Page 1 :
UNIT 5, , MOTIVATION*, , Structure, 5.0, , Learning Objectives, , 5.1, , Introduction, , 5.2, , Motivation: Concept, , 5.3, , Nature of Motivation, , 5.4, , Types of Motivation, 5.4.1 Biogenic Motives, 5.4.1.1 Hunger Motivation, 5.4.1.2 Thirst Motivation, 5.4.1.3 Sex Motivation, 5.4.2 Psychogenic Motives, 5.4.2.1 Exploration of the Environment, 5.4.2.2 Competence Motive, 5.4.2.3 Self-Actualization, 5.4.3 Sociogenic Motives, , 5.5, , Theories of Motivation, 5.5.1, 5.5.2, 5.5.3, 5.5.4, 5.5.5, 5.5.6, 5.5.7, 5.5.8, 5.5.9, 5.5.10, 5.5.11, , Evolutionary Approach, Drive Reduction Model, The Optimal Arousal Model, Incentive Theories, Cognitive Approaches to Motivation, Goal-setting Theory, The Hierarchical Model, Self-determination Theory, Self-Theory of Motivation, Alderfer’s ERG Theory, Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory, , 5.5.12 McClelland’s Acquired Need Theory, , 5.6, , Frustration and Conflict, 5.6.1 Frustration, 5.6.2 Conflict, , 5.7, , Summary, , 5.8, , Review Questions, , 5.9, , Key words, , 5.10 References and Suggested Readings, 5.11 References for Figure, 5.12 Online Resources, , * Dr.Meetu Khosla, Associate Professor of Psychology, Daulat Ram College, University of Delhi, Dr. Suhas Shetgovekar, Professor of Psychology, IGNOU, New Delhi, , 109

Page 2 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , 5.0, , LEARNING OBJECTIVES, , After having read this unit, you will be able to:, , , explain the meaning and nature of motivation;, , , , identify the types of motivation;, , , , compare and summarize various theories of motivation; and, , , , describe the nature of frustration and conflict., , 5.1, , INTRODUCTION, , Consider the following examples:, Example 1: Sheena was taking part in 100 meters marathon in her college., But as she started running, there was a cramp in her left leg. But, despite the, pain and discomfort, Sheena managed to finish the race and secure the first, prize. What do you think might have made Sheena continue in the race and, perform to her best?, Example 2: Sania’s brother was getting married the next day and despite being, preoccupied with the marriage preparations, she ensured that the report that, she had to submit to her boss, was prepared and submitted as per the time, given to her. What do you think promoted Sania to prepare the report and submit, it in time?, In the above two brief examples, the main question that arises is why the person, (Sheena and Sania) behaved in that particular way. What was the driving force behind, their behaviour? In our day today life as well, you will come across such behaviours,, where you may wonder why certain individuals behaved the way they did. From, getting something to eat, to helping a person injured in an accident, to completing, work in time, one of the significant factors that can play a role is motivation. As, certain behaviours may be displayed due to motivation, it is also possible that an, individual may not behave in certain ways because of lack of motivation. For example,, a student may not do well in his/ her examination because he/ she never felt motivated, enough, intrinsically or extrinsically or an individual may not perform to his/ her best, at work due to lack of motivation., From the above examples, it may be concluded that motivation is a key factor that, determines human behaviour and thus, it is also important, as a student of psychology,, that we understand this term in a better way. Therefore, in this unit, we will discuss, the concept of motivation in detail. First, we will talk about definition, nature and, types of motivation. Then, we will discuss various theories explaining the concept, of motivation., , 5.2, , MOTIVATION: CONCEPT, , Motivation is the need within the individual to do something or to fulfill your desire., There are certain internal and external factors that are responsible for stimulating a, desire and providing us with the energy to pursue our goals, needs and desires., Motivation involves three aspects that need to be understood. First, it talks about, a need state in the organism that drives him/her towards the satisfaction of the bodily, need. This need could be due to internal thoughts and feelings or could be due to, external factors in the environment. Secondly, this need then induces a state of arousal, or an action tendency. Thirdly, the action is directed towards attaining some goal., 110

Page 3 :
5.3, , Motivation, , NATURE OF MOTIVATION, , The motives are responsible for propelling our action tendencies towards a desired, state or goal. Motives are not visible directly, rather they are inferred from our, behaviors. For example, if we observe a student working hard day and night on, her/his task, we infer that she/he is motivated to score high. If we are able to make, accurate inferences then we are also able to explain the behavior observed more, accurately. For example, the choice of college that you take admission in, will explain, if you have a need to learn or to belong to an institution to get a degree for a good, job or because it is in close proximity. The motives help us to make choices which, also in a way help us to make predictions about behavior. For example, if two friends, always come together for a class, we predict that they are good friends, or if one, is absent from the class, we may predict the other one will also be absent. The, predictions may not be accurate but we can get a fair idea about the probability of, the response or behaviour., There is a motivational cycle that helps us to understand behavior (Morgan & King,, 1979).This motivational cycle starts with a need, a state of lack or deficit of some, necessity. The state of need leads to a driving state. Drives can be stimulated due, to internal factors or external factors. Internal factors could be thoughts and memories, while external factors could be the environmental factors. This driving state arouses, you and pushes you to perform some goal-directed behaviour. For example, if, we are thirsty there is a need for water, this need will drive us towards attaining, water and once we have consumed water, the need is satisfied and the drive is, reduced or diminished. So, once the performed behaviour leads to the achievement, of desired goal, it reduces the drive and organism returns to a balanced state. The, motivational cycle ends here. Then it arises again after a while when the urge for, water (or any other need) arises again. Figure 5.1 illustrates the motivational cycle., Need, Drive, , Reduction, of arousal, , Arousal, , Achievement, Goal directed, behaviour, Figure 5.1: The motivational cycle, , Before describing further, let us discuss the four terms that are related to motivation., These four terms are needs, drives, incentives, and motives., Needs: These are related to the biological states of cellular or bodily deficiencies, that lead to drives. For example, individuals need water, food and oxygen to survive, (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015)., Drives: Feist and Rosenberg (2015, pg 397) define drives as “the perceived states, of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need, creating an urge, , 111

Page 4 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , to relieve the tension”. This means that need leads to or compels drive. Thus, when, an individual is hungry, she/he will seek food. The need leads to drive and makes, individual to behave in such a way that the deficiency created is dealt with., Incentives: This is external or is from the environment (as opposed to drive that, is internal) and plays a role in motivating behaviours. It could be an object or an, event. For instance, a trophy won in a game can be termed as an incentive to do, well in that game., Motives: Most often the terms motivation and motives are used interchangeably., However, they are different as motivation can be termed as a general term, whereas, motive is a specific term. Motive is something that actually drives an individual to, take certain action and motivation is the process within which a motive drives an, individual towards certain action., Box 5.1: Few definitions of Motivation, The term motivation has been derived from a Latin word ‘movere’, which means ‘to, move’. There are various definitions of motivation and some of them have been mentioned, as follows:, Feldman (2015, pg. 287) defined motivation as “the factors that direct and energise, the behaviour of humans and other organisms”., Feist and Rosenberg (2015, pg. 397) define motivation as “the urge to move towards, one’s goals, to accomplish tasks”., Chamorro- Premuzic (2015, pg. 272) defined motivation as “an internal state, dynamic, rather than static in nature, that propels action, directs behaviour and is oriented, toward satisfying both instincts and cultural needs and goals”., Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal (2013, pg. 172) defined motivation as “the process of, arousing and sustaining goal directed behaviour”., Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus & Lutz (2009, pg 419) describe motivation as “a, condition that energizes behaviour and gives it direction”., , Check Your Progress 1, 1) Define motivation., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 2) Explain motivational cycle., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 112

Page 5 :
Motivation, , ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 3) Differentiate between needs, drives and motives., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., , 5.4, , TYPES OF MOTIVATION, , This section will explain the types of motives., , 5.4.1 Biogenic Motives, Also known as biological motives, these are used as the cause to understand behaviour, by earlier psychologists. When there is a departure from the balanced physiological, state of the body, known as homeostasis, it arouses various biological motives to, restore the balance. This balance is very important for life. There are many such, motives. Some of the basic biogenic motives will be discussed in this section, like, hunger, thirst and sex., 5.4.1.1 Hunger Motivation, When there is a lack of food in the stomach, it causes hunger pangs. The stomach, contracts and initiates a hunger drive. There are many reasons for hunger. Many, studies have shown that after fasting, when the person uses too much of blood sugar, or glucose, it causes hunger. Friedman and Stricker (1976) suggested that when, there is a change in the metabolic functions of the liver, and food is less, then it, initiates hunger. There are two areas of the hypothalamus that seem to be involved, in hunger. Research has shown that when lateral hypothalamus is stimulated, it initiates, eating behavior. On the other hand, if this area is damaged, then it causes the animal, to stop eating (Epstein, 1960). Ventro-medial area of the hypothalamus is also involved, in hunger motivation. It is known to be the inhibitory area for hunger drive. Epstein, (1960) showed in his experiments that when the ventro-medial hypothalamus is, damaged, then the animal does not know when to stop eating and they become, over weight., The eating behavior is also stopped by other factors. The smell of food, indigestion, of food and, taste of food are secondary factors that may stop eating behaviour., Gibbs, Young and, Smith (1973) have shown in their study that when food reaches, intestine it releases a hormone in our blood known as CCK or cholecystokinin., Thus, they showed that other factors also play important role in regulating, hunger,particularly stop signals as satiety (the absence of hunger motivation) which, signals the animal to stop eating anymore. Hunger motivation is also believed that, it depends upon the levels or rates of use of dissolved nutritive substances flowing, in the blood. If the levels fall below a certain point, known as set point, hunger, drive is caused and food is absorbed to raise the blood levels of nutrients back to, 113

Page 6 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , the set point. Hence, both internal and external factors are important in regulating, the eating behavior., 5.4.1.2 Thirst Motivation, It is believed that thirst and drinking are regulated by the body internally. When the, mouth is dry, then only one feels thirsty. The Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) plays, an important role in regulating the water level in the body. ADH prevents the loss, of water from the kidney. It has been suggested that the thirst drive and drinking, behavior are instigated by the loss of water from the cells or the decrease in the, volume of the blood. When there is a reduction in the level of water in the body, fluids, then the water moves out from the cells into the fluids. This dehydrates the, interior part of the cells. The osmoreceptors (nerve cells which generate nerve impulses, when dehydrated) generate nerve impulses when they are dehydrated. These nerve, impulses are mere signals that initiate drinking behavior. When thirst is caused by, the loss of water from the osmorecpetors, it is known as cellular-dehydration thirst., The loss of water from the body also causes a condition known as hypovolemia., In this condition, there is a reduction in the blood volume which causes a decrease, in the blood pressure. This reduction in blood pressure causes the kidneys to release, renin, an enzyme that helps in the formation of angiotension II. Angiotensin II is a, substance that moves about in the blood and tends to stimulate drinking behavior., Double-depletion hypothesis explains when both the conditions of hypovolemia, and cellular dehydration are at work. Drinking often stops when the mouth and stomach, signal that no more water intake is required. Also, when the osmoreceptors are, hydrated, the blood plasma level reaches its normal volume., 5.4.1.3 Sex Motivation, Sexual drive depends upon the physiological condition of the body. It is also considered, as a biological drive. There are various ways in which this drive varies from hunger, and thirst drive. The sexual drive does not respond to any deficiency in the body, or lack of some substance in the body. Thus, it is not initiated by any homeostatic, imbalance or presence of any excessive hormones in the body. In males, the level, of the male hormone testosterone is responsible for sexual drive. In females, the, female hormone, estrogen is responsible for the sexual behavior. Hypothalamus, regulates the hormone release., Hunger and thirst drives are necessary for survival but sexual drives are not necessary, for survival, though it is important for the species survival. There are various external, stimuli that trigger sexual drives. This could be like the odors, smell or sight of the, attractive partner may stimulate this drive. Though, the family upbringing and social, norms may also play an important role in the expression of sexual behavior., , 5.4.2 Psychogenic Motives, Psychogenic motives are also called general motives. These motives do not arise, either because of learning or homeostatic imbalance. These are innate, tend to persist, through out one’s life and are often difficult to satisfy. These are motive to explore, the environment, the motive to master the challenges and deal with the difficulties, by being competent, and by self-actualization (by doing what one is capable of doing, the best of his or her ability)., 114

Page 7 :
5.4.2.1 Exploration of the Environment, , Motivation, , Exploration is a motive when any person or animal or organism actively moves around, in his/her new environment curiously. We all have this desire to know more about, a new place than a previously visited one and hence, indulge in exploring the area, with inquisitiveness. Once the drive is satisfied, we have an urge to explore another, avenue that is novel for us. Thus, we explore the environment because of curiosity., An active interest in new places or events or situations are pursued. Many scientists, have made wonderful discoveries and invented new things, concepts,etc by pursuing, their curiosity for the unknown. Both human beings as well as animals have a great, interest for new situations. Some also explore for satisfying the sensory receptors., That is sensory stimulation also provides an impetus to get involved in various kinds, of activities. This perhaps explains why we watch TV or listen to music or drive,, etc. There is an inherent need for sensory stimulation and this changes once we get, accustomed to the stimulus., 5.4.2.2 Competence Motive, Competence is the ability to master the challenges in the environment. It is also, known as effectance motivation,a tendency to explore and influence one’s, environment (White, 1959). According to Susan Harter (1978), “competence, motivation increases when a person successfully masters a task. This encourages, the person to master more tasks”., 5.4.2.3 Self-Actualization, This motive helps the person to achieve or become what one is capable of becoming., It enables a person to maximize his or her own potential. Maslow (1954) proposed, a need hierarchy model with different needs at different levels. First, the lower level, needs are satisfied followed by the higher level needs. Maslow’s hierarchy of need, starts with the physiological needs such as hunger, thirst and sex, which is followed, by safety needs i.e., need for security, stability, and order. Once this level is satisfied,, then the third level of needs are belongingness and love needs, where need for, affection, affiliation and identification are developed. The next level needs are the, need for esteem, that includes the need for prestige, success, and self-respect. The, highest level of this hierarchy related to the need for self-actualization. This is at, the top most level and not many people are able to reach the top most level of the, need hierarchy., Box 5.2: Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation originates in factors outside the individual. Behaviour is motivated, by rewards and punishments which are extrinsically determined., Intrinsic Motivation is a term used to refer to the motivation for any behaviour that is, dependent on factors that are internal in origin. It is usually derived from feelings of, satisfaction and fulfillment and not external rewards., , 5.4.3 Sociogenic Motives, The sociogenic needs are more complex as they are extrinsic needs that are learned, in social groups, as peers, or family where one grows. These needs may vary from, person to person, depending upon the personality type. There are many kinds of, social motives and it is very difficult to suggest which is most important or which is, least important. It is also very difficult to measure social motives. Achievement, motivation, a type of sociogenic motive, refers to the need to achieve or accomplish, on a task and surpass the other people. Affiliation motivation implies the need, to make friends and seek co-operation with others. Aggression motive refers to, 115

Page 8 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , the need to fight and take revenge, to belittle or curse or ridicule the other. Nurturance, motive is the need to take care of others or to help others when they are in a problem, or sick. Dominance motives are displayed when a person tries to control or influence, the other person, to become a leader. The power motive is the need to gain power, or do things that make a person feel powerful and strong., Box 5.2: Primary and Secondary Motivation, Primary motivation can also be termed as basic motivation and mainly includes the, needs related to hunger, thirst, sleep, sex, avoidance of pain and so on. These mainly, influence an individual’s behaviour at a basic level and these needs are also related to, the basic need for preservation of self., Secondary motivation can be termed as learned motivation and these may differ from, individual to individual. They are also related to the priorities and values of the individual., These will be further discussed under drive reduction theory., , Check Your Progress 2, 1) Define biogenic motives, psychogenic motives and sociogenic motives., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 2) What is double-depletion hypothesis?, ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 3) What do you mean by competence motivation?, ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 116

Page 9 :
5.5, , THEORIES OF MOTIVATION, , Motivation, , By this point in the text, you will now be able to define motivation and differentiate, between biogenic and psychogenic motives. This section will now discuss the various, theories of motivation:, , 5.5.1 Evolutionary Approach, The psychologists in the beginning were concerned with biologically determined and, innate characteristics of behavior called instincts. Instincts are present both in animals, and humans. Migration patterns, mating, nest-building, territoriality, etc are governed, by instincts. Similarly, behavior in humans like, reproduction, is instinctual and, responsible for sexual behavior (James, 1890; McDougal, 1908). In the beginning,, William Mcdougall recognised 18 types of instincts. This approach could describe, but not explain behavior., , 5.5.2 Drive-reduction Model, The drive theory is one of the approaches to motivation. When there is a need, it, creates psychological tension and physiological tension then that drives the organism, to reduce the tension by fulfilling the need. This tension is known as drive (Hull,, 1948). These theories are also called as the push theories of motivation as “the, behaviour is pushed towards goals by driving force within the person or animal”, (Morgan, King, Weisz & Schopler 1996, pg. 269)., Drive reduction model states that “lack of some basic biological need produces a, drive to push an organism to satisfy that need” (Feldman, 2015 pg. 288). Drive, was defined earlier in this unit and it can be explained as a tension or arousal that, channelizes behaviour to fulfil a need. Drives can be of two types, primary and, secondary. The examples of primary drives are thirst, hunger, sleep and sex that, are mainly related to the physiological needs of an individual. Secondary drives are, related to the previous experience and learning that lead to development of a need., For example, need for achievement in one’s field of work. Thus, this secondary, drive will then channelize their work related behaviour., An important term that needs to be discussed under this model is homeostasis, which, can be explained as “the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological, equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point” (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015,, pg 398). It can also be explained as the tendency of the body to maintain an internal, state that is balanced or steady (Feldman, 2015). Thus, whenever there is any deviation, from the ideal state or the set point, then the adjustments will be made by the body, to reestablish the balanced state or achieve the set point thus restoring the balance., Homeostasis helps operate the needs related to food, water, sleep, body temperature, and so on., Drive reduction theory adequately explains how behaviour is channelised by primary, drives. However, it does not adequately explain behaviours that have goals to maintain, or increase arousal. For example, it may not help in explaining behaviour of an, adolescent who enjoys a roller coaster ride or rides his/ her bike in full speed. Thus,, as such a behaviour that is thrilling and a behaviour related to curiosity cannot be, explained with the help of this model., 117

Page 10 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , 5.5.3 The Optimal Arousal Model, As it was discussed under drive reduction model, that the model cannot be applied, to explain the behaviour related to curiosity or behaviour that seek thrill. In such, cases, the optimal arousal model can be used. This model is based on the work, carried out by Yerkes and Dodson in 1908, referred to as the Yerkes- Dodson, law (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015). The model states that “we function best when, we are moderately aroused or energised and both low and high arousal/ energy, levels lead to poor performance” (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015, pg 399). Figure 5.2, illustrates the relationship between performance and arousal., , Figure 5.2: The Yerkes- Dodson law, Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org, , When the arousal is low or high the performance is also low, however, an optimal, level of arousal leads to high performance. Thus, it can be said that individuals are, motivated when certain situation is not very high or low in stimulation., , 5.5.4 Incentive Theories, These can also be described as ‘pull’ theories (Morgan et al, 1996). These theories, state that the motivation is as a result of desire to achieve external rewards or, incentives. For example, a chocolate could serve as an incentive for a child to do, his/ her homework in time, even though he/ she may not actually be hungry (that, would be a cue that is internal). Though, these theories do not explain why an individual, may desire to fulfil certain needs even when no incentive is provided., Thus, it can be said that both, the drive reduction model and the incentive theories, are relevant and can be considered together to explain what motivates certain, behaviours. For example, when hungry, an individual will seek food (drive reduction, model), however, he/ she will seek food that seems to be more appetising or appealing, (incentive)., , 5.5.5 Cognitive Approaches to Motivation, , 118, , This approach states that “motivation is a result of people’s thoughts, beliefs,, expectations and goals’ (Feldman, 2015, pg 289). Thus, a student will be motivated, to study for examination based on his/ her expectation whether studying will lead, to obtaining good marks in examination. This theory also helps differentiate between, the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Individuals are more likely to work on a certain, task or towards achieving a certain goal when he/ she is intrinsically motivated as, opposed to extrinsically motivated. And it may so happen that attempts to increase, extrinsic motivation may lead to decrease in intrinsic motivation (Feldman, 2015).

Page 11 :
Motivation, , 5.5.6 Goal-setting Theory, Goal-setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990) proposes that motivation can be, influenced by goals. The theorists concluded from their study that people performed, better on tasks when they were given some specific goals rather than when they, were told ‘to do their best’. This approach is found to work when the goals are, specific and challenging but attainable. People perform better when they are given, feedback about their performance., , 5.5.7 The Hierarchical Model, This model was proposed by Maslow, often termed as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs., In this model, the needs are placed in a hierarchical order. The model then states, that the basic needs are to be fulfilled before the higher order needs are met. Maslow’s, hierarchy of needs can be explained with the help of a pyramid with basic needs at, the bottom of the pyramid and the higher order needs at the top of the pyramid, (see Figure 5.3)., , Self, Actualisation, Esteem Needs, Love & Belongingness, Needs, Safety Needs, Physiological Needs, , Figure 5.3: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, , As shown in Figure 5.3, the basic needs are the physiological needs (related to the, primary drive) namely, need for food, water, sleep and sex. This is followed by the, safety needs that are related to the need for an environment that makes us safe, and secure. These two needs can be termed as lower order needs and once these, are fulfilled, then the individual will move on to the other higher order needs. The, next need is that of love and belongingness, that is related to the give and take of, affection. This need is followed by yet another higher order need, that is, esteem, needs, that are related to the need for development of a sense of self worth. And, the last need is that of self-actualisation, that is related to need for realisation of, one’s full potential (Feist and Rosenberg, 2015) or can also be termed as a state, of self-fulfilment (Feldman, 2015). When self-actualization is achieved temporarily,, there might be peak or mystical experiences. Self-actualizers know moments of, intense ecstasy that can occur with virtually any activity., 119

Page 12 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , 5.5.8 Self-determination Theory, Closely related to the hierarchical model, is the self-determination theory proposed, by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci (2000). The theory postulates that there are, three innate and universal needs that helps the individual to gain complete sense of, self and building healthy relationships with others. The three needs are autonomy, which means controlling one’s behaviour; competence, which means the ability to, master challenging tasks; and relatedness refers to the sense of belongingness and, forming secured relationships., , 5.5.9 Self-theory of Motivation, Personologist Carol Dweck (1999) proposed that need for achievement is related, to personality factors. The need for achievement is influenced by perception of self, (beliefs about one’s abilities and relationship with others). This affects success and, failures of one’s actions. This approach is closely related to locus of control (Rotter,, 1966). When people presume that they have control over what happens in their, lives, have internal locus of control. While people who think that their lives are, controlled by factors like luck, fate, etc., have external locus of control., , 5.5.10 Alderfer’s ERG theory, The Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory (developed between 1961, to 1978) by Clayton P. Alderfer is similar to the theory proposed by Maslow. However,, the theory highlights only three levels in place of five levels. At the lowest level of, the hierarchy are the existence needs and as the name suggests these are basic needs, related to the physiological needs and the safety needs. The next level are the, relatedness needs that are related to social relationships. The last level is that of, growth needs and these are related to the need to achieve one’s potential, develop, competence and so on. The theory is mostly applied to workplace motivation to, increase productivity and morale of the employees., , 5.5.11 Herzberg’s two-factor Theory, Frederick Herzberg’s theory mainly focuses on two main factors that are hygiene, factors and motivational factors and states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise, from these two factors. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are the two extremes and, as such opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction (and not dissatisfaction) and the, opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction (and not satisfaction). This theory, mainly finds its application to work set up. The hygiene factors and motivational, factors have been shown in Table 5.1., Table 5.1: Hygiene and Motivational factors, , Hygiene factors, – Adequate workload and working, conditions, – Salary;, – Good relationship with, supervisor, peers and, subordinates;, – Security, 120, , Motivational factors, –, –, –, –, –, , High salary and bonuses, Achievement/ promotion, Recognition;, Responsibility;, Advancement and growth

Page 13 :
The hygiene factors determine the level of dissatisfaction and if these needs are taken, care of, then dissatisfaction will be low in the individual. Though, this will not contribute, to satisfaction in the individual and the motivational factors are required to ensure, that the individual experiences satisfaction., , 5.5.12, , Motivation, , McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory, , This theory was developed by David McClelland (1961, 1987) and it highlights, the three basic needs: achievement, affiliation and power. See the three needs, summarized in Table 5.2. nAch, nAff, and nPow are abbreviations used by, McClelland., Table 5.2: The three basic needs stated by McClelland, , Need for achievement, , This is related to achieving excellence, goals that, are challenging, overcoming obstacles and, difficulties, competition and persistence, need, to master skills and so on. People high on nAch, want to accomplish goals and set challenging, goals for themselves. They also need feedback, about their performance., , Need for affiliation, , This is related to maintaining close and intimate, relationship with others. People high on nAff, want to be liked by others., , Need for power, , This is related to having an influence, impact,, control over others. People high on nPow, would like to influence others and make an, impact on them., , Thus, the above theories help us to understand the concept of motivation from different, perspectives., Check Your Progress 3, 1) Explain the drive reduction theory of motivation., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 2) Explain Yerkes- Dodson law., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 121

Page 14 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , 3) List the lower and higher needs as explained by Maslow., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 4) Differentiate between need for achievement and need for power., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., , 5.6, , FRUSTRATION AND CONFLICT, , Till now, we talked about the process of motivation and various types of motives, that play important role in our behaviour. Now, we will try to understand what happens, when our motivated behaviour is blocked due to some reasons and what happens, when we have to choose between two motives., , 5.6.1 Frustration, When the goal-directed behavior is blocked due to some or the other reason it, leads to a psychological situation known as frustration. Sources of frustration includes, (i) environmental factors- it may include situations, people or any physical object, that hinders the attainment of goal, (ii) personal factors- such as, lack of resources,, ability or intelligence to reach your desired goal and, (iii) conflicts- it arises when, you have to choose between different contradicting motives., Frustration leads to manifestation of various types of behavioural and emotional, reactions such as depression, anger, irritation, crying, avoidance, etc. Notably, in, 1939, Dollard and Miller proposed “Frustration-aggression hypothesis” also known, as “frustration-aggression-displacement theory”. This hypothesis states that blocking, of goal (frustration) is the cause of aggression or in other words aggression is the, result of frustration., Box 1.3, Research suggests that frustration is one of the reasons for aggression. But many people, become depressed rather than being aggressive (Berkowitz, 1989) and people also become, aggressive as it is a part of their role or job requirement., , 5.6.2 Conflict, When you have to choose between contradictory motives, needs or desires, then, it leads to conflict. Basically, there are four types of conflict: (i) approach-approach, conflict (ii) avoidance-avoidance conflict (iii) approach-avoidance conflict, and (iv), double approach-avoidance conflict., 122, , i), , Approach-approach conflict: When there are two goals that are equally appealing,

Page 15 :
then it leads to this form of conflict. In such a situation, the person is attracted, to two goals that are positive at the same time. This is resolved by satisfying, one goal and letting go the other goal. It is relatively easier to resolve (see, Figure 5.4). For instance, watching movie with friends or going to a party with, family members., , Goal +, , Motivation, , Goal +, You, , Figure 5.4: Approach-approach conflict, , ii), , Avoidance-avoidance conflict: When two goals are equally undesirable or, unattractive then the person is caught in avoidance-avoidance conflict. The person, is tempted to leave the conflicting situations and avoid either of the negative, situations (see Figure 5.5). When the conflict is intense a person may simply, ‘leave the field’ and refuse to choose between alternatives., , Goal –, , Goal –, , You, Figure 5.5: Avoidance-avoidance conflict, , iii) Approach-avoidance conflict: In this form of conflict,the person is attracted, to and also wants to avoid the same object or situation (see Figure 5.6). For, instance, Farhat working in a company, is offered a job promotion (approach)., However, to accept the promotion, she has to move to another city, away from, family (avoidance)., Goal, +, –, You, Figure 5.6: Approach-avoidance conflict, , iv) Double approach-avoidance conflict: There is another form of conflict. It involves, two or more goals that may be positive as well as negative at the same time., For example, if a person buys a house away from the city for the positive aspects, like fresh air, open space, less congestion, but it also means that the person, has to commute long distance for workplace and be away from city life. Thus,, living in the city will have both advantages and disadvantages. Generally, it is, resolved by opting for a more positive option (see Figure 5.7)., , 123

Page 16 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , Goal, +, –, , Goal, +, –, You, Figure 5.7: Multiple approach-avoidance conflict, , Check Your Progress 4, 1) What do you mean by frustration and what are its different sources?, ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., 2) How conflict is caused and explains various conflicting situations?, ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., ....................................................................................................................., , 5.7, , SUMMARY, , Now, that we have come to the end of this unit, let us recapitulate all the major, points that we have covered., , 124, , , , Motivation is any internal or external force that activates and directs our behaviour., , , , There are related terms like need (related to the biological states of cellular or, bodily deficiencies that lead to drives), drives (a perception of state of tension, that occurs when the body feels some kind of deficiency which creates a pressure, to relive the tension) and incentives (this is external or is from the environment, (as opposed to drive that are internal) and plays a role in motivating behaviours., , , , There are broadly three types of motivation: biogenic, psychogenic and sociogenic., , , , Biogenic motivations are basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst and sex., Sociogenic motives are extrinsic needs that are learned in social groups, as, peers, or family where one grows. Whereas, psychogenic motives are those, motives are innate needs such as need for competence or self-actualization., , , , Motivational behavior is explained with the help of theoretical approaches., Theories like drive reduction model, the optimal arousal model, incentive theories,, cognitive approaches to motivation, the hierarchical model, Alderfer’s ERG, theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory, McClelland’s acquired needs theory, and, self-determination theory are some of the important approaches.

Page 17 :
, , When goal-directed behaviour is blocked it leads to frustration. And when a, person has to choose between incompatible goals then it leads to the situation, of conflict. There are four types of conflict i) approach-approach conflict ii), approach-avoidance conflict iii) avoidance-avoidance conflict iv) double approachavoidance conflict., , 5.8, 1), , 2), , 3), , 4), , 5), , Motivation, , REVIEW QUESTIONS, If the lateral hypothalamus is destroyed, a rat will, a), , drink more water than biologically needed, , b), , refuse to drink until forced to do so, , c), , eat until it become obese, , d), , refuse to eat until forced fed, , If your body is dehydrated, but you are not thirsty, we would say that you, have, a), , a drive but not a need, , b), , a need but not a drive, , c), , both a drive and a need, , d), , neither a drive nor a need, , The maintenance of steady states of temperature and blood pressure are examples, of, a), , thermostasis, , b), , homeostasis, , c), , intrinsic motivation, , d), , biological rhythm, , What is the correct order of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy?, a), , physiological; esteem; safety; self-actualisation; love and belonging, , b), , self-actualisation; physiological; safety; love and belonging; esteem, , c), , physiological; safety; love and belonging; esteem; self-actualisation, , d), , self-actualisation; safety; love and belonging; esteem; physiological, , The _______ describes the relationship between arousal level, task difficulty,, and efficiency of performance, a), , Arousal theory, , b), , Drive reduction theory, , c), , Yerkes-Dodson law, , d), , Inverted-U function, 125

Page 18 :
Motivation and, Emotion, , 6), , What is thirst motivation? Explain cellular- dehydration thirst., , 7), , Explain motivational cycle with the help of a diagram., , 8), , Explain sociogenic motive and its types., , 9), , What do you understand by conflict? Explain its causes., , 5.9, , 126, , KEY WORDS, , Needs, , : These are related to the biological states of, cellular or bodily deficiencies that lead to drives., For example, individuals need water, food and, of course oxygen to survive., , Drives, , : It can be defined as the perceived states of, tension that occur when our bodies are deficient, in some need, creating an urge to relieve the, tension., , Incentives, , : This is external or is from the environment (as, opposed to drive that are internal) and plays, a role in motivating behaviours. It could be an, object or an event., , Self-actualization need, , : This motive helps the person to achieve or, become what one is capable of becoming. It, enables a person to maximize his or her own, potential., , Drive reduction model, , : This model states that lack of some basic, biological need produces a drive to push an, organism to satisfy that need., , Homeostasis, , : The process by which all organisms work to, maintain physiological equilibrium or balance, around an optimal set point. It can also be, explained as the tendency of the body to, maintain an internal state that is balanced or, steady., , Sociogenic motives, , : Extrinsic needs that are learned in social groups,, as peers, or family where one grows. Need for, achievement or affiliation are two examples of, these motives., , Psychogenic motives, , : Innate needs such as need for competence or, self-actualization., , Biogenic motives, , : Basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst and, sex., , Frustration-aggression, hypothesis, , : Aggression is the result of frustration.

Page 19 :
Conflict, , : It is that situation in which you have to choose, between contradictory motives, needs or, desires., , Motivation, , 5.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS, Baron, R. A. (2005). Psychology. Delhi: Pearson Education., Buck, R. (1988). Human motivation and emotion. John Wiley & Sons., Ciccarelli, S. K and White, J. N. (2015). Psychology. New York: Pearson Education, Limited., Edwards, D. C. (1998). Motivation and emotion: Evolutionary, physiological,, cognitive, and social influences (Vol. 3). SAGE publications., Eysenck, M. W. (2013). Simply psychology. New York: Psychology Press., Feist, G. J and Rosenberg, E. L. (2015). Psychology: Perspectives and, Connections. New York: McGraw- Hill Education., Feldman, R. S. (2015). Essentials of Understanding Psychology. New York:, McGraw- Hill Education., Gerrig, R. J and Zimbardo, P. G. (2006). Psychology and Life. Delhi: Pearson, Education., Gorman, P. (2004). Motivation and emotion. Routledge., Hall, N. C., & Goetz, T. (2013). Emotion, motivation, and self-regulation: A, handbook for teachers. Emerald Group Publishing., Hewstone, M; Fincham, F. D and Foster, J. (2005). Psychology. USA: Blackwell, Publishing., Jain, Sashi. (2009). Introduction to Psychology. Jalandhar: Kalyani Publishers., Kosslyn, S. M and Rosenberg, R. S. (2013). Introducing Psychology. India: Pearson, Education., Mishra, B. K. (2016). Psychcology: The Study of Human Behaviour. Delhi: PHI, Learning Private Limited., Morgan, C. T; King, R. A; Weisz, J. R and Schopler, J. (1996). Introduction to, Psychology. Delhi: Tata McGraw- Hill Publishing Company Limited., Myers, D. G. (2010). Exploring Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G., & Lutz, C. (2009). Atkinson, & Hilgard’s Psychology An Introduction to Psychology.United Kingdom: Cengage, Learning., Parmeswaran, E. G and Beena, C. (2004). An Invitation to Psychology. Delhi:, Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd., Quick, J. C., Nelson, D. L. and Khandelwal, P. (2011). Organisational Behaviour:, A South-Asian Perspective. Delhi: Cengage Learning., Rathus, S. (2008). Psychology: Concepts and Connections. United States:, Wadsworth Cengage Learning., , 127