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H, , I, , SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY, KOLHAPUR, CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION, , M. A. Part-II : English, Semester-III : Paper C-8, , Critical Theory-I, Semester-IV : Paper C-10, , Critical Theory-II, (Academic Year 2019-20 onwards), , K, , J

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Unit-1, 1.1 Psychoanalytical Criticism, 1.2 Marxist Criticism, 1.3 Structuralist Criticism, Unit 1.1 - PSYCHOANALYTICAL CRITICISM, , Dr. Sigmund Freud, a Swiss psychiatrist was one of the original thinkers and, epoch-makers of the early modern period. He was a psychiatrist by profession who, treated neurotic patients. He developed his theory based on his clinical experiences, and concluded his empirical study as Theory of Psychoanalysis. He is the founder of, the Theory of Psychoanalysis which influenced the whole world beyond the, boundaries of psychology. His idea was that most of the human mental activity is, unconscious and the primary source of psychic energy is ‘libido’. Freud’s, contribution to the understanding of human nature is of great significance. Many, critics think that nature and function of literature can be best understood by knowing, its psychological origin. William Wordsworth, father of English Romantic Poetry, and also one of the critics of his time, in his famous work Preface to Lyrical Ballads, began his enquiry into the nature of poetry by asking how the poet works. Towards, the end of the 19th century Mr. William James published his famous book Principles, of Psychology (1890) which explains human mind as a swift-moving stream. Though, Sigmund Freud studied human mind scientifically and systematically, his views on, the place of art in life, and his application of analytical method to the study of art, have not been approved by all., Since the 1920s, a widespread form of psychological literary criticism emerged., It was a dynamic form of psychology as a means of analysis and therapy for, neuroses. Soon its scope enveloped many areas including mythology, religion, as, well as literature and the other arts. Freud's brief comment on the workings of the, artist's imagination proposed the theoretical framework of what is sometimes called, Classical Psychoanalytic Criticism. It deals with Literature and the other arts. It, explains that dreams and neurotic symptoms consisting of imagined or fantasied, , 1

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fulfillment of wishes are either denied by reality or are prohibited by the social code, of conduct., According to Freud, the sexual desires which he refer as ‘libidinal’ wishes come, into conflict with, and are repressed by, the internalized ‘censors’ present within each, individual. These censors get created due to the moral code of conduct in the society., The suppressed and unfulfilled desires slip into the unconscious realm of the artist’s, mind. Whenever there is an occasion, the internalized censors allow the artist to, achieve a fantasied satisfaction in distorted forms without disclosing his or her real, motives and objects., M.H. Abrams mentions that according to Freud, the chief mechanisms that, effect these camouflages of unconscious wishes are (1) ‘Condensation’ (the omission, of parts of the unconscious material and the fusion of several unconscious elements, into a single entity); (2) ‘Displacement’ (the substitution for an unconscious object of, desire by one that is acceptable to the conscious mind); and (3) ’Symbolism’ (the, representation of repressed, mainly sexual, objects of desire by nonsexual objects, which resemble them or are associated with them in prior experience). Freud calls, these disguised fantasies that are evident to consciousness as the ‘manifest’ content, of a dream or work of literature; and the unconscious wishes that find a resemblance, of satisfaction in this distorted form as the ‘latent’ content., According to Sigmund Freud, the residual traces of prior stages of psychosexual, development are present in the unconscious of every individual. These traces, outgrow but remain as ‘fixations’ in the unconscious region of the adult. The, suppressed desire gets activated by some later event in adult life and motivates a, fantasy in disguised form in such a way that the wish had been satisfied in infancy or, early childhood., The main intention of the psychoanalytic critic which is equivalent to the, business of a psychiatrist is to reveal the hidden truth behind a literary work by, finding out and explaining the unconscious determinants that have constituted the, suppressed meanings., Freud makes it very clear in his world famous essay Creative Writers and Day, Dreaming that an artist possesses special abilities that differentiate him, fundamentally from the neurotic personality. An artist possesses an extra ordinary, power to channelize his instinctual drives from their original sexual goals to the, 2

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nonsexual sophisticated goals. This ability of an artist to elaborate fantasied wishfulfillments into the features of his work of art in such a way that it conceals or, deletes extremely personal elements of himself, and making them acceptable of, satisfying the unconscious desires of other such persons, is an exclusive quality. And, this quality or ability can only be found in the genius. Freud says that Psychoanalysis, is unable to explain this process or phenomenon. The result is a fantasied wishfulfillment of a complex and artfully shaped artistic product that allows the artist to, overcome his personal conflicts and repressions, and also makes it possible for the, artist's audience to obtain relief and comfort from their own unconscious sources of, gratification which had become inaccessible to them. It is therefore can be said that, Literature and art, unlike dreams and neuroses, may serve the artist as a mode of, fantasy that opens ‘the way back to reality’., According to Freud, every single fantasy is a fulfillment of suppressed wish – a, correction of unsatisfied reality. These motivating wishes change according to sex,, time, character, circumstances of the person who is fantasizing. The relation of a, fantasy to time is very important, as mental work is always linked to some current, impression. Fantasies are the immediate mental precursors. If fantasies become over, powerful, the person fantasizing may become neurotic., This psychological theory of art in 1920 was expanded and refined but was not, thoroughly reformed by the later developments in Freud's theory of mental, structures, dynamics, and processes., Freud's model of the human mind consists of three functional aspects:, 1., , Id or Unconscious, , 2., , Superego or Super-conscious (censors), , 3., , Ego or Conscious, , The Id combines libidinal and other desires, that is, the basic instincts of an, individual. The Superego deals with the internalization of Code of Conduct in the, society and standards of morality and propriety. The Ego tries to negotiate the, conflicts between the unappeasable demands of the Id, the stern instructions of the, Superego and also the extremely limited possibilities of fulfillment of such, unappeasable desires in the world of reality., , 3

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Freud’s view about psychology makes poetry inherent to human nature as he, feels that mind is a poetry-making organ. He made poetry natural to human nature., According to him, when one is emotionally excited, one uses a highly-charged, figurative language, as difficult ideas can be conveyed by the use of poetic, metaphors. Freud thinks that the unconscious mind works without the constraints of, logic. And therefore, psychology comes for help to explain the nature of work of art., Freud himself applied psychoanalysis to brief discussions of the hidden content, in the visible characters or events of literary works including Shakespeare's Hamlet,, Macbeth, A Midsummer Night's Dream, and King Lear. Many writers produced, critical analyses, modeled on the Classical Theory of Freud. One of the well-known, books is Hamlet and Oedipus (1949) by the psychoanalyst Ernest Jones. It should be, noted that many modern literary critics, like many modern authors, owe debt to, Freud. Kenneth Burke, Edmund Wilson, and Lionel Trilling are some of the major, critics., Check Your Progress-1, 1), , Dr. Sigmund Freud was a Swiss __________ ., a) writer, , 2), , b) critic, , 4), , b) sober, , c) curious, , d) unconscious, , ____________ published his famous book Principles of Psychology in 1890., a) William James, , b) Sigmund Freud, , c) Carl Jung, , d) Jacques Lacan, , The famous essay Creative Writers and Day Dreaming is written by ________., a) C.G. Jung, , 5), , d) artist, , Most of the human mental activity, according to Freud, is ___________., a) conscious, , 3), , c) psychiatrist, , b) Sigmund Freud, , c) Lionel Trilling d) Jacques Lacan, , The __________ combines libidinal and other desires., a) Superego, , b) Conscious, , c) Id, , d) brain, , Carl Gustav Jung began his career as a disciple of Freud but his mature version, of depth-psychology is very different from that of his master. His theory of literary, 4

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criticism (Jungian criticism) departs drastically from that of Freud’s Psychoanalytic, criticism. The famous critic M.H. Abrams underlines that Jung's emphasis is not on, the individual unconscious, but it is on what Jung calls, the ‘Collective, Unconscious’. It is the universal collection of unconscious shared by all individuals, in all cultures since the dawn of human era which Jung regards as the storehouse of, ‘racial memories’ and of ‘primordial images’. According to Freud, these racial, memories, primordial images and patterns of experiences are the archetypes. Another, significant critic, Northrop Frye developed his theory based on archetypes as, Archetypal Criticism in later years. Jung explained his concept of ‘Collective, Unconscious’ in his famous essay Psychology and Literature., Jung views literature, unlike Freud, not as a disguised form of libidinal wishfulfillment. Instead, he regards great works of arts as an expression of the archetypes, of the collective unconscious like that of the myths. According to Jung, a great, author possesses and provides access for his readers to the archetypal images buried, in the racial memory. In this way the author succeeds in refreshing the aspects of the, psyche which are essential both to individual self-integration and to the mental and, emotional well-being of the human race. Carl Gustav Jung's theory of literature has, been a fundamental decisive influence on Archetypal Criticism and Myth Criticism, which was later initiated by Northrop Frye., There has been a solid renewal of Freud’s ideas since the development of, structural and poststructural critical theories. But a number of feminist critics have, attacked the male-centered nature of Freud's theory - especially the ‘Oedipus, Complex’ and ‘penis envy’ on the part of the female child. At the same time many, feminists have also adjusted to a revised version of Freudian concepts and mental, mechanisms to their analyses of the writing and reading of literary texts. For, example, Juliet Mitchell’s Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1975); Mary Jacobus’, Reading Woman (1986); Nancy Chodorow’s Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory, (1990); Rosalind Minsky’s ed., Psychoanalysis and Gender: An Introductory Reader, (1996) are some of them., M.H. Abrams thinks that Jacques Lacan, a significant postmodern critic,, developed a semiotic version of Freud by converting the basic concepts of, psychoanalysis into formulations derived from the linguistic theory of Ferdinand de, Saussure. He applied these concepts not to human individuals, but to the operations, of the process of signification. Lacan is often called as ‘the French Freud’. His often5

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quoted dictum, "The unconscious is structured like a language" is typical. His, procedure is to reorganize Freud's key concepts and mechanisms into the linguistic, mode, viewing the human mind not as pre-existent to, but as constituted by the, language we use., According to M.H. Abrams, the important aspect of Lacanian literary criticism, is Lacan's recreation of Freud's concepts of the early stages of psychosexual, development and the formation of the Oedipus Complex into the distinction between, a prelinguistic stage of development (which he calls as the imaginary stage) and the, stage after the acquisition of language (which he calls as the symbolic stage)., Lacan thinks that in the imaginary stage there is ambiguous difference between, the subject and the object or between one’s self and the other selves. Incidental, between these two stages (imaginary and symbolic) is what Lacan calls the ‘mirror, stage’. It is the stage when the infant learns to identify with his or her image in a, mirror, and so begins to develop a sense of a separate-self which is later enhanced by, what is reflected back to it from the encounters with other people. According to, Lacan, the infant conforms to the inherited system of linguistic differences when it, enters the symbolic stage and learns to accept its pre-determined position in a society, where linguistic oppositions exist such as male/female, father/son, mother/daughter, etc. In the symbolic realm of language, according to Lacan's theory, there exists the, realm of the ‘law of the father’, in which the ‘phallus’ is ‘the privileged signifier’ that, serves to establish the mode for all other signifiers., On the similar ground, Jacques Lacan translates Freud's views of the mental, workings of dream formation into textual terms of the play of signifiers, converting, Freud's distorting defense-mechanisms into linguistic figures of speech. According to, him, all processes of linguistic expression and interpretation, driven by ‘desire’ for a, lost and unachievable object, move constantly along a chain of unstable signifiers,, without any possibility of coming to rest on a fixed signified. M.H. Abrams thinks, that Lacan's notions of the inalienable split, or ‘difference’ that inhabits the self, and, of the endless chain of displacements in the quest for meaning, has made him a, prominent poststructural theorist. Many of Freud's psychoanalytic writings on, literature and the arts have been collected by Benjamin Nelson which will help, students to learn more about Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytical Criticism., , 6

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Check Your Progress-2, 1), , ____________ explained his concept of ‘Collective Unconscious’., a) Sigmund Freud, , 2), , 4), , d) Juliet Mitchell, , b) Juliet Mitchell, , c) C.G. Jung, , d) William James, , Juliet Mitchell’s ----------------------------------------- is a famous essay., a) Psychology and Literature, , b) Psychoanalysis and Feminism, , c) Principles of Psychology, , d) Art and Psychoanalysis, , Lacan is often called as ‘the ________ Freud’., a) American, , 5), , c) C.G. Jung, , Archetypal Criticism and Myth Criticism was initiated by the famous critic, _______________ ., a) Northrop Frye, , 3), , b) Jacques Lacan, , b) Swiss, , c) German, , d) French, , "The ___________ is structured like a language", is typical dictum by Jacques, Lacan., a) mind, , b) conscious, , c) id, , d) unconscious, , Terms to Remember :, 1), , empirical - experimental, , 2), , libido - the sexual urge, , 3), , prohibited – forbidden, taboo, banned, illegal, , 4), , internalized – adopted, assumed, coopted, embraced, , 5), , distorted – misleading, biased, partial, , 6), , camouflages – disguises, masks, concealments, cover-ups, , 7), , latent – dormant, hidden, concealed, underlying, , 8), , residual – remaining, lasting, left over, , 9), , determinant – factors, elements, , 10) gratification – contentment, fulfillment, satisfaction, enjoyment, pleasure, 7

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11) unappeasable – voracious, greedy, unquenchable, 12) disciple – follower, supporter, devotee, pupil, believer, 13) drastically – severely, considerably, extremely, radically, 14) primordial – primal, prehistoric, ancient, primitive, aboriginal, 15) decisive – critical, crucial, significant, vital, pivotal, influential, 16) dictum – saying, maxim, statement, motto, 17) ambiguous – vague, unclear, equivocal, indistinct, confusing,, 18) incidental – secondary, supplementary, accompanying, related, 19) conform – follow, obey, adapt, fit in, suit, 20) notion – idea, view, belief, concept, opinion, 21) inalienable – unchallengeable, immutable, undeniable, absolute, undisputable, , Answers to Check Your Progress -1, 1), , psychiatrist, , 2), , unconscious, , 3), , William James, , 4), , Sigmund Freud, , 5), , Id, , Answers to Check Your Progress -2, 1), , C.G. Jung, , 2), , Northrop Frye, , 3), , Psychoanalysis and Feminism, , 4), , French, , 5), , unconscious, , 8

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Exercise :, 1), , Write a detailed note on Psychoanalytical Criticism., , 2), , Write a short note Freud’s concept of human mind., , 3), , Explain how C.G. Jung differs from Sigmund Freud., , 4), , Comment on Jacques Lacan’s contribution in extending Freud’s theory., , Further Reading :, 1., , Sigmund Freud, Creative Writers and Day dreaming, , 2., , William Phillips, ed., Art and Psychoanalysis (1957), , 3., , Leonard and Eleanor Manheim, eds., Hidden Patterns: Studies in Psychoanalytic, Literary Criticism (1966), , 4., , Frederick J. Hoffman, Freudianism and the Literary Mind (rev., 1957), , 5., , Norman N. Holland, Holland's Guide to Psychoanalytic Psychology and, Literature-and-Psychology (1990), , 6., , Elizabeth Wright, Psychoanalytic Criticism: Theory in Practice (1984), , 7., , Lionel Trilling, Freud and Literature, in The Liberal Imagination (1950), , 8., , Jane Gallop, Reading Lacan (1985), , 9., , Shoshana Felman, Jacques Lacan and the Adventure of Insight (1987), , REFERENCES :, 1., , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytical Criticism, , 2., , Abrams M.H; (2000). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New Delhi: Harcourt India, Pvt. Ltd., , 3., , Freud Sigmund, ‘Creative Writers and Day Dreaming’ – 20th Century Literary, Criticism – A Reader; Ed; by Lodge David. (2016), Routledge., , 4., , Jung C. G., ‘Psychology and Literature’ - 20th Century Literary Criticism – A, Reader; Ed; by Lodge David. (2016), Routledge., 9

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5., , Unit 1.2 - MARXIST CRITICISM, , Karl Marx (1818-83) was a German political thinker, philosopher, economist, and revolutionist. His philosophical thinking caused the emergence of Marxism. His, well-known work Das Kapital (1867), considered as the Bible of world’s communist, movement, explains his principles and theory about the economic structure of the, society, the core of Marxism. Marx analyzed the structure of society from economic, point of view, and his ideas left permanent impression on the world of thought, encircling Sociology, Philosophy, Culture, Politics as well as Literature. Marx, stresses that economic structure gives birth to culture, religion, philosophy, arts,, literature etc. Marxism has provided basic material for the formation of the principles, of Marxist Criticism making it an internationally acclaimed discipline. Marxism aims, to initiate political action to bring about expected changes in the society, especially, liberating it from suppression, misery and exploitation., Karl Marx and his fellow thinker Friedrich Engels worked together to formulate, Marxist Criticism on the basis of following claims:, 1), , The history of mankind, its social groups and interrelations, its social interests, and ways of thinking are extensively determined by the changing mode of its, material production., , 2), , The historical changes in the fundamental mode of material production cause, changes in the class structure of society, ultimately giving rise to two classes in, each period and condition namely dominant class and subordinate class. Both, the classes engage in social, economic and political struggle of the, contemporary age., , 3), , An ideology of the age helps to form ‘human consciousness’ of that particular, period. An ideology is nothing but beliefs, values, ways of thinking, feelings,, 10

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perceptions, senses etc. belonging to that particular period. Marx inherited the, term ‘ideology’ from the French philosophers of the late eighteenth century who, used it to designate the study of the assumption that all general concepts develop, from sense perceptions., The two terms: ‘base’ and ‘superstructure’, according to primary Marxists, are, very significant in Marxism. ‘Base’ refers to the socio-economic system of the given, period at a given time; whereas ‘superstructure’ indicates religion, culture, art,, philosophy and politics of the period. The concept of Marxism is basically, materialistic and the prime intention is to shift every focus from individual to society., According to Marx, ideology is a ‘superstructure’ and concurrent socioeconomic system is the ‘base’. But Friedrich Engels described ideology as a ‘false, consciousness’. According to the famous critic M.H. Abrams, many later Marxists, consider it to be constituted largely by unconscious prepossessions that are illusory,, in contrast to the ‘scientific’ (that is, Marxist) knowledge of the economic, determinants, historical evolution, and present constitution of the social world., In the present era, ‘ideology’ means ways of thinking and perceiving that are, specific to an individual's race, sex, education, or ethnic group or political views etc., But in Marxist context, an ideology is a product of the position and interests of a, particular class, the dominant and exploitative class, the ‘bourgeoisie’ who are the, owners of the means of material production and distribution; as against the, ‘proletariat’ or the wage-earning working class. In its distinctively Marxist use,, according to the famous critic M. H. Abrams, the reigning ideology in any era is, conceived to be, ultimately, the product of its economic structure and the resulting, class-relations and class-interests. In any historical period, Marx mentions, the, prevailing ideology serves to legitimize and perpetuate the interests of the, bourgeoisie. An ideology helps in examining, explaining and articulating the, surrounding world including religion, culture, morality, philosophy, politics, law,, literature and other arts. Ideology helps in legitimizing the status, power and, economic interests of the ruling class. The German Ideology (1845-46), jointly, written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, became a key concept in Marxist, Criticism of literature and other arts. Unfortunately it was not much discussed or, improved upon by Marx or Engels in later period., , 11

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‘Dialectic Materialism’ is another important term used in Marxist criticism. It, refers to the forces that bring about historical change. Marx borrowed this term from, the great German philosopher Hegel. Dialectic Materialism gives preference to the, social and economic ‘base’ in any society, and to the relegated beliefs, customs and, ideas of a cultural unit than to the realm of superstructure. Literature and culture are, supposed to be determined by and reflect the relations at the base of the society., Though Karl Marx adopted Hegel’s idea of dialectic, he differs in the basic, understanding that religious and philosophical ideas influence the social structure., Marx emphasizes that economic structure constitutes the social structure., An orthodox Marxist critic always tries to concentrate on how far any work of, art reflects the interests and aspirations of the class. He wants to check how far any, work of art helps to understand the goals of a particular society and comments upon, it. A revolutionary Marxist critic may use art as a weapon to expose the falsities and, atrocities of bourgeois culture. Therefore, it is to be noted that Marxist critic tries to, explain the literature of any period not merely as a work created in accordance with, artistic criteria; but as a ‘product’ of the economic and ideological trends of that, period. Some liberal Marxist critics demand that social realism should replace the, bourgeois literary work in order to present the true reality of the particular period., Though it is called as ‘Vulgar Marxism’, liberal and flexible Marxist critics maintain, that traditional works of literature always transcend the prevailing bourgeoisie, ideology in order to reflect the objective realism of the contemporary age., Franz Mehring from Germany and Georgy Plekhanov from Russia were the first, practitioners of Marxist criticism. The development of Marxist criticism, in real, sense, as a coherent theory began only after the Great Revolution in Russia (1917)., , Check Your Progress -1, 1), , Das Kapital (1867) is considered as the Bible of world’s, movement., a) feminist, , 2), , c) modernist, , d) structuralist, , According to Karl Marx, ---------------- is a superstructure., a) culture, , 3), , b) communist, , -----------------, , ---------------------, , b) economy, , c) ideology, , d) religion, , described ideology as a ‘false consciousness’., 12

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a) Karl Marx, 4), , c) Georgy Lukacs, , d) Friedrich Engels, , The ------------------- are the owners of the means of material production and, distribution., a) proletariat, , 5), , b) Hegel, , b) bourgeoisie, , c) officers, , d) workers, , Karl Marx adopted -------------------- idea of dialectic., a) Hegel’s, , b) Plato’s, , c) Aristotle’s, , d) Descartes’, , A Hungarian critic Georgy Lukacs promoted Marxist criticism in Germany as, his interest was fired by the Great Revolution in 1917. During the regime of Stalin,, Lukacs was in Russia. Lukacs in his famous essay Ideology of Modernism (1963), suggests to consider the ideology underlying the work of art irrespective of whether, it is for art’s sake or for society’s sake. But, at the same time, Lukacs stresses that it, should be checked whether the work of art is created keeping the man at its focal, point or not. His views about the position of ideology in Marxist criticism are, flexible; and he is totally against the opinion of assessing the work of art merely on, the basis of political or social values. Lukacs thinks no literature is created keeping, any fixed ideology in the mind; but it is likely that some of the ideological concepts, of a particular period get reflected in the work of art. Lukacs strongly feels every, great work of art creates ‘its own unique world’, quite different from the common, ordinary reality., Lukacs thinks that publicizing cannot be the prime function of literature as he, believed in totality of art. His stress is on realism, the wholesome presentation of, total human personality with all its contradictions. Environment has powerful impact, on personality, according to Lukacs, and this objective reality hasn’t been adequately, represented by modernist writers, he emphasizes. He also sharply criticizes the, modern experimentalists for giving undue importance to social fragmentation and the, subjectivity of alienated characters under the pressures of Capitalism in their works., But other Marxist critics from Frankfurt School -Theodor Adorno and Max, Horkheimer appreciated the experiments of modern writers like James Joyce, Marcel, Proust and Samuel Beckett for exposing dark aspects and impacts of Capitalism on, human lives. Lukacs highlights real issues, the inner tensions of capitalist society, through his various comments on Scott, Tolstoy and Balzac. His ideas have been, 13

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further developed by Lucien Goldmann by examining the structure of a literary text, and by finding out the world it surrounds., Bertolt Brecht and Walter Benjamin have considerable impact on the, contemporary criticism. They welcomed modernism and the realistic art as it is, natural. Moreover they feel revolutionary art should dissociate from the traditional, thinking. Brecht discarded ‘Aristotilian’ theory of art: ‘art is an imitation of reality’., Brecht thinks that illusion of reality should be deliberately broken to produce an, ‘alienation effect’ in order to shatter the sensibilities of the readers that will, subsequently help in highlighting the dark aspects of Capitalism and further in, attracting the crowd towards the revolutionary forces to rectify and change the, situation., Walter Benjamin was an admirer of Brecht who, according to Abrams, is known, for his keen interest in the effects of changing material conditions in the production, of the art. In his essay The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,, Benjamin admits that modern technical innovations such as photography, the, phonograph, the radio, and especially the cinema have transformed the very concept, and status of work of art., Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937) has been very instrumental in blossoming, Marxist Criticism in Italy for which he was imprisoned by the fascist government., He has written extensively during his days in prison. Gramsci approves the primary, distinction between economic base and cultural superstructure; but, at the same time,, discards the older concept of considering culture as a disguised reflection of the, material base. His concept of ‘hegemony’ is very significant. According to him,, hegemony is a situation when a particular social class, that is, a sophisticated, dominant class establishes its own influence and power through its ideological views, about society over a subordinate class, in such a manner that the subordinate class, unconsciously accepts and participates in its own suppression and exploitation., Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks have provided impetus to great literary Marxist critics, of our time like Terry Eagleton, Fredric Jameson and Edward Said., Louis Althusser, an influential French Marxist critic incorporated Structuralism, to devise his views about the structure of society constituted by various elements like, religion, law, politics and literature. According to him, each element is interrelated, with the other in a complex manner; and in the end comes the ideology of a particular, 14

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institution determined by the material base of its period. Althusser examines the, relationship between art and ideology more keenly. As per his observation, an art, by, giving it the experience of a particular situation that is equivalent to a particular, ideology can help us to understand it completely. According to Abrams, Althusser, opposes the definition of nature of ideology as a false consciousness. Althusser, thinks that a great work is not a mere product of ideology, because its fiction, establishes for the reader a distance from the text in order to expose its ideology from, which it is born. Therefore ideologies vary according to the form and practices of, each mode of state machinery. He makes an important remark saying that ideology of, each mode operates as per the position of an individual in a particular society with, certain pre-established views and values which serve his or her interests., Pierre Macherey, is a well-known French Marxist literary critic at the University, of Lille Nord De France, was a student of Louis Althusser. He was a prime figure in, the development of French Post-structuralism and Marxism. His views about art and, ideology are reflected in his famous book A Theory of Literary Production (1966)., He says literary text divorces itself from its ideology with the help of its fiction and, form; and also discovers the inherited contradictions that are present in the ideology., These contradictions, Macherey remarks, are represented in the form of ‘silences’ or, ‘gaps’, and are nothing but symptoms of ideological repressions. According to him, it, is the foremost duty of the Marxist critic to make these silences ‘speak’; and also to, expose the unconscious content of the text, that is, to reveal the conscious intention, of the author., Raymond Williams, Terry Eagleton, Christopher Caudwell, Fredric Jameson, and Edward Said are important Marxist critics of the recent period. Raymond Henry, Williams (1928-88), is an important Welsh Marxist theorist, novelist and critic. His, writing on politics, culture, the mass media and literature made significant, contribution to the Marxist Criticism of culture and arts. He links literature with the, lives of people. According to him, all significant human qualities are communal and, it is nothing but a Marxist derivation. His books Culture and Society (1958) and The, Long Revolution (1961) became very popular in England. His critical essay Realism, and the Contemporary Novel explains his concept of Marxist Criticism to define, realism. He emphasizes that socialistic realism differs from bourgeois realism in its, ideology and affiliation., 15

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Raymond Williams thinks Marxist critics have dissociated Economics from, culture; and have ignored individualism. Therefore Williams prefers culture to, ideology and coins the term ‘Cultural Materialism’ and thus modifies his views on, Marxism. According to him, different cultural forces are always in action with the, dominant forces; and these forces are often unsuccessful in gaining complete power, because of the resistance by reactionary forces. Hence, Williams suggests that the, complex nature of the social formation should be always considered while analyzing, materialistically the relation between literature and its relevant social elements. In his, Marxism and Literature (1977), William stresses the urgency of an amendment in the, determinism of Marxism that literature reflects reality., Christopher Caudwell produced his major work under the title Illusion and, Reality (1937) in England. Basically Caudwell was an anthropologist and his book, deals with Anthropology and Psychoanalysis. According to him literature, especially, poetry, has an important function to perform. Literature should adapt men’s fixed, instincts to society’s welfare by changing their ways of thinking. But Caudwell failed, to express his concern for the extremism of the nineteenth century English left-wing, poets. Caudwell thinks that form is an attempt to impose order on the content which, is formless and turbulent. But Marxist criticism always looked upon the relationship, of form and content as dialectical though it gives preference to content., Terry Eagleton, one of the powerful theorists of Marxist criticism in England,, has elaborated the concepts put forth by Althusser and Macherey. The relation, between literary text and ideology has been explained by Eagleton in his book, Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Theory (1976). As per his thinking, literary text is a creative product of an ideology in the form of a literary discourse;, but definitely not an expression of it. Moreover ideology of the text is not that, antedates the text; instead it is identical with the text. Eagleton’s Criticism and, Ideology is a response to the works of Raymond Williams. He is of the view that, history enters texts with different forms of ideology: ‘general’, ‘authorial’ and, ‘aesthetic’., Fredric Jameson, modern American Marxist critic writes about his notions about, Marxism in his book Marxism and Form (1971). Jameson discusses on the, complexities of Structuralism and Poststructuralism in his another famous book The, Political Unconsciousness : Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (1981) with the, help of dialectical criticism. According to him, Archetypal Criticism,, 16

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Psychoanalytical Criticism, Structuralist Criticism, Semiotics and Deconstruction are, various modes of literary criticism that are applicable at various stages of the critical, interpretation of literary work; but Marxist criticism integrates them all by retaining, their positive findings within a ‘political interpretation of literary texts’. This, political interpretation, Jameson says, exposes the concealed role of the ‘political, unconsciousness’., Check Your Progress -2, 1), , 2), , A Hungarian critic ---------------------- promoted Marxist criticism in Germany., a) Loius Althusser, , b) Antonio Gramsci, , c) Georgy Lukacs, , d) Pierre Macherey, , --------------- thinks that illusion of reality should be deliberately broken to, produce an ‘alienation effect’., a) Benjamin, , 3), , 4), , c) Caudwell, , d) Mehring, , ---------------------- stresses the concept of ‘hegemony’ which is very significant, in Marxism., a) Bertolt Brecht, , b) Walter Benjamin, , c) Georgy Lukacs, , d) Antonio Gramsci, , According to Macherey, ---------------- are represented in the form of ‘silences’, or ‘gaps’., a) contradictions, , 5), , b) Brecht, , b) similarities, , c) affirmations, , d) harmonies, , Raymond Williams prefers culture to ideology and coins the term ---------------., a) Cultural Materialism, , b) Dialectic Materialism, , c) Economic Realism, , d) Ideological Socialism, , Marxist critics attack the theory of Deconstruction for ignoring the social and, historical aspects of texts. But Fredric Jameson, Raymond Williams and Terry, Eagleton deal with these issues in their own manner. It is to be noted that Marxist, criticism has split into several other schools of criticism; and it is also linked with, Postcolonialism. One of the most influential postcolonial critics Aijaz Ahmad has, 17

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written about the postcolonial criticism from Marxist point of view in a systematic, manner in his well-known book In Theory (1992). According to Bart Moor-Gilbert,, Marxism is already inside Postcolonialism, even ingrained in post-colonial theory to, a much greater degree than has been thought. The early Marxist critics took greater, interest in ‘ideology’; whereas the neo-Marxist critics seem to be more interested in, the term ‘Cultural Materialism’. Marxist Criticism has now adopted interdisciplinary, approach to literary studies. The insights of Marxism, which originated in the, philosophy of Hegel, have inspired many branches of modern criticism including, Historicism, Feminism, Deconstruction, Postcolonial Criticism and Cultural Studies., , Terms to Remember :, 1), , core – central, basic, fundamental, , 2), , acclaimed – praised, admired, commended, appreciated, , 3), , concurrent – simultaneous, coexisting, parallel, , 4), , determinants – factors, causes, elements, , 5), , reigning - leading, controlling, ruling, , 6), , legitimize – validate, authenticate, verify, , 7), , perpetuate – preserve, continue, maintain, spread, , 8), , relegated – lowered, downgraded, referred, , 9), , realm – empire, territory, jurisdiction, , 10) aspiration – aims, goals, ambitions, targets, objectives, 11) falsities – untruths, fallacies, falsness, 12) atrocities – violence, injustice, tortures,, 13) trends – fashions, styles, tendencies, inclinations, 14) coherent – lucid, rational, intelligible, comprehensible, 15) rectify – fix, repair, mend, correct, cure, resolve, 16) hegemony –supremacy, dominion, power, authority, 17) incorporated – fused, united, unified, integrated, merged, 18

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18) reactionary – conservative, illiberal, intolerant, unreasonable, 19) amendment – modification, revision, change, improvement, correction, 20) Anthropology – the study of human races, origins, societies, and cultures, 21) extremism – radicalism, fanaticism, immoderation, 22) turbulent – stormy, wild, rough, harsh, 23) elaborated – enlarged, explained, expanded, 24) discourse – sermon, address, speech, dialogue, dissertation, 25) notion – idea, view, belief, concept, opinion, , Answers to Check Your Progress -1, 1), , communist, , 2), , ideology, , 3), , Friedrich Engels, , 4), , bourgeoisie, , 5), , Hegel’s, , Answers to Check Your Progress-2, 1), , Georgy Lukacs, , 2), , Brecht, , 3), , Antonio Gramsci, , 4), , contradictions, , 5), , Cultural Materialism, , Exercise :, 1), , Write a detailed note on Marxist Criticism., , 2), , Explain in detail the principles on which Marxist criticism is based., 19

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3), , Write a detailed note on the chief Marxist critics and their contribution in the, field of Marxist Criticism., , 4), , Write s short note on Georgy Lukacs., , 5), , Write a short note Raymond Williams and his ‘Cultural Materialism’., , 6), , Write a short note on Antonio Gramsci and his concept of ‘Hegemony’., , References :, 1., , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist Criticism, , 2., , Abrams M.H; (2000). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New Delhi: Harcourt India, Pvt. Ltd., , Unit 1.3 STRUCTURALIST CRITICISM, , The New Criticism was a reaction against the previous philological, historical, and biographical approach to literature in the sense that it compelled the readers to, pay keen attention to the text; instead of collecting information about the author and, his intention behind the creation of the text. It began in a radical way and became, mechanical, objective and more dehumanized in the hands of the New critics. The, New critics felt that the readers and their responses to the text should be given more, prominence than the intention and information about the writer. The ultimate impact, of the logics of New Critics was that it resulted in the disappearance of the author, and his intention, finally causing the exaltation of the text., Naturally the theory of the New Criticism was challenged and the first reaction, came to it in 1940s. One of the contemporary influential critics Northrop Frye, suggested a shift from the New Criticism to Structuralism and Post-structuralism, through his own Archetypal Criticism. It is a familiar fact that the interest of the New, 20

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critics was in semantics and verbal complexity, but the curiosity of the structuralists, was more in the system of conventions underlying the work of art., Structuralism is a movement by a group of French writers and their American, counterparts. The group also includes a number of Russian formalists, especially, Roman Jakobson. These writers used the linguistics concepts developed by Swiss, linguist Ferdinand de Saussure in his Course in General Linguistics (1915). This, mode of criticism is part of a larger movement, that is, French Structuralism,, inaugurated in the 1950s by the cultural anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. It is, believed that the fundamental insights of Structuralism have been supplied by, Ferdinand de Saussure and Claude Levi-Strauss., In its early form, according to Abrams, as revealed by Lévi-Strauss and other, writers in the 1950s and 1960s, Structuralism cuts across the traditional disciplinary, areas of the Humanities and Social Sciences by undertaking to provide an objective, account of all social and cultural practices, in a range that includes mythical, narratives, literary texts, advertisements, fashions in clothes, and patterns of social, dignity. Thus, Structuralism is a certain mode of analysis based on the contemporary, linguistics., According to famous critic M.H. Abrams, almost all literary theorists since, Aristotle have emphasized the importance of ‘structure’ in analyzing a work of, literature. The word ‘structure’ is used in several contexts and disciplines of Science, and Humanities. There is a structure of everything like structure of a word, sentence,, chapter, book; similarly structure of a substance, cell, organ, cloth, painting, building, etc. Therefore the word ‘structure’ has a special significance in the world of literary, criticism and it is derived from linguistics. Almost all literary theories since ancient, times have emphasized the importance of ‘structure’ of a work of art in the process, of evaluating literature. Structure has elements that can be arranged or rearranged in, order to modify structure., The special significance of Structuralism lies in the fact that it marks a revolt, against a particular type of scholarship that dominated the French universities; and, secondly it believed in a ‘return-to-the-text’. The aim of Structuralism, as stated by, Jonathan Culler, is not to provide interpretation of text, but to construct a ‘poetics’, which stands to literature as linguistics stands to language, and that which can help to, , 21

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study the conditions of meaning and the formal structures that help to organize a text;, and in this way create possibility for variety of meanings., Structuralist believes that a system of conventions is the matrix in which, individual signs are embedded which acquire meaning and significance within a total, structure. Structuralist presumes that meaning is made possible because of the, existence of underlying system of conventions that enable elements to function, individually as signs., It is evident that Ferdinand de Saussure’s description of language and its, elements provided basis for ‘signifier’ and ‘signified’. Saussure analyses the sign, into two components : the sound or the acoustic component which he calls as, ‘signifier’; and the mental or conceptual component as ‘signified. Saussure also, introduced two more significant and contrasting terms: ‘langue’ and ‘parole’. They, are very essential in the understanding of Structuralism. Langue is a theoretical, structure of language which the speaker of that language must follow and obey, if he, or she needs to communicate. Whereas parole is actual use made of that system by, the individual speaker. Structuralist is more concerned with signifier rather than, signified because Structuralism gives primacy to langue over parole. The primary, interest of the structuralist, like that of Saussure, is not in the cultural parole but in, the langue., M. H. Abrams clarifies that Structuralist Criticism views literature as a secondorder signifying system that uses the first-order structural system of language as its, medium. When a proficient reader tries to make sense of a particular literary work by, specifying the underlying system of literary conventions and rules which have been, unintentionally mastered by him; Structuralist Criticism undertakes to explain this, process., , Check Your Progress-1, 1), , The New Criticism caused the exaltation of ------------------ ., a) text, , 2), , b) author, , c) reader, , d) intention, , ----------------------- suggested a shift from the New Criticism to Structuralism, and Post-structuralism through his own Archetypal Criticism., a) Roland Barthes, , b) Todorov, , c) Jonathan Culler, 22, , d) Northrop Frye

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3), , The linguistics concepts have been developed by --------------- in his Course in, General Linguistics., a) Jakobson, , 4), , c) Barthes, , d) Frye, , The aim of Structuralism, as stated by Jonathan Culler, is not to provide, interpretation of text, but to construct a ---------------- which stands to literature., a) Base, , 5), , b) Saussure, , b) Structure, , c) Framework, , d) Poetics, , Structuralism gives primacy to langue over -------------- ., a) parole, , b) structure, , c) meaning, , d) style, , The aim of Structuralist Criticism, unlike New Criticism, is not to provide, interpretation of any individual text; but to make clear and explain the implicit, grammar that governs the forms and meanings of all literary productions. The, intention of the structuralist is to define the conditions that permit the very creation, of a work of art because he is concerned with the system of beliefs and ideas that, make possible such creations. The structuralist works upon a piece of literature in, order to discover the principles that allowed the arrangement of words and phrases to, form that particular piece. Therefore at the heart of Structuralism there is, thus, an, idea of a system. We all believe that there is something mystic and indefinable in, literature that has to be discovered; and this urge is definitely scientific. Hence, by, discovering that mystic element in literature, Structuralist Criticism tries to make, literary criticism a scientific discipline., According to Abrams, Structuralism is in explicit opposition to mimetic, criticism (the view that literature is primarily an imitation of reality), to expressive, criticism (the view that literature primarily expresses the feelings or temperament or, creative imagination of its author), and to any form of the view that literature is a, mode of communication between author and readers. Structuralist Criticism is not an, analysis of a particular work of art with an intention of providing its interpretation;, but on the contrary, it scrutinizes the work of art in order to find out its structure. In, this sense, Structuralist Criticism performs double function : firstly it analyzes a text,, and secondly it discovers or defines the underlying structure of a text. This process, can be called as ‘dissection and articulation’., 23

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It is quite noteworthy to know that in Structuralist Criticism the reader is placed, in the position of an author as the vital agency, engaged in the impersonal activity of, reading. Now, according to the understanding of Structuralist Criticism, whatever the, reader reads is not a work of art filled with meaning; but it’s just an ‘ecriture’, a, written matter, a write-up. It proves that the focus of Structuralist Criticism is on the, impersonal process of reading which makes possible the literary sense of the words,, phrases and sentences that compose the text by activating the play of essential codes, and conventions of that language. Therefore, according to a structuralist, a literary, work is nothing but a ‘text’, a mode of writing consisting of a play of component, elements which belong to particular literary conventions and codes. These elements, may produce an illusion of reality; but it neither has truth nor refers to any sort of, reality outside the literary system., Structuralist tries to explain that it is the language that speaks in literature; and, thus constructs an elaborate metalanguage assuming that literature itself is like, language. Hence for Roland Barthes language becomes ‘literature’s being’., Structuralist examines a work of art to discover how meaning is shaped or how, meaning is made possible; and thereby discovers the basic structures of literature., Structuralist Criticism gives tremendous insight into the basic and process of, understanding., Roland Barthes, Gerard Genette, Julia Kristeva, Tzvetan Todorov are some of, the important structuralist critics of literature., Roland Barthes, a French critic speaks about the parallelism of homology, between language and narrative. According to him, a narrative is like a long, sentence. He also makes use of distinction suggested by Benveniste between, personal and impersonal aspects of language. This notion alienates the traditional, emphasis on Psychology and Realism which may dwell outside of a narrative., Therefore Barthes says that language of narrative achieves self-reflexivity. As per the, assumption of Structuralism, the author is not assigned with any expressive, intentions, design or initiative as a producer of a work of art; but it is the conscious, ‘self’ of him which is the creator of a work. According to M. H. Abrams, the mind of, an author can be described as an attributed ‘space’ within which the impersonal,, ‘always-already’ existing system of literary language, conventions, codes, and rules, of combination gets precipitated into a particular text. Roland Barthes in his famous, essay The Death of the Author highlights it : “As an institution, the author is dead”., 24

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Gerard Genette’s contribution in the field of Structuralism is quite notable and, comprehensive. He has incorporated and explained all aspects of narrative in his, famous book Narrative Discourse (1980). According to him, ‘narrative’ as a series of, events is different from the act of narrating. Genette defines the term ‘narrative, discourse’ to great accuracy suggesting that narrative is governed not by any relation, to reality but by its own internal laws and logic., Tzvetan Todorov has made significant contribution in the field of Structuralist, Criticism through his books : The Poetics of Prose (Trans; 1977) and Introduction to, Poetics (Trans; 1981). According to him, art is not expected to reproduce or imitate, reality; it is rather a system by itself and is under no obligation to represent anything., Jonathan Culler, another prominent structuralist presented a wide-ranging survey of, the programme and accomplishments of Structuralist Literary Criticism in his book :, Structuralist Poetics (1975)., , Check Your Progress-2, 1), , Structuralist Criticism performs double function : firstly it analyzes a text, and, secondly it discovers or defines the underlying __________ of a text., a) base, , 2), , d) meaning, , b) authority, , c) person, , d) assistance, , In Structuralist Criticism, whatever the reader reads is not a work of art filled, with meaning; but it’s just ____________., a) structure, , 4), , c) structure, , In Structuralist Criticism the reader is placed in the position of an author as the, vital _____________., a) agency, , 3), , b) theory, , b) caricature, , c) ecriture, , d) architecture, , According to __________, language of narrative achieves self-reflexivity., a) Saussure, , b) Frye, , c) Genette, , d) Barthes, , 5) According to ___________, art is not expected to reproduce or imitate reality; it, is rather a system by itself and is under no obligation to represent anything., a) Todorov, , b) Kristeva, , c) Barthes, , 25, , d) Genette

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In the late 1960s, the general structuralist enterprise, submitted its central, position to Deconstruction and other modes of Poststructural theories. Structuralist, Criticism emphasized the view that literary meanings are determined by a system of, invariant conventions and codes. But this scientific claim of Structuralism was, destabilized by Deconstruction and other Post-colonial theories. Roland Barthes in, his later writings abandoned the scientific aspirations of Structuralism and granted, tremendous emphasis on the role of reader in reading texts. The absence of the author, in the zenith days of Structuralism heralded Barthes to look upon the writing of a text, as a practice. According to his views, readers are always at liberty to take pleasures, of the text. Barthes in his The Pleasure of the Text (1973) acclaims, in contrast to the, comfortable pleasure offered by a traditional text that accords with cultural, conventions, the jouissance evoked by a text that incites a hedonistic abandon to the, uncontrolled play of its signifiers., Barthes distinguishes between ‘lisible’ [readerly e.g. realistic novels] and, ‘scriptible’ [writerly e.g. metafiction] texts. The lisible is what we already know as, realistic novel which restricts the variety of interpretation by insisting on specific, meaning; whereas the scriptible is that which is unintelligible in terms of our, traditional models and which encourages the reader to be a producer of his or her, own meaning on the basis of multiplicity of codes. Thus, Structuralism believes in, the assumption that the reader contributes in the production and writing of the texts., , Terms to Remember :, 1), , compel – force, induce, make to do,, , 2), , dehumanize – degrade, debase,desensitise, , 3), , prominence – importance, eminence, status, fame,, , 4), , exaltation – acclamation, adoration, praise, appreciation, , 5), , verbal – spoken, oral, voiced, uttered, , 6), , complexity – intricacy, complication, difficulty, , 7), , counterpart – equal, colleague, matching part, corresponding part, , 8), , insight – vision, perception, understanding, awareness, intuition, 26

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9), , matrix – ground, medium, surrounding, atmosphere, milieu, , 10) embedded – fixed, rooted, implanted, ingrained, 11) acoustic – sound, audio, auditory, 12) primacy – preeminence, predominance, importance, superiority, 13) proficient – skillful, talented, capable, expert, gifted, 14) implicit – unspoken, implied, inherent, hidden, couched, 15) mystic – supernatural, mystical, magical, spiritual, 16) indefinable – vague, indefinite, obscure, impalpable, inexpressible,, 17) explicit – clear, overt, plain, open, unequivocal, unambiguous, 18) mimetic – simulated, copied, imitative, derivative, 19) temperament – disposition, temper, nature, character, personality, 20) articulation – diction, delivery, speech, enunciation, pronunciation, 21) vital – dynamic, vibrant, vigorous, vivacious, energetic, 22) elaborated – enlarged, expanded, explained, particularized, 23) metalanguage – a form of language or set of terms used for the description or, analysis of another language, 24) homology – state of having similar relation, relative position, or structure, 25) attributed – credited, ascribed, accredited, endorsed, 26) precipitated – triggered, hastened, advanced, lead to, 27) alienate – estrange, isolate, separate, make unfriendly, detach, 28) incorporate – join, include, integrate, unite, combine, 29) obligation – duty, responsibility, commitment, favour, 30) enterprise – initiative, creativity,, 31) invariant – regular, fixed, stationary, 32) destabilize – weaken, threaten, dislocate, disrupt, undermine, 33) aspirations – ambitions, goals, objectives, aims, targets, hopes, 27

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34) zenith – peak, pinnacle, apex, summit, 35) heralded – signaled, foreshown, indicated, 36) unintelligible – jumbled, meaningless, incoherent, incomprehensible, 37) multiplicity – diversity, variety, range, collection, assortment, 38) evoke – induce, arouse, suggest, remind, 39) incite – provoke, inflame, rouse, stimulate, motivate, 40) hedonistic – profligate, decadent, debauched, pleasure-seeking, 41) abandon – wildness, recklessness, unrestraint, uninhibitedness, 42) joissance – orgasmic bliss or ecstasy, , Answers to Check Your Progress-1, 1), , text, , 2), , Northrop Frye, , 3), , Saussure, , 4), , Poetics, , 5), , parole, , Answers to Check Your Progress-2, 1), , structure, , 2), , agency, , 3), , ecriture, , 4), , Barthes, , 5), , Todorov, , Exercise :, 1), , Write a detailed note on Structuralist Criticism., 28

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2), , Write a detailed note on the contribution made by major structuralist critics., , 3), , Explain in brief the aim and assumptions of Structuralist Criticism., , 4), , Comment in brief on the role played by Roland Barthes in Structuralist, Criticism., , References :, 1., , https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralist Criticism, , 2., , Abrams M. H; (2000). A Glossary of Literary Terms. New Delhi: Harcourt India, Pvt. Ltd., , 3., , Lodge David. Ed; (2016). 20th Century Literary Criticism-A Reader; Routledge., 666, , 29

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Unit-2, , 1. Carl Jung (1875-1961), Psychology and Literature, Contents, 2.1.0, , Objectives:, , 2.1.1, , Introduction, , 2.1.2, , Life and works of Carl Jung, , 2.1.3, , Analysis of the Essay, , 2.1.4, , Summary, , 2.1.5, , Key terms, , 2.1.6, , Check your Progress, , 2.1.7, , Key to check your Progress, , 2.1.8, , Exercises, , 2.1.9, , References for further study, , 2.1.0 Objectives:, After studying this unit you will be able to:,
, , familiar with the life and works of Carl Jung., ,
, , able to understand Jung’s contribution as a critic, ,
, , understand the significance of psychology in studying literature., ,
, , able to analyze and apply the critical theoretical framework to the literary texts., , 2.1.1 Introduction, Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist founded analytical, psychology. His work has been influential in psychiatry, anthropology, philosophy,, religious studies and related fields. He worked as a research scientist at the famous, 29

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Burgholzil hospital, under Eugen Bleuler. He advanced the idea of introvert and, extrovert personalities, archetypes and the power of unconscious. He collaborated, with Sigmund Freud, but disagreed with him about the sexual basis of neurosis. Jung, published numerous works during his life time and his ideas have had reverberations, traveling beyond the field of psychiatry, extending into art, Literature and religion as, well. Jung’s ‘Psychology and Literature’ (1930) can be read as a critic of classical, Freudian psychoanalytical approach to Literary studies. The essay is remarkable for, its ambitious attempt to discuss the social role of a creative writer from a, psychological and psychoanalytical perspective. It is also notable for its similarities, with the impersonality theory of creative process put forth by T.S. Eliot in the early, part of the twentieth century., , 2.1.1 Life and Works of Carl Jung, Swiss Psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil,, Switzerland. The only son of a protestant Clergyman, Jung was a quiet, observant, child who had spent his childhood in loneliness. The loneliness and his keen, observation resulted into his being a psychiatrist., His father, Paul developed a failing belief in the power of religion as he grew, older where as his mother; Emilie was suffering from mental illness and was, admitted in a psychiatric hospital. Jung started reading philosophy in his teens and, attended the University of Basel. Along with Philosophy he was exposed to, numerous fields of knowledge including biology, paleontology, religion and, archaeology and finally settled on Medicine. He was graduated from the University, of Basel in 1900 and obtained the degree of M.D. two years later from the University, of Zurich., He joined the Burgholzil Asylum of the University of Zurich under the guidance, of psychologist Eugen Bleuler. At Burgholzil he studied patients’ peculiar and, illogical responses to stimulus words and found that they were caused by emotionally, charged clusters of associations withheld from consciousness because of their, disagreeable, immoral and frequently sexual content. He used the now famous term, ‘complex’ to describe such conditions., He became an established psychiatrist of international repute. His findings, confirmed many of Freud’s ideas. For a period of five years (1907 to 1912) he was, Freud’s close collaborator. But because of differences of view point the collaboration, 30

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ended. Jung differed with Freud over latter’s insistence on the sexual bases of, neurosis. A serious disagreement came in 1912, with the publication of Jung’s, Wandlugen und Symbole de libido (Psychology of the Unconscious 1916), which ran, counter to many of Freud’s ideas., Although Jung had been elected President of the International Psychoanalytical, Society in 1911, he resigned from the society in 1914. His first achievement was to, differentiate two classes of people according to attitude types: extroverted (outward, looking) and introverted (inward looking). He stated four functions of mind thinking,, feeling, sensation and intuition- ‘Psychological Types (1923). He developed the, theory of collective unconscious and the theory of archetypes., Jung devoted the rest of his life to developing his ideas especially those on the, relation between Psychology and religion. In later years, he became professor of, Psychology at the Federal Polytechnical University in Zurich and Professor of, Medical Psychology at the University of Basel. Many of Jung’s most important, works have been collected, translated and published in a 20 volume set by Princeton, University Press under the title, The Collective Works of C.G.Jung., His Writing, Psychological Types, , -, , 1921, , Psychology of the Unconscious, , -, , 1912, , Modern Man in Search of a Soul, , -, , 1933, , The Undiscovered Self, , -, , 1957, , The Psychiatric Studies, the, Collected Works of C.G.Jung, , -, , 1953, , Studies in Word Association, , -, , 1907, , The Psychology of Dementia, Praecox, , -, , 1930, , The Psychogenesis of Mental, Disease, , -, , 1991, , Two Essays on Analytical, Psychology, , -, , 1917, , 31

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The Archetypes and the Collective, Unconscious., Jung’s married life with Emma Rauschen Banch was quite happy one. Jung, died on 6th June 1961 after a short illness., , 2.1.3 Analysis of Text:, Jung’s concept of psychology is closer with Literature than Freudian, psychology. In his studies we find a fusion of Psychology, Anthropology and, Literature., According to Jung, ‘Psychology is the study of the psychic process. Human, psyche is womb of all sciences and art.’ Psychological research tries to explain the, formation of a work of art (creative process) and looks at the factors that make a, person an artist (creative artist)., The psychological critic analyses differently a work of art from that of a literary, critic. According to Jung those novels are more fruitful for psychologist in which the, author has not already given a psychological interpretation of his characters and, which therefore leave room for analysis and explanation. Jung thinks the French, novels of Pierre Benolt, English novels of Rider Haggard and Conan Doyle’s, detective fiction and American novels of Melville (Moby Dick) are great novels., For the psychologist the most interesting thing to find out are the hidden, psychological assumptions. Sometimes the author provides psychological, expositions and explanations but such novels are not as great as the novels where, hidden psychological assumptions pose a challenge to the psychologist., Jung gives two types of creative creation:, 1) Psychological- Everything is explained so clearly that the psychologist has, very little task to perform., 2) Visionary- The work is endowed with deeper meaning and the psychologist, has to take a lot of attempts to reach to the meaning., In the psychological mode the materials are taken from ordinary human, consciousness. The poet transforms it form ordinary to the poetic. It is an, interpretation and illumination of contents of consciousness. The poet leaves nothing, to the psychologist to explain – the work is self-explanatory, no obscurity remains., 32

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But in visionary mode the experiences are related with man’s unconscious. It is, related to the unfathomed mind. It is not self-explanatory. In such kind of artistic, creation we are astonished, taken aback and we need commentaries and explanations., There is obscurity. The curious images given to explain the vision may be ‘cover, figures’ and they may be an attempt to conceal the basic experience. The visionary, mode can be related with monstrous, chaotic images of the world or humans. It is, something completely unknown to ordinary men. It is sometimes regarded as the, fantasy of the poet and is understood as a poetic license., Certain poets encourage this view so as to keep a distance between them and, their works., Visionary mode is closely associated with mysterious, uncanny and deceptive, things. Human enlightenment is born out of fear. In daytime man believes in an, ordered cosmos. He tries to maintain faith against the fear of chaos that besets him, by night. The seers, prophets, leaders and enlighteners were also familiar with the, nocturnal world. Man has known it form time immemorial. We want an ordered, world that is safe and manageable. But in our midst the poet now and then catches, the sight of the figures of night world. He sees something of the psychic world that, strikes terror into the savage and the barbarian. In the primitive culture too, there, were attempts to give expression to the visionary mode., Jung also defines the term “Collective Unconscious.” We mean by collective, unconscious, a certain psychic disposition shaped by the forces of heredity. In the, physical structure of the body we find traces of earlier stages of evolution…. It is a, fact that in eclipses of consciousness, …. in dreams, narcotic states, and cases of, insanity – there came to the surface psychic products or contents that show all the, traits of primitive levels of psychic development. Literature is manifestation of, collective unconscious. They bring abnormal and dangerous level of unconscious, into equilibrium in a purposive way., According to Jung every creative person is a duality of contradictory attitudes., On one hand he is a human being with personal life, while on the other hand he is an, impersonal, creative person. As an artist he is a man of higher sense – ‘he is, collective man’, one who carries and shapes the unconscious, psychic life of, mankind. The artist has to sacrifice his joy, satisfaction and has to suffer because of, the divine gift of creative fire in him. Whenever the creative force predominates,, 33

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human life is ruled and molded by the unconscious as against the active will. It is the, work that determines the poet’s fate and the psychic development., The present essay is notable for its attempt to discuss the social role of a creative, writer from a psychological and psychoanalytical perspective. It is similar to T.S., Eliot’s theory of ‘Impersonal Creative Process.’, There is a basic difference between the literary critic and the psychological, critic. For a psychologist, the psychological novel may be the most uninteresting, work as most of the elements of fiction like motives or thoughts of characters are, explained and are made explicit by the author. The most interesting novels for a, psychologist would be the works where these things are not explained and made, explicit by the author and there is a room for interpretation. Psychological Literature, draws its material from conscious mind. Visionary Literature draws its material from, unconscious mind. Jung points out that the first part of Goethe’s Faust is an example, of ‘psychological literature’ while the second part is ‘visionary’ in nature., According to Freud while interpreting the text, the personality of the author, counts much importance. But Jung thinks that the author’s personality is not the, most important aspect of a literary work as the writer usually has to transcend the, personal and the subjective in order to make his work appealing to others. Freud, thinks that the creative work of the author is/can be the reflection of author’s, neurosis. But at the same time Freud fails to explain why all neurotics are not, authors., Jung notes that the contents and materials of ‘visionary’ literature are not drawn, from the author’s psycho sexual history as Freudians would insist but are also from, ‘racial memory’ or the collective unconscious of the entire human race. Such, symbols, figures and images are primordial and not specific either to an individual or, even to a culture. The collective unconscious is sometimes called the objective, psyche. It refers to the idea that a segment of the deepest unconscious mind is, genetically inherited and is not shaped by personal experience. Collective, unconscious is common to all human beings and is responsible for a number of deepseated beliefs and instincts, such as spirituality, sexual behaviour and life and death, instincts., Like Freud Jung regarded the psyche is made up of a number of separate but, interacting systems. The three main ones are the ego, the personal unconscious and, 34

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the collective unconscious. Ego represents conscious mind as it comprises the, thought, memories and emotions a person is aware of. The ego is responsible for, feelings of identity and continuity. The conscious consists of two layers ‘personal, conscious’ and ‘collective unconscious.’ Personal conscious contains temporarily, forgotten information and repressed memories. The collective (the transpersonal), unconscious comprises latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary part., The human mind has innate characteristics ‘imprinted’ on it as a result of evolution., These universal predispositions stem from our ancestral part. Jung rejected the, concept of tabula rasa or the notion that human mind is a blank slate at birth to be, written on solely by experience. He believed that the human mind retains, fundamental unconscious, biological aspects of our ancestors. Fear of dark, or of, snakes and spiders might be examples. Jung called these ancestral memories and, images archetypes., Archetypes are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across, cultures which may show up dreams, literature, art and religion. Jung believes that, these symbols from different cultures are often very similar as they are emerged from, the archetypes shared by the whole human race which are a part of collective, unconscious. There are a large number of archetypes. Some examples of archetypes, that Jung proposed include – 1) The Mother 2) Birth 3) Death 4) Rebirth 5) The, Anima 6) Power 7) The Hero 8) The Child. Jung considered the mother archetype to, be the most important. He thought the archetype not only manifested in the literal, form personal mother, grand mother, step mother, mother-in-law but also in the, figurative form of mothers like Mother Mary, country, the earth, the woods, a garden, etc. Another example is figure of ‘Cross’ in Christians and Swastika in Hindus, becomes a sacred symbol. Archetypes manifest themselves in mythology, religion,, spirituality and folklore and they affect human behaviour deeply., Some of the most important archetypes in Jungian psycho analysis are the, persona, the shadow, the anima/animus, and the wise old man., The Persona: The word ‘persona’ is derived from a Latin word that literary, means ‘mask.’ The personal represents all of the different social masks that we wear, among various social groups and situations. It is the outward face we present to the, world. It conceals our real self and Jung describes it a ‘conformity’ archetype. The, persona develops as a social mask to contain all the primitive urges, impulses and, emotions that are not considered socially acceptable. The persona archetype allows, 35

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people to adapt to the world around them and fit it with the society in which they, live. This is the public face of the person which can be different from the real face., When it drops, he has to encounter the dark repellent side – the shadow., The Shadow: The shadow is an archetype that consists of the sex and life, instincts. The shadow exists as a part of the unconscious mind and is composed of, the repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts and shortcomings. It is this, archetype that contains all of the things that are unacceptable not only to society, but, also to one’s own personal morals and values. It might include things such as envy,, greed, prejudice, hate, aggression, etc. This is often described as the darker side of, the psyche, representing wildness, chaos and the unknown. Jung suggested that the, shadow can appear in dreams or visions and may take variety of forms. It might, appear as a snake, a monster, a demon, a drags or some other dark, wild or exotic, figure. Jung believed this archetype is present in all of us. It is the source of both, our creative and destructive energies., The Anima or Animus: The anima/animus is the mirror image of our, biological sex that is the unconscious feminine side in male and the masculine, tendencies in women. The anima is a feminine image in the male psyche and the, animus represents the “true self’ rather than the image we present to others and serve, as the primary source of communication with the collective unconscious. Jung, believed that physiological changes as well as social influences contributed to the, development of sex roles and gender identities. In many cultures, men and women, are encouraged to adopt traditional and often rigid gender roles. Jung suggested that, this discouragement of men exploring their feminine aspects and women exploring, their masculine aspects served to undermine psychological development., The combined anima and animus is known as the syzygy or the divine couple., (Ardhnarinateshwara image in Indian culture) The syzygy represents completion,, unification and wholeness., The Self: The self is an archetype that represents the unified unconsciousness, and consciousness of an individual. Creating the self occurs through a process known, as individuation, in which the various aspects of personality are integrated. Jung, often represented the self as a circle, square or mandala. The self-archetype, represents the unified psyche as whole. Jung suggested that there were two different, centers of personality. The ego makes up the centre of consciousness, but it is the self, 36

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that lies at the center of personality. Personality encompasses not only consciousness,, but also the ego and the unconscious mind. For Jung the ultimate aim for an, individual is to achieve a sense of cohesive self., Along with this ‘The Wise Old Man’ is an archetype who represents profound, philosopher distinguished for wisdom. ‘Senex’ is another term used for the wise old, man. In India we have guru who enlightens us to choose the right path., The function of creative artist according to Jung is to express the content of, collective unconscious in a society which is gradually losing its touch with this side, of its personality due to process of modernization and secularization. A work of art, would lead to man’s reconnection with the collective unconscious thus assisting him, in the process of individuation., Shifting of the focus of psychoanalysis from personal psychosexual history to, collective spiritual history in Jungian analytical theory made his theory extremely, influential among the writers and critics., But Jung’s theory fell out of favour with more materialistic oriented and, relativist cultural theorists along with scientific psychologists due to its, universalizing and idealistic notions and spiritual orientation. However, Jung’s ideas, have greatly influenced ‘Myth and Archetypal’ theorist of literature., In this way, ‘Psychology and Literature’ is Carl Jung’s analysis of art, artist and, creative process. Jung justifies psychology for studying Literature because all, thoughts and expressions are derived from the human psyche. A great piece of art is, like a dream. Great art is comprised of intentional acts, tapping into collective, unconscious and pushing the newer to reflect and ponder on the great ultimate, questions., , 2.1.4 Summary, Carl Jung the Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst founded Analytical, Psychology. His work influenced psychiatry, anthropology, Literature, archeology,, philosophy and religious studies. He was influenced by Nietzsche, Kant, Rudolf and, dominantly by Sigmund Freud. He developed concepts like ‘Psychological types,’, ‘Collective unconscious.’ ‘archetypes,’ etc. He was basically different from Freud as, he downplayed the importance of sexual development and focused on the collective, unconscious. Jung’s concept of psychology is closer with Literature. In his studies, 37

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we find a fusion of psychology, anthropology and Literature. He illustrated the terms, ‘creative process’ and ‘creative artist.’ He gives two types of artistic creation –, psychological and visionary and prefers visionary mode as it is endowed with deeper, meaning. He defines the term the ‘collective unconscious,’ a certain psychic, disposition shaped by the forces of heredity. He also explained the archetypes like, persona, shadow, anima/animus, self and the wise old man. Jung justifies psychology, for studying literature. The present essay is notable for its attempt to discuss the, social role of a creative writer from a psychological and psychoanalytical, perspective. It is, to some extent, similar to T.S. Eliot’s theory of ‘Impersonal, Creative process.’, , 2.1.5 Key Terms –, 1), , Eugen Bleuler – One of the most influential psychiatrists of his time, best, known for his introduction of the term schizophrenia., , 2), , Neurosis - Mental disorder that causes as sense of distress and deficit in, functioning., , 3), , Extrovert – A person whose interest is generally directed towards other people, and the outside world., Extrovert is characterized by outgoingness,, responsiveness activeness, aggressiveness and ability to make quick decisions., , 4), , Introvert – A person whose interest is directed towards his own feelings and, thoughts. The typical introvert is shy, contemplative and reserved. He has, difficulty in adjusting to social situations., , 5), , Faust – German poet Goethe’s dramatic poem in two parts., , 6), , Collective Unconscious – The form of the unconscious common to mankind as, a whole and originating in the inheritaged structure of the brain. It is distinct, from the personal unconscious., , 7), , Archetype – The original pattern or model of which all things of the same type, are representations or copies, prototype., , 8), , The Persona - Different social masks human being wear among various social, groups and situations – outward face., , 9), , The Shadow – Part of unconscious mind and is composed of repressed ideas,, desires, instincts, shortcomings, etc., 38

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10) The Anima/Animus – The unconscious feminine side in males and the, masculine tendencies in females., 11) The wise old man – Profound philosopher distinguished for wisdom., , 2.1.6 Check Your Progress, I), , Fill in the blanks:, 1) In _________ mode, the experiences are related with man’s unconscious., 2) ________ is often described as the darker side of the psyche., 3), , ________ is the feminine image in the male psyche., , 4), , ________ is a term used for ‘the wise old man.’, , 5) Jung’s theory is similar to _________ theory of ‘Impersonal Creative, Process.’, II) Answer the following questions with one word/phrase/sentence each, 1), , What was Jung’s classification of people according to attitude types?, , 2), , What are the four functions of mind?, , 3), , What are the two mode of creative creation?, , 4), , What is collective unconscious?, , 5), , What is the persona?, , 2.1.7 Answers for Check Your Progress, I), , 1) Visionary, , 2) Shadow, , 4) Senex, , 5) T.S., , 3) Anima, , Eliot’s, II) 1), , Extroverted and Introverted., , 2) Thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, 39

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3) Psychological and visionary, 4) Collective unconscious is a certain psychic disposition shaped by the forces, of heredity., 5) It is the outward face, a social mask we present to the world., , 2.1.8 Exercises, 1), , Explain in detail Carl Jung theory of ‘Collective Unconscious’ and its relevance, to literature., , 2), , Discuss Jung’s four major archetypes., , 3), , How did Carl Jung’s conception of the unconscious differ from that of Freud’s?, , 2.1.9 Reference for further study, Lodge, David. Ed. 20the Century Literary Criticism- Reader. 2nd Edition, Routledge;, 2016., Culler, Jonathan, Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction.OUP.1997., Cuddon, J.A., Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Wiley, 2013., Avis M.Dry. The Psychology of Jung: A Critical Interpretation. Methuen, 1961., Mcleod, S.A. (2018, M A 21) “Carl Jung Simply Psychology.”, https//www.simplypsychology,or,jung.html., , 40

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2. Juliet Mitchell, Femininity, Narrative and Psychoanalysis, Contents, 2.2.0, , Objectives:, , 2.2.1, , Introduction, , 2.2.2, , Life and works of Juliet Mitchell, , 2.2.3, , Analysis of the Essay, , 2.2.4, , Summary, , 2.2.5, , Key terms, , 2.2.6, , Check your Progress, , 2.2.7, , Key to check your Progress, , 2.2.8, , Exercises, , 2.2.9, , References for further study, , 2.2.0 Objectives:, After studying this unit you will be able to:,
, , familiar with the life and works of Juliet Mitchell., ,
, , understand Mitchell’s view on Feminism and women’s writing., ,
, , understand Mitchell’s contribution as a feminist, psychoanalyst and critic., ,
, , analyze and apply the critical theoretical framework to the literary texts., , 2.2.1 Introduction, 41

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Juliet Mitchell, one of the most powerful and controversial voices of women’s, liberation movement heralded the emergence of politically radical feminism through, her essay “Women, the Longest Revolution.” She shocked her fellow feminists by, highlighting the usefulness of Freud’s works which were considered anti-feminist by, many. She argued that the rejection of psychoanalysis as bourgeois and patriarchal, was fatal for feminism; she saw the usefulness of Freud’s work as re-read by Lacan, and other post structuralists., “Femininity Narrative and Psychoanalysis” is the transcript of a lecture, delivered to a conference on Narrative held in Australia, 1972. The lecture brings, together English Literature, politics, psychoanalysis and feminism. Mitchell, examines the role that the novel has played in our capitalist society for women and, the influence of psychoanalytic motives for writing the novel to prove that the novel, was and perhaps still is the defining element of women in our society., , 2.2.2 Life and works of Juliet Mitchell, Juliet Mitchell (born 1940) British psychoanalyst, socialist feminist, research, professor and author is born in Christchurch, New Zealand in 1940 and then moved, to England in 1944, where she stayed with her grandparents in the midlands. She, attended St.Anne’s College, Oxford, where she received a degree in English in 1962., She taught English literature from 1962 to 1970 at Leads University and Reading, University. Throughout the 1960s, Mitchell was active in leftist politics and was on, the editorial committee of the journal, New Left Review., She was a fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge and Professor of Psychoanalysis, and Gender Studies at Cambridge University, before in 2010 being appointed to be, the Director of the Expanded Doctoral School in Psychoanalytic Studies at, Psychoanalysis Unit of University College London (UCC). She is a retired registrant, of the British Psychoanalytic council., Writings, Psychoanalysis and Feminism, Mitchell is best known for her book Psychoanalysis and Feminism: Freud,, Reich, Laing and Women 1974, in which she tried to reconcile psychoanalysis and, feminism at a time when many considered them incompatible. Peter Gay considered, , 42

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it “the most rewarding and responsible contribution” to the feminist debate on Freud,, both acknowledging and rising beyond Freud’s male chauvinism in its analysis., Child Rearing, A substantial part of the thesis of the book is that Marxism may provide a model, within which non-patriarchal structures for rearing children could occur. Liberating, women from the consequences of penis envy and the feeling of the being castrated, which Mitchell contends is the root cause of women’s acceptance that they are, inferior. According to Mitchell, children are socialized into becoming the caretakers, of their households., Feminine Sexuality, In her introduction to Lacan on feminine sexuality, Mitchell stresses that, “in the, Freud that Lacan uses, neither the unconscious nor sexuality (are) pre-given facts,, they are constructions; that is, they are objects with histories.”, Her other works, Women’s Estate (1971), Women, the Longest Revolution (1984), Mad Men and Medusas: Reclaiming Hysteria, Siblings Sex: and violence 2003., , 2.2.3 Analysis of the Essay, Femininity, Narrative and Psychoanalysis is the transcript of a lecture, delivered to a conference on Narrative held in Australia in 1972. The essay is related, with 4 primary interests of Mitchell – 1) English Literature 2) Politics 3), Psychoanalysis 4) Feminism. The language is appealing, lucid and graceful., Psychoanalysis is a talking cure. What happens in psychoanalysis is a kind story, telling where the patient recounts certain incidents affecting his or her psycho. The, psychoanalysis is then able to offer solution to the incident and for that both of them, need language to express. Psychoanalysis is like telling and retelling stories. It is, hearing and retelling histories. When history is disrupted, another history is created., One kind of history – the preeminent form of literary narrative is novel. Roughly, speaking novel starts with autobiographies written by women in the seventeenth, 43

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century. Even though there were certain popular men novelists, vast majority of, early novels were written by the large numbers of women. These women were trying, to create a history from a state of flux – a flux in which they were feeling themselves, in the .process of becoming women in the bourgeois society. They wrote novels to, describe that process – novels – which said: ‘Here we are: women. What are our lives, to be about? Who are we? Domesticity, personal relations, personal intimacies,, stories…’ In the dominant social group, the bourgeoisie, that is essentially what a, woman’s life was to become under capitalism. The novel is that creation by the, woman of the woman, or by the subject who is in the process of becoming woman of, woman under capitalism. The novel is the best example of the way women start to, create themselves as social subjects under bourgeois and capitalism., When a society changes, its social structure and economic base changes., Literary forms arise as one of the ways in which changing subjects create themselves, as subjects within a new social context. The novel is the prime example of the way, women start to create themselves as social subjects under bourgeois capitalism –, create themselves as a category – women. The novel remains a bourgeois form., Certainly some novels represent working class women but the dominant form is, represented by the woman within the bourgeoisie. Women write novel to tell their, story of domesticity, story of their seclusion within the home and the possibilities, and impossibilities provided by that., Julia Kristeva attacks such novels as ‘the discourse of the hysteric’ Mitchell, agrees and states that women novelists must be hysteric. Hysteria is the woman’s, simultaneous acceptance and refusal of the organization of sexuality under the, patriarchal capitalism. It is simultaneously what a woman can do both to be feminine, and to refuse femininity, with a patriarchal culture. Mitchell says that there is no, such a thing as ‘female writing’, ‘a woman’s voice.’ There is the hysteric voice, which is the woman’s masculine language talking about feminine experiences. In a, novel, a novelist builds a woman’s world as created by bourgeois society and the, novelist refuses and denies the same world. A woman novelist according to Mitchell, refuses femininity but is trapped within femininity., The difference between man and woman is biological, a sex difference. But, patriarchy considers it as gender difference on the mark of the phallus. Two sexes, are said to be masculine and non-masculine. The phallus is missing in mother., 44

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Masculinity is the norm and femininity is what masculinity is not. The difference, between man and woman, therefore creates a phallocentric gap., Mitchell refers Lacan and says that sexuality is constructed as meaning., Woman’s sexuality is not related to the genital only but to the whole body., The relationship between feminism and psychoanalysis is problematic. Freud, has presented women as the problem. In classical psychoanalytical theory, female, psychosexual development is only marginally and infrequently discussed. North, American feminists believed that the concept of ‘penis envy’ developed by Freud in, his account of the female version of the ‘castration complex’ represented the, ‘misogynist bias’ of psychoanalytic theory. Though certain feminists rejected Freud, psychoanalytical theories, Mitchell and other feminists explored the same theory., They interpret Freud’s theory as a description of processes that contribute to, women’s oppression., Mitchell talks about pre-Oedipal, the semiotic, and the carnivalesque, (questioning the authority) the disruptive. A pre-Oedipal child has its own, organization of polyvalence and polyphony. It means the child has an inborn capacity, to recognize itself as different from mother. The child is one and still different from, the mother. Carnival is different from the church (law). Mitchell thinks that PreOedipal and Oedipal stages are not separate or disconnected. Mitchell disagrees with, the suggestion that carnival is the area of the feminine. Mitchell says that is only, what the patriarchal universe defines as feminine. The intuitive, religious, mystical, and the playful – all those things have been assigned to women. Woman is, heterogeneous. Woman’s sexuality is not only genital but more of a body., Mitchell talks about Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights. Mitchell says Bronte’s, writing is not ‘carnivalesque query’ to patriarchal order but phallocentric writing., The first question is ---1), , Who tells the story?, , , , Bronte’s manuscript was stolen from her and presented to a publisher by her, sister Charlotte. It was eventually published under a male pseudonym Ellis Bell., , , , The author is a woman, but published as a man., , , , She uses two narratives – a man Lockwood and the woman – the nurse (Nelly, Dean)., 45

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, , Lockwood is the parody of romantic male lover. He is foppish., , , , His romantic presentations are criticized within the novel through Isabella. For, Isabella Heathcliff, the dark romantic Gothic hero will prove to be a gentleman, beneath all his cruelly., , The tail of Heathcliff and Catherine is a story of bisexuality. It is the story of, the hysteric. Catherine’s father has promised her that he would bring her a whip., Instead he brought a fatherless gypsy child. The child is given the name Heathcliff,, the name of the brother of Catherine who had died in infancy., For the rest of her life, Catherine wants nothing but Heathcliff, she breaks the, taboo: ‘I am Heathcliff, he is more myself than I am.’ Heathcliff says the same about, Catherine. This oneness is the opposite of heterogeneity. This oneness comes only, with death. Catherine dies and haunts Heathcliff for 20 years. Heathcliff lives in the, hope of becoming one with Catherine. He dies getting back to her. ‘Oneness’ is, symbolic – it is death and has to be death., Catherine has married Edgar Linton but never felt united with him. So the novel, states two choices in front of women – either to survive by making an ambiguous, choice or go for oneness by suffering death., The novel arose as the form in which women had to construct themselves as, women within new social structure. The women novelist is necessarily the hysteric., She tries to reject the sexual differences imposed by the patriarchy. Both Freud and, Lacan identified an Oedipal stage (after 3-4 years) in the development of the child, when it becomes aware of the difference between masculine and not masculine, (Feminine). Through out the history woman is defined in relation to man and not as, an independent entity. She is always the negative (what man is not). Women, novelist can not break the shackles of patriarchy as she is a woman living in a, patriarchal society which thinks of a woman as hysterical (irrational). The novelist, has to cater the needs of the public which is mainly patriarchal., The novel starts at a point where society was in a state of flux. Mitchell asks a, puzzling question – “If today we are again talking about a type of literary criticism, about a type of text where the subject is not formed under a symbolic law, but with, what is seen as a heterogeneous area of the subject in process. I would like to end, with asking a question in the process of becoming what?, 46

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Man’s history is mainly the history of being men or women under bourgeois, capitalism. If we deconstruct the history, we have to create the other histories., When we do that, what are we in the process of becoming?, Thus Mitchell ends this speech with a question for which no rational answer is, available., In this way Mitchell in her essay “Femininity Narrative and Psychoanalysis”, describes the progression of women as writers and analyses the use of femininity, within narrative. The idea of novel written by women – being simultaneously, feminine and masculine: the strive for the female author to relate the patriarchal, society and yet still keep a feminine sexuality., Mitchell’s essay effectively brings together her four primary concerns:, Literature, Gender Politics, Psychoanalysis and Feminism. In doing so, she is, successfully able to draw parallels between the limited ability of a woman under, patriarchal construct. Instead of a radical feminist approach, Mitchell suggests while, being in a phallocentric society a woman is still able to express her femininity., , 2.2.4 Summary, Juliet Mitchell, in her essay “Femininity, Narrative and Psychoanalysis”, describes the progression of women as writers and analyzes the use of femininity, within narrative. First she explains the role of psychoanalysis on narrative through a, feminist reading; and also describes what impact this type of analysis has on a, literary text. She is dealing with novels by women; and her essay mainly with Emily, Bronte’s Withering Heights. She says that the novel is one of the ways “women, started to create themselves as social subjects under bourgeois capitalism – create, themselves as a category: women.” She goes on to say, “It’s both simultaneously the, woman novelist refused of the woman’s world – she is after all, a novelist – and her, construction from within a masculine world of that woman’s world. It touches on, both. It touches, therefore, on the importance of bisexuality.” This is one of the key, points in her essay, this idea of the novel – written by women – being simultaneously, feminine and masculine: the strive for the female author to relate to the patriarchal, society and yet still keep a feminine sexuality., 2.2.5 Key Terms, , 47

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1), , Sigmund Freud – an Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis who, stated the theory of psychosexual development in which he discussed the, concept of Oedipal complex, castration anxiety, penis envy and hysteria. Where, as other feminists criticized Freud harshly, Mitchell declares that to understand, women, feminists must study Freud’s theories seriously., , 2), , Lacan – Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) was a fresh psychoanalyst and psychiatrist., Feminist thinkers have both utilized and criticized Lacan’s concept of castration, and phallocentric analysis, , 3), , Julia Kristeva – (1941) Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, psychoanalyst and feminist., , 4), , Emily Bronte – (1818-1848) English novelist and poet who is best known for, her only novel Wuthering Heights., , 5), , Femininity – Femininity is a quality of having characteristics that are, traditionally thought to be typical or suitable for a woman., , 6), , Pre-Oedipal Phase – Initial phase, mother is the sole love item of both genders., It is the stage of psychosexual development prior to the formation of Oedipus, complex., , 7), , Hysteria – A psychoneurotic disorder characterized by violent emotional out, breaks, disturbances of sensory and motor functions and various abnormal, effects due to autosuggestion. It was considered at first entirely female disease,, associated with uterus (hysteron) and later on it was associated with brain and it, was stated that it can affect both sexes., , 8), , Phallocentric – Centered on or emphasizing the masculine view point. The, term was coined by Ernest Jones in 1927., , 9), , Carnival – A lively festival in which people enjoy, and involve in public, celebrations like parades by using colourful costumes and masks. The term, carnival came to have particular prominence for literary criticism after the, publication of Mikhail Bakhtin’s Rabelais and his World (1965). The concept, of carnival is seen as method of subversion by the black and the feminist critics,, in fact by all those who feel themselves existing on the borders of the dominant, culture. Carnival offers them a means to get equal with the oppressing and, 48

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dominant culture. Carnival stands for the disregard/challenge to the authority, which the ‘church’ represents., , 2.2.6 Check Your Progress, I), , Fill in the blanks:, 1) Mitchell’s “Femininity, Narrative and Psychoanalysis” is a transcript of a, lecture delivered to a conference in ____________, 2) Psychoanalysis is a ___________ cure., 3) ________ attacks novels written by women novelists as ‘the discourse of, the hysteric.’, 4) Freud has presented woman as ___________, 5) Bronte’s manuscript was given to the publisher by ____________, , II) Answer the following questions with one word/phrase/sentence each, 1), , Why did the women novelists write novels?, , 2), , Under which pseudo name Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights was, published?, , 3), , Who is Heathcliff?, , 4), , What are the four primary concerns of Mitchell’s essay?, , 5), , What is phallocentric?, , 2.2.7 Answers for Check Your Progress, I), , 1) 1972, Australia, , 2) talking, , 4) Problem, , 5) Charlotte Bronte, , II) 1), , 3) Julia Kristeva, , The women novelist wrote novels to describe the process of becoming, woman in the bourgeois society., , 2) A male pseudo name – Ellis Bell, 3) Heathcliff is a fatherless gipsy child brought home by Catherine’s father., 4) Four primary concerns of Mitchell’s essay – i) Literature ii) gender politics, 49

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iii) psychoanalysis iv) feminism., 5) Phallocentric is centered on or emphasizing the masculine view point., , 2.2.8 Exercises, 1), , “The novel is the best example of the way women start to create themselves as, social subjects under the bourgeois capitalism.” Explain this statement with, reference to Juliet Mitchell’s essay “Femininity, Narrative and Psychoanalysis.”, , 2), , Mitchell says Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights is not ‘carnivalesque query’ to, patriarchal order but “phallocentric writing”: Illustrate this statement with, reference to Wuthering Heights., , 3), , Critically analyze, Psychoanalysis.’, , Juliet, , Mitchell’s, , essay, , ‘Femininity, , Narrative, , and, , 2.2.9 Reference for further study, Bronte, Emily, Wuthering Heights. New York: Penguin Books, 1995, Print., Mitchell, Juliet – ‘Femininity, Narrative and Psychoanalysis’ A Modern Criticism, and Theory: A Reader. Ed. David Lodge, New Delhi, Pearson, 2003, Print P.388-392, Mitchell, Juliet – Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Assessment of Freudian, Psychoanalysis. Basic Books, 2000., 666, , 50

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Unit-3, i), , Etienne Balibar and Pierre Macherey--- ‘Literature as an Ideological, Form’ ( Essay 13 from Rice and Waugh), ii) Terry Eagleton -On Canon Formation- from Literary Theory: An, Introduction ( Essay 40 Rice and Waugh’s Modern Literary Theory A, Reader , Fourth Edition), , I), , ‘Etienne Balibar and Pierre Macherey--- ‘Literature as an Ideological, Form’( Essay 13 from Rice and Waugh), , Index :, 3.0 Objectives, 3.1 Introduction, 3.2 Critical Summary of the essay, 3.3 Conclusion, 3.4 Check Your Progress, 3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress, 3.6 Exercise, 3.7 Terms to Remember, 3.8 Reference for Further Study, , 3.0 Objectives, After studying this unit, you will be able to •, , Understand that Marxism in the1970s and 1980s was influenced and dominated, by the theories of Louis Althusser and Pierre Macherey and their theories, exhibit striking resemblances to structuralist thought., , •, , Know the concepts of ideology and interpellation., , •, , Understand the way in which literature functions in the reproduction of ideology, within the French education system., 51

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•, , See the relations between the literary texts and social reality., , •, , Understand literature as an ideological form., , •, , Know the specific complexity of literary formations., , •, , Examine fiction and realism as aspects of the mechanism of identification in, literature., , •, , Realize the aesthetic effect of literature as an ideological domination-effect., , 3.1 Introduction :, The essay “Literature as an Ideological Form”, by Etienne Balibar and Pierre, Macherey has become one of the classic statements of Structuralist Marxism., Marxism in the 1970s and 1980s was dominated for a while by the theories of Louis, Althusser and in literary criticism by the work of Pierre Macherey. While both, claimed not to be Structuralists, their theories exhibit striking resemblances to, Structuralist thought. The initial influence of Structuralist Marxism upon literary, theory centered mainly around the concept of ideology, though Althusser’s notion of, Ideological State Apparatuses and the construction (‘interpellaion’) of the human, subject also influenced much post- Structuralist theory. In Althusser’s account,, ideology reproduces subjects who are willing workers in the capitalist system., Capitalism requires not only the hands of labour, but also the willingness of workers, to subject themselves to the system—to accept the status quo---and it is here that, ideology works. This conception of ideology is what distinguished Althusser’s, Marxism from other models., For Althusser, ideology is not a matter of conscious beliefs, attitudes or values,, nor is it a matter of false consciousness (sets of false ideas imposed on individuals to, persuade them that there is no real contradiction between capital and labour), it is ,, rather, a matter of the representation of imaginary versions of the real social relations, lived by people. These imaginary versions are seen as necessary for the perpetuation, of capitalism. Ideology imposes itself not simply through consciousness or through, systems and structures. Ideology is inscribed in the representations (signs) and the, practices (rituals) of everyday life. Most importantly though, it is through ideology, that individuals are constituted as subjects, misrecognising themselves as free and, autonomous beings with unique personalities. The main agencies for the, reproduction of ideology and the subject are what Althusser calls Ideological State, 52

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Apparatuses (ISA) which might include the church, the family, the media, schools,, art, sports, and cultural activities in general., In the essay ‘Literature as an Ideological Form’, Etienne Balibar and Pierre, Macherey take up this notion of ISAS in order to examine the way in which literature, functions in the production of ideology within the French education system., Literature is seen in terms of the acquisition and distribution of what the socialist, Pierre Bourdieu has called ‘cultural capital’. However, a residue of Macherey A, Theory of Literary Production (1978) can be seen in the discussion of the relations, between the literary text and social reality., , 3.2 Critical Summary of the Essay, 3.2.1, , Literature as an Ideological Form by Etienne Balibar and Pierre, Macherey-, , Etienne Balibar and Pierre Macherey define literature as an ideological form., There is a close relation between literature and history. It is important to ‘locate’ the, production of literary effects historically as it is a part of social practices. The, relationship of ‘history’ to ‘literature’ is not like the relationship of two branches of a, tree which cannot meet or cannot come together. Literature and history are not, externally related to each other. They are in intricate relationship with each other., The historical conditions of existence of literature always remain at the base of, literature. This base affects literature. The nature of this base is crucial in, determining what kind of literature will be written by the writers in that period. It, means literature has a material basis. For instance, postcolonial critics show that the, fiction of Joseph Conrad or Rudyard Kipling is located within their historical, contexts of Britain’s colonial empire in the nineteenth and early twentieth century., But literature is not a straightforward reflection of historical condition of that period, like a mirror. It is concerned with the developing forms of an internal contradiction., Class conflict, exploitative capitalism, the domination of bourgeois class lead to the, creation of different groups and classes in the society. Their interests contradict with, interests of each other. They set in opposition. This gives us an idea of the, complexity of reflection presented in literature. Ideological forms are manifested, through the Ideological State Apparatuses which include organized religion, the law,, the political system, the educational system, art, cultural artifacts etc. They include, all institutions through which we are socialized. In Marxist usage, ideology is what, 53

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causes us to misrepresent the world to ourselves. Ideology represents the imaginary, relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence. Ideology may distort, our view of our true conditions of existence. Ideological forms do not reflect ideas, directly. They are not systems of ‘ideas’ and ‘discourses’ but they can be seen, through the workings and history of determinate practices in determinate social, relations manifested through the Ideological State Apparatuses. A literary production, cannot be separated from historical and social reality which we are able to see, through Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA). Althusser has used the term Ideological, statue Apparatus (ISA). Literature is inseparable from a given linguistic practice., French literature cannot be separated from French Language. French language is at, the root of French literature. French language and literature depend upon an, academic or schooling practice which defines both the conditions for the, consumption of literature and the conditions of its production also. French literature, is possible due to a typical historical and social reality. Thus, the objectivity of, literary production becomes inseparable from the social practice seen through ISA., Literature is part and parcel of the historical and social reality because the dominated, bourgeois treat literature as an ensemble of language., Literature is historically constituted in the bourgeois epoch as an ensemble of, language. Literature provides bourgeois fictional effects. The fictional effects, reproduce the bourgeois ideology as the dominated ideology. Hence, literature, submits to a threefold determination: linguistic, pedagogic and fictive. In the, linguistic aspect, literature must be written in a common language accepted by the, society, or it cannot be understood by the common-language-speaking society. This, common language is related to the bourgeois political practice because the agreement, of using a common language is the outcome of class struggle. Under this class, struggle, literature has to struggle to transform the production of infrastructure and, the ideological formation of superstructure. The self-contradictory characteristic of, literature thus incurs the bourgeois cultural revolution. Under the institution of class, struggle, the schooling apparatus becomes an institution to submit individual to the, dominated ideology. The language used in schooling system is divided into basic and, advanced. The basic education and advanced education of the school apparatus, reproduce the social structure of production and consumption; so, the schooling, apparatus copies the contradictory characteristic of social practice., , 54

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3.1.2, , The specific Complexity of Literary Formations- Ideological, contradictions and Linguistic Conflicts-, , Unity in a literary text is illusory and false. So one must not look for unifying, effects in it. A materialist analysis of a literary production should be done from the, point of view of its material disparity. One should look for the signs of the, contradictions which are historically determined. These disparities or contradictions, are responsible for the production of literary texts. These contradictions appear as, unevenly resolved conflicts in the text., The materialist analysis of literature looks for the determinant contradictions. It, rejects the notion of the ‘the word’. The signs or language of the text is responsible, for the illusory presentation of the unity of a text, its totality, self-sufficiency and, perfection. The author becomes part of ideology. The work or text is produced in, such a way that it reads like a finished work. It has its own order. It expresses a, subjective theme or the spirit of the age. But in reality, the text cannot be called, successful or complete in the real sense of the term. It is materially incomplete,, disparate and diffuse as it is the result of the conflicting contradictory effect of, superimposing real processes. Conflicts or contradictions which give birth to a text, cannot be abolished in it except in an imaginary way., Literature is produced ultimately through the effect of ideological, contradictions. Contradictions cannot be resolved within ideology. Contradictory, class positions are irreconcilable. Contradictory class positions are the results of the, ideological class struggle. Interests of the dominant class and low class clash. They, look at matters of money, religion, judiciary and politics from their own point of, view. We cannot notice class struggle here in these matters. Their ideology is, different. It is not easy to locate ideological positions of these classes in literary, production or in a text. It is pointless to see the original bare discourse of these, ideological positions in texts. Ideological positions can only appear in a form which, provides their imaginary solution. Literary texts displace them by substituting, imaginary contradictions soluble within the ideological practice of religion, politics,, morality, aesthetics and psychology. Thus literature begins with the imaginary, solution of implacable ideological contradictions with the representation of that, solution. It is a result of various displacements and substitutions. Literature is meant, for solution. Literature consists of contradictory ideological elements which are put, 55

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in a special language. It is a language of ‘compromise’. It gives us idea of, forthcoming conciliation or solution. The conciliation in literary text appears to be, natural as it is clothed in a language of ‘compromise’. As a part of literature,, resolution is necessary and inevitable., , 3.1.3 Fiction and Realism: The Mechanism of Identification in LiteratureBertold Brecht was the first Marxist theoretician to focus on the concept of, identification effect. The ideological effects of literature materialize via an, identification process between the reader and the hero or anti-hero. In case of drama, or theatre, ideological effects come into reality or take place through an identification, process between the audience and the dramatic personages. The process of, identification is dependent on the formation and recognition of the individual as, ‘subject’. As Althusser mentions in his essay ‘Ideology and Ideological State, Apparatuses’, all ideology must interpellate individuals as subjects. In such a, condition they can see themselves with their rights and duties. Each ideology has its, specific mode means it has its favorite forms and nomenclature or terms and, concepts. In literature we have authors, works with titles, readers and characters. The, readers interpolate what is presented in the form of ideology in that work. The reader, becomes subject. He or She identifies with the central character or characters. The, ideology appeals to the reader., We should know what is specifically ‘fictional’ about literature. Literature is not, fiction but it is the production of a certain reality. Literature can be called the, production of a material reality and of a certain social effect. Literature is the, production of fictions. In other words, we can say it is the production of fiction, effects. It is the provider of the material means for the production of fiction effects., According to Balibar and Macherey literature cannot provide a ‘realist’, production of the life of a given society. It cannot be called a straight mirroring of the, life of a given society. But they accept the view that literature or texts do produce a, reality- effect. They further add that a text produces at one and the same time a, reality- effect and a fiction-effect. A text can be read or interpreted on the basis of its, reality-effects and fiction- effects. It is always interpreted on the basis of its dualism, in terms of reality-effect and fiction-effect., Fiction and realism are the notions produced by literature. They are not the, concepts for the production of literature. The real referent ‘outside’ the discourse, 56

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which both fiction and realism presuppose functions as an effect of the discourse., The literary discourse itself institutes and projects the presence of the ‘real’ in the, manner of a hallucination. This point can be explained with the help of an example., The French Education system is organized around a particular nationally unifying, language without which, for example, French literature evidently could not exist., However this national language is a ‘contradictory ensemble’ because it is the, historical outcome of particular class struggles that culminated in the ascent to power, of bourgeois which to cement or strengthen its hold on power, had to transform not, just the base but also the superstructure in order to make its own ideology the, dominant one. The ‘school apparatus’ became the primary means of enforcing, submission to their ideology via a division of the education system into basic or, elementary and advanced or higher education. This two tier system introduced, students to different types of education. The elementary one introduced students to, the mere basics of linguistic interpretation and the higher education introduced, students to more sophisticated literary uses of language. This two tier system of, educated reproduces the social division of a society based on the sale and purchase, individual labour-power while ensuring the dominance of bourgeois ideology, through asserting a specifically national unity. Thus under the institution of class, struggle, the schooling apparatus becomes an institution to submit individual to the, dominated ideology. The schooling apparatus copies the contradictory characteristic, of social practice. The division in schooling, which reproduces the division of society, into social classes, is veiled by the assertion of a pseudo-egalitarian national, community. So a linguistic division emerges between different practices of the same, national language. There will be only basic, rudimentary exercises and reporting of, reality in the first division. There will be advanced exercises of comprehension and, creative work in higher education. Within the primary schools, the sons and, daughters of the lower classes receive their education in the national language in the, form of an administered grammar, a set of normal rules learned mechanically from, texts. While the generative schema of this grammar is retained to be taught in the, secondary schools which are populated primarily by the children of the bourgeoisie., Because education for the dominated does not result in mastery of the linguistic, code, it imposes an effect of submission on all individuals educated at the primary, level- the level of instruction of the future exploited classes. Education for the, privileged minority founded on the active mastery of language produces a classbased effect of dominance., 57

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In a study of ‘modern’ French literary texts, R.Balibar refers to the production of, ‘imaginary French’. It is the language used by the author and the characters in the, form of usages, syntax and vocabulary. The characters in literary texts make an, imaginary discourse in an imaginary language. It is a case of expressions which, always diverse in one or more salient details from those used in practice outside the, literary discourse. It means literary French is different from ordinary French, Language used in day-to-day life. Both of them are grammatically ‘correct’., Linguistic expressions in literary French are linguistic ‘compromise formations’., There is compromising between usages which are socially contradictory in practice, and hence literary language and ordinary language mutually exclude each other. In, these compromise formations there are recognizable forms of expressions which, appear to be taken from or based on ordinary language taught in elementary schools, as the ‘pure and simple’ expressions of ‘reality’. The use of linguistic expressions, from ordinary language produces the effect of ‘naturalness’ and ‘reality’. But use of, ordinary language is minimal. It means modern literary French texts depend on, imaginary French. They produce the imaginary referent of an elusive reality., There is reason for the practice. The basic mechanism at work in these texts is, the unconscious reconciliation, or more properly the imaginary or fictional, reconciliation of the contradiction between ‘elementary’ French, the language of the, primary schools and the literary or ‘fictive’ French of the secondary schools. Literary, texts are essentially sublimations of the conflicts lived out in the practice of, language., It is the particular function of literature to resolve, through sublimation and by, the production of a unique linguistic form, the insoluble contradictions existing in, other ideological formations and other related social practices – specifically,, contradictions stemming from existence, in the schools, of antagonistic linguistic, practices- so as to render them soluble in non-literary ideological discourses, (Philosophy, Politics, Religion and so forth). The literary text constitutes a language, of compromise proclaiming otherwise irreconcilable class positions to be their own, imaginary solution., Literary texts unconsciously reproduce the original operation by which, elementary French is dominated by advanced French. It is the process in which the, advanced French incorporates the elementary French. It is visible. The literary, language transcends the ordinary language by unusual usages and creative, 58

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constructions. This process of incorporation and transcendence is accomplished in, one and the same national language. One is dominated by another. The existence of, domination is disguised. It is the result of ideological effect. Balibar calls it a, ‘Compromise Formation’. This literary practice constitutes an operation of masking, and unification. This literary practice tries to heal class and ideological contradictions, inscribed within linguistic practice itself., Bertolt Brecht, a revolutionary and materialistic dramatist throws light on the, ideological effect of identification produced by literary texts. He has developed the, concept of alienation effect. From Aristotle to Coleridge, Hegel to T.S Eliot, literary, criticism has tended to conceive of the literary work as an achieved unity, often of an, organic or ‘spontaneous’ kind. But Marxist criticism regards it as a misleading, and, potentially mystifying, account of the nature of literary texts. Emphasis has shifted, instead to the multiple, conflicting and uneven character of such texts which may, well attempt to resolve into harmony, the materials which nevertheless remain, stubbornly various and irreducible. According to Marxist Criticism all the literary, texts, like all ideological practices, seek an imaginary reconciliation of real, contradictions. But in its striving for such unity, a literary work may paradoxically, begin to highlight its limits, throwing into relief those irresoluble problems or, incompatible interests which nothing short of an historical transformation could, adequately tackle. Thus a literary text may find itself twisting into incoherence or, self–contradiction, struggling unsuccessfully to unify its conflicting elements., The critics Macherey and Balibar state that there is identification of one subject, with another. There are only ever subjects through the interpellation of the individual, into a subject by a subject who names him. Through the endless functioning of its, texts, literature unceasingly ‘produces’ subjects, on display for everyone. Literature, endlessly transforms individuals into subjects and endows them with a quasi-real, hallucinatory individuality. The bourgeois ideology is always at work in this process., The realistic effect is the basis of this interpellation which makes characters or, merely discourse ‘live’ and which makes readers take up an attitude towards, imaginary struggles as they would towards real ones. We can make the above point, clear. Althusser’s definition of ideology and his concept of interpellation can help us, to make this clear. According to Althusser ideology addresses us in a certain role and, draws us into a conspiracy that is ultimately aimed at ourselves. Althusser says we, only experience ourselves as complete individuals (‘concrete subjects’) through the, 59

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interpellation of ideology. Ideology is inescapable because it is what actually gives, us what we experience as our individuality. When we accept the role as natural we, have become ‘subjects within ideology. The problem of course is that we see, ourselves as having voluntarily chosen the role, that we are free and that it is natural., This precisely is how ideology works by naturalizing our constructed roles. This, construction of subjects through ideology is what Althusser termed interpellation., Interpellation is the process of consenting to ideology, accepting it, and not being, aware of it. It makes the subject believe that s/he is an independent being and not a, subject at all controlled by outside forces. In other words ideology interpellates the, individual as a subject but makes him/her believe he/she is a free agent. Identification, effect can be seen through the author, characters, readers and abstract subjects., , 3.1.4 The Aesthetic Effect of Literature as Ideological Domination–effectThe aesthetic effect of literature is an ideological domination effect. In the, material point of view, the effects of literature are socially produced in the, determined material process. Consequently, the effects of literature are the material, outcome and particular ideological effects. This effect is the text per se. Through, different modes of reading, the reading of the text becomes the pure ‘pleasure’ of, letters. The function of interpretation and commentaries is to discover the hidden, aesthetic effect of literature. Criticism has to look at the text as a discourse of, ideology. The primary materials of literary texts are different kinds of ideological, contradictions. Through the ideological discourse caused by the contradiction of, different ideology, the individual obtains the appropriate ideology for him., Therefore, aesthetic effect becomes the strategy of domination because it submits the, individual to the dominant ideology. Thus the raw material of a literary text is, transformed into an ideology. One can notice ideological contradictions in it as it is, the result of class conflict. Readers can notice the dominant ideology in aesthetic,, moral, political, religious and literary discourses. It is also marked by hegemony. It, enables individuals to appropriate ideology and makes themselves its ‘free bearers’, and even its free actors. The dominant ideology in the literary text is invested as the, aesthetic effect in the form of a work of art. The ideology of bourgeois society is, inserted in the text in such a way that it does seem a mechanical imposition on, individuals. But it appears as if it is offered for interpretations, a free choice, for the, subjective private use of individuals. It is the privileged agent of ideological, subjection, in the democratic and ‘critical’ form of ‘freedom of thought’. The, 60

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aesthetic effect is inevitably an effect of domination. There is the subjection of, individuals to the dominant ideology, the dominance of the ideology of the ruling, class., The aesthetic effect of dominant ideology is uneven on the individual readers. It, affects the educated dominant class in one way and it affects the low class people, differently. The low class people undergo the experience of subjection. These, exploited classes find in reading nothing but the confirmation of their inferiority., Balibar and Macherey comment that the uneven effect of dominant ideology in, literary texts is implicit in the very production of the literary effect and it is, materially inscribed in the constitution of the text. It is the result of the linguistic, conflict in its determinant place which produced the literary text and which opposes, two antagonistic usages, equal but inseparable of the common language: on one side, ‘literary’ French which is studied in higher education and on the other ‘basic,, ordinary’ French kept at lower level. The ordinary French is ‘basic’ only by reason of, its unequal relation to the literary French. The literary French is not natural. Yet it is, given priority in the higher education. It is the part of the policy of domination of, bourgeois class., Literature functions as an integral part of class-based domination in the schools., Given the class contradiction within schools between two linguistic practices (basic, and advanced), there is an over determined tendency for literary practice to, reproduce this contradiction while masking it. If literature is able to serve, indeed, must serve in the primary school as the means to fabricate and at the same time,, dominate, isolate, and repress the elementary French of the dominated classes, it is, on the condition that elementary French is itself present, in literature, as one of the, terms of its constitutive contradiction, more or less deformed and masked, but also, necessarily betrayed and exhibited in fictional reconstructions. And this is the case, because the literary French realized in the literary texts is both distinct from the, ‘common language’ (and opposed to it) and internal to it. In its constitution and its, historical evolution within the educational system, literary French has been, determined by the material requirements of a developing bourgeois society. This is, why we are able to affirm that the place of literature in the educational process is, only inverse of the place of the education process in literature. It is the structure of, and historical function of the school, the truly dominant ideological state apparatus,, which constitutes the base of the literary effect. Thus the literary effect is always an, 61

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effect of domination: the subjection of individuals to the dominant ideology and the, domination of the ideology of dominant class. The writers depend on literary ‘style’, and linguistic forms of compromise to acquire aesthetic effect., , 3.3 Conclusion, The present essay can be considered as the refinement of the Marxist approach, to criticism in line with Post-Sassurean developments in linguistic theory. The, authors take a different position from that taken in A Theory of Literary Production., The essay indicates Althusser’s influence on them. It is influenced by Althusser’s, views on ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses. Baliber and Macherey think, that all ideologies are material practices. Ideologies are textually realized within, determinate institutional practices e.g. an education system or a particular mode of, literary production. So their source is far less important than their effect. These two, critics disapprove the traditional Marxist view of literature, which states that, literature is a reflection of objective or material reality. They think that this notion of, reflection must be rethought., Balibar and Macherey assert that literature is socially and historically imbricated, as the history of literature is not distinct from social and political history. According, to them, the French Education system is organized around a particular nationally, unifying language without which French Literature evidently could not exist., However, this national language is a ‘contradictory ensemble’ because it is the, historical outcome of particular class struggles that culminated in the ascent to power, of bourgeois which to strengthen its hold on power, had to transform not just the base, but also the super-structure in order to make its own ideology the dominant one. The, school apparatus became the primary means of enforcing submission to their, ideology via a division of the education system into ‘basic’ and ‘advanced’ or ‘higher, education’., This system by introducing students to the mere basics of linguistic, interpretation and more sophisticated literary uses of language respectively, reproduces the social division of a society based on the sale and purchase of, individual labour-power. It ensures the dominance of bourgeois ideology by asserting, a specifically national unity., Balibar and Macherey emphatically put forward the idea that the very stuff of, literature is the class struggles encoded by language. Contradictory class positions, 62

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determine related ideological conflicts. The conflicting ideological positions are not, found there in literature in their original bare form. They appear in a form designed, to provide their imaginary solution. Balibar and Macherey further add that, ideological effects of literature materialize via an identification process between the, reader or the audience and the hero or anti-hero. This leads to the simultaneous, mutual constitution of the fictive ‘consciousness’ of the character with the, ideological ‘consciousness’ of the reader. Characterization is the most potent weapon, at the disposal of interpellation. Literature unceasingly produces subjects, on display, for everyone endlessly transforming individuals into subjects and enduring them with, a quasi-real hallucinatory individuality. It means literature cannot be called a, reflection of life but it is the production of a certain reality. It is the production of a, certain social effect. Life is less the source of literature or text. Life can be called an, effect of the discourse. The referent outside the text or discourse has no function here, as a non-literary, non discursive anchoring point predating the text. Reality-effect can, be treated as the basis of this interpellation which makes characters or merely, discourse live and which makes readers take up an attitude towards imaginary, struggles as they would towards real ones. According to Balibar and Macherey,, literature is both product and perpetrator of social contradictions. Its raw material, consists in linguistically realized ideological contradictions which are not specifically, literary but political, religious, etc. that is, contradictory ideological realizations of, determinate class positions in the class struggle. Authors make use of literary, language, experimentation to achieve ideological domination-effect., , 3.4 I) Check Your Progress, A) Answer the following questions in one word /phrase/sentence each:, 1., , What constitutes the definition of literature as an ideological form?, , 2., , It is said that ideological forms are manifested through the workings and, history of determinate practices in determinate social relations. What does, Althusser call these determinate practices in determinate social relations?, , 3., , What is the impact of the material anchoring points on literature?, , 4., , What has the bourgeois class to do to achieve hegemony?, , 5., , What is the first principle of materialist analysis?, , 6., , Why is text called materially incomplete, disparate and diffuse?, 63

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7., , In which type of language are the contradictory ideological elements, enunciated in literature?, , 8., , Name the first Marxist theoretician who focused on showing how, ideological effects of literature materialize via an identification process, between the reader or audience and the hero or anti-hero., , 9., , Which effects are produced by literature simultaneously?, , 10. How does the aesthetic effect come into being under the condition of, ideological subjection?, , 3.4: II Check Your Progress, Choose the correct alternative, 1), , 2), , 3), , 4), , 5), , Ideological forms are manifested through the workings and history of, determinate practices in determinate social relations, what --------- calls the, ideological State Apparatus (ISA), a) Etienne Balibar, , b) Pierre Macherey, , c) Louis Althusser, , d) G. Flaubert, , To achieve hegemony, the bourgeois class has to transform ------- and this, transformation is called the bourgeois ‘cultural revolution’., a) The base, , b) the superstructure, , c) The language, , d) the base and the superstructure, , According to the Marxist critics, the unity in literary texts is ------a) based on reality, , b) illusory and false, , c) not against material disparity, , d) without cracks in it., , Madame Bovary is written by --------a) L. Althusser, , b) Gustave Flaubert, , c) Virgina Woolf, , d) Michel Foucault, , -------- is marked by experimentation., a) Literary French, , b) Ordinary French, 64

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c) dialectal French, , d) Old French, , 3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress- I, 1., , The internal relationship of contradiction between literature and history., , 2., , The Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA), , 3., , They make literature a historic and social reality., , 4., , Transform the base and superstructure, the ideological formations., , 5., , Literary productions must be studied from their material disparity and not from, the stand point of their unity., , 6., , Because it is the outcome of the conflicting contradictory effect of, superimposing real processes., , 7., , In a language of ‘Compromise’., , 8., , Bertolt Brechet, , 9., , A reality- effect and a fiction-effect., , 10. Aesthetic effect is an effect of domination: the subjection of individuals to the, dominant ideology, the dominance of the ideology of the ruling class., Answers to Check Your Progress II, 1) Louis Althusser, , 2) the base and the superstructure, , 3) illusory and false, , 4) Gustave Flaubert, , 5) Literary French, , 3.6 Exercises, A., , Answer the following questions in detail :, 1., , Discuss literature as an ideological form with reference to the essay by, Etienne Balibar and Pierre Bacherey., , 2., , Write a detailed note on the specific complexity of literary formations –, ideological contradictions and linguistic conflicts., , 3., , Comment on the phenomenon of the mechanism of identification in, literature., 65

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B., , Write short notes:, , 1., , The aesthetic effect of literature as ideological Domination effect., , 2., , Ideological State Apparatuses, , 3., , Contradiction between common language and literary language., , 3.7 Terms to Remember, 1., , Ideology –A set of beliefs that people consciously hold-belief of which they are, aware and which they can articulate. For Marxists, however, the term is much, more encompassing., In Marxist usage, ideology is what causes us to misrepresent the world to, ourselves., , 2., , False Consciousness – For Marxists, ideology is not so much a set of beliefs or, assumptions that we are aware of, but it is that which makes us experience our, life in a certain way and makes us believe in dominant ideology. In so doing, ideology distorts reality in one way or another and falsely presents as natural, and harmonious what is artificial and contradictory. If we succumb to ideology, we live in an illusory world in what in Marxism has often been described as a, state of false consciousness, , 3., , Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) - For Althusser ideology works through socalled Ideological State Apparatuses which are all subject to the ruling ideology., Althusser’s Ideological State Apparatuses include organized religion, the law,, the political system, the education system – in short, all the institutions through, which we are socialized., , 4., , Hegemony – Hegemony is the domination of particular sections of society by, the powerful classes not necessarily through threats of violence or the law but, by winning their consent to be governed and dominated. Hegemony works less, through coercion than through consent., , 5., , Interpellation- Interpellation is the process of consenting to ideology, accepting, it and not being aware of it. It makes the subject believe that s/he is an, independent being and not a subject at all controlled by outside forces. In other, words, ideology interpellates the individual as a subject but makes her/him, believe s/he is a free agent., 66

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6., , The bourgeoisie – People of upper classes, the owners of the means of material, production as against the working class, the proletariat., , 7., , The base and superstructure – The base refers to the economic system of the, given period of a given time. The term superstructure indicates its politics,, religion, art and philosophy and ideology., , 8., , Identification effect - The simultaneous mutual constitution of the fictive, ‘consciousness’ of the character with the ideological consciousness of the, reader. Any process of identification is dependent on the construction and, recognition of the individual as ‘subject’. Ideological effects of literature, materialize via an identification process between the reader or the audience and, the hero or anti-hero., , 3.8 Books for Further Reading, 1., , Macherey , Pierre (1978) A Theory of Literary Production, London: Rout ledge, (1966), , 2., , Eagleton, Terry (1985) Criticism and Ideology : A Study in Marxist Literary, Theory (1975), , 3., , Eagleton, Terry (1991) Ideology : An Introduction, London and New York:, Verso., , 4., , Slaughter, Cliff. Marxism, Ideology and Literature, London 1980., , 5., , Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism, London, 1976., , 67

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II, , Terry Eagleton -On Canon Formation- from Literary Theory: An, Introduction ( Essay 40 Rice and Waugh’s Modern Literary Theory A, Reader , Fourth Edition), , Index :, 3.0 Objectives, 3.1 Introduction, 3.2 Critical Summary of the essay, 3.3 Conclusion, 3.4 Check Your Progress, 3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress, 3.6 Exercise, 3.7 Terms to Remember, 3.8 Reference for Further Study, , 3.0 Objectives, After studying this unit, you will be able to ---•, , Know a branch of traditional criticism which is called the idealist aesthetics, and also the concept of canonical texts., , •, , Understand the background of the theory revolution., , •, , Get the idea that the canon is an ideological formation., , •, , Realize that literature is an aspect and production of broader ideological, politics., , •, , Understand that values are transitive and the canon is a construct., , •, , Know that literature is a highly valued kind of writing and it is not valuable, in itself., , •, , Come to know that evaluation of a literary text undergoes change as, literature is an unstable affair., 68

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•, , Understand that value-judgements themselves have a close relation to social, ideologies., , 3.1 Introduction, Literary criticism before the ‘theory revolution’ of the 1970s can be called the, idealist aesthetics. This criticism claimed that aesthetic values are essential and, universal. These values get reflected in a fundamentally stable canon of great works, of art. Canon is a list of books for required study. Canon is the only entity unique to, the discipline of English literature. The canon is treated as an instrument of, measurement. Values can be intuited in a subliminal way. Aesthetic values inhere in, the formal and structural complexity unique to works of high art and which guarantee, its endless interpretability. A range of meanings can be attributed to canonical texts, in different ages. But the essential trans-historical aesthetic value remains stable,, according to the supporters of the idealist aesthetics. These critics say that form,, structure and language are part and parcel of a great work of art. Harold Bloom can, be called the exponent of the idealist aesthetics., The exponents of the theory revolution challenge the very theory of canonicity, and the literary value put forward by adherents of the idealistic aesthetics. The, supporters of the theory of revolution claim that the distinction between ‘high’ and, ‘popular’ art forms is based on ideology. This distinction is artificial. The, development of feminist, Marxist, post-colonialist, new historicist, post modernist, and cultural materialist theory have contributed to an explosion of identities of high, art. These critics believe in the theory of cultural relativism and in the development, of alternative artistic forms around new technologies. These new schools of criticism, have given rise to a variety of materialist accounts of canonicity. The critics of these, schools think that the canon is an ideological formation. It is linked with relations of, power within institutions which are seen to regulate cultural value and taste., Terry Eagleton is known for his book Literary Theory: An Introduction (1983)., He is of the view that literature is an institutionalized part of the modern state and the, capitalist economy. He treats literature as an aspect and productive of broader, ideological politics. According to Eagleton, the critical theory should expose critique, and challenge dominant values. It should reveal the ways in which literature is a, chimerical entity. In other words, literature cannot be placed in an objective or, subjective category. It can be looked at as a structure of values which are transitive, 69

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and always in the process of production and reproduction. Eagleton dares to state that, works of Shakespeare may lose their relevance in a particular cultural context. A, future society may not derive any sense of value from his works. He further is not, ready to make distinction between facts and value judgments. He states that interests, are constitutive of knowledge and beliefs are bound up with the reproduction of, social power. Eagleton is of the view that the canon is a construct. It is a provisional, structure of value reflecting vested interests and struggles over cultural authority., According to him literature itself is a transitive category with no essential core., , 3.2 Critical Summary, The writings of Lamb, Macaulay and Mill are treated as literature, because their, literature is an example of ‘fine writing’ or ‘good writing’. But writings of Bentham,, Marx and Darwin are not considered as examples of literature because their writings, are not the specimen of ‘fine writing’. Most people think that literature writing, should be good. People make distinction between ‘good literature’ and ‘bad, literature’. But they overrate some writers of literature. Value –judgements seem to, have a lot to do with what is judged literature and what is not literature. By and large, people expect that writing has to be ‘fine’ to be of the kind that is judged fine. The, term fine writing or belles lettres is ambiguous in the sense that it is generally highly, regarded. But it does not indicate that a particular specimen of it is good., We can appreciate the notion that literature is a highly valued kind of writing., But it does not mean that literature is objective. It cannot be treated as a category of, writing being eternally given and immutable. It cannot be regarded an unalterable, and unquestionable kind of writing. If we view literature from this point of view then, Shakespeare will cease to be literature. The study of literature is not the study of, stable and well-defined entity. In literature some kind of writing is more objective, and some specimens of literature are more fictional. So it is said that literature in the, sense of a set of works of assured and unalterable value, distinguished by certain, shared inherent properties, does not exist. It means literature means different things, to people of different ages, places and cultures. So it is interrupted differently. It, appeals to the people differently., Literature is defined as highly valued writing. It is not a stable entity because, value-judgments are notoriously variable or changeable. It is not true that values do, not change. In course of time, people begin to look at values differently. Now-a-days, 70

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we do not believe in killing off infirm infants. We do not put the mentally ill on, public show. It may also happen that a work of philosophy in one century may be, treated as literature in the next century or it may happen the other way round. People, may change their minds about what writing they consider valuable. They may even, change their minds about the grounds they use for judging what is valuable and what, is not. They make distinction between superior and inferior type of writing in, literature. Terry Eagleton is of the view that ‘literary canon’ has to be recognized as a, construct. It is fashioned by particular people for particulars reasons at a certain time., Eagleton adds that a literary work or tradition is not valuable in itself. According to, him ‘value’ is a transitive term. A transitive term means whatever is valued by, certain people in specific situations, according to particular criteria and in the light of, given purposes., Eagleton gives example of Shakespeare to prove his point of the statement that, ‘value’ is a transitive term. It is quite possible that history may change in future., Shakespeare was appreciated by his contemporaries. He is liked by the people in the, society after him. But we cannot deny the possibility that we may in the future, produce a society which was unable to get anything at all out of Shakespeare. People, might find his work alien, full of styles of thought and feelings which such a society, found limited or irrelevant. In short, in such a situation Shakespeare would be no, more valuable than much present-day graffiti. Eagleton gives another example. He, says Karl Marx failed to understand why ancient Greek art retained an ‘eternal, charm’. The historical and social context has changed but still people read the Greek, tragedies with great interest. Eagleton is of the view that we cannot definitely say, Greek tragedy will remain ‘eternally’ charming as history has not yet ended., Eagleton argues further people in the past appreciated Greek tragedy for different, reasons. Their concerns were utterly remote from our own. Nowadays people read, Greek tragedies in the light of our own pre-occupations. If people do not find, reflection of their concerns and problems in these works they may cease to read these, works., According to Terry Eagleton literary works are interpreted to some extent in the, light of ‘our own concerns’ though certain works of literature seem to retain their, value across the centuries. We share many pre-occupations with the work itself. But, it does not mean all the people value the same work in the same manner. People do, not value the same work in the same manner in all the ages. Nowadays people read, 71

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Homer and they read Shakespeare. But they are not identical with the Homer of the, Middle Ages and the Shakespeare of his contemporaries. It means that different, historical periods have constructed a ‘different’ Homer and Shakespeare for their, own purposes. In other words, people of different periods value or devalue different, elements from the text of these writers. So it can be said that all literary works are, ‘rewritten’ if only unconsciously by the societies which read them. There is no, reading of a work which is not also a‘re-writing’. Different elements are highlighted, or undermined by these people. So evaluation of a literary text undergoes change., Terry Eagleton comments in this context that literature is a notably unstable affair. A, canonical text appeals differently to people of different ages., Literature is an unstable affair. It is not the result of value judgments which are, ‘subjective’. A work of literature contains factual knowledge and values. Facts are, public and unimpeachable. Values are private and gratuitous. Solid facts and, arbitrary value-judgments are interrelated. Facts get affected due to the unconscious, system of value-judgments. Tourist guides give information and description of places, and historical events. They make descriptive statements based on solid facts. But, their information and description cannot be free from value-judgments. Factual, pronouncements and statements of facts are based on value-judgments. Eagleton, adds that phatic act of communication is also not free from value-judgements. The, speakers have their own intentions and interests behind the presentation of the factual, knowledge. There is no possibility of wholly disinterested statements. Statements are, always value-laden. So Eagleton says all of our descriptive statements move within, an often invisible network of value-categories, and indeed without such categories, we would have nothing to say to each other at all. Factual knowledge is mostly, distorted by particular interests and judgments. Without particular interest we would, have no knowledge at all. We would not bother to get to know anything without our, interest in that matter. Eagleton comments interests are constitutive of our, knowledge. The statement that knowledge should be ‘value-free’ is itself a valuejudgment. In short, value- judgements affect our demonstration of knowledge of, facts., The base of our value-judgments is our ideology. Ideology can be defined as the, ways in which what we see and believe connects with the power-structure and, power-relations of the society we live in. Ideology is deeply ingrained in us. Ideology, means more particularly those modes of feeling, valuing, perceiving and believing, 72

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which have some kind of relation to the maintenance and reproduction of social, power. Structure of values is a part of ideology. Structure of values informs and, underlies our factual statements., Literary production is a part and parcel of socio-political, cultural and historical, situation of that period. The value-judgments by which literature is constituted are, historically variable. These value-judgments themselves have a close relation to, social ideologies. Terry Eagleton has cited an example to prove his point. It is taken, from I.A. Richard’s Practical Criticism (1929). I.A.Richards gave his, undergraduates a set of poems. He did not disclose the title and the author‘s name., He asked them to evaluate the poems on the pages. I.A.Richards was shocked to read, the resulting judgements as they were highly variable. Time honoured poets were, marked down and obscure authors were celebrated by the students., Terry Eagleton gives the explanation of these resulting judgements. He is of the, view that a consensus of unconscious valuations underlies these particular, differences of opinion. According to him the habits of students and interpretation of, these students are responsible for the resulting value judgements. What they expect, literature to be, what assumptions they bring to a poem, and what fulfillments they, anticipate they will derive from it, are at the roots of their evaluation of those poems., The students were young, white, upper or upper middle class; privately educated, English people of the 1920s.How they responded to a poem depended a lot on their, socio-cultural background and the historical period in which they lived. Their, broader prejudices and beliefs were more responsible than the literally factors for the, way in which they critically responded to those poems. So they should not be blamed, for their critical response. Terry Eagleton says there is no critical response which is, free from its background and ideology of the reader. There is no such thing as a, ‘pure’ literary critical judgement or interpretation. One has to take into account, context of interest of the reader. As literature is embedded in its context, so is the, reader who cannot be free from his ideology where he tries to evaluate a work of art., One has to recognize fully that local, subjective differences of evaluation work, within a particular, socially structured way of perceiving the world. Literature is not, an objective, descriptive category. There is nothing at all whimsical about valuejudgments. They have their roots in deeper structures of belief. They are historically, variable. Value-judgments themselves have a close relation to social ideologies., Value judgments refer in the end to private taste and to the assumptions by which, 73

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certain social groups exercise and maintain power over others. Canonicity, valuejudgments and ideology are interlinked., , 3.3 Conclusion, Value-judgments seem to have a lot to do with what is judged literature and, what is not literature. Literature is a highly valued kind of writing. We cannot think, of literature as a category which is ‘objective’. It is not a stable and well definable, entity. We cannot say literature is a set works of assured and unalterable value and, with certain shared inherent properties. A literary work may ‘mean’ different things, to different people at different times. Meanings of a work are not stable because, meanings are the products of language, which always has something slippery about, it. Meaning of a text is always historical. The meaning of language is a social matter., The meaning of a literary work is never exhausted by the intentions of its author. As, the work passes from one cultural or historical context to another, new meaning may, be culled or derived from the text. This meaning perhaps may not have anticipated by, its author or contemporary audience. All interpretation is situational, shaped and, constrained by the historically relative criteria of a particular culture. There is no, possibility of knowing the literary text as it is. But critics judge a text on the basis of, the ideology which is dominant, according to them. Literature is a highly valued, writing. Value-judgments are notoriously variable. ‘Literary canon’ has to be, recognized as a construct. It is fashioned by particular people for particular reasons at, a certain time. A literary work is not valuable in itself. Value is a transitive term. A, literary work of tradition is valued by certain people in specific situation, according, to particular criteria and in the light of given purposes. We always interpret literary, works to some extent in the light of our own concerns. We read writers from earlier, period in our own context. In this sense all literary works are re-written. So Eagleton, says there is no reading of a work which is not also a‘re-writing’. Thus literature is a, notably unstable affair. Facts and factual knowledge is affected by our values. There, is no possibility of wholly disinterested statements. Knowledge cannot be value free, when it is stated. Interests are constitutive of our knowledge. Structure of values, informs and underlies our factual statements. Ideology influences both the production, of literature and evaluation of literature. Value-judgements and ideology are at the, root of canonicity. He gives the example of I.A.Richard’s Practical Criticism (1929), to prove his point., 74

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3.4 i) Check your Progress- I, Q.1 Answer the following questions in one word/phrase/sentence each:, 1), , Why are Lamb, Macaulay and Mill, treated as writers of literature,, according to Terry Eagleton?, , 2), , According to Terry Eagleton, which judgments would certainly seem to, have a lot to do with what is judged literature?, , 3), , What is the implication of the definition of literature as a highly valued, writing?, , 4), , Why is ‘literary canon’ recognized as a ‘construct’?, , 5), , Who is troubled by the question of why ancient Greek art retained an, ‘eternal charm’?, , 6), , What is called ‘phatic’ in the act of communication?, , 7), , Who is the author of ‘Practical Criticism’ (1929)?, , 8), , What is the result of evaluation that I,A,Richards’ undergraduates make of, set of poems?, , 9), , How was the social background of the participants in I, A,Richards’, experiment?, , 10) What is at the root of value judgements?, ii) Check your progress --II, Choose the correct alternative:, 1), , By and large people term…………..writing which they think is good., a) ‘novel’, , 2), , c) ‘literature’, , d) ‘ non-poetic’, , ‘Belles-lettres’ means literary studies and writings. It is a …………..word., a) French, , 3), , b) ‘ poetic’, , b) English, , c) Spanish, , d) German, , Any belief that the study of literature is the study of a stable, well- definable, entity can be abandoned as …………..., a) a fact, , b) a chimera, , c) a unicorn, 75, , d) a far-fetched idea

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4), , Times change and values also change. So canonical texts are received on the, basis of different values in different historical periods. The above statements, mean …………..., a) Literature, in the sense of a set of works of absurd and unalterable value,, distinguished by certain shared inherent properties, doesn’t exist., , 5), , b), , Canonical texts have eternal charm., , c), , We do not read classics in the light of our own preoccupations., , d), , What counts as literature is a notably stable affair., , You can judge literary ‘greatness’ and ‘centrality’ by bringing a focused, attentiveness to bear on poems or pieces of prose isolated from their cultural and, historical contexts. This method is applicable to ……………., a) Practical criticism, , b) Marxist criticism, , c) Archetypal criticism, , d) Structural criticism, , 3.5 i) Answers to check your progress -I, 1), , These three writers are examples of ‘fine writing’., , 2), , Value judgements., , 3), , Literature is not a stable entity and value-judgements are notoriously, variable., , 4), , Because it is fashioned by particular people for particular reasons at a, certain time., , 5), , Karl Marx., , 6), , A concern with the act of communication itself., , 7), , I.A.Richards., , 8), , Time- honoured poets were marked down and obscure authors celebrated., , 9), , All the participants were young, white, upper –middle- class particularly, educated English people of the 1920s., , 10) Social ideologies or structure of belief., , 76

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ii) Answer to check your progress- II, a), , literature, , b), , French, , c), , a chemera, , d), , Literature, in the sense of a set of works of assured and unalterable value,, distinguished by certain shared inherent properties, doesn’t exist., , e), , Practical criticism., , 3.6 Exercises, A) Answer the following questions in detail., 1), , How does Terry Eagleton argue that literature is a structure of values which, are transitive and always in the process of production and reproduction?, , 2), , Comment on Terry Eagleton’s essay ‘ On Canon Formation’ as an, exemplification of the view that literature itself is a transitive category with, no essential core., , 3), , ‘’ The Canon is a construct, a provisional structure of value reflecting, vested interests and struggles over cultural authority.’ Explain this, statement with reference to Terry Eagleton’s ‘On Canon formation’., , 4), , Literature is an aspect and productive of broader ideological politics., Comment on this statement with reference to the essay you have studied., , 5), , Literature is a highly valued kind of writing. Illustrate this statement with, reference to the easy ‘On Canon Formation’., , B) Write short notes on the followings:, 1) Canonicity and value, 2) Literary canon as a construct, 3) Shakespeare as a canonical writer, 4) Terry Eagleton’s views on Greek tragedies as canonical texts, 5) Readers and canonical texts, 6) Terry Eagleton’s views on ideology, 7) Value judgements and social ideology, 8) Historical background of Canon Formation, 77

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9) Canon formation and politics, 10) Canonicity and cultural theories, 11) The politics of the canon formation., , 3.7 Terms to remember, 1), , Canon: set of writings or books accepted as genuine, standard etc. The English, word ‘canon’ is derived from the Greek word’ Kanon’ which means ‘rod’,, ‘measuring stick’, or ‘to rule’. The ecclesiastical use of the term ‘canon’ for, definitive books of the Bible reinforces the normative charge of the term, though, the literary canon is considerably more flexible than its biblical counterpart. The, canon is a set of texts whose value and readability have borne the test of time. It, is also the modality that establishes the criteria to be deployed or used for, assessing these texts. Secular and literary applications of the term ‘canon’ refer, to a constellation of highly valued, high- cultural texts that have traditionally, acted as arbiters of literary value, determining the discipline of literary studies as, well as influencing the critical and cultural reception of literature., , 2), , Belles-lettres: literary studies and writings (contrasted with those on, commercial, technical, scientific etc. subjects), fine writing., , 3), , Transitive: undergoing change., , 4), , Graffiti: drawings or writing on a public wall, usually humorous, obscene or, political., , 5), , Constitutive: forming, making, be part of., , 3.8 Books for further Reading, 1), , Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction, Anniversary edition ( 2008), , 2), , Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism, London, 1976., , 3), , Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature, Oxford, 1977., , 4), , Eagleton, Terry. Criticism and Ideology, London 1976., , 5), , Slaughter, Cliff. Marxism, Ideology and Literature, London 1980., 666, , 78

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Unit-4, Prescribed Essays:, 1. Vladimir Propp, Morphology of the Folk-tale (from Literary Theory, An, Anthology, edited by Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan. - 2nd ed.), 2. Tzvetan Todorov ‘The typology of detective fiction’ from Modern Criticism and, Theory A Reader Edited by David Lodge, Contents, 4.0 Objectives, 4.1 Introduction, 4.1.1 Russian Formalism, Czech Formalism and French Structuralism, 4.2 Vladimir Propp, 4.2.1 A short introduction to Vladimir Propp, 4.2.2 Russian Folktales, 4.2.3 The Essay – Morphology of the Folk-tale, 4.2.4 Check your progress, 4.3 Tzvetan Todorov, 4.3.1 A short introduction to Tzvetan Todorov, 4.3.2 The Essay – The Typology of Detective Fiction, 4.3.3 Check your progress -II, 4.4 Contribution of Propp and Todorov to Structuralism and Narratology, 4.5 Summary, 4.6 Answers to Check Your Progress, 4.7 Exercises, 4.8 Books and e-Resources for Further Study, 4.9 References, Appendix: Some Russian Fairy Tales, 79

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4.0 Objectives, The present unit will cover two major critics prescribed in the syllabus –, Vladimir Propp and Tzvetan Todorov. Propp and Todorov employed structuralist, method to analyse narrative structure of two different genres of literature, viz., Folk, Tale and Detective Fiction, respectively. We shall study in detail Propp’s essay, ‘Morphology of the Folk-tale’ and Todorov’s essay ‘The Typology of Detective, Fiction’ and also see how these works were instrumental in the development of, structuralist literary criticism and the study of the narrative., After studying this unit, you will be able to understand:, 1., , The way Propp defines a tale’s ‘morphology’,, , 2., , The pattern Propp discovered in all Folk tales,, , 3., , The character types in a folk tale and the limited number of functions performed, by the vast number of characters in folk tales,, , 4., , Todorov’s views on study of genres, , 5., , Why Todorov says that popular art and ‘high’ are judged differently,, , 6., , Todorov’s classification between the classic “whodunit”, the ‘thriller’ and the, ‘suspense novel’,, , 7., , Contribution of both Propp and Todorov to structuralism and to the study of, narrative in particular., , 4.1 Introduction, Propp was a Russian philologist and structuralist who analyzed the basic plot, components of Russian folktales. He had close associations with Russian Formalism., Tzvetan Todorov a Bulgarian-French literary theorist who had a significant, impact on many fields – anthropology, sociology, semiotics, literary theory,, intellectual history and culture theory, played a major role in the emergence of, structuralism as a major force in French literary studies. He translated and helped the, spread work of Russian Formalists and Prague School of Linguistics from which, structuralism derived much of its methodology. So, for both Propp and Todorov,, Russian Formalism is an important starting point., , 80

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4.1.1 Russian Formalism, Czech Formalism and French Structuralism, Russian Formalism, a movement that barely lasted sixteen years was so, influential that it paved the way for the development of structuralism and the study of, narrative. It emerged through the work of a group of scholars based in St. Petersberg, and Moscow from about 1915 to 1930. The Formalists had to move to Prague during, Stalin’s rule in the 1930s. Referred to as Prague Linguistic Circle or Czech, Formalism, it developed more explicitly structuralist aspects related to all kinds of, sign systems, including literature. Roman Jakobson was instrumental in bringing, about the change from formalism to a structuralism which could deal with both the, synchronic and diachronic aspects of literature., The Russian Formalists introduced a new way of looking at literature. They, aimed at developing a ‘science of literature’ through a systematic study of the, structure of literary form. The Russian Formalists felt that the earlier theories were, vague and so rejected the trend of looking at literature as something that is, mysterious, waiting to be deciphered. The Formalists rejected the use of biological,, psychological and sociological explanation in the study of literature and saw, literature as an autonomous verbal art. They stressed that literature and life are, different and hence they focused on the ‘medium’ to understand how literature alters, common language to make it strange. This estranged language, forces the reader to, look at the everyday world from a different perspective. Thus, literary language, ‘defamiliarizes’ the everyday world. Later it was further refined through the concept, of ‘foregrounding’., Formalism was instrumental in furthering work in three areas – the narrative, the, literary-historical process, and ‘Genre’ and we shall see how this is done to some, extent in the prescribed essays of Propp and Todorov., The formalist work on fabula (the story) and sujet (the plot) was instrumental in, the development of narratology. The story is the events in their chronological, sequence, while the plot selects and arranges the events of story and is the narrative., Propp’s research on folk-tales was a major impetus for this work and we shall look at, his contribution in a short while., Genre is understood as a particular selection and combination of stylistic,, thematic, and compositional elements. Genre is dynamic in nature, that is, it keeps on, changing. The concept of genre helps us understand the specific features of, 81

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individual works that belong to it. It also helps us understand literary-historical, changes. Todorov’s views on genre gave impetus to much of the later work on genre, and we shall be looking at this too., , 4.2 Vladimir Propp, 4.2.1 A short introduction to Vladimir Propp, Vladimir Propp (1895 –1970) was born in Saint Petersburg. His parents were, wealthy peasants and of German descent. Vladimir Propp studied Russian and, German philology at Saint Petersburg University and later taught Russian and, German first at a secondary school and then in a college and from 1932 at St., Petersburg University (at that time Leningrad University). He also chaired the, Department of Folklore from 1938., His book Morphology of the Folktale was published in Russian in 1928. The, book is considered a major contribution to the study of folklore (folkloristics) and, structuralism. It exerted influence on people like Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland, Barthes. However, as it was not available in translation till 1958, Propp’s work was, noticed by the West quite late. Propp’s analysis, or his morphology is used to study, a varied types of narratives - literature, theatre, film, television series, games, and so, on., Propp’s important books include: Morphology Of The Tale (1928), Historical, Roots Of The Wonder Tale( 1946), Russian Epic Song (1955–1958), Popular Lyric, Songs (1961), Russian Agrarian Feasts (1963)., , 4.2.2 Russian Folktales:, Vladimir Propp’s prescribed essay analyses Russian folktales. To understand the, argument, it is essential to know some folktales. So I suggest that you read as many, tales as you can using the following resources:, https://fairytalez.com/region/russian/, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Fairy_Tales, https://theculturetrip.com/europe/russia/articles/russian-fairy-tales-every-russianknows/, , 82

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A short summary of a few folk tales is given in the Appendix. It is quoted from, two, sources:, https://fairytale.fandom.com/wiki/Fairytale_Wiki, and, https://quizlet.com/subject/russian-folktales/, However, it is recommended that you don’t stop with reading these, and turn to the, sites given above and read more folktales in their longer version., , 4.2.3 The Essay – Morphology of the Folk-tale, Science aims to find the law or principle that governs different phenomena and, accounts for their similarities. In a similar vein, Propp wanted to find the innate order, that exists in a disparate body of texts. For this he studied numerous Russian, folktales and came to the conclusion that all the tales follow the same pattern. The, inner structure of these tales makes up their morphology. By Morphology Propp, means a description of the tale according to its component parts and the relationship, of these components to each other and to the whole., As in science, Propp in the beginning meticulously describes his research, methodology which can be summarised as follows:, Working hypothesis: Fairy tales is a special class of literature., Defining fairy tales: Tales under number 300 to 749 in Finnish folklorist Antti, Amatus Aarne’s collection. This definition is just to begin the study and will be made, precise as a result of the study., Method: separate the components of tales so as to compare the themes of the, tales using a special method which will reveal the morphology of the tales. (This, method is described in the later paragraphs)., Propp sought the roots of morphology in biology. For him morphology was related to, forms, to relations between the parts and the whole. That is, morphology is a doctrine, about structure. Accordingly, in his research Propp separated variable and constant, elements in different fairy-tales., To begin with the analysis, Propp takes some events from the fairy tales:, 1., , A tsar gives an eagle to a hero. The eagle carries the hero away to another, kingdom, , 2., , An old man gives Súcenko a horse. The horse carries Súcenko away to another, kingdom., 83

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3., , A sorcerer gives Iván a little boat. The boat takes Iván to another kingdom., , 4., , A princess gives Iván a ring. Young men appearing from out of the ring carry, Iván away into another kingdom., , In these four parts from four tales, Propp says, we can see that there are some, parts that are constant and some vary. For example, the thing given is different in, each: an eagle, a boat, a ring. The person/dramatis persona giving these things is also, different. But their actions and functions are the same., Names of dramatis personae - change, , Actions of dramatis personae - Same, , Features of dramatis personae - change, , Functions of dramatis personae - Same, , This helps Propp arrive at the first inference – different personages may have, identical functions. And so Propp understands that the tales can be studied according, to the functions of its dramatis personae., Then Propp comes to the primary question - How many functions are known to, the tale? From his analysis, Propp says that even if characters of a tale are various, (for example, Baba Jaga, Morozko, bear, the forest spirit, etc.) and they behave, differently but they perform the same actions. So there is a surprising amount of, recurrence of functions. The number of personages/characters / dramatis personae is, extremely large but the number of functions is extremely small. Then Propp is able to, explain the twofold (that is, having two aspects) quality of a tale:, 1), , Multiformity, picturesqueness, and colour, variety, , 2), , Uniformity, repetition., , On the sidelines Propp draws parallels between his concept of functions and, two other concepts – Veselovkij’s “motifs” and Bedier’s “elements”. He also, reminds us that research of this kind and observation of repetition of functions by, various characters has been done in the case of myth and religious literature since, long, but tales haven’t been studied in this manner., Defining ‘functions’:, Now Propp comes to the stage of finding out the different functions of dramatis, personae which are the basic components of the tale. But for this he needs a proper, definition of functions. For this he sets out two criteria:, 84

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1., , The definition should not depend on the character that carries out the function., And so decides to give the definition of a function in the form of a noun, expressing an action (interdiction, interrogation, flight, etc.)., , 2., , An action must be defined in relation to its place in the course of narration. The, meaning which a given function has in the course of action must be considered., , To explain why the second criteria is needed, he gives example of the hero, marrying the Tsar’s daughter and father marrying a widow with two daughters. The, two events are very different from each other even if the action is similar. Similarly,, hero getting money from his father to buy a wise cat and the hero being awarded for, his bravery at the end of the story are dissimilar in function even if the action is the, same. So, identical acts may have different meanings, and vice versa., Using these criteria, Propp defines function thus: an act of a character, defined, from the point of view of its significance for the course of the action., Sequence of the functions:, Now Propp comes to the second questions - in what classification and in what, sequence are these functions encountered? Before answering this, he points out his, disagreement with the view (of Veselovskij and especially of Skloskij) that sequence, is accidental. Propp asserts that sequence is not accidental. Theft cannot take place, before the door is forced. Sequence of elements in tales is strictly uniform., Propp further points out that not all tales give evidence of all functions. But this, in no way changes the law of sequence. The absence of certain functions does not, change the order of the rest. Propp says, if we extract all functions, then it will be, possible to trace those tales which present identical functions. Then tales with, identical functions can be considered as belonging to one type. Propp says, “On this, foundation, an index of types can then be created, based not upon theme features,, which are somewhat vague and diffuse, but upon exact structural features.” Through, his study Propp arrives at this unexpected phenomenon: functions cannot be, distributed around mutually exclusive axes. And thus Propp is able to say that all, fairy tales are of one type., Propp puts together his observations on functions so far by drawing out four, theses of his work thus:, , 85

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1., , Functions of characters serve as stable, constant elements in a tale, independent, of how and by whom they are fulfilled. They constitute the fundamental, components of a tale., , 2., , The number of functions known to the fairy tale is limited., , 3., , The sequence of functions is always identical., , 4., , All fairy tales are of one type in regard to their structure., , Now Propp starts enumerating the functions of the dramatis personae in the, order dictated by the tale. Propp finds 31 functions. Of these, six are covered in the, abridged essay that is prescribed in the syllabus. However, as it is important to know, all the functions, the rest are given in the third end note by the editor., The Functions of Dramatis personae:, A tale begins with some kind of initial situation and then the functions follow., Propp describes these functions and then defines it in the way decided earlier – by, using a noun expressing the action., I., , ONE OF THE MEMBERS OF A FAMILY ABSENTS HIMSELF FROM, HOME. (Definition: absentation)., Usual forms of absentation: going to work, to the forest, to trade, to war,, “on business.”, , II. AN INTERDICTION IS ADDRESSED TO THE HERO. (Definition:, interdiction)., “You dare not look into this closet” (159). “Take care of your little brother,, do not venture forth from the courtyard” (113). “If Bába Jagá comes, don’t you, say anything, be silent” (106). “Often did the prince try to persuade her and, command her not to leave the lofty tower,” etc. (265)., III. THE INTERDICTION IS VIOLATED (Definition: violation)., The forms of violation correspond to the forms of interdiction. (The tsar’s, daughters go into the garden; they are late in returning home)., At this point a new personage, who can be termed the villain, enters the tale. His, role is to disturb the peace of the happy family, to cause some form of misfortune,, , 86

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damage, or harm. The villain(s) may be a dragon, a devil, bandits, a witch, or a, stepmother, etc., IV. THE VILLAIN MAKES AN, (Definition: reconnaissance)., 1., , ATTEMPT, , AT, , RECONNAISSANCE., , The reconnaissance has the aim of finding out the location of children, or, sometimes of precious objects, etc. A bear says: “Who will tell me what has, become of the tsar’s children? Where did they disappear to?” (201); a clerk:, “Where do you get these precious stones?” (197);, , V. THE VILLAIN RECEIVES INFORMATION ABOUT HIS VICTIM., (Definition: delivery)., 1., , The villain directly receives an answer to his question. The chisel answers the, bear: “Take me out into the courtyard and throw me to the ground; where I stick,, there’s the hive.” To the clerk’s question about the precious stones, the, merchant’s wife replies: “Oh, the hen lays them for us,” etc., , VI. THE VILLAIN ATTEMPTS TO DECEIVE HIS VICTIM IN ORDER TO, TAKE POSSESSION OF HIM OR OF HIS BELONGINGS. (Definition:, trickery )., The villain, first of all, assumes a disguise. A dragon turns into a golden goat, (162), or a handsome youth (204); a witch pretends to be a “sweet old lady” (265), and imitates a mother’s voice (108); a priest dresses himself in a goat’s hide (258); a, thief pretends to be a beggarwoman (189). Then follows the function itself., 1., , The villain uses persuasion. A witch tries to have a ring accepted (114); a, godmother suggests the taking of a steam bath (187); a witch suggests the, removal of clothes (264) and bathing in a pond (265); a beggar seeks alms (189)., The rest of Propp's functions (given in the end note) are quoted here from, Rivkin and Ryan (2004, p. 75.):, , (7) The victim unknowingly helps the villain by being deceived or influenced by the, villain., (8) The villain harms a member of the family or a member of the family lacks or, desires something., , 87

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(9) This lack or misfortune is made known; the hero is given a request or a, command, and he goes or is sent on a mission/quest., (10) The seeker (often the hero) plans action against the villain., (11) The hero leaves home., (12) The hero is tested, attacked, interrogated, and receives either a magical agent or, a helper., (13) The hero reacts to the actions of the future donor., (14) The hero uses the magical agent., (15) The hero is transferred to the general location of the object of his mission/quest., (16) The hero and villain join in direct combat., (17) The hero is branded., (18) The villain is defeated., (19) The initial misfortune or lack is set right., (20) The hero returns home., (21) The hero is pursued., (22) The hero is rescued from pursuit., (23) The hero arrives home or elsewhere and is not recognized., (24) A false hero makes false claims., (25) A difficult task is set for the hero., (26) The task is accomplished., (27) The hero is recognized., (28) The false hero/villain is exposed., (29) The false hero is transformed., (30) The villain is punished., (31) The hero is married and crowned., To sum up, Propp considered the functions of the personae more important than, the personae themselves. Functions of the personae are the constant elements of the, 88

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fairy-tale. A function is a plot motif or event in the story. The 31 possible functions, may not appear in a single tale, however, they always appear in the same sequence., A tale may skip functions but it cannot change their unvarying order. These functions, occur in a specific order within each story., Propp’s structural analysis of folklore is "syntagmatic" as the focus is on the, events and their order in the tale, on the linear, superficial syntagm,. This is different, from Lévi-Strauss's "paradigmatic" structural study of myth that aimed to uncover a, narrative's underlying pattern, using a binary oppositional structure., Propp found that the characters may assume seven roles in the fairytales:, 1., , the Villain, who struggles with the hero;, , 2., , the Donor, who prepares and/or provides hero with magical agent;, , 3., , the Helper, who assists, rescues, solves and/or transfigures the hero;, , 4., , the Princess, a sought-for person who exists as the goal. She often recognises, and marries the hero and/or punishes villain;, , 5., , the Dispatcher, who sends the hero off;, , 6., , the Hero, who departs on a search (seeker-hero), reacts to the donor and weds at, end;, , 7., , the False Hero, who claims to be the hero, often seeking and reacting like a real, hero., , Often, different characters may play a particular role. For example, once the evil, dragon is killed by the hero, the dragon's sisters take on the villainous role to hound, the hero. On the other hand, one character may have more than one role. For, instance, a father may send his son on the quest and give him a sword, acting as both, dispatcher and donor., , 4.2.4 Check your progress -I, Q. 1 Answer the following questions in a word/ a sentence each:, 1., , What are the two fold qualities of a fairy tale?, , 2., , What is the fourth basic thesis of Propp’s work on fairy tale?, , 3., , What is the second function of personae stated by Propp?, 89

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4., , What does Propp mean by morphology of folk-tale?, , 5., , How will you characterise the role performed by the fairy in Cinderella’s story?, , 4.3 Tzvetan Todorov, 4.3.1 A short introduction to Tzvetan Todorov, Tzvetan Todorov (1939 –2017) a French-Bulgarian scholar, wore many hats –, he was a historian, philosopher, structuralist literary critic, sociologist and essayist, and geologist. His wrote numerous books and essays which have influenced a variety, of fields such as anthropology, sociology, semiotics, literary theory, intellectual, history and culture theory. He studied under Roland Barthes in the 1960s. A preeminent French structuralist, he started outlining a “narrative grammar” in his, Grammaire du Décameron (1969) and elaborated it further in his later work. Poetics, of Prose (1971) is considered a major contribution to narratology. In fact, Todorov, gave the name ‘narratology’ to the study of the narrative. His writing on detective, fiction and other early books strongly influenced subsequent work on narrative by, Gerald Genette and Gerald Prince., , 4.3.2 The Essay – The Typology of Detective Fiction, Todorov starts his essay on typology or ‘kinds’ of detective fiction by drawing, attention to the widespread attitude that detective fiction is monolithic (that is, it, cannot have types). He refers as well to the reaction against the notion of genre in, literary studies.1 He also gives the historical reason for this attitude – in the classical, period, the genres were valued more than individual works and a work was judged, inferior if it didn’t conform to the rules of the genre. Such criticism was prescriptive, in nature (laid down rules for literary works instead of studying works to find their, features). So, the rules or the grid of genre came first and this was to be followed by, 1, , A literary genre is a type of literary composition such as epic, tragedy,, comedy, etc., often established on the basis of literary technique, tone, content,, or some other criteria like length. Any of these can be written in either prose, or poetry and satire, allegory or pastoral might appear in any of them. There, can be subgenres and mixture of genres too. However, they are different from, age categories (such as children’s literature) and format (such as graphic, novel)., 90

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literary works. Writers reacted against this dogma, especially the romantics. They, reacted not just against the rules but against the very notion of genre. And so, Todorov says that the theory of genres has remained undeveloped until recently. He, also mentions that in recent times people are choosing a middle position between the, two extremes: too-general notion of literature and individual works. He mentions two, difficulties in the study of genres:, 1., , For a proper investigation of genres, we need elaborate structural description., , 2., , Every major work in a particular genre establishes that genre and by, transgressing it, it creates a new genre., , Todorov elaborates upon the second a little more. He gives example of the novel, The Charterhouse of Parma, a novel written by French author Stendhal in 1839. This, novel established a genre of its own – ‘Stendhalian novel’ but broke away from the, norm of the 19th Century French novel. So Todorov says, “every great book, establishes the existence of two genres, the reality of two norms: that of the genre it, transgresses, which dominated the preceding literature, and that of the genre it, creates... The literary masterpiece does not enter any genre save perhaps its own”, However, this doesn’t happen in case of popular literature. Propp says, “the, masterpiece of popular literature is precisely the book which best fits its genre.” If a, writer of popular literature, of detective novel for example, tries to develop, improve, upon the detective fiction, he/she would be transgressing the rules of detective, fiction. The result will not be detective fiction. So the best kind of detective fiction is, the one which conforms to the rules of the genre and not transgresses them., Thus Todorov points out a crucial difference between literature or ‘high’ art and, ‘popular art’. We judge the two by different standards., ‘Kinds’ of detective fiction:, 1., , Classic detective fiction/ “whodunit”:, , Todorov begins his analysis of detective fiction starting with the classic, “whodunit.” This genre flourished between the two world wars. Todorov draws our, attention to the description of the rules of this genre given by George Burton who, was himself a murder mystery writer. Burton described it thus in his novel Passing, Time:, 91

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"all detective fiction is based on two murders of which the first, committed by, the murderer, is merely the occasion for the second, in which he is the victim of the, pure and unpunishable murderer, the detective,", He further says,, "the narrative... superimposes two temporal series: the days of the investigation, which begin with the crime, and the days of the drama which lead up to it.", Todorov picks up the duality described by Burton in the whodunit and expands, it further. He says that the novel has not one but two stories, the first of the crime and, then the second of the detective finding out who did it. In its purest form, there is no, common point between the two. The story of the crime ends before the story of the, investigation can begin. The first story is that of the crime. The second tells nothing, much. It is the story of investigation and the characters of this story do not act, they, learn. The characters of the investigation face no danger, as they function to learn, the mystery of the case. The pages in between the discovery of the murder and the, disclosure of the killer are concerned with the investigation of different clues and, leads. Todorov describes the structure of this kind of detective fiction as inclined, towards “a purely geometric architecture”. He gives example of Agatha Christie’s, novel Murder on the Orient Express, which has twelve suspects. The book consists of, twelve chapters, and twelve interrogations. There is a prologue that deals with the, discovery of the crime, and an epilogue that is about the discovery of the killer., The second story is often told by a friend of the detective who tells us that he is, writing a book. So, the second story, in fact, explains how the book was written. It, confesses its literary nature while the first story never does that. So, Todorov points, out that the second story is precisely the story of that very book., The first story tells what really happened and the second explains how the, reader/narrator has come to know about it. Todorov further links these descriptions, of the two stories to the distinction between story(what happened in life) and plot, (the way author presents it to us) made by the Russian Formalists. In a detective, novel, both are present side by side and Todorov goes to some length to explain how, this is managed by the writer., The story of crime is in fact the story of an absence. It cannot be present, immediately in the book. What happened, what was said in it has to be reported by a, character in the second story. On the other hand, the second story has no importance, 92

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in itself. It is just a mediator between the reader and the first story. So, the first story, is absent but real and the second story is present but insignificant. The first involves, many conventions and literary devices (‘plot’ aspects of the narrative) that are, justified and ‘naturalised’ in the second story by explaining that the narrator is, writing a book., 2., , The thriller:, , This form emerged just before and after World War II in America. In France it, is referred to as “série noire” (literally black series/ bad streak in French). The two, stories are fused. While the second is made the central story, often the first is, suppressed. The narrative coincides with the action. That is, we are not told what, happened before the narration started. The form of memoir doesn’t suite the thriller., At no point does the narrator understand all the past events. He may not even reach, the end of the story. Retrospection is not important as it is in the whodunit. Instead,, prospection (the act of anticipating) takes its place. Instead of wondering what must, have happened or who could have killed the victim, here the reader starts anticipating, what can happen. It progresses from the cause (for example, gangsters getting ready, for a robbery) to the effect (results- theft/ murder/ fights). In the whodunit, the, detective was by definition immunized. But in the thriller, the detective is not longer, invulnerable. Anything can happen., Secondly, the thriller is built around specific characters and behaviour: there is, violence, immorality, lust, hatred, sordid crime, danger, pursuit, combat. Now this, insistence on the milieu brings it close to the adventure novel, but Todorov says that, there is difference. The thriller shows inclination toward the marvellous (which, brings it closer to travel narrative) and the exotic (which brings it closer to, contemporary science fiction). The insistence on milieu and behaviour makes thriller, a different genre., Todorov here refers to the 20 rules laid down by detective fiction writer S. S., Van Dine for detective fiction and summarises them into eight points:, “1. The novel must have at most one detective and one criminal, and at least one, victim (a corpse)., 2., , The culprit must not be a professional criminal, must not be the detective, must, kill for personal reasons., 93

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3., , Love has no place in detective fiction., , 4., , The culprit must have a certain importance:, (a) in life: not be a butler or a chambermaid., (b) in the book: must be one of the main characters., , 5., , Everything must be explained rationally; the fantastic is not admitted., , 6., , There is no place for descriptions nor for psychological analyses., , 7., , With regard to information about the story, the following homology must be, observed: "author : reader : criminal : detective.", , 8., , Banal situations and solutions must be avoided (Van Dine lists ten).” (Todorov, 49), , Todorov points out that the rules related to the first story are limited to the, whodunit (rules 1 to 4a) and those which refer to discourse/the second story apply, also to the thriller (rules 4b to 8)., Todorov sureys the changes in the thriller since Van Dine’s rules and points out, that the development has chiefly affected the thematic part (there can be more than, one detective, more than one criminal, the criminal is very often a professional, the, criminal is often a policeman) and not the structure (no fantastic explanations,, descriptions, and psychological analysis)., Todorov also comments on some not so important features that seem codified in, the either type of detective fiction. First he points out that in the thriller the suspense, is not reserved for the ending. On the other hand, the whodunit often ends with a, revelation. Some stylistic features peculiar to the thriller are pointed here like the, coldness and brutality in the descriptions., 3., , The Suspense novel:, , This type combines the properties of the earlier two. It uses the two-story, structure of the whodunit (the past and the present story) and retains its mystery. But, unlike the whodunit, the first story is not central any longer. Like the thriller, the, second story is central. The reader is curious about what happened in the past but, also marvels what will happen next. So, curiosity and suspense are combined here., , 94

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This type was written at two different periods – when the whodunit transited into the, thriller and alongside the thriller. These two periods correspond to two subtypes:, a., , In the first, the detective is vulnerable; he has lost the immunity bestowed on the, detective of the whodunit. He is no longer an independent observer as the, reader. There is also tendency to describe the milieu. People often think of these, novels as thrillers. Examples of this type– novels of Hammett and Chandler., , b., , In the second there is a return to the personal crime of whodunit but the structure, is of the thriller. The main character is the suspect and has to prove his, innocence by finding the real culprit by risking his life. So he is the suspect in, the eyes of the police. He is the potential victim from the perspective of the real, culprits and the detective too who needs to find the real culprit. Examplesnovels by William Irish, Patrick Quentin and Charles Williams, Hindi movie, Gupt., , To summarise the three kinds of detective fiction, I present a comparative chart here:, Whodunit, , Thriller, , Suspense, , • Two stories- Of crime, and of investigation; first, is absent but real and the, second is present but, insignificant, , • Fuses 1st and 2nd story;, , • Combination of, Whodunit and Thriller, , • First story is central, , • vitalizes the 2nd; often, suppresses the first, • 1st story has secondary, function, , • Crime anterior is not, • Two murders – one by, disclosed before narrative, murderer; the second by, • Narrative 2nd coincides, the detective, with the action; not presented, • The detective is, as a memoire/account/record, immune to danger, • Anything can happen to, • Two stories – fable and, the detective, plot, • Professional crime, • Story of crime is told in, • Tendency to description;, reverse order, 95, , • Mystery and two-story, structure of Whodunit, • Like thriller, 2nd story is, central, • Both curiosity ad, suspense created, • 2 subtypes, 1. The story of vulnerable, detective, 2. The story of suspect-asdetective

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• Story of investigation is cold cynicism, brutality, told chronologically, • No point is reached where, • Importance of, retrospection, • Surprise reserved for, the end, • Element of curiosity,, mystery, , the narrator comprehends the, past; no idea if he achieves, any end, • Immorality, violence,, • Surprise not reserved for, the end, , Corpse and clues (Effect) • Prospection takes place of,
Culprit and his, retrospection, motives (Cause), • Element of Suspense, Gangsters preparing for a, robbery (Cause)
corpse, and clues (Effect), , At the end of the essay Todorov comes to the difficult question of deciding if the, forms correspond to the stages of evaluation. The fact that one writer writes several, types, shows that probably the types exist simultaneously but “the evolution of, detective fiction in its broad outlines has followed precisely the succession of these, forms”(Todorov, 52). He speculates the evolution thus:, “We might say that at a certain point detective fiction experiences as an, unjustified burden the constraints of this or that genre and gets rid of them in order to, constitute a new code.”, He cites example of by the thriller which found mystery had become just an, excuse in Hammett and Chandler’s whodunit and got rid of it, favouring a new form, of interest, suspense, and to concentrate on the description of the milieu. The, suspense novel, which appeared after the thriller, felt milieu is a useless attribute, and, retained only the suspense itself., Finally, Todorov turns his attention to the novels which do not fit in his, classification and sees them as intermediary form between detective fiction and the, 96

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novel itself. They may lead to the emergence of a new genre of detective fiction. He, says this new form doesn’t counteract his classification because “the new genre is not, necessarily constituted by the negation of the main feature of the old, but from a, different complex of properties, not by necessity logically harmonious with the first, form” (Todorov, 52)., , 4.3.3 Check your progress -II, Q2. Answer the following questions in a word/phrase/sentence each., , 1. According to Todorov, every great book establishes the existence of two genres., What are they?, , 2. How are a literary masterpiece and a masterpiece of popular literature different, from each other?, , 3. When did the classic detective fiction reach its peak?, 4. According to Burton, all detective fiction is based on two murderers. Who is the, second murderer?, , 5. What is the second genre within detective fiction that Todorov identifies?, , 4.4 Contribution of Propp and Todorov to Structuralism and, Narratology, Vladimir Propp through his work on folk tales and Tzvetan Todorov through the, study of detective fiction, contributed enormously to the study of the narrative. Propp, is one of the first Structuralists as he discovered the innate order, the pattern (a law), behind a distinct body of texts. His research on fairy-tales is considered the first, application of structuralism to the humanities. It created the foundation for many new, disciplines, such as narratology, semiology and structural anthropology. Umberto, Eco describes the method prepared by “Saussure + Lévi-Strauss + Hjelmslev +, Propp’ as the one know as structuralism"., Tzvetan Todorov's 'The Typology of Detective Fiction' is significant as it, discusses the distinction between 'genre fiction' and 'literature' as a question of, structure rather than of value. In fact, after Aristotle he is one of the few theorists, who brought back the study of genre to the centre critical attention. Todorov, basically discusses the way genre fiction differs from other forms of literature, 97

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because of its adherence to the rules of the genre. If the work goes beyond or, expands upon those rules instead, then it will turn into literature. In other words,, popular literature depends on following of structures while high art depends on, defying the plots and structures. When Todorov differentiates between the whodunit,, suspense and thrillers he does this on the basis of their structure., Todorov sees the detective story as a prototype of all narrative structures. He, claims that the detective novels dramatise the two stories that make up the structure, of all narrative. The two alternative modes of detective novel that he proposes are, based on rational deduction and suspense respectively. The third type, "the suspense, novel," is a hybrid of the detective story and the thriller. Todorov's essay is the first, attempt to theorize a genre and its types by charting out the changes in their, conventions., Vladimir Propp, Todorov and other structuralists like Lévi-Strauss were also, influential in the study of films, a field which was just emerging. The insights of, pioneers such as Propp and Todorov provided new directions for film studies., It is assumed by many that the Formalists were more concerned with form rather, than content. However, it will be true to say that they were more concerned with, poetics, with defining ‘literariness’ of literature rather than interpretation of specific, works., Major contribution of the Formalists is to three areas – (i) the narrative or, ‘theory of prose’ as it was called by the Formalists, (ii) the literary-historical process,, or "literary evolution" and (iii) ‘Genre’., In narrative—the content-form opposition translates into that between fabula, (the story) and sujet (the plot). The story, the events in their chronological sequence,, is the raw materials of the narrative. The plot selects and arranges the events of story, and is the narrative. The art of fiction is, then, most apparent in the artificial rearrangement of chronology which makes a story into a plot. Narrative is artful, deforming and as Uri Margolin (2011) puts it, “content (character and action) may, often serve as mere material or motivation for deformation for the sake of some, aesthetic goals”. Propp’s book on folktales was the pioneer in this direction., Genre is understood as a particular selection and combination of stylistic,, thematic, and compositional elements. Like the individual text, it has many levels, and has hierarchical structure. It keeps on changing over time. Similarly, its relations, 98

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to other genres and its place and role in the literary system as a whole also keep on, changing. The concept of genre helps the observer to perceive the specificity of, individual works belonging to it. It also functions as a basic category for the study of, literary-historical changes. Genre can be studied synchronically (its form, function, and status at a particular time) and diachronically (its traditions and changes over, time). - Todorov’s views on genre gave impetus to much of the later work on genre., Formalism and structuralism have indeed made significant contribution to, poetics of fiction, and as Scholes says, this has not been sufficiently appreciated, mainly because their work was not available in English translation., , 4.5 Summary, This Unit discussed two essays by Vladimir Propp and Tzvetan Todorov. In the, first section this Unit, Propp’s analysis of fairy tales, the roles and functions of, dramatis personae were discussed in detail. In the second section Todorov’s, arguments relating to genre and genre studies were discussed. His typology of, detective fiction, the differences pointed out between the whodunit, the thriller and, the suspense were described in detail. The way the two critics contributed to, structuralism in general and the study of narrative in particular was emphasised, towards the end of the Unit., , 4.6 Answers to Check Your Progress I and II, Q1., 1., , Multiformity and Uniformity/ variety and repetition., , 2., , All fairy tales are of one type in regard to their structure., , 3., , Interdiction/ an interdiction is addressed to the hero., , 4., , ‘A description of the tales according to its component parts and the relationship, of these components to each other and to the whole.’, , 5., , Donor, , Q2., , 1. The genre that it transgresses and that which it creates, 2. Literary masterpiece creates its own genre and a masterpiece of popular, literature conforms to the rules of its genre, 99

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3. Between the two world wars, 4. The detective, 5. The thriller, , 4.7 Exercises, 1., , Attempt to analyse one of the stories given in the Appendix to find the roles and, functions of the dramatis personae., , 2., , Describe the four basic theses of Propp’s Morphology of the Folk-tale., , 3., , What are the functions of dramatis personae? How does Propp define them and, what does he say about their sequence?, , 4., , Describe the three genres within detective fiction enumerated by Todorov., , 5., , What does Todorov say about the difference between ‘high’ art and ‘popular’, art?, , 6., , Write a note on Todorov’s views on genre and genre studies., , 4.8 Books and e-Resources for Further Study, Margolin, Uri. 2005. ‘Russian Formalism’. In Groden, Michael et al (eds.). The John, Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. 2nd ed. Baltimore: John Hopkins, University Press., Murray, Michael. 1978. The Poetics of Prose (review). Philosophy and Literature,, Volume 2, Number 1, pp. 127-128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/phl.1978.0006, Olshansky, Dmitry. The Birth of Structuralism from the Analysis of Fairy-Tales., Toronto, Slavic, Quarterly., https://web.archive.org/web/20140226192532, /http:/www.utoronto.ca/tsq/25/Olshansky25.shtml, Scholes, Robert. 1973. The Contributions of Formalism and Structuralism to the, Theory of Fiction. Novel: A Forum on Fiction, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 134-151., “Tzvetan Todorov”, Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopaedia, 16 Apr 2020. Web, 9 May, 2020.https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzvetan_Todorov&oldid=95136764, 9, “Vladimir Propp”, Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopaedia, 21 Apr 2020. Web, 9 May, 2020.https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Propp&oldid=952211438, 100

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4.9 References, Margolin, Uri. 2005. ‘Russian Formalism’. In Groden, Michael et al (eds.). The John, Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. 2nd ed. Baltimore: John Hopkins, University, Press., N.p., http://litguide.press.jhu.edu/cgibin/view.cgi?eid=227&querry=margolin., Rosario, Brian. 2017. “Russian Fairy Tales Story Summaries Exam 2.” Quizlet,, quizlet.com/236404732/russian-fairy-tales-story-summaries-exam-2-flashcards/?x=1jqt., Rivkin, Julie and Michael Ryan.(Eds.). 2004., Second edition. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, , Literary Theory, An Anthology., , “Russian Fairy Tales.” N.d. FairyTalez, fairytalez.com/region/russian/., Scholes, Robert. 1973. The Contributions of Formalism and Structuralism to the, Theory of Fiction. Novel: A Forum on Fiction, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 134-151., https://www.jstor.org/stable/1345429. Accessed: 11-07-2019., Todorov, Tzvetan. 1977. The Typology of Detective Fiction. The Poetics of Prose., Cornell University Press., Appendix: Some Russian Fairy Tales, The Three Kingdoms: A man and woman have three sons who are looking for, a wife. The first son goes to find a wife but a three headed dragon says that he has to, move a rock in order to find a wife and he can't so he comes home. The second, brother does the same thing. Then the third brother is able to move the rock and the, dragon lets him go down to go to the three kingdoms to find a wife. He goes to the, first Copper kingdom, eats and drinks, and then the maiden tells him that she, shouldn't be his wife and that there is another Silver Kingdom he should go to to find, a prettier wife. He goes to the Silver Kingdom and the same thing happens, and the, maiden says to go to the Golden Kingdom. He does this, takes the maiden as his, wife, then takes the other two maidens and goes back to the hole to get home but his, brothers help the three girls up and don't let him up. Then, an old man tells the, youngest brother to go to a far location to talk to a tall man who will give advice. The, tall man said to go to Baba Yaga's house and take the eagle. The brother goes to, Baba yaga's house and she gives him the eagle to fly home but he has to give meat, every time it looks back. He follows orders and it takes him back and he marries his, 101

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maiden (Quoted from: https://quizlet.com/236404732/russian-fairy-tales-storysummaries-exam-2-flash-cards/), Prince Ivan and Princess Martha: Ivan accidentally helped a prisoner escape, so the king banished him from the land. He walked to a new kingdom and the king, there made him a stableboy but he didn't do much and the groom beat him a lot. One, day, the kingdom went to war with another one and the king left. The king's daughter, made Ivan a governor. One day, Ivan was hunting and a man ate a meal with him and, gave him lots of wine that gave him incredible strength to toss rocks of 20,000,, 40,000, and 60,000 pounds. Then, Ivan didn't see anyone at all or interact. Then, the, king returned and made Ivan go back to being a stableboy and when the groom beat, him again, he fought back and killed the groom by accident. He wasn't in trouble but, instead became a soldier. Then, the Water King demanded that the king's daughter be, given to his son for marriage or else he would flood the kingdom. He demanded the, girl be brought to an island where a 3-headed, 6-headed, or 9-headed dragon would, take her away. The king agreed but then planned to have someone protect her and, that man would marry her. A nobleman volunteered each time, and each time he, didn't save her but Ivan did with his strength. The last time, the girl cut Ivan and left, a scar. Later, the nobleman demanded a wedding but the girl recognized the scar of, Ivan and married him instead. (Quoted from: https://quizlet.com/236404732/russianfairy-tales-story-summaries-exam-2-flash-cards/), Vasilisa the Beautiful: As a child, Vasilisa the Beautiful is given a magical, wooden doll by her mother before she passes away. Her father then remarries a, woman who has two daughters of her own and constantly mistreats Vasilisa. In an, effort to get rid of the stepchild, the wicked stepmother sends Vasilisa to the home of, Baba Yaga to fetch a light. Vasilisa sees many wonderful things on her way and,, upon meeting Baba Yaga, is set to do many household chores, some of which she, cannot complete in the alotted time. Her magical wooden doll completes the tasks for, her, and Baba Yaga is forced to set Vasilisa free, giving her a skull-lantern to light, her way home. When she arrives home, the lantern burns Vasilisa's stepmother and, stepsisters to ashes, freeing her from their torment so she can live happily with her, father. (Quoted from: https://fairytale.fandom.com/wiki/Vasilisa_(Russian_folklore), The Frog Princess: When prince Ivan Tsarevich and his two older brothers, shoot arrows in different directions in their kingdom, they must marry whomever, finds the arrows. The two older brothers marry wealthy noblemens' daughters, while, 102

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Ivan's arrow lands in the mouth of a frog. The three brides-to-be are tasked with tests, to determine their skills as cooks and weavers, and the frog far outdoes the two, noblemens' daughters. The final task is to attend a banquet at night, where Ivan, discovers the frog is really a princess named Vasilisa the Wise, who sheds her, frogskin every night, but is cursed into the form of a frog every day., To remove the curse, Ivan burns her shed frogskin, but this causes Vasilisa to, return to her imprisonment at the hands of Koschei the Deathless who originally, cursed her (if he had waited 3 years, the curse would've been lifted). With the help of, Baba Yaga, Ivan finds Koschei's soul within a needle, within an egg, within a duck,, within a hare, within an iron chest, buried under a green oaktree, on the magical, island Buyan, and he breaks the needle to kill the immortal sorcerer and free Vasilisa, so they can marry and live happily ever after. (Quoted from:, https://fairytale.fandom.com /wiki/Fairytale_Wiki), Koschei the Deathless or Marya Morevna: Ivan Tsarevich had three sisters., The first was Princess Marya, the second was Princess Olga, the third was Princess, Anna. After his parents die and sisters get married to three wizards, he leaves his, home in search of his sisters. He meets Marya Morevna, the beautiful warrior, princess, and gets married to her. After a while she announces she is going to go to, war and tells Ivan not to open the door of the dungeon in the castle they live in while, she will be away. Overcome by the desire to know what the dungeon holds, he opens, the door soon after her departure and finds Koschei, chained and emaciated. Koschei, asks Ivan to bring him some water; Ivan does so. After Koschei drinks twelve, buckets of water, his magic powers return to him, he tears his chains and disappears., Soon after Ivan finds out that Koschei took Marya Morevna away, and chases him., When he gets him for the first time, Koschei tells Ivan to let him go, but Ivan doesn't, give in, and Koschei kills him, puts his remains into a barrel and throws it into the, sea. Ivan is revived by his sisters' husbands, powerful wizards, who can transform, into birds of prey. They tell him Koschei has a magic horse and Ivan should go to, Baba Yaga to get one too, or else he won't be able to defeat Koschei. After Ivan, stands Yaga's tests and gets the horse, he fights with Koschei, kills him and burns his, body. Marya Morevna returns to Ivan, and they celebrate his victory with his sisters, and their husbands. (Quoted from: https://fairytale.fandom.com/wiki/Fairytale_Wiki), Morozko / Father Frost: Once there was a woman who had both a daughter of, her own, whom she loved, and a step-daughter, whom she hated. One day, the, 103

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woman ordered her husband to take her stepdaughter out into the winter fields and, leave her there to die, and he obeys. Morozko finds her there; she is polite and kind, to him, so he gives her a chest full of beautiful things and fine garments. After a, while, her stepmother sends her father to bring back the girl's body to be buried,, which he also obeys. After a while, the family dog says that the girl is coming back,, and that she is beautiful and happy., When the stepmother sees what her stepdaughter has brought back, she orders, her husband to take her own daughter out into the fields. Unlike before, this child is, rude to Morozko, and he freezes her to death. When her husband goes out to bring, her back, the dog says that she will be buried. When the father brings back the body,, the, old, woman, weeps., (Quoted, from:, https://fairytale.fandom.com/wiki/Fairytale_Wiki), Tsarevich Ivan, the Firebird and the Gray Wolf: A king's apple tree bore, golden apples, but every night, one was stolen. Guards reported that the Firebird, stole them. The king told his two oldest sons that the one who caught the bird would, receive half his kingdom and be his heir. They drew lots to see who would be first,, but both fell asleep; they tried to claim it had not come, but it had stolen an apple., Finally Ivan Tsarevich , the youngest son, asked to try; his father was reluctant, because of his youth but consented. Ivan remained awake the entire time, and upon, seeing the bird, tried to catch it by the tail. Unfortunately, Ivan only managed to, grasp one feather. The Firebird did not return, but the king longed for the bird. He, said that still, whoever caught it would have half his kingdom and be his heir., The older brothers set out. They came to a stone that said whoever took one road, would know hunger and cold; whoever took the second would live, though his horse, would die; and whoever took the third would die, though his horse would live. They, did not know which way to take, and so took up an idle life., Ivan begged to be allowed to go until his father yielded. He took the second, road, and a wolf ate his horse. He walked until he was exhausted, and the wolf, offered to carry him. It brought him to the garden where the firebird was and told, him to take it out without touching its golden cage. The prince went in, but thought it, was a great pity not to take the cage, but when he touched it, bells rang, waking, everyone, and he was captured. He told his story, and the First King said he could, , 104

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have had it for the asking, but he could be spared now only if he could present the, king with the Horse with the Golden Mane., He met the wolf and admitted to his disobedience. It carried him to the kingdom, and stables where he could get the horse and warned him against the golden bridle., Its beauty tempted him, and he touched it, and instruments of brass sounded. He was, captured, and the Second King told him that if he had come with the word, he would, have given him the horse, but now he would be spared only if he brought him Helen, the Beautiful to be his wife., Ivan went back to the wolf, confessed, and was brought to her castle. The wolf, carried her off, but Ivan was able to assuage her fears. Ivan brought her back to the, Second King, but wept because they had come to love each other. The wolf turned, itself into the form of the princess and had Ivan exchange it for the Horse with the, Golden Mane. Ivan and Helen rode off on the Horse. The wolf escaped the king. It, reached Ivan and Helen, and Helen rode the horse and Ivan the wolf. Ivan asked the, wolf to become like the horse and let him exchange it for the Firebird, so that he, could keep the horse as well. The wolf agreed, the exchange was done, and Ivan, returned to his own kingdom with Helen, the horse, and the Firebird., The wolf said its service was done when they returned to where it had eaten, Ivan's horse. Ivan dismounted and lamented their parting. They went on for a time, and slept. His older brothers found them, killed Ivan, sliced his body to pieces, and, told Helen that they would kill her if she would not say that they had fairly won the, horse, the firebird, and her. They brought them to their father, and the second son, received half the kingdom, and the oldest was to marry Helen., The Grey Wolf found Ivan's body and caught two fledgling crows that would, have eaten it. Their mother pleaded for them, and the wolf sent her to fetch the water, of death, which restored the body, and the water of life, which revived him. The wolf, carried him to the wedding in time to stop it; the older brothers were made servants, or killed by the wolf, but Ivan married Helen and lived happily with her. (Quoted, from: https://fairytale.fandom.com/wiki/Fairytale_Wiki), 666, , 105