, The Southern Atlantic Sea Route, The North Pacific Sea Route, The South Pacific Sea Route, , NORTH ATLANTIC SEA ROUTE, ✗ This links North-eastern U.S.A. and Northwestern Europe, the two industrially, developed regions of the world, ✗ The foreign trade over this route is greater than that of the rest of the world, ✗ One fourth of the world’s foreign trade moves on this route, ✗ Busiest sea route in the world and called as the Big Trunk Route, ✗ Both the coasts have highly advanced ports and harbour facilities, , , , , , , , Important Inland Waterways, The Rhine Waterways, The Danube Waterway, The Volga Waterway, The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Seaway, The Mississippi Waterways, , THE RHINE WATERWAYS, ✗, ✗, ✗, ✗, ✗, , Flows through Germany and the Netherlands, It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam in Netherlands to Basel in Switzerland, This waterway is the world’s most heavily used., It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium and, the Netherlands with the North Atlantic Sea Route, Important Port: Dusseldorf, 17

Page 18 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , SHIPPING CANALS, The Suez and the Panama Canals are two vital man-made navigation canals, which serve as gateways of commerce for both the eastern and western worlds., SUEZ CANAL, ●, ●, ●, ●, ●, , Constructed in 1869 in Egypt, Constructed between Port Said in the north and Port Suez in the south, Links the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, Length - 160 km ; Depth - 11 to 15 m, It gives Europe a new gateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces direct searoute distance between Liverpool and Colombo (Importance), , X ==========================================================, , 18

Page 19 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 9 - INTERNATIONAL TRADE, BALANCE OF TRADE, ● Balance of trade records the volume of goods and services imported as well as, exported by a country to other countries., ● If the value of imports is more than the value of a country’s exports, the, country has negative or unfavourable balance of trade.(It means that the, country spends more on buying goods than it can earn by selling its goods. This, would ultimately lead to exhaustion of its financial reserve), ● If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, then the country has, a positive or favourable balance of trade., TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE, • International trade may be categorised into two types:, (a) Bilateral trade, (b) Multi-lateral trade, (a) Bilateral trade, ➢ Bilateral trade is done by two countries with each other., ➢ They enter into agreement to trade specified commodities amongst them., (b) Multi-lateral trade,  Multi-lateral trade is conducted with many trading countries.,  The same country can trade with a number of other countries.,  The country may also grant the status of the “Most Favoured Nation” (MFN) on, some of the trading partners., TYPES OF PORTS ON THE BASIS OF SPECIALISED FUNCTIONS, (i) Oil Ports, ✗ These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil., ✗ Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports., ✗ Tanker ports - Maracaibo in Venezuela, Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon, ✗ Refinery port - Abadan on the Gulf of Persia, (ii) Ports of Call, ➢ These are the ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes, where ships used to anchor for refuelling, watering and taking food items., ➢ Eg - Aden, Honolulu and Singapore, (iii) Packet Station, ➔ These are also known as ferry ports., ➔ These packet stations are concerned with the transportation of passengers and, mail across water bodies covering short distances., ➔ These stations occur in pairs located in such a way that they face each other across, the water body,, ➔ Eg:- Dover in England and Calais in France across the English Channel., 19

Page 20 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , (iv) Entrepot Ports, ● These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different, countries for export., ● Eg:- Singapore for Asia, Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic, region., (v) Naval Ports, ✗ These are ports which have only strategic importance., ✗ These ports serve warships and have repair workshops for them., ✗ Eg :- Kochi and Karwar, X ============================================================= X, , CHAPTER 10, HUMAN SETTLEMENTS, RURAL SETTLEMENT PATTERN ON THE BASIS OF FORMS OR SHAPE, , 20

Page 21 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , a ) Linear pattern - In such settlements houses are located along a road, railway line,, river, canal edge of a valley or along a levee, b) Rectangular pattern - Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or, wide inter montane valleys, - The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles, c) Circular pattern - Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks, - In some villages,the central part remains open and is used for, keeping the animals to protect them from wild animals, d) Star like pattern - Developed where several roads converge and houses built along, the roads, e) T-shaped -developed at tri-junctions of the road, ➢ Y-shaped - Settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the, third one and houses are built along these roads, ➢ Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements - Cruciform settlements develop on the, cross- roads and houses extend in all the four direction, f ) Double village - These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a, bridge or a ferry, , 21

Page 22 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , PROBLEMS OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS, ➔, ➔, ➔, ➔, , People flock to cities to avail of employment opportunities and civic amenities, Most cities in developing countries are unplanned, it creates severe congestion, Shortage of housing, vertical expansion of cities and growth of slums, , 1. Economic Problems, ➔ The decreasing employment opportunities in the rural and smaller urban areas of, the developing countries consistently push the population to the urban areas, ➔ The large migrant population generates a pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour, force, 2. Socio-cultural Problems, ➔, ➔, ➔, ➔, , Cities in the developing countries suffer from several social ills, Insufficient financial resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure, Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates, Male selective migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in cities, , 3. Environmental Problems, ➔ The large urban population in developing countries not only uses but also disposes, off a huge quantity of water and all types of waste materials, ➔ Inadequate quantity of potable water and water for domestic and industrial uses, ➔ Improper sewerage system, ➔ Severe air pollution, ➔ Create heat islands, X ========================================================= X, , 22

Page 23 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , PART 2, INDIA – PEOPLE AND ECONOMY, Ch. No., , Chapters, , Focus Area, , 1, , Population: Distribution, Density,, Growth and Composition, , , , Indian Demographic History – Four, Phases of Population Growth, , 2, , Migration : Types, Causes and, Consequences, , , , Types of Migration – International and, Internal Migration, Causes of Migration, , , 3, , Human Development, , , , Indicators of Human Development –, Economic, Health, and Social Indicators, , 4, , Human Settlements, , , , , Types of Rural Settlements, Types of Urban Settlements- Based on, Evolution, , 5, , Land Resources and Agriculture, , , , , , Cropping Seasons, Types of Farming, Problems of Indian Agriculture, , 6, , Water Resources, , , , , Watershed Management – Definition, Programmes – Haryali, Neeru – Meeru,, Arwary Pani Sansad, , 7, , Mineral and Energy Resources, , , , , Classification of Minerals, Major Minerals (Their uses and Leading, Producers ), , , 8, , Manufacturing Industries, , , , , , Factors influencing location of Industries, Iron and Steel Industries, Major Industrial Regions ( Name and, Location only), , 9, , Planning and Sustainable, Development, , , , , Planning – Definition, Two Approaches – Sectoral Planning and, Regional Planning, Sustainable Development - Definition, , , 10, , Transport and Communication, , , , , , , Golden Quadrilateral, Advantage of Water Transport, Advantages of Pipeline Transport, Types of Communication – Personal and, Mass Communication with Examples, , 11, , International Trade, , , , , Direction of Trade, Sea Ports, , 12, , Geographical Perspective on, selected Issues and Problems, , , , Types and Sources of pollution – Air,, Water, Land and Noise, Prepared by, Anupama K Joseph, Hsst (Jr). Geography, GHSS Thiruvali,Malappuram, , 23

Page 24 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 1, POPULATION : DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY, GROWTH AND COMPOSITION, INDIAN DEMOGRAPHIC HISTORY – FOUR PHASES OF POPULATION GROWTH, PHASES, , Phase 1:, 1901-1921, , Phase 2:, 1921- 1951, , Phase 3:, 1951- 1981, , Phase 4:, 1981- 2011, , NATURE OF, POPULATION, GROWTH, , CHARACTERISTICS, , * Growth rate was very low, * Recorded a negative growth rate during, 1911-1921, * Both the birth and death rates were very, high, Period of Stagnant or Causes for low growth rate, Stationary phase, • poor health and medical services, • illiteracy of people at large, • inefficient food distribution system, , Period of Steady, population growth, , Period of Population, Explosion, , * Crude birth rate remained high, * An over all improvement in health and, sanitation throughout the country lowered, mortality rate, * Better transport and communication system, improved distribution system., * This steady growth rate is impressive at the, background of The Great Economic, Depression(1920s) and World War 2nd., * Rapid fall in mortality rate but a high fertility, rate, * The average annual growth rate was as high, as 2.2%, Causes for high growth rate, • After the independence,the, developmental activities through a, centralised planning made the, economy to ensure the improvement of, living condition of people at large. Thus, there was a high natural growth of, population happened., • Increased international migration from, Tibet, Bangladesh, Nepal,and Pakistan, brought a high population growth rate., , * Downward trend of birth rate, Causes for the lowering growth rate, Growth rate remained, • Increased mean age at marriage, high and started, • improved quality of life, slowing down, • Improvement of female education, gradually, 24

Page 25 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 2 – MIGRATION : TYPES, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES, TYPES OF MIGRATION / STREAMS OF MIGRATION, ● International Migration- Person move out of the country and into the country from, other countries, ● Internal Migration- Migration within the country, * Under the internal migration four streams are identified, 1. Rural to Rural (female outnumber except Meghalaya), 2. Rural to Urban (male outnumber), 3. Urban to Urban, 4. Urban to Rural, ➔ The state having highest number of Immigrants- Maharashtra, ➔ The state having largest number of out-migrants -Uttar Pradesh, ➔ The Urban Agglomeration having highest number of Immigrants, – Greater Mumbai, CAUSES OF MIGRATION, (i) Push factors – These cause people to leave their place of residence or origin, (ii) Pull factors - These attract the people from different places., Push Factors, , , , , , , , , , , Pull factors, , Poverty, Unemployment, poor living conditions, Political turmoil, Unpleasant climate, Natural disasters and epidemics, Socio-economic backwardness, High population pressure on the, land, , , , , , , , , , , , Better job opportunities and higher, wages, Better living conditions, Peace and stability, Security of life and property, Pleasant climate, Better opportunities for education, Better health facilities, Sources of entertainment, , X ============================================== X, CHAPTER 3 – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, INDICATORS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, ✔ Indicators of Economic Attainments, ✔ Indicators of a Healthy Life, ✔ Indicators of Social Empowerment, 1. Indicators of Economic Attainments, ● Rich resource base and access to these resources by all is the key to, productivity, well-being and human development., ● Gross National Product (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as, measures to assess the resource base of any country., 25

Page 26 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ● Per capita income and consumption expenditure in India has increased. As a, result, there has been a consistent decline in the proportion of population, living below the poverty line., 2. Indicators of Healthy Life, • Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long life span (life, expectancy) are indicative of a healthy life., Measures of a healthy and reasonably long life are ;, ➔ Availability of pre and post natal healthcare facilities, ➔ Old age health care, ➔ Adequate nutrition, ➔ Safety of individual, 3. Indicators of Social Empowerment, ✔ “Development is freedom”., ✔ Freedom from hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy and any, other forms of domination is the key to human development, ✔ Access to knowledge about the society and environment are fundamental to, freedom., , X ==================================================== X, , CHAPTER 4 – HUMAN SETTLEMENTS, TYPES OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA, 1. CLUSTERED / AGGLOMERATED / NUCLEATED, 2. SEMI-CLUSTERED / FRAGMENTED, 3. HAMLETED, 4. DISPERSED / ISOLATED., 1. CLUSTERED / AGGLOMERATED / NUCLEATED SETTLEMENTS, ➢ Compact or closely built up area of houses, ➢ General living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms, barns and, pastures, ➢ The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognisable, pattern or geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear etc., ➢ Found in fertile alluvial plains (especially in Northern plains) and in the north eastern, states, ➢ The clustered settlements in Bundelkhand and Nagaland are formed by security or, defence reasons, ➢ Scarcity of water became the reason for developing clustered settlements in, Rajasthan., 2. SEMI-CLUSTERED / FRAGMENTED SETTLEMENTS, ➢ Formed as clustering in a restricted area of dispersed settlement OR formed from, segregation or fragmentation of a large compact settlement, 26

Page 27 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ➢ One or more sections of the village society choose or is forced to live a little away, from the main cluster or village, ➢ People of lower strata of society and menial workers settle on the outer flanks of the, village., ➢ Found in in the Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan., 3. HAMLETED SETTLEMENTS, ➢ Such settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each, other bearing a common name., ➢ Hamlets are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani,etc., ➢ This segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors, ➢ Found in the middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the, Himalayas., 4. DISPERSED / ISOLATED., ➢ Appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few huts, ➢ Found in remote jungle or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes, ➢ Developed due to the rugged topography, ➢ Found in Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal Praesh, Kerala, TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS BASED ON EVOLUTION, * On the basis of their evolution in different periods, Indian towns may be classified as:ANCIENT TOWNS, , MEDIEVAL TOWNS, ,  Historical background, over 2000 years,  Most of them, developed as, religious and cultural, centres, ,  Developed as, headquarters of, principalities and, kingdoms, ,  Varanasi,  Prayag (Allahabad),,  Pataliputra (Patna),, Madurai, , , , , , , , , Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur, Lucknow, Agra, Nagpur., , MODERN TOWNS,  Developed by British, and other Europeans, , , , , , , , , , Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry, Jamshedpur, , X ================================================================= X, , 27

Page 28 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 5 – LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE, CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA, • There are three distinct crop seasons in the northern and interior parts of country,, namely;, 1. kharif, 2. rabi, 3. zaid., The kharif season, ➢ Largely associates with South west Monsoon, ➢ Cultivation of tropical crops, such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is, possible, The rabi season, ➔ Begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March - April., ➔ The low temperature conditions during this season facilitate the cultivation of, temperate and subtropical crops, ➔ Wheat, gram and mustard., Zaid, ✗ It is a short duration summer cropping season, ✗ Begins after harvesting of rabi crops., ✗ Watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables and fodder crops during this season is, done on irrigated lands., CROPPING, SEASONS, , MONTHS, , CROPS CULTIVATED, , Kharif, , June-September, , Rice, Cotton, Bajra,, Maize, Jowar, Tur, , Rabi, , October – March, , Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds, and Mustard, Barley, , Zaid, , April–June, , Vegetables, Fruits,, Fodder, , TYPES OF FARMING, Irrigated farming, , protective farming, , Rainfed farming, , productive farming, , 28, , dry land farming, , wetland, farming

Page 29 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as;, 1. Irrigated Farming, 2. Rainfed Farming (barani)., 1. Irrigated farming, Based on the nature of irrigated farming, as well as the objective, of irrigation, this type of farming is of two types:a) Protective farming, b) Productive farming, a) Protective farming, ➢ The objective is to protect the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture, deficiency, ➢ Here, irrigation acts as a supplementary source of water over and above the, rainfall., ➢ This is meant to provide soil moisture to maximum possible area., b) Productive irrigation farming, ➔ It is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to, achieve high productivity., ➔ In such irrigation the water input per unit area of cultivated land is higher than, protective irrigation., 2. Rainfed farming, Based on the adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season, this type of, farming is further classified into;, a) Dryland farming, b) Wetland farming., a) Dryland farming,  It is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.,  These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra,, moong, gram and guar (fodder crops),  Practise various measures of soil moisture conservation and rain water harvesting., b) Wetland farming, ✗ Here, the rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during, rainy season. Such regions may face flood and soil erosion hazards., ✗ These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and, sugarcane, ✗ Practise aquaculture in the fresh water bodies., , PROBLEMS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE, ✗ Dependence on Erratic Monsoon, ✗ Low productivity, ✗ Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness, ✗ Lack of Land Reforms, 29

Page 30 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , ✗, ✗, ✗, ✗, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings, Lack of Commercialisation, Vast Underemployment, Degradation of Cultivable Land, , Dependence on Erratic Monsoon, , , , , , Majority of the cultivated land directly depends on rain, Poor performance of SW monsoon adversely affects the canal water for irrigation, Rainfall in drought prone areas is unreliable, Drought and floods remains to be the twin threats in Indian agriculture., , Low productivity, ✔ Yield of the crops per hectare in the country is low in comparison to the international, level, ✔ Labour productivity is also very low because of the high pressure on the land, ✔ The vast rainfed areas of the country, particularly drylands have low yields, Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness, ➢ The resource intensive approach is unmanageable for marginal and small farmers, ➢ Crop failures and low return from agriculture have forced them to fall in the trap of, indebtedness., Lack of Land Reforms, • Land reforms were not implemented effectively due to lack of strong political will, • Results unequal distribution of cultivable land which hinders agricultural, development, Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings,  The average size of land is shrinking under increasing population pressure.,  The landholdings are mostly fragmented.,  The small size fragmented landholdings are uneconomic, Lack of Commercialisation, ➔ A large number of farmers produce crops for self consumption., ➔ Most of the farmers do not have enough land to produce more than their, requirement., ➔ Modernization and commercialisation of agriculture developed only in the irrigated, areas, Vast Underemployment, • Seasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8 months, • Do not have the opportunity to work round the year, Degradation of Cultivable Land, ➢ A large tract of agricultural land has lost its fertility due to alkalisation and, salinisation of soils and water logging, ➢ Excessive use of chemicals has led to their concentration in toxic amounts in the, soil profile., ➢ Rainfed areas in humid and semi arid tropics experience degradation like soi, erosion and wind erosion, 30

Page 31 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 6 – WATER RESOURCES, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT, ● Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and, conservation of surface and groundwater resources., ● It involves prevention of run off and storage and recharge of groundwater, through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc, HARYALI PROJECT, ➢ Haryali is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central, Government which aims at enabling the rural population to conserve water for, drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation., ➢ The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people’s participation, NEERU – MEERU & ARVARI PANI SANSAD, • Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani, Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken up constructions of various, water-harvesting structures such as percolation tanks, dug out ponds, check, dams, etc., through people’s participation, , X ================================================ X, CHAPTER 7 – MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES, A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and, physical properties., TYPES OF MINERAL RESOURCES / CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS, , 31

Page 32 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , MAJOR MINERALS IN INDIA, I. Metallic minerals, a) Ferrous minerals, 1. Iron ore, • India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia., • The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite., • Great demand in international market due to its superior quality., • Leading producing states are Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh., 2. Manganese,  Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore,  It is also used for manufacturing ferro alloys.,  Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese., b) Non - ferrous minerals, 1. Bauxite, ● It is used in manufacturing of aluminium., ● Odisha is the largest producer of Bauxite., 2. Copper, ✗ Used in the electrical industry for making wires, electric motors, transformers, and generators., ✗ It is alloyable, malleable and ductile., ✗ It is also mixed with gold to provide strength to jewellery., ✗ Jharkhand is the leading producing state., II. Non-metallic Minerals, a) Fuel minerals, 1. Coal, ● Coal is mainly used in the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron ore., ● Jharia (Jharkhand) is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj ( West Bengal)., 2. Petroleum, ✔ It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in, automobiles, railways and aircraft., ✔ Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries, such as, fertiliser, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, vaseline, soap and, cosmetics., Major oil fields are, ➔ Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran - Assam, ➔ Ankaleshwar,Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej - Gujarat, ➔ Mumbai High - Maharashtra, ➔ Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin, , 32

Page 33 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , 3. Natural Gas, It is obtained along with oil in all the oilfields, In India, its reserves have been located along the eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu,, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore wells in Gujarat and, Maharashtra., 4. Nuclear Energy Resources, • Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times., ● Important minerals used for the generation of nuclear energy are uranium and, thorium., , ●, ●, ●, ●, ●, ●, , The important nuclear power projects are;, Tarapur in Maharashtra, Rawatbhata near Kota in Rajasthan, Kalpakkam in TamilNadu, Narora in Uttar Pradesh, Kaiga in Karnataka, Kakarapara in Gujarat, b) Other non – metallic minerals, , 1. Mica, ✗ It is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries., ✗ It can be split into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible., ✗ Jharkhand is the leading producing state., ADVANTAGES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES, ➔ These are the only renewable energy sources., ➔ These energy sources are more equitably distributed and environment-friendly., ➔ The non- conventional energy sources will provide more sustained, eco-friendly, cheaper energy after the initial cost is taken care of., ➔ Eg:- Solar energy, wind energy, tidal and wave energy, geothermal energy and, bio-energy., X ================================================================ X, , CHAPTER 8 – MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES, FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES,  Raw materials,  Power,  Market,  Capital,  Transport,  Labour,  Historical factors,  Industrial policy, Raw Materials, ● Industries using weight-losing raw materials and perishable raw materials are, 33

Page 34 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , located nearby the source regions of raw materials, ● Eg :- sugar mills in India located in sugar cane growing areas, ● Most of the iron and steel industries are located either near coalfields or near, sources of iron ore, Power,  Power provides the motive force for machines, and therefore, its supply has to, be ensured before the location of any industry.,  Eg:- aluminium industries tend to be located near sources of power, Markets, ✗ Markets provide the outlets for manufactured products., ✗ Heavy machine, machine tools, heavy chemicals are located near the high demand, areas, ✗ Eg :- Petroleum refineries (Koyali, Mathura and Barauni) are located near the, markets, Transport, ➔ All major industrial plants are located on the trunk rail routes, ➔ Major cities are the nodal points with good transportation links helps the, clustering of industries, Labour,  Industries require skilled labour.,  In India, labour is quite mobile and is available in large numbers, Historical Factors, • During the initial phase of colonisation, manufacturing activities received new, impetus provided by the European traders., • Places like Murshidabad, Dhaka, Bhadohi, Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode,, Coimbatore, Mysuru etc., emerged as important manufacturing centres, • In the last phase of colonialism, the British promoted few industries in, selected areas. This led to larger spatial coverage by different types of, industries in the country., Industrial Policy, ✗ Government of India provides lots of incentives to industries locating in, backward areas aiming economic growth with balanced regional development, ✗ Eg :- Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela, IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRIES, , ➔ The raw materials for iron and steel industries are iron ore, coking coal,, limestone, dolomite, manganese and fire clay., ➔ All the raw materials are gross (weight losing), therefore, the best location for, the iron and steel plants is near the source of raw materials., ➔ In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh,, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich, in high grade iron ore, good quality coking coal and other supplementing raw, materials., 34

Page 36 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, ,  Use hydroelectricity from the Jog Falls hydel power project.,  Water – from Bhadravati river,  This plant produces specialised steels and alloys, After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated, steel plants were set up with foreign collaboration:- Rourkela in Odisha,, Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal., 4. Rourkela Steel Plant, • Set up in 1959, • In Sundargarh district of Odisha, • In collaboration with Germany, • The plant was located on the basis of proximity to raw materials, thus,, minimising the cost of transporting weight losing raw material., • This plant has a unique locational advantage, • Coal - from Jharia (Jharkhand), • Iron ore - Sundargarh and Kendujhar., • Power – from The Hirakud project, • Water - from the Koel and Sankh rivers., 5. Bhilai Steel Plant, ✔ In collaboration with Russia, ✔ In Durg district of Chhattisgarh, ✔ Started production in 1959., ✔ Iron ore - from Dalli-Rajhara mine, ✔ Coal - Korba and Kargali, ✔ Water - from the Tanduladam and, ✔ Power - the Korba Themal Power Station., ✔ This plant also lies on the Kolkata- Mumbai railway route., ✔ The steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam., 6. Durgapur Steel Plant, ✗ In West Bengal, ✗ In collaboration with Britain, ✗ Started production in 1962., ✗ This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt, ✗ Iron ore - from Noamundi, ✗ Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route., ✗ Hydel power and water - from the Damodar Valley Corporation, 7. Bokaro Steel Plant,  Set up in 1964 at Bokaro,  In collaboration with Russia,  Set up on the principle of transportation cost minimisation by creating BokaroRourkela combine.,  Iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on return take coal to Rourkela.,  Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km.,  Water and hydel power from - Damodar Valley Corporation, 36

Page 37 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , Other Steel Plants, • New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan period, • All three plants are located in South India., The Vizag Steel Plant, in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the first port-based, plant which started operating in 1992., The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hosapete in Karnataka was developed using, indigenous technology. This uses local iron ore and limestone., The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982., MAJOR INDUSTRIAL REGIONS, 1. Mumbai- Pune Industrial Region - Extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in, adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur., 2. Hugli Industrial Region - Located along the Hugli river, this region extends from, Bansberia in the north to Birlanagar in the south for a distance of about 100 km, , 37

Page 38 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , 3. Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial Region - Bengaluru and spreads over all the districts of, Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram, 4. Gujarat Industrial Region - The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and, Vadodara but this region extends upto Valsad and Surat in the south and to Jamnagar in, the west., 5. Chotanagpur Region - Extends over Jharkhand, northern Odisha and western West, Benga, 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region - Extends from Vishakhapatnam district to Kurnool, and Prakasam districts in the south, 7. Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region, Gurugram, Delhi, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura., 8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region - Spread over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam,, Alwaye, Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts, , X ====================================================== X, , CHAPTER 9 – PLANNING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN, INDIAN CONTEXT, PLANNING, Planning involves the process of thinking, formulation of a scheme or, programme and implementation of a set of actions to achieve some goal., •, , Generally, there are two approaches to planning;, 1. sectoral planning, 2. regional planning., , 1. Sectoral planning, Sectoral planning means formulation and implementation of the sets of, schemes or programmes aimed at development of various sectors of the economy,, such as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing, power, construction, transport,, communication, social infrastructure and services., 2. Regional planning, There is no uniform economic development over space in any country. Some areas, are more developed and some lag behind. The planners have to view this in a spatial, perspective and should plan to reduce regional imbalance in development. This, type of planning is termed as regional planning., , 38

Page 39 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, Sustainable development can be defined as “a development that meets the needs, of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own, needs.” - Brundtland Report, X =========================================================== X, , CHAPTER 10 – TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION, GOLDEN QUADRILATERAL, ● Length - 5,846-km l; 4/6 lane, ● High density traffic corridor, ● Constructed to connect India’s four big metro cities :- Delhi – Mumbai–, Chennai - Kolkata., ● With the construction of Golden Quadrilateral, the time, distance and cost of, movement among the mega cities of India will be considerably minimised., TYPES OF COMMUNICATION, , •, , On the basis of scale and quality, the mode of communication can be divided, into:a) Personal Communication System, b) Mass Communication System, , a) Personal Communication System, ➢ It enables the user to establish direct contact, ➢ Among all the personal communication system internet is the most effective and, advanced one., b) Mass Communication System, 1. Radio, ➔ Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay., 39

Page 40 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ➔ Since then, it gained immense popularity and changed the socio- cultural life of, people., ➔ Government took this popular mode of communication under its control in 1930, under the Indian Broadcasting System., ➔ It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashwani in 1957., , ✗, ✗, ✗, ✗, , 2. Television, Television broadcasting has emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium, for disseminating information and educating masses, T.V. services were limited only to the National Capital where it began in 1959., In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got a separate identity, as Doordarshan (DD), After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational, Common, National Programmes (CNP) were started for the entire network and its services, were extended to the backward and remote rural areas, , 3. Satellite Communication, ✔ Satellites are mode of communication in themselves as well as they regulate the, use of other means of communication, ✔ Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast, monitoring of natural, calamities, surveillance of border areas, etc., ✔ On the basis of configuration and purposes, satellite system in India can be, grouped into two:(i) Indian National Satellite System (INSAT), (ii) Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS), ➔ The INSAT, which was established in 1983,is a multi-purpose satellite system for, telecommunication, meteorological observation and for various other data, and programmes, ➔ The IRS satellite system became operational in 1988 from Vaikanour in Russia, ➔ IRS satellites collect data in several spectral bands and transmit them to the, ground stations for various uses., ✗, ✗, , India has also developed her own Launching Vehicle PSLV (Polar Satellite, Launch Vehicle), The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad provides facilities, for acquisition of data and its processing, X ======================================================== X, , CHAPTER 11 – INTERNATIONAL TRADE, DIRECTION OF TRADE, India has trade relations with most of the countries and major trading blocks of the, world. India aims to double its share in the international trade within the next five years, MAJOR SEA PORTS, 1. Kandla Port, ➔ Situated at the head of Gulf of Kuchchh in Gujrath, 40

Page 41 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , ➔ Reduced the pressure at Mumbai port, ➔ The port is specially designed to receive large quantities of petroleum and, petroleum products and fertiliser, 2. Mumbai Port, ➢ It is a natural harbour and the biggest port of the country., ➢ Situated closer to the general routes from the countries of Middle East,, Mediterranean countries, North Africa, North America and Europe where the major, share of country’s overseas trade is carried out (Importance ), ➢ The port is 20 km long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths and has the country’s, largest oil terminal., ➢ Hinterland - M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P. and parts of Rajasthan, 3. Jawaharlal Nehru Port, ✗ At Nhava Sheva in Maharashtra, ✗ It was developed as a satellite port to relieve the pressure at the Mumbai port., ✗ It is the largest container port in India., 4. Marmagao Port,  Situated at the entrance of the Zuari estuary,,  It is a natural harbour in Goa,  iron-ore exports to Japan via here,  Hinterland - Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra, 5. New Mangalore Port, • It is located in Karnataka, • It handles iron-ore, iron-concentrates, fertilisers, petroleum products, edible oil etc., 6. Kochi Port, ✔ Situated at the head of Vembanad Kayal, popularly known as the ‘Queen of the, Arabian Sea’, ✔ It is a natural harbour., ✔ Hinterland - Kerala, southern- Karnataka and south western Tamil Nadu., 7. Kolkata Port, ✗ Located on the Hugli river, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal, ✗ Developed by the British, ✗ Hinterland - U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim and the north-eastern, states, 8. Haldia Port,  It is located 105 km downstream from Kolkata.,  It has been constructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkata port., 9. Paradwip Port, ➔ Situated in the Mahanadi delta, about 100 km from Cuttack.(Odisha), ➔ It has the deepest harbour specially suited to handle very large vessels., ➔ Hinterland - Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand, , 41

Page 42 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , 10 . Visakhapatnam Port, ✗ In Andhra Pradesh, ✗ It is a land-locked harbour, connected to the seaby a channel cut through solid rock, and sand., ✗ Hinterland - Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, 11. Chennai Port, ● It is one of the oldest ports on the eastern coast., ● It is an artificial harbour, ● Built in 1859, ● Hinterland - Tamil Nadu and Puducherry, 12. Ennore Port, ✔ Newly developed port in Tamil Nadu, ✔ It has been constructed 25 km north of Chennai to relieve the pressure at Chennai, port, 13. Tuticorin Port,  It was also developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai port.,  It deals with a variety of cargo, including coal, salt, food grains, edible oils etc., , 42

Page 43 :
Join Telegram Channel: https://t.me/hsslive, , Downloaded from www.Hsslive.in ®, , CHAPTER 12, GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE ON SELECTED ISSUES AND, PROBLEMS, , X ======================================================= X, , 43