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MODERN IDSTORY, ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS, The Eur<?peans that came to India were, l. Portugese, 2. Dutch, 3. Danes, 4. French, l. Portugese, Bartholomew Diaz was the first navigator to cross the Equator. Vasco da Gama discovered the, sea trade route to India and landed at Calicut on May 17, 1498. He was received by King, Zamorin of Calicut (Manuvikrama Vanna). In 1502 A.p., the Portuguese established their, settlements at Cochin, Calicut and Cannanore. Cochin was the main centre for the P~rtuguese, trade upto ·1530 A.O. Vasco da Gama was buried at Cochin., , Governors, l. Fransisco de Almada- He was the first Portuguese Governor and founder of Blue Water, Policy., 2. Alphonso de Albuquerque was the second Portuguese Governor. He conquered Goa from. the, Sultan ofBijapur in 1510 A.D. He founded the idea of 'Portuguese empire in India' and further, encouraged conversions and.forced marriages., 3. Nino de Cunha shifted the capital city from Cochin to Goa. St. Xavier, the popular Jesuit, father visited India during the tenure of Alfanso de D'souza., , SettlementsOn the West Coast, the Portugese had settlements at - Onnuz, Dabool, Cambay, Surat, Goa,, Daman and Diu, Salsette, Bassein, Kalyan., The East Coast settlements were- Santhome near Chennai and Hugli in Bengal., On the Malabar Coast Portugese settlements were - Cochin, Calicut and Cannanore. •, -Trade._ ·, Their maximum trade was carried out in spices. They were the first to start licensing system and, to follow monopolistic trade. The lincensers given by the Portuguese were called Cartazes., , Downfall ofthe Portugese in IndiaIn _1612 A.D., Captain Best of the English defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Swalley and, they lost Surat to the English., In 1622 AD., Onnuz was lost to the Dutch., In 163l·AD., Hugli was lost., In 1661 AD., Mumbai was given away as dowry to Prince Charles II ofEnglnad who married, the Portuguese Princess Catherine of Briganza., In 1663 AD., Cochin was lost to the Dutch., , \,

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., .,., ', ~~·· -. .In 1739 A.O., Peshwa Bajirao I occupied the Salsette and Bassein islands. They were only left, with d~a, Daman ~nd Diu upto 1961 A.O., 2. DUTCH, Dutch East India Company was founded in 1603 A.O. Their first settlement in India was, Machilipatnam ( captured in 1605 A.O.). Upto 1689· A.D., Pulicat was the main centre of Dutch, trade. Onwards Nagapatnam b~ame the main centre of Dutch trade in India., Their other settlements were" Bhimunipatnam (near Vishkhapatnam) which was the first, Municipal Corporation in India. In Bengal, Cassimbazar, Chinsurah, Hugli, Dacca and Patna (in, Bihar) were their other settlements., On the West Coast- Ormuz, Cambay, Surat, Broach and in North, Agra was their settlement., On the Malabar Coast, Cochin was of prime importance., The Dutch traded maximwn in textile and indigo. The best indigo was produced in Bayana,, Sarkaz in Gujarat and in Agra. The Dutch carried out trade called Intra-Asian and Euro-Asian, (India to Indonesia and Indonesia to Europe) trade. Batavia in Indonesia was the main centre for, entire Dutch trade in Asia and hence the Dutch trade was called Batavian Trade., Anglo-Dutch Rivalry, , In 1622. A.O., 23 English merchants were killed by the Dutch at a place called Ambayani in, Indonesia (Ambayani Massacre). In retaliation, the English defeated the Dutch in the Battle of, .Sedara in 1759 A.O. The Dutch surrendered all their -settlements in India in return for all English, settlements in Indonesia., 3. ENGLISH, John Mindan Hall was the first English to visit India in 1599 A.O. in the court of Akbar in Agra, In December 1600 A.O., English East India Company was founded as a St. Stock Company of, shareholders. It was given a Charter with monopoly rights for 15 years by Queen Elizabeth. In, 1604 A.O., the monopoly was extended for an indefinite period by James I., They founded their first settlement/factory at Machilipatnam in 1611 A.O. with the permission of, Md. Quti Qutub Shah of Golconda thrtiugh a. Golden Farmana. In 1639 A.D., francis Day, obtajned permission from The Raja of Chandragiri, to settle at Chennapatnam (Chennai)., In 1655 A.O., Chennai/Madras became the first English Municipality., In 1658 A.O., Madras Presidency was fonned with Francis Day as the first President., In Ben2Rl, the Eng1ish estab1ished their first settlement at Harihara in 1633 A.O., George Boughton was the doctor that attended upon Suja (Doctor Diplomacy)., In 1653 A.O., the English settled down at Dacca, Hugli, Cassimbazar, Chinsurah and Patna, In 1692 A.O., Job Charnock fortified three villages: Sutanuti, Gobindapur and Kalikatta, and, thus founded the city of Calcutta., In 1700 A.D.,_The English constructed Fort William at Calcutta and Bengal Presidency was, formed with Charles Eyre as the first President, In 1667, A.D.,I Bombay, becameJhe main centre of English• trade on the West Coast., •, ,, , English tradeTheir maximwn trade was in printed textiles called 'Calicos,.

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•, ·Anglo - Mughal Relations, Captain Hawkins, Captain Edwards and Sir Thomas Roe were the English ambassadors to visit, the court of Jahangi'r., ·, In 1690 AD., Aurangzeb defeated the English but permitted them to trade on the condition that, they would pay Rs.3000 per annum., In 1717 A.D., Mughal Emperor Fraukh Siyar conferred Golden Fannana exempting the English, from customs ddties in Deccan and Gujarat. The fannana was given to Sir John Surman's, delegation., 4.DANES, Danish East India Company was founded in 1616 A.D. Their two settlements in India were, Trancuber near Chennai and Serampur in Bengal. Of all Europeans, the Danes were .the formost, promoters of Chistianity in India., 5. FRENCHThe French East India Company was founded in 1664 A.D. at the instance of Jean Coulburt, the, Finance Minister of Louis XIV who was called the 'Financial Wizard of Europe'. The French, founded their first settlement at Surat in 1666 A.D. at the instance of Francois; Karan. Their other, settlements were Machillipatnam, Pondicherry, Yaman, Mahe, Karaikal, and Chandemagar. The, _city Pondicherry was the main centre of French trade founded by French Governor, Francois, Martin., ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY/ CARNATIC WARS, First Camatic War (1746 A.D. -1748 A.D_.), Dupleix, the French Governor was the founder of the idea 'French Empire in India'. The First, Camatic War started with Austrian War of Succession between England and France in Europe., Dupleix defeated the English and captured Fort St. George (Madras). The Nawab of Carnatic,, Anw~ddin sent armies in support of the English. Dupleix defeated the armies of Anwaruddin, in the Battle of Santhome (1747 A.D.) near Adyar (Chennai). It was t~e first Battle in modem, India between native and foreign armies and it exposed the weaknesses that marred the Indian, The war ended with Aixla Chap~lle Treaty I Paris Treaty signed in 1748 A.D., , arm)L, , Second Carnatic War (1749 A.D. - 1754 A.D), fa t!.:..~ C.:.·.-h ·:::!: th:!t started at Hyderab~d. The French supported Muzaffar Jung and English, supported Nasir Jung. In, Carnatic, French supported Chanda Sahib and English supported, Anwaruddin._Dupleix defeated the English armies in the Battle of Ambur (1749 A.O.). However,, Muzaffar Jung was killed by the Nawabs of Kumool and Cuddapah. The French declared Salabat, Jung as the ~awab of Hyderabad. In 1751 A. D., Salabat Jung gave away Northern Circars, (Coastal Andhra districts) to the French. Later in 1751 A.D., Robert Clive, an accolintant in the, East. India Company captured Arcot which was the capital city of Camatic and held the fort for, ended with Poiidicherry Treaty in, 53 days, following whicn Dupleix was suspended. The, 1754A.D., , war

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Third Camatic War (1756 A.D. - 1763 A.O.), It started with Seven Years' War between England 'arid Fr~nte in Europe. Bussiy, the French, Commfil!der was defeated by Colonel Forde in the Battle of Chendurti (1757 A.O.). The French, lost Hyderabad. The most important battle was the Battle of Y"andiwash or Vandavasi fought on, Jan 22, 1760. The entire French navy under Count de Lallay was devastated by Colonel Eyre, .Coore of the English. The war, once and for all ended the fortunes of the French in ,India. Th~, war finally ended with Paris Treat;y' in 1764 A.D., , LATER MUHGALS, Bahadur Shah I (1707 A.D. - 1712 A.D.), His actual name was Mauzzam and was also called Shah Alam I. He abolished Jizia once again., He recognized Raja Ajit Singh as the ruler of Malwa. Hetmade'Guru Gobind Singh a Mughal, Mansabdar and released ~hahu from the Agra jail. He was also called Shah-i-Bakhaba for his, policies., Jahandar Shah (1712 A.D. - 1713 A.D.), For the first time, Mughal nobles became powerful in Mughal Court. Jahandar Shah came to, power with the support ofWazir Zulfiqar Ali., Farukh Siyar (1713 A.D. -1719 A.D.), He came to power with the·support of SyyM Brothers called 'the kingmakers'. They headed the, Hindustani faction. In 1715 A.O., Banda Bahadur, the last Sikh leader was executed. Siyar, preserved all the Mughal paintings in Red Fort. He was later killed by Syyid Brothers., Mohammed Shah (1719 A.D. - 1748 A.D.), His actual name was Roasha Akhtar and was unpopularly known as Rangeela. Syyid Brothers, were killed by the Irani faction led by Sadat Khan and Asafjha Nizam-ul-Mulk. The Mughal, empire distintegrated and Bengal became independent under Murshid Quli Khan. Sadat Khan, · founded the independent State of Oudh (Ayodhya) and Asafjha founded the independent State of, Hyderabad., _ Nadir Sh~ attacked Delhi in 1739 A.D. and took away the Kohinoor Diamond and the Peacock, Throne to Persia., , A!m1ed Shah (174R A.D. -11754 A.D.) ., He was under the influence of court dancer Uddam Bai. Ahmad Shah appointed two years old, infants as Governors of Punjab and Kashmir., Alamgir II (1754-A.D. - 1759 A.D.) ., His actual name was Azizuddin. The Battle of Plassey in 1757_ A.D. was fought during his time., Ahmad Shah Abdali, the king of Persia attacked seven times., Shah Alam II (1759 ~.D. ~ 1806 AD.), His actual name was Ali Guhar. Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 A.D. and Battle of Burar in 1764, A.D. _were the major .events during his reign. In 1765 A.D., he took part in the Diwani rights

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•, •(rights to collect revenue) for ill/East India Company in Bengal,· Bihar and Orissa. ij<; became, the prisoner of the English after the Second Anglo Maratha war., Akbar 11'(1806 AD. - 1837 A.D.), He conferred the tit1e of 'Raja' upon Rammohan Roy and deputed him to London to plead the, .Pension case in the Privy Council., Bahadur Shah II Zafar (1837 AD. - 1831 AD.), He was the last Mughal emperor and the nomial head to lead the 1857 revolt. Mirza Ghalib, the, father of Modern Urdu potery, was patronized by him. He was departed to Burma, where he died, in 1865 A.D., , AUTONOMOUS STATES ·, BENGAL, It was the richest Subah under the Mughals. Murshid Quli Khan was the real founder of the, autonomus state of Bengal. In 1700 AD, he was made Deupty Governor of Bengal by, Aurangzaeb. He was the first to introduce revenue farming system in Bengal called Izradari, (deciding the right of revenue collection by means of auctionaing)., He founded the city of Murshidabad and sh~fted the capital city·from Dacca to Murshidabad. He, granted emergency loans called Taccavi to the cultivators. He nullified the Golden Famiana and, . forced the English merchants to pay customs duties. Mughal Emperor Md. Shah added Orissa to, Bengal when Murshid was the· Governor of Bengal. The second Nawab of Bengal - Sujauddin,, Son-in-law of Murshid Quli got Bihar adqed to Bengal by the Mughal emperor Md. •Shah., The third Nawab, Sarfaraz Khan was killed by Alivardi Khan who was then the Deupty, Governor of Bihar., Alvardi Khan, He renovated the Calcutta Port harbor to encourage the external trade, The population of the city, Calcutta increased phenomenally during his time due to the settlements of Lucknavi, Sindhi and, Bania merchants., , ·Siraj-ud-=-Daula (1756 A.D. - 1757 A.D.), The reason for the clashes between Siraj-ud-Daula and the English werea) The English supported Shaukat Jung against Siraj., b) TI.~y r~fu~cd to b!!d ever the co!TI1pt ~cc:01.mt::int, Kishen Das., c) They also refused to demolish the fortifications constructed in the wake of the Third Camatic, War., On June 18, 1756 Siraj declared war and defeated the English. The defeated English took shelter~, at Fulta islands. On June 20, 1756 the 'Black Hole Incident' is supposed to have taken place (it, was mentioned by Howell, the President of the Calcutta Council)'. Si.raj changed the name of the, city .from Calcutta to Alinagar and appointed Manik Chand as the Governor of Calcutta .and, returned back to Mur~hidabacl: In Dec 1756, Colonel Robert Cive and Admiral Watson were sent ., by Madras Government. In February 1757, the Alinagar Treaty was signed be~een Si.raj and the, English.

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(]ive conspired with the Chief Comman~or of the Court, Rai Durlabh (the Zamiridar of, Burdwan), Manik Chahd -(Govemor of Calcutta) and Jagat Seth, the richest banker'ofBertgal and ··, Omi Chq11d, the rich Sindhi merchant (also the mediator between Clive and other conspirators): ., , BATTLE OF PLASSEY -(June 23, 1757), Robert Clive commanded 3200 troops. Mir Nadan and Kishen Lal led the troops of Siraj. The, battle was fought on the banks of river Bhagirathi. Siraj was killed by Miran who was the ~on of, Mir°Jafar. The Company got the 24 Parganas'district. Clive was given the title 'Sabtjung' by the, Mughal Emperor Alamgir II. Mir Jafar exempted the English East India Company from paying, the customs duties in the external trade. In 1759 A.D., Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, the, French Commander Jean Stuart Law and Pahalwan Singh, a _Zamindar of Bihar attacked Bengal, but were defeated., t, In 1759 A.D., the Dutch were defeated by the English in the Battle of Bedara., In 1760 A.D., Mir Jafar was replaced by Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal.MIR QASIM-(1760 A.D.-1763 A.D.), ,,, He was the ablest successor of Alvardi Khan. He granted three Zamindaris (Midnapore,, Chittagong and Burdwan) to the East Indian Company. He offered 50% share in the Chumam, trade (betelnut trade) to the English and also sanctioned 5 lakh rupees as aid to the English in, their war effort against the English., ➔, , He shifted the capital city from Murshidabad to Monghyr., , ➔ He employed Armenians to train the Bengal Army., ➔, , The main cause for differences betwee~ Nawab of Bengal and the East Indian Company was, the misuse of 'Dastaks' which were passes or lincenses issued by the President of the Calcutta, Council to the English merchants claiming exemption from customs duties., In June, 1763, Mir Qasim abolished customs duties for all merchants in Bengal., , -, , BATTLE OFBUXAR~Oct22, 1764A.D., In July, 1763, Mir Qasim was defeated by the English. Mir Qasim, the Mughal Emperor Shah, Alam II and Suja-ud-Daula (the Nawab ofOudh) formed an alliance ag~inst the English. Hector, Munro commanded the English _army. He defeated the Allied forces at Buxar and Kara. Mir, Qasim died in Delhi in 1777 A.D. Mir Jafar was then the Nawab of Bengal., Allahabad T1·eaty- August 1765 A.D., It W::!!:: !:!~!led between·Clive imd Suja-ud-Daula on one hand and; between Clive and Shah Alam, II on the other hand. Suja-ud-Daula altogether paid 40 Lacs (20 Lacs as compensation and 20, lacs for reataining him as Nawab) ·and also surrendered Allahabad and Kara districts to the, English., Clive transferred Allahabad and Kara to the Mughal Emperor and agreed to pay 26 lacs rupees, per annum as.rental in return for the revenue collection rights (Diwani) in Bengal, Bihar and '- ., Orissa. The Treaty made the English defacto and de jure rulers of Bengal., In 1765 A.D., Mir Jafai died and Nizam-ud-Daula became the Nawab., , lri Sept 1765 A.D., Robert Clive introduced Dual Government in Bengal. Under that system,, -powers were divided into Diwani (revenue) and Nizainat (general administration). A Deupty, Subedar.was appointed who was answerable to the Company when he discharged the Diwani

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I, , functions and to the Nawab ~hen he dealt with Nizamat. Nanda Kumar was the f}r~t Depty, Subedar uncier the new system. In 1772 A.D., Warren Hastings suspended the Dual Government, and took over the administration. Nizam-ud-Daula was gratnted pension of 6 lac rupees per, , annwn., , ., , ., , MYSORE, . The city of Mysore was founded by Kampaya Nayaka. However, the modem State of Mysore, was founded by Krishnaraj Wadiyar., Haidar Ali- He joined the army of Mysore as an ordinary Sepoy and became the Fauzdar of Fort, Dindigal. He employed the French to train the Naysore annies. He founded the first modem ., Indian Arms Factory at Dindigal. He also defended the Fort against the Marathas in 1755 A..b., an.9 1757 A.D. Between 1761 A.D. to 1765 A.D., Haider Ali expanded the Mysore empire by, 1, conquering Coorg, Malabar and Baramal., ·, First Anglo Mysore War - (1767 A.D. - 1769 A.D.), Warren Hasting, the Governor of Madras forged an alliance with the Nawab of Hyderabad and, the Marathas. Haider defeated the English, captured Fort Arcot and entered the city of Madras., The war ended with th.e Madras Treaty in 1769 A.D., Second Anglo Mysore War (1779 A.D.- 1784 A.D.), The reasons for the war were as follows:, i) It was against the Madras Treaty. The British refused to support Haidar in 1775 A. D. when, Marathas attacked Mysore., ii) The immediate cause was that in 1779 A.D. English attacked Port Mahe used by Haider Ali, for importing war technology from France., Haidar was defeated in the Battle of Porto Novo by Colonel Eyre Coote. Haider died of cancer in, 1782 A.D. War was continued by his son· Tipu Sultan. Tipu was defeated in the Battles of, Palghat, Trichy and Bednilr. The war ended with Mangalore Treaty., , Third Anglo Mysore War (1790 A.D. ~ 1792 A.D.), Lord Cornwallis was . the ·Governor General.The immediate cause for the war was that Tipu, Sultan attacked Travancore (Trivendrwn), a friendly state of the English. The war ended with the, Treaty of Srirangapatnam in 1792 A.D., 1, ⇒ Tipu surrendered half ofhi~ territory, p~id 5 Lakh pounds as compensation and sent his two, sons as hostages to English., Fourth Anglo Mysore War (1798 A.D. -1799 A.D.), Lord Wellesley was the Governor General. The reasons were · i) Tipu sent delegations to all the Islamic countries seeking support against the English., of France against the English., ii) He secretly invited, Napolean, ,., ., iii) The immediate cause for the war was that Tipu refused to sign the Subsidiary Alliance, System., .

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'?~.! ..., , .Tipu died at Srirangapatnam while fighting against the English. The territory of Mys(')re was•, . d1~ided'. Accordingly; the Marathas got north·ofTungabhadra~ 'the Nizam of Hyderabad ·got th.e, Rayalseema districts and the rest was taken over by the English..The city of Mysore was restored, to the Wadiyars. However, in 1832 A.O., Lord William Bentick suspended the administration of, Wadiyars and annexed Mysore. In 1882 A.O., Lord Ripon restored Mysore back to the, Wadiyars., Tipu SultanHe was the first Indian prince who realized the importance of merchant navy and banking system, on the model of European Compan_ies., ➔, , He had the best personal library with a collction of books numbering more than 40,000., ➔ Personally he was interested in designing th6 ships., I, ➔ He was the first to introduce missile technol?gY in modem India., ➔ He was the first Indian to send delegations to the Islamic countries., ➔ Asa secular ruler, he respected the Jagat guru of Sringeri and made liberal donations to the, Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam., ➔ He banned polygamy amongst Muslims., ➔ He also introduced uniform currency, weights and measmes and very effectively suppressed, the landlords ofRayalseema called Poligars., ➔ He was very influenced by the 1789 A.O. French Revolution, and so became a member of the, Jacobian Club of France and called himself "Citizen Tipu". ', ➔ Tipu planted the Tree of Liberty at Srirangapatnam and introduced a new calendar on the, model 0.fthe French with three weeks in a month., , PUNJAB, Guru Angad was the Second Sikh.Guru, who also invented the Gurumukhi script. He composed, Janamsakhi, the life and mission of Guru Nanak. Gu~ Amardas, the third Sikh Guru composed, Anand which is recited by Sikhs on all happy occassions. He also introduced Manji System, (selecting disciples to preach and promote Sikhism). Guru Ramdas, the fourth Sikh guru, introduced Masand System of collecting donations. He constructed Amritsar ~ti Santok:hsar, lakes in~the land granted by the Mughal Emperor Akbar to his daughter. The fifth Sikh guru, Arjun Dev composed Adi Granth, the most sacred text of the Sikhs. He encouraged the Sikhs to, trade in horses and assumed the title Satya Padshah (The true emperor). He supported Khusroo, against Jahangir for the Mughal throne and therefore:: w~ cx\;cu~cd. G.;r..: H::1:;;abi!'ld, the Sixth, Guru was the first to wear the royal signs like Chatra and Kaiga. He was the founder of the idea, Akali Takht (Sikh Brothemood) and constructed Harminder Sahib in Amritsar. Guru Hariroi and, · Guru Harikishen were the Seventh and Eigth gurus repectively. .Harikishen was the youngest to ··, become a guru at the age of 5 and died of small pox. The Ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur, was a . ·, mansabdar of Aurangzeb and was also executed by Aurangzeb in 1675 A.O. Guru Gobind, the, last- Guru, convened 1he, Ananthapur, Sahib convention (in J .& ·K). He also selected his . five, ., ,, ., favourite disciples (Panch Piyasi / fyare). He was the first to start the practice of wearing 5 K-.s., The Sikh community transformed from a devotional sect to a martial army under the Guru. He

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•, • founded the Khalsa - the Sikh aimy under the leadership of Painda Khan. The Guru was killed at, Nanded. Banda Bahadur was the last Sikh leader who executed by Farukh Siyar in 1715 A.D., During this period Punjab was divided into 12 districts called Misls., Raja Ranjit Singh (1780 A.D. - 1839 A.O.), He belonged to the Sukharchakia Misl. Born at Guzranwala, he was appointed Governor of, Lahore by Zaman Shah of Persia. Ranjit Singh defeated the confederacy of the Misldars in the, Battle of Bhasin in 1803 A.D. and united the whole of Punjab. His Chief Commander Hari Singh, conqµered Peshwar and Sind ., .. Anglo-Sikh Rdations, In 1800 A.b., the English sent Yusuf Ali on a mission to the court of Ranjit Singh. Dr. Moorey, sent by the English was also attended upon by the Raja. Alexander Bums carried rich presents to, the Raja sent by Emperor Williams of England., I, In 1809 A.D., Amritsar Treaty was signed between Lord Minto and Ranjit Singh, recognizing -,., river Sutlej as the border., In 1832 A.D., Ranjit Singh and Governor General William Bentickjoined hands with each other, in making Suja the Emperor of Persia. Suja gave the Kohinoor diamond to Ranjit Singh. His, administration was known for simplicity and secularism. He commanded one of the best armies, in Asia called Fauz Khas, trained by Italians, Germans and French., Zamzama was the most sophisticated cannon used by the Raja., , Ang1o-Sikh Wars, First Anglo-Sikh War (1845 - 1846 A.D.)Daleep Singh became the king of Punjab. Rani Zindan was the reagent of the king. Teja Singh, commanded the Sikh armies. The war ended with Lahore Treaty in 1846 A.D. Sikhs paid 50 lac, pounds as compensation and further surrendered Kashmir. Later the English sold / disposed off, Kashmir to Guiab Singh for 50 lac pounds., , Second Anglo-Sikh War (1849 A.D.), Mulraj, the Governor of Multan killed two British officers. Governor Ge!}eral Dalhousie declared, a w~. The Sikh armies were Jed by !"fulraj. The Battle of Gujarat was called toe 'Battle of, _ Guns' . ., RESULTS, Kb~ D~!eep Si!!gh was deposed . He embraced Christanity and got settled in London. Rani, Zindan was deported to Varanasi. Sir John Lawrence was made the Chief Commissioner of, Punjab. During his tenure, Punjab became the richest province in India. He was able to win the, loyalties of the Sikhs to the English during 1857 revolt., , MINOR REGIONAL STATES, JAWUR, The modem State of Jaipur was founded by Maharaj Sawai Jai Singh. He was deeply interested, in astronomy and hence founded Jantar Mantars in Delhi and Jaipur. He performed the, Aswaniedha (in 18th Century) too., ·

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., BHARATPUR, . Bharatpui- wa~ an independent kingdoin of the Jats, fourided-·b)' Churaman arid' Bacfan Singh., Suraj Mal,, the greatest leader of the, :Tats; was called 'Plato, of Jats' . for his deep interest in natural, ,, ..., ., sciences., -TRAVANCORE, Travancore was founded by Raja Martandavarma. It was the first state to accept English, education and· to ban the custom of Sati. Raja Ravi Varma, the father of modem Indian painting, belonged. to the court of Martandavarma., The State of Ti.-avancore was ·annexed in 1805 AD. when Velutambi, the Dewan of Travancore, revolted against the British., A YODHY A (OUDH), The independent state of Oudh was founded by Sadat Khan. He was the mediator between Nadir, Shah and the Mughal Emperor Md. Shah. Suja-ud-Daula ofOudh signed the Allahabad Treaty in, 1765 AD. with Robert Clive and the Varanasi Treaty with Lord Warren Hastings in 1774 A.O., As per the Varanasi Treaty, Warren Hastings agreed to merge Rohilkhand with Ayodhya for Rs, 20 lacs., Wajid Ali Shah was the last Nawab of Ayodhya. Lord Dalhousie suspended Wajid Ali on the, grounds of maladministration and annexed Ayodhya in 1_856 A.D., I, , HYDERABAD, The autonomous State of Hyderabad was founded by Asaf Jha Nizam-ul-Mulk in 1724 A.O., Nawab Nizam Ali was the first Indian to sign Subsidiary Alliance System in 1798 A.O. He also, surrendered the so called Ceded districts (Rayalseema districts of A.P) in 1802 A.O., Sikandar Jha, the third Nawab surrendered Berar and Bidar to the English in 1853 A.O., Mir Usman Ali Khan was the last Nawab. By police action called Operation Polo, the Union, government oflndia annexed Hyderabad into the Indian Union on September 17, 1949., , Economic Impact of British Policies, Rev~nue]'olicy:, Up to · 1793 A.O., the East India Company continued to follow the revenue farming system, in Bengal Presidency. In 1782 A_.D., Sir Jo~ Shore Committee was appointed to draft a new, hnd reve!l1-1e rolicy. The policy drafted was approved by Michael Dundas, the President of, Board of Control and William Pete, the P.M. of England., The permanent settlement or Zamindari System was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793, A.O. in Bengal Presidency, ~forth Cauvery delta in . Madras Presidency and Varanasi, division. It covered altogether 19% of the total cultivable land under the company., , Terms and condition~ of the system:, • The highest bidder in the auction was given the revenue collection rights. In the total, . revenue collected, :~ th was the share of the company collected Peshcush, the remaining

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.,.. ,, , 2.., th was the commission of the Zamindar: The Peshcush should not be less -~an what, 11, •, •, •, , the Zamindar _agreed at the time of auction., The Zamindars were also given judicial powers., The 'sunset law' came into force in the event of Zamindars becoming defaulters., The system was introduced for a period of 10 years., , Ryotwari System:, Ryotwari System was first introduced by Thomas Munro, principal collector of Ceded districts, and Col.Reed in 1803 A.D. in the Baramal district of Karnat:aka., It was extended to Bombay Presidency and Assam. Under the system, the Ryot or farmer was the, owner of the soil and given the title deed called 'Patta'. In turn, he executed a written agreement, called 'kabuliyat' (bond executed between Ryot and the Sfate). The rent collected was 55%, the, highest ever charged in Indian History. It was the most exploitative of the three systems. ·, Mahahvari System:, Mahalwari System was first introduced by Col.Bird in Agra and Gujarat. Mahal (a village or, group of villages) collectively held the responsibility in sharing the rent and paying the same., The Taluqdars, the dominant peasants in the Mahal played an important role in the system as the, middlemen between the peasants and the company., Effects of the Revenue Policy:, , •, •, •, •, , •, , Land became a commodity for the first time in the Indian history., Property rights in land were created for the first time., New rural classes were formed - The absentee landlords, money lenders and the wage, earning working classes (coolies) were the ~ew rural classes that emerged., Conimercialisation of agriculture was encouraged. As a result, shortage of food crops, took place causing famines. The 1832 Ganzan famine (Orissa) and 1875 Deccan famine, were the worst famines., The revenue policy was the single most important cause for .all the major civil rebellions, (tribal movements, peasant revolts and Zamindan revolts), in modem India, against the, British., , Trade and Commerce Policy:, , The policy evolved along with the three stages of British colonialism. Under the 1st stage callep, Mercantile Capitalism (1757 A.D. to 1813 A.D), the company exported large quantities of raw, material that served as merchant capital for the British industries in London., , In the 2nd stage, called Industrial Capitalism (1813 A.D - 1858 A.D) England made India not, only an exporter of raw .materials but an importer of all the industrial· products of England., Secondly, the company followed a policy of destroying the native industries in order to provide, markets for her own industries. Tiyrdly; England developed her own industries in India that, further exploited the native resources ( e.g. Railways).

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•, ? ~/ .-, , In the 3rd stage, Financial Capitalism started from 1858 onwards. The British reinvestetl their, finances in ali the major industries like Banking~ Steel~ Cement and Jute., Commercial Legislation:, The 1813 Charter Act introduced Free Trade Policy. It ended the monopoly of the East India, / Company on all items of trade except Tea and Opium., The 1833 Charter Act completely ended the monopoly of the East India Company on all items of, trade including Tea and Opium. Thus a complete Free Trade Policy was introduced., Effects of Commercial Policy on Indian Economy:, • De - Industrialisation:- may be defined as a sy~tematic destruction of the native, industries. The 1st industry affected was India's Shin building industry., , The Bania. merchants used to manufacture very huge ships called Zankars (made of · · -,, coir). These ships had mastered the Arabian Sea, The 2nd industry targeted was Textiles Industry. Tax.es_ were levied on Indian textiles at, every stage of their production. 'Moturpha' was the tax on handlooms; 'Siyur' was the, transitory duty levied on Indian Commodities. However, inspite of repressive policies,, the textile industry continued to be dominated by the Indians., •, •, , ., , The British ~nvested maximum in the plantatjo!} industry and soon it became the first, major industry., Drain of Wealth: It may be defined as the migration of resources. Before 1857, the major, item of drain was military expenditure. After 1857, home charges constituted the major, item of trade. They were the salaries of Viceroy and his staff in India, Secretary of State, and his staffin London. The Home charges were charged from 'Indian Pool'. Up to 1919, AD. Home charges were paid by the Indians., It was Dadabhai Naoroji, who first raised a voice and highlighted the 'Drain Theory' for, the first time while addressing the ~ouse of Commons on the topic "What England owed, to India". Tf?.e "Poverty and U~British Rule" was the thesis -of Dadabhai on Drain, Theory. Dinshaw W.acha was tlie first Indian to compute the drain in terms of rupees. ·, , Development of Communications;, It ·1-v<l.3 t!.;:: r:::;~!t of cm:nm.ercial poEcy of the British in India. By 1839, the G T Road, between Calcutta to Delhi was completed. In 1852 A.O., Steamers were introduced for the, first time. In 1853 A;D., Railways were also laid down, and in 1854 AD. Posts and, Telegraph were started. By 1858 A-.D, the underground cable network between Calcutta and, Delhi was also complete., The commercial policy was responsible for the emergence of two new social classes in the, towns called the Middle Class (Prof~ssionals) and Co~pradore Bourgeoisie-(Native Indian, Capitalist Class)., ·, ·

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.Civil Rebellions, Tribal Movements:, The reasons for the various tribal movements were • British land revenue policy. Particularly Permanent Settlement introduced in 1793 A.D, was the single most important factor for the tribal movement., • Lord Hardinge I, the Governor General introduced Forest Laws in 1840 A.D, prohibiting, Podu Culfr~ation (Shifting Cultivation), imposed truces on forest products and banned the, custom of liuman sacrifice practiced by Khonds of Orissa and Gonds of Adilabad District, of Andhra Pradesh., , •, , New administrative system constituted by the Police, Courts and Lawyers was also being, resisted by the tribes., , · • _The Christian Missionary activities in the agency ,eas and the British deploying army in, the agency were the other factors for the revolts as it was percieved as interference in the, lives of the tribals., , Popular Tribal Revolts:, 1. CHUARS-Marabhum and Danabhum (W.B) were the first to revolt.against British land, revenue policy in 1769 A.D., 2. KHASIS - Assam: Revolted in 1828 - 1832 A.D under the leadership of Tiruth Singh, and Darmanik against the presence of Army in the agency area and British revenue, policy., 3. KOLS-Chota Nagpur: Revolted in 1832 A.D, under the leadership ofBuddho Bhagath, against British Policy of expansionism., 4. KHONDS-Orissa: Revolted in 1846-1848 A.D, under the leadership of Chakra Besai, against the British policy of interference when Lord Hardinge I banned the custom of, human scarifce., 5. KACHANGA: Kacher District in Assam: 1882 A.D, revolted under the British land, .revenue policy under leadership of Sambu Dan., 6. KOYA: Godavari Agency Area in Andhra Pradesh: J 922 - 1923 A.D, revolted at, Ramp~ - Chodavaram under the leadership of "Alluri Sitaram Raju" against the British, forest laws and the exploitation of the tribes by the tribal chiefs called Muthadars., · ·Siiaram Raju attacked Chintapalli Police Station with his Koya followers ~d killed, notorious officer Bastian Rutherford who was the commissioner of operations against, Sitaram. Raju was assassinated at Koyyagudem., 7. MUNDA - Bihar: 1~99 - 1900 A.D, revoired wider fue ieauer.ship uf Birsa Munda, against the Christian Missionary activities in the agency area and demanded their own, rights i:fl the soiL Bi~sa founded a new cult called 'Singabonga' and started the 'Sons of, the Soil' movement called Olgulan. He was deported in 1900 A,.D, as a political prisoner., 8. NAIKDAS - Panchmahal hills, Gujarat: 1858 - 1868 A.D, revolted under the, leadership of Roop Sing and Jaria Bhagath against British policy of expansionism and, ~erference.. The;y declared the formation of the 2nd independent tribal kingdom with, Roop Singh as the head of the State and Jaria as the head of the religion., , -

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.., 9. OROANS ~ ChotaNagpur: 1915 A.IJ, revolted under the leadership of Jatra Bhagath. It, started as a reform movement called Bhagath Movement and also Tanabhaga movement, weaching monotheism. Later in became anti - British and a part of the freedom struggle., 10. SANTHAL REBELLION - it took place in the Rajmahal hills in Bihar from 1854 to, 1856 A.D. It opposed British land revenue policy, under the leadership of Siddhu and, Kanhu. They defeated the British annies under General Borraugh and declared the, st, formation of I independept tribal kingdom in modem India in the region between, Bhagalpur and Patna., The importance of the Santhal revolt was: ., . • It was the first revolt that exploded the myth of European invincibility, • The revolt had direct impact on 1857 Sepoy mutiny ., . 11. SAVARA - Si:ikakulam Agency Area, Andhra Ptadesh in 1857 A.O. It was led by, Dundasena against the British Forest laws., 12. THADOE - Kuki, Manipur: 1917 A.D. It was led by Rani Gindinilu and her cousin, Zodanang against the presence of the British in the agency areas. Imprisoned Rani, Gidinilu was released in 1947 A.D, and was called the "daughter of Indian, Independence" by Prime Minister Nehru., 13. BHILS: 1913 A.D. This rebellion was led by Govind Guru against British revenue, policy., 14. CHENCHU - Nallamala Hills in Andhra Pradesh: 1922 - 1923 A.O. They revolted, against British "Forest Laws under the leadership of K.Hanumanthu: He organised'Palanadu' which was a Forest Satyagraha against British forest laws., Zamindari Revolts, 1. Madras Presidency:, a) The Zamindar of Bobbili was the first to revolt in modem India in 1757 A.O., Rangarao, the Zamindar of Bobbili opposed the domination of the French and, challenged the French Commander Bussey in the Battle ofBobbili., b) The Battle of Padmanabham in 1794 A.D - the Raja of Vijayanagaram, Vijay, ~ Ramraj was killed by the Bntish. He was the richest Zamindar in India and he refused, · to pay the arrears of Peshcush., c) Veerapandya Kattaboman, the Zamindar of . Panchalakuruchi opposed British, revenue policy and revolted during 1792 - 1799 A.D., , d) Velutumbi, the Dewan of Travancore revolted during 1805 - 1809 A.D, against the, British land revenue policy. He died in the fight and the· State of Travancore was, occupied., , e) Kittur Uprising (1824 A.D)- Rani Chennavva adopted Shivalinga Rudra The British, mmulled. her adoption and·Chennavva organised the fight with support of her cousin,, Rayappa. Both were imprisoned in V ellore Jail.

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•, f) Raja Rebellion (1821-·A.D) - Raja Bir Bahadur of Vishakapatnam opposed British, ., - •·, revenue policy, revolted and lost his Zamindari., , g) V.Narasimha Reddy, the Poligar of Koilakuntla in the Kurnool District of Andhra, Pradesh revolted against the British revenue policy during 1845 A.D and 1846 A.D., He was executed by the Russell Brigade., 2. Bengal Presidency, a) The Zamindar of Parlakinidi, Jagannat Gajapath Dev revolted against the land, revenue policy _and lost his land estate in 1829 A.D., b) In 1835 A.D. Dhananjay Banja, the Zamindar of Gunsur revolted against the, revenue policy., c) Sambalpur Uprising (1827 - 1840 A.D). 1It was against the British policy of, interference. Maharaj Sai, the king of Sambalpur died without heir apparent. The British interfered and declared his queen Mahan Kumari as Queen of Sambalpur., The revolt was led by Surendra Sai, the illegj.timate son of Maharaj Sai. In 1840, A.D., Surendra was departed to Burma as political prisoner., 3. Bombay Presidency:, a) Ramosis Rebellion - (1822 A.D): The peasant tribe around Pune lost their land, holdings with the Third Anglo Maratha ~ar in 1818 A.D. They revolted under the, leadership of Chittor Singh and Ununaji. The revolt ended when British agreed to, provide employment to the Ramosis in tp.e British army., b) Satavandi Rebellion: Khan Satvant, the ruler of Satavandi was deposed by the, _ British in 183~ A.D. In his support, his commander Pond Sathvant organised the, revolt., c) Satara Outbreak/ Disturbances - 1840 A.D - Pratap Singh, the king of Satara, was deposed by the British in 1840 A.D. In his support, Dhar Rao, Narsing and, Powar organised the revolt. Though the State was restored, it became the first, State annexed by Lord Dalhousie under the Doctrine of Lapse in 1848 A.D., d) Khodkari Rebellion -_ 1845 A.D.: Khodkaris were the peasant tribes around, Kolhapur. Iri 1845 ~-D, they revolted against the repressive revenue policy of, Dew~ D.K.Pandit who was supported-by the English., 4. Centr~I Provinces, a) Kutch Rebellion - 1815 A.D: Rao Bamal, the Dewan of Kutch opposed British, revenue policy revolted~ The State of Kutch was annexed., · b) Bundela Uprising - 1842 A.D.: The Bundelas of Sagar revolted under the, · leadership of Mdhukarshah and Jawahir Singh against the revenue policy. Both, the leaders were executed.

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Civil Rebellions, 1. Sany~si Rebellion -1772 A.D: It was the first civil rebellion ofmodern lridi~~ led by the, Sanyasis of Giri order (founded by Adishankara). It started when Lord Warren Hastings, banned the movement of Sanyasis visiting pilgrim centres in naked form., 2. Farazi Movement-1804 A.D: It started in Faridpur district of West Bengal, founded by, Shariatullah and his son Md. Mohisin. Though a reform movement in the beginning, it, became a communal movement opposing Hindu landed aristocracy and the British in, Bengal., 3. Wahabi Movement: It was actually founded by Abdul Wahab at Mazad in West Pmtjab., It was introduced into India by Syed Ahmed of Bareilly in U.P. in 1822 A.D. However,, Sittana in.NWFP became main centre of its activities. The movement was led by Vilayat, Ali, Inayat Ali and Maqsad Ali. The Wahabis opposfd Sikhs in Punjab and English in the, rest .of India They preached Hindu - Muslim unity against the British. They played the, commendable role in 1857 Se,POY Mutiny. With the failure of Sepoy Mutiny, the, movement also ended. Sidney · Cotton, the British Commander conducted series of, campaigns on Sittana, the stronghold ofWahabis., 4. Paga) Panthi Movement - 1827 A.D: it was started by Karan Shah and his son Tipu, in, the Sherpur district of Bengal. The Pagalpanthis opposed the exploitation of Hindu, Zamindars and attacked British establishments. They were called "Pagals" for they, demanded radical land reforms., 5. Namdhari and Kuka Movement: It was first started by Bhagat Jauhari Mal as a social, reform movement in the Sikh community opposing consumption of liquor and male female inequality. However, under Ram Singh, it became Kuka movement. The kukas, regarded only Guru Gobind as the real Sikh guru, opposed the presence of Muslims i11:, Punjab and attempted to revive the past glory of the sikhs. In 1872 A.D, Ram Singh, organised the Kuka outbreak, captured the city of Amritsar and declared the formation of, Kuka government. The movement ended with the Ram Singh' s capture and he being, deported to Burma as a political prisoner., L.,, , Peasant Uprisings, 1. .l~dio Rebellion 1858 - 1860 A.D: It was against the injust system of 'advances' called, "Tinkathia System"~ The Indigo cultivators of Bihar and Bengal organised the rebellion, under the leadership of Biswas brothers- Bishnucharan Biswas and Digambar Biswas., The main centres of the· revolt were Darbhanga in Bihar, Nadia and Jessore in Bengal., The Bengali intellectual, Dinabandhu Mitra wrote the popular play, Nildarpan, depicting, the plight of Indigo cultivators. The movement ended with the appointment of the First, Indigo Enquiry Commission in l860 A.O. ·u was the first Satyagraha· Movement in, Modern India, 2. Pabna .Uprising 1872 A.D: The Bengal peasantry at Pabna revolted against the revenue, policy of collecting ·rent in terms of cash. When the prices for agricultural commodities, It ended with guarantees given by the British regarding the peasant, were falling, proprietorship over the soil. . . ., .., 3. Deccan Riots 1857 A.D: During, Deccan famine in 1875 A.D, riots broke out in, Ahmednagar and ., districts of. Bombay Presidency against the exploitations of, , ~own., , Pone ., , the, , ·

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Marwari moneylenderlY The riots became anned rebellions under the leadership of, Vasudev Balwant Phadke who is regarded as the "Father of modemJndian revoiutionary, _terrorism". Tue riots ended in 1879 A.O. with Deccan Peasants Relief Act that provided, for guarantees of peasant proprietorship over the soil and imposed· restrictions on both, borrowing and lending., ·, , •, , •, , •, •, , 1857REVOLT, The British economic policy was the most important factor tor the outbreak of the revolt. The, impoverished peasantry, the deposed Zamindars and the unemployed youth in urban centres, ~ere the major participants _in the revolt., The British policy of expansionism from the beginning was devoid of ethics and values. tord, Warren Hastings followed 'Ring fencing policy' i.e. the policy of creating friendly states, around enemy States and" occupying both in ·course 1of time. Lord Wellesley introduced, 'Subsidiary Alliance' system and forced t~at upon the ~ative princes and conquered more than -,half of British India in the same style. Lord· Dalhousie with his 'Doctrine of Lapse' annexed, the Indian State Satara in 1848 A.D, Jaitpur in 1849 A.D, Sambalpur in 1850 A.D, Hill State, of Bhagat in 1852 A.D, Jhansi in 1853 A.D and Nagp~ in 1854 A.O. However the States,, Sambalpur and Bhagat were restored back. He abolished the titles of native Nawabs and, refused . to sanction pension to Nana sahib (the adopted son of the , last Peshwa, Baji Rao II), after the death of the Peshwa in 1851 A.D. He also declared that the Red Fort belonged to, British and occupied the State of Ayodhya in 1856 A.O. deposing Wajid Ali Shah, the, Nawab, on grounds of mal-administration. Lord Canning, the successor of Dalhousie, declared that Mughal Emperor would not be pennitted to use the royal title Jil-e-illahi (the, shadow of God)., In the social sphere, the progressive legislation of the British was held in contempt and, suspicion by majority of Hindus and Muslims., In 1802 A.D, Lord Wellesley abolished the custom of female infanticide practiced by the, Rajputs with his Regulation VI. In 1829 A.D, Lord William Bentick abolished the custom of, Sati at the instance of Ram Mohan Roy, with his Regulation XVII. In 1856 A.D, Lord, Dalhousie, passed Widow-~ Remarriage-Act at the instance of lshw.ar Chandra Vidyasagar., ., However, the most co~troversial ~ct was the 1856 Religious Disabilities Act or Indian, Inherit-ance Act that retained property rights for the converted against the spirit of, Dharmashastra Further, the company sanctioned aid to the Christian Missionaries in the fonn, of Grants., 1, The Compau.y li.istvriru1 Willian G;J..'lt G~~l~~~ i:1 t!:!e Ho,Jse of Commons that "Jt was, divinely ordained task to transform India into Christianity''., ., , •, , ., , Grievances of Sepoys, The Sepoys revolted for the first time in 1675 A.O. The Burchampore Regiment was the first to, revolt against Robert Clive. It was also called 'White Mutiny' as most of the Sepoys who, revolted were English., In 1806 A.D, the Vello~e' Sepoy Mutiny had taken place in support ofTipu Sultan and his family.

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The reasons for the revolt were •, .•, , Sepoys were discriminated. No Indian sepoy was promoted beyoridthe rankdf'Jdtedal., J?enied additional allowance called Batta~ which was granted only to English sepoys., , •, , In 1856 A.D, Service Enlistment Act was passed prohibiting the sepoy from observing, rituals and customs in military camps., , •, , In 1857 January, the Royal Enfield Gun was intr9duced to be operated "by greased, •· .cartridges. The sepoys refused to use the cartridge' as they suspected tha~ cow and pig fat, were used. In March 29, 1857, Mangal Pandey and his cousin lswar Pandey of the 34, Native Infantry Regiment at Barrackpore organised the revolt. On May 10, 1857, Capt., d, ., ., Bakht Khan of the 3r cavalry regiment at Meerut led the revolt. On I I th May, 1857, the ·, sepoys occupied Delhi, declared Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India and the leader of, the revolt., t, , Centres and Leaders of the revolt Arrah in Bihar - Kunwar Singh and his brother Amar Singh, the Zamindars of, Jagadishpur organised the revolt., 1. Bareilly in U.P - Khan Bahadur Khan, the head of the Rohillas was the leader of the, Revolt., 2. Delhi - Bahadur Shah was the titular head. Capt.Bakht Khan was the real head of the, revolt., 3. Faisabad - Maulvi ·Ahmeduiiah, the head of Wahabi sect l~ the revolt in support of, Begum Hazrat Mahal, wife of Nawab Wajid Ali. It V{as a brilliant example of, communal harmony and joint resistance of Hindus and Muslims against the British, under his leadership. The Muslims handed over the disputed site to the Hindus., 4. Jhansi - Laxmi Bai, the widow of Gangadhar Rao organised the revolt for the sake of, her adopted son, Manohar Rao., 5. Kanpur was the the main centre of the revolt. Nana Sahib, actually called Dondu, Pandit led the revolt assisted by Anna Saheb, Azimullah .and Tantia Tope. Nana, perpetuated atrocities on all E~opeans in Kanpur., 6. Lucknow- Begum Hazrat Mahal led the revolt for the sake or her son, Buzris Qadr., Suppression of the Revolt, Lord Canning was the Governor General and Collin Campbell was the Chief Commander of, Op6rafa,rr.:;. Sir JO:h.'1 Nic:!1o!s0!! g0t back Delhi b11t d1ed 1n the fight. Willi~m Taylor and Vincent, Eyre defeated Kunwar Singh. Collin Campbell took back Kanpur. Sir Hugh Rose defeated, Laxmi Bai. Nana Sahib, Khan Bahadur Khan and Begum Hazarat Mahal took asylum in Nepal., Maulvi.Ahm~dullah was killed by the Raja of Puwain. Tantia: Tope offered guerrilla warfare but, was handed over to English by Man Singh, a friend of Scindia. He was executed on April 18,, 1858., _The main cause for th~ failure of the revolt was lack of co - ordination among the leaders of the, revolt. Moreover all leaders and sections of the society who participated in the revolt had their, own personal, independent agendas. ·There wasn't any common objective or a single strong, leader. The revolt also did not spread to· south. Moreover, many sections of the society either, remained neutral or also·suppoi::fed the English against the rebels.

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•, · Results of the Revolt, .•, , Lord Canning held the Ahmadabad Durbar and re_ad out the Queen's proclamation which, promised no further conquests in India, .no further interference in the internal affairs of, the Indians and that Indians woµla.be promoted in decision making. Accordingly, the, 1861 Indian Councils Act, 1861 Indian Judiciary Act and 1861 Indian Executive Act, _were passed., • The administration of company' ended. Its two agencies- Court of Directors and Board of, Control were abolished., • The office of the Governor General also became the office of Viceroy (He was Governor, Ge·n~ral when he administrated British India while he acted as Viceroy when -he dealt, with Princely States). Lord Canning was the 1st Governor Gerieral - cum- Viceroy., . • An agency of 15 members called Indian Council was created in London to monitor the, functioning of Viceroy and his staff. It was to be headed by Secretary of State for India, (Lord Charles Wood became the first Secretary of State for India)., • . There was a marked change in the Divide and Rule policy of British. After 1857, they, promoted Muslims against Hindus., • They divided Indian Army on regional, racial and communal grounds., • To cover up the losses during the revolt, Income Tax was levied from 1860 onwards., The revoit was described as a "Sepoy' Mutiny" by the British historians like Col.Malleson. For, Lord Canning it was a 'revolution'. For nationalist historian, V.O.Savarkar, it was the "First war, of Indian Independence". For Tara Chand, it was the last attempt of medieval order to regain, their lost power, prestige and privileges. _, ·, · ·, , 19th Century Indian Renaissance, It was an attempt to reform the Indian society in the light of modernisation, westernisation and, the threat of Christianity. The most important factor for the renaissance ""fas the introduction of, English Education with its ideas of Humanism, Rationalism and Empiricism (Experiment and, Experience)., , Hindu Reform Movement$, , ., , _, , 1. Atmiya Sabha: it was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in Kolkata in 1815 A.:D. It was the, (rrst reform organisation. Its main theme was to promote Studies on Indian Philosophy, (Upanishads)., 2. Young Bengal Movement: it was started by Henry Vivian Derozio, an anglo - Indian, te2d1~r, in 1824 A.O. His fo1lowers called Derozians were to first to start the practice of, writing pamphlets on social and economic issues. Derozio inspired the whole generation of ·, Bengali intellectuals including Vidyasagar and Keshab Chandra.Sen., 3. Brahmo Samaj: Actually called Brahmo Sabha; was founded by Rammohan Roy · in, J(olkata in 1828 AD., as a social reform organisation. Its main theme was 'Nirgunopasana', . (formless worship or monotheism). Its social programs included·· a) Eradication of social evils like Sati., b) Emancipation of woman .., c) To demand for progressive education., d) To generate awareness oli socio - economic and political issues.