Page 3 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Sources of History, HISTORY, , What is History, History is the study of the pasts using the materials which have been in use during that times., , Methods of studying History, , , Geographical sources: Based on where the people lived. Eg Sulaiman and Kirthar hills in the northwest, Garo hills, in the north-east and the Vindhyas in central India., , , , Occupational sources: Based on the occupation of the people, Hunters and Gatherers in Vindhyas and, Agriculturalists in Garo Hills., , , , Crop Varieties: Based on the crop varieties grown in a particular geography like Wheat in Mehrgarh (Pakistan), and rice in Garo Hills and Vindhyas., , , , Location of Cities: Magadha lying along the south of river Ganga., , , , Older names mentioned in texts:, , , , Iranians and the Greeks familiar with the Indus, called land to the east of the river Indus was as India., , , , The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the northwest, and who are mentioned in, the Rigveda, the earliest composition in Sanskrit (dated to about 3500 years ago)., , , , Written sources: Based on the surface on which information is written, ,  Manuscripts: Written by hand and on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the, birch, which grows in the Himalayas. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit, (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil., ,  Inscriptions: These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal., , Persons who study History, , , Archaeologists: They study the remains of buildings made of stone and brick, paintings and sculpture. They also, explore and excavate (dig under the surface of the earth) to find tools, weapons, pots, pans, ornaments and coins., , , , Historians: They study history from manuscripts, inscriptions and archaeology., , HISTORY | Sources of History, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 4 :
Source : NCERT, , Stone tools used by Archaeologists for study, , Probable Questions, 1) Compare and contrast the difference between inscriptions and manuscripts., 2) Enlist the methodologies of studying history., 3) Differentiate between historians and archaeologists on the basis of their methodologies to study history., , HISTORY | Sources of History, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 5 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Literary and Burial accounts of History, HISTORY, , Evidence of Writing, First evidence of writing in China was found 3500 years ago. These writings were on animal bones and were called oracle, bones., , Examples of Literary sources, , , Vedas: Initially, the Rigveda was not in written form, but was passed on orally known as Shruti. The Vedic, , teachers took great care to teach students to pronounce words and memorise hymns correctly., , , , Sanskrit and Other Languages: Scholars have discovered many similarities between Sanskrit and European, languages such as Latin, English and German. Historians came to the conclusion that Sanskrit belongs to the IndoEuropean group of languages. Other languages like Hindi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, belong to this group., , , , Written sources: Based on the surface on which information is written, ,  Manuscripts: Written by hand and on palm leaf, or on the specially prepared bark of a tree known as the, birch, which grows in the Himalayas. Many of these were written in Sanskrit, others were in Prakrit, (languages used by ordinary people) and Tamil., ,  Inscriptions: These are writings on relatively hard surfaces such as stone or metal., , Vedas, , , There are four Vedas:Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda., , , , The oldest one is the Rigveda (3500 years ago). It contains over a thousand hymns (Suktas). The Vedas are religious, texts of Hinduism. The hymns were composed by rishis and students memorised them. The Rigveda has been written, , in old (Vedic) Sanskrit., , , , The Rigveda divides people in two groups on the basis of their work : the brahmins and the rajas. People or the, community as a whole have been referred to as jana or vish. The composers of hymns called themselves Aryas, and, their opponents Dasas/ Dasyus., , Burial Spots, Burial Spots : Some burial chambers have more than one skeleton, probably meaning that one chamber was used for, many members of the same family. A hole in the wall allowed the chamber to be used over and over again. The burial, , sites were marked by stones., HISTORY | Literary and Burial accounts of History, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 6 :
, , Skeleton Studies: Study of the bone structure helps to differentiate between male and female skeletons., , The hip or the pelvic area of a woman is generally larger than a man., , , Special Burial at Inamgaon: We find burials dated back to 3600 and 2700 years ago. adults were generally, buried in the ground. Special mention may be made of a man who was found buried in a large, four-legged, clay jar in the courtyard of a five-roomed house., , , , Megaliths: These literally mean big stones, which were used by early men to spot burial Sites., , Source : NCERT, A Megalithic Burial Spot, , Probable Questions, 1) Explain the importance of literary sources for reconstruction of history., 2) Explain the significance of Megaliths for Burials., 3) Do burials indicate an increase in civilization in the society., , HISTORY | Literary and Burial accounts of History, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 7 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Earliest People, HISTORY, , Evolution of the Early Man, •, , Primates are a subgroup of a larger group of mammals. Around 36-24 mya, Primates existed in Asia and Africa., , •, , Apes came under Hominoids (around 6 Million years before) and had a comparatively smaller brain compared to, Homo Species., , •, , Homo is originally a Latin word which means man. Homo came into existence approximately 2.5 million years ago., , •, , Homo erectus were familiar with the art of walking., , •, , Homo sapiens were the modern men. They were intelligent and wise. They came into existence between 0.19 to, 0.16 million years ago., , •, , Homo neanderthalensis were also called Neanderthal men because their fossils have been found in Neander valley, in Germany., , Information of Early Men, •, , The tools of early men were made of stones. The tools constituted hand axes, choppers and flake tools., , •, , The subject matter of the paintings of the early men were plants and animals, hunting and enjoyment of festivals, , •, , Paintings were done on the walls and roofs of the caves. These were known as Murals. Altamira, Lascaux and, Chauvet are considered to be the earliest famous cave paintings., , •, , Ethnography: Ethnography means the analytical study of contemporary ethnic society., , •, , Hooks and harpoons were used to gather small and large fishes., , •, , Early men began to live in caves around 400,000 years ago., , •, , Cave Lazaret is the earliest example of cave dwelling. It is in Southern France. a, , Chronology of Evolution of Early Man, , HISTORY | Earliest People, , Earliest evidence of burials, , 300000 BC, , Extinction of Homo erectus, , 200000 BC, Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 8 :
Development of voice box, , 200000 BC, , Homo Sapiens skull found in Narmada Valley, , 200000-130000 BC, , Emergence of Modern Humans, , 195000-160000 BC, , Emergence of Neanderthals, , 130000 BC, , Earliest Evidence of hearths, , 125000 BC, , Extinction of Neanderthals, , 35000 BC, , Earliest evidence of figurines made of fire clay, , 27000 BC, , Invention of sewing needles, , 21000 BC, , Probable Questions, 1) Importance of stone tools in reconstructing the history of the early man., 2) Illustrate with examples the various sources of knowing early man., 3) The Indian Subcontinent presents a harbinger of evolution of human beings. Illustrate with examples., , HISTORY | Earliest People, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 9 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Food Production, HISTORY, , Causes of food production, , , Farming developed as a consequence of the climate change of the world., , , , People also started taming animals. The dog was the first animal to be tamed., , , , Animals like sheep, goats, cattle were also tamed and so people became herders., , Important features of food production in the society, , , Grains were used as seeds, as food, and also as gifts. They were stored by humans., , , , Neolithic age: The period around 10000 BC which saw an agricultural spurt resulting in food production is, known as neolithic age., , , , People grew cotton by this time and so weaving of clothes had begun., , , , Many farmers and herders lived in groups, which were known as Tribes. Certain customs and practices were followed, by them., , , , Weaving of Clothes began in society., , , , Pit-houses were built by digging into the ground., , Famous Places for evidences of food production, , , Mehrgarh was situated in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass. Here, people learnt to grow barley and wheat., It is one of the earliest villages., , , , Stone tools, a stone called jadeite, etc. have been found in Daojali Hading near the Brahmaputra., , , , Rice was first cultivated in the Vindhyas., , , , Wheat and Barley were cultivated in the Bolan pass (situated in present day Pakistan)., , HISTORY| Food Production, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 10 :
Probable Questions, Q. The Neolithic age marked a paradigm shift in societal living. Elucidate., Q. Trace evidence of famous neolithic sites and the notable features of each., , HISTORY| Food Production, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 11 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Earliest Cities, HISTORY, , Discovery of Harappan Cities, Discovered in the 1920's in the present day Sindh region of Pakistan., , Time period of the Indus Valley Civilisation, The period of Indus Civilization is from 2500 BC to 1500 BC., , Salient Features of the Harappan Cities, , , Architecture: The Harappan cities were divided into two parts: the citadel and the lower town.The citadel was, located at a higher level and had special buildings and pointed in the western direction. The lower town was the, residential area where houses were one or two storeys high and built around a corridor and located in the, eastern region., , , , Strong Foundations : Walls were fortified with bricks in interlocking patterns., , , , Layout of Streets: Streets were laid out straight and cut each other at right angles., , , , Elaborate Drainage systems: Drains ran parallel to each other and were covered., , , , Ritual purposes: The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro was a tank used for bathing rituals., , , , Kalibangan and Lothal had fire altars where sacrifices may have been performed., , , , Burnt Bricks was used which made the buildings long lasting and strong., , , , Irrigation: Plough was used to dig the earth and for use in irrigation., , , , Rearing of Animals:Animals were reared by the Harappans. They, , were aware about animals like Tiger,, , bull,elephant and Rhinoceros.They were not aware about horses., , , , Use of Metals: Harappans used Bronze, Silver and Gold for making ornaments. They did not have knowledge of, Iron. Bronze statue of Mother Goddess was the most famous, , , , Usage of Seals: Seals were used for Trade. They were made of terracotta., , HISTORY | Earliest Cities, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 12 :
Source : NCERT, , Source : NCERT, , Seals and Terracotta, , Drainage system in Mohenjodaro, , Probable Questions, 1) What insights can the earliest cities provide for tackling the urbanization problem in India?, 2) The Indian Society witnesses a remarkable continuation compared to its counterparts in Egypt and Greece., Examine., 3) The beginning of Indus Valley civilisation coincides with the first wave of urbanization in India. Evaluate., , HISTORY | Earliest Cities, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 13 :
NCERT, Shorts, , The Early Republics, HISTORY, , Meaning of the Term Republic, Republics are the territories where the head of government is elected directly or indirectly and it is not hereditary., Republics came into existence in India around 600 BC., , Changes in Society, •, , Selection of the Rulers: In ancient India, some of the rajas were probably chosen by the, , •, , Jana, the people. Some changes regarding the election of the Raja took place around 3,000 years ago., , •, , Janapadas: The powerful kings who performed big sacrifices and later ruled larger, , •, , territories termed as Janapadas., , •, , Mahajanapadas: A Mahajanapada was usually ruled from its capital city. There was intense rivalry among the, Mahajanapadas, resulting in frequent wars. Huge walls made of mud, stone, wood or bricks were used to fortify, , these capital cities., , Methods to Rule the Republics, •, , Taxes: Money was required by new rajas for building forts and armies. They started collecting regular taxes from the, people. The tax could be paid either in cash or in kind., , •, , Bhaga: Taxes on crops (1/6 of the produce) was called bhaga., , Famous Republics, •, , Magadha became the most important mahajanapada. Transport, water supplies, fertility, forests, elephants, mines,, etc. made Magadha important., , •, , The two powerful rulers of Magadha, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru used all possible means to conquer other, ‘janapadas’., , •, , Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. Later it was Pataliputra (now Patna)., , •, , Vajji was another kingdom with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar)., , HISTORY | The Early Republics, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 14 :
Source : NCERT Chapter 6, , Important Mahajanapadas in Ancient India, , Significance of Republics, •, , Ease of Administration as there is governance by the people., , •, , Empire Building became possible owing to better regulation and collection of taxes., , •, , They paved the way for propagation of religions like Buddhism and Jainism., , •, , Integration of India with the world., , HISTORY | The Early Republics, , ., , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 15 :
Probable Questions, 1) Reasons for the emergence of Early republics., 2) Why was Magadha important as a centre of trade?, 3) Enlist the significance of republics?, 4) Explain the taxation system used for collection of revenue., , HISTORY | The Early Republics, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 16 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies, HISTORY, , What is the Meaning of Unorthodox Religion, Unorthodox religions and philosophies refers to a set of beliefs and practices which does not have a predefined tenets or, a method of performing it., , Upanishads, •, , Upanishad literally means approaching and sitting near the guru and the texts contain conversations between, teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues., , •, , Thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death., , •, , They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that, ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one., , •, , Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas., , •, , Upanishads gave rise to the new orthodox religion like Buddhism and Jainism., , Buddhism, •, , Founded by Siddartha Gautama around 500 BC (The Buddha) who belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya, gana, and was a kshatriya., , •, , Renounced home known as Mahabanishkramana at the age of 29., , •, , Achieved Nirvana (Extinguishing the flame of desire alternatively called Enlightenment) under the Pipal Tree., , •, , First Sermon by Buddha was at Sarnath known as Dhammachakrapravartana., , •, , Basic Teachings in Buddhism:, , , Life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often, cannot be fulfilled). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha., , , , He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the, results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next thus, believing in rebirth., , HISTORY | Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 17 :
, , •, , The only way to avoid suffering is to follow Ashtangika Marg or eight fold path., , Language used for Propagation: Pali was the lingua franca used at the time which helped in spreading Buddhism, as it is the language of the common people., , Jainism, •, , The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, was the founder of Jainism. He was a Kshatriya, Prince of the Licchavi Clan., , •, , At the age of 30, he renounced his home., , •, , At the age of 42 he received kaivalgyan(enlightenment living under the sal tree)., , •, , Men and women must leave their homes for knowing the truth. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa,, which means not hurting or killing living beings., , •, , Language used for Propagation: Prakrit was the lingua franca used at the time which helped in spreading Buddhism, as it is the language of the common people., , •, , Jainism was mainly supported by traders as it advocated strict non violence(Ahimsa)., , Place of Residence for the Monks, •, , Sangha, is an association of those who left their homes to attain salvation., , •, , The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka., , •, , There were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha., , •, , Women had to take their husbands’ permission., , •, , They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why, they were known as bhikkhus (Prakrit meaning of beggar), , •, , Many supporters of the monks and nuns felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built., These were known as Viharas. Examples include Karle caves in present-day Maharashtra., , •, , Viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in, western India., , HISTORY | Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 18 :
Causes of Spread of Buddhism in India, •, , Buddha’s policy of eight fold path struck a chord with diverse sections of the society., , •, , He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit., , •, , He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions., , •, , The monks travelled to different places like Sri Lanka, Japan, China, Thailand and Cambodia preaching the, teachings of Buddha., , •, , It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and Harshavardhana., , Causes of Decline of Buddhism in India, •, , Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion., , •, , There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and indulged in luxuries., , •, , Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD., , •, , Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt and Adi Shankara., , •, , The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined the influence of Buddhism in the, subcontinent., , •, , Buddha was considered as an avatar of Lord Vishnu and hence separate sanctity accorded to Buddha declined., , •, , Buddhism also suffered from the absence of specific doctrines or tenets., , Probable Questions, 1) What could be the reasons for the emergence of unorthodox religions in India., 2) What is the use of propagating teachings of Buddhism and Jainism in local languages?, 3) Do you find similarity in teachings of Buddhism and Jainism and Hinduism? Why/Why not?, 4) Discuss the rise of Buddhism in India., 5) Compare and contrast the religious doctrines of Buddhism and Jainism., , HISTORY | Unorthodox Religions and Philosophies, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 19 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Mauryan Dynasty, HISTORY, , Meaning of Dynasty, When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas, were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka., , Geographical Spread of the Mauryan Dynasty, The Mauryan dynasty extended from Afghanistan in the west to Bengal in the east and from Jammu and Kashmir to the, Northern part of Tamilnadu. In essence it covered almost all of India., , Sources of Information about Mauryan Dynasty, •, , Foreign Accounts: Megasthenes’ Indica gives a vivid account of the Mauryan Dynasty., , •, , Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son succeeded him.He embraced the Ajivika sect. He was known as Amitrochattes., , •, , Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. He was the most important ruler of the Mauryan Dynasty as he marked, a paradigm shift in governance, architecture and societal organisation., , •, , The Emperors succeeding Ashoka were not able to muster the efforts to sustain the legacy of Ashoka and the, Mauryan Empire disintegrated., , Important Rulers of the Mauryan Dynasty, •, , Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Dynasty in the 3rd century BC after defeating the Nandas., , His Greek name was Sandrokottus. He embraced Jainism. Chanakya also known as Vishnugupta was Chandragupta’s, advisor. Chanakya compiled Arthashastra, a treatise on economics and politics., , •, , Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son succeeded him.He embraced the Ajivika sect. He was known as Amitrochattes., , •, , Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka. He was the most important ruler of the Mauryan Dynasty as he marked, a paradigm shift in governance, architecture and societal organisation., , •, , The Emperors succeeding Ashoka were not able to muster the efforts to sustain the legacy of Ashoka and the, Mauryan Empire disintegrated., , HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 20 :
Significance of the Rule of Ashoka, •, , He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions, were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script., , •, , Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed, that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest, after winning a war., , •, , Dhamma of Ashoka:Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that, just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects., , •, , Administration: He appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching, people about dhamma., , •, , Inscriptions:, , , Rock cut architecture where inscription is done on the caves. Example Barabar caves and Lomus Rishi and, Sudama Caves., , , , Pillar Architecture where a monolithic pillar is constructed. Examples include the famous Lion pillar at, Sarnath (adopted as the National Emblem of India)., , Source: Class XI NCERT Chapter 3, , Source: Class XI NCERT Chapter 3, , Lomus Rishi Cave, Bihar, , Ashoka Capital, Sarnath, , Mauryan Administration, •, , The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor., , •, , The officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, crafts persons and traders, who lived in villages, and towns in the area., , •, , Officials punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders., , HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 21 :
•, , Messengers and spies kept a watch on the officials., , •, , Each of the provinces were ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain., , •, , Royal princes were often sent as governors. Ashoka served as the Governor of Taxila., , •, , Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources, were available as tax and tribute., , •, , The Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious, stones., , Causes of Decline of Mauryan Dynasty in India, •, , Partition of the Empire: After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves – western and eastern, parts. This weakened the empire., , •, , Centralization of Administration: Powerful kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka could control the, administration well. But weak rulers led to a weakening of the administration and ultimately led to the empire’s, disintegration., , •, , Weak successors of Ashoka: After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for 52 years., , •, , Internal revolts among the later successors of Ashoka., , •, , Foreign Invasions by Indo Greeks., , •, , Policy of Non Violence by Ashoka which disregarded war was also one of the major reasons for the dynasty's, decline., , Probable Questions, Mains Questions, 1) The Mauryan Dynasty was essentially a one man Dynasty. Critically examine., 2) The Mauryan Administration represented the shift from pastoral mode of life in the vedic ages to settled cities., Elucidate the statement., 3) Try to draw a comparison between Ashoka’s policy of non violence and Gandhi’s policy of non violence., 4) Examine the causes for the decline of the Mauryan Dynasty., 5) Do you think the Mauryan Dynasty exhibited secular tendencies? Why/Why not?, , HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 22 :
Probable Questions, Prelims Questions, 1. The name by which Ashoka is referred to in his inscriptions(1995), A. Chakravarti, B. Dharmakirti, C. Priyadarsi, D. Dharmadeva, 2. Which of the following related to Ashoka’s stone pillars is incorrect (1997), A. These are highly polished., B. These are monolithic., C. The shaft is tapering towards the end., D. They are part of the architectural structures, , HISTORY | Mauryan Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 23 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Important Towns of the Ancient World, HISTORY, , Meaning of Towns, Towns are self sufficient viable units of economic activity. They are normally a group of villages. Towns came into, prominence in India around the 3rd century BC., , Reasons for the Emergence of Towns, •, , Discovery of Iron:Helped in clearance of forests., , •, , Irrigation: Helped in the growth of agriculture and a settled lifestyle., , •, , Taxation:Robust Taxation system which ensured continuous supply of money to the treasury, , •, , Division of labour:Owing to agriculture and settled way of life society as a whole became receptive to the formation, of the specialization of occupations. The period saw the emergence of new occupational classes like cobblers,, goldsmith etc., , Members in the Towns, •, , Vellalar: Large landowners living in Tamilnadu., , •, , Uzhavar: Ploughmen in Tamilnadu are collectively called Uzhavar., , •, , Kadaisiyar:Landless Labourers are known as Kadaisiyars., , •, , Adimai: Slaves were known as adimai., , •, , Grama Bhojaka: Village headmen were known as Grama Bhojaka, the post of which is hereditary.Generally, he had, slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes, from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman., , •, , Grihapatis: Small Landowners who were independent farmers., , •, , Dasa Karmakaras: Landless Labourers who worked for the headmen., , HISTORY | Important Towns of the Ancient World, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 24 :
Sources of Information of the Towns, •, , Jataka Stories: Buddhist folktales composed around the 5th century BC gives a vivid description of the way of life in, towns., , •, , Sculptures: The art forms like engravings on the panels of Stupas and Pillars depicts the town life., , •, , Presence of Ring wells: Ring wells for burials indicate the civilized way of city dwellers., , •, , Remains of Palaces or marketplaces: Remains of marketplaces indicate that towns were buzzing centres of, economic activity., , •, , Accounts of travellers and court poets:, , , Foreign accounts: Megasthenes Indica indicates the grandeur of the Mauryan towns like Magadha, Rajgir., , , , Arthashastra written by Kautilya gives a vivid description of the trade and polity of the Mauryan towns and, cities., , •, , Pottery: Pottery like the Northern Black Polished ware during Mauryan times indicates the settled lifestyle as pottery, was used for storing grains. The vast expanse also indicated agricultural surplus., , •, , Coins: Punch marked coins where the coins are stamped with dies and symbols were in vogue in the sub-continent., , Source: Class VI NCERT, , Punch marked coins, , Importance of Towns, •, , Trade: Towns were located at the crossroads of major locations. For example Gandhara and Mathura., , •, , Occupational purposes: Most of the people from the towns migrated to the villages in search of better employment, opportunities., , •, , Centre of Arts: Towns are places where there is portrayal of arts through artefacts, sculptures., , HISTORY | Important Towns of the Ancient World, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 25 :
•, , Capitals: Served as capitals of the empire. The prominent examples are Peshawar and Mathura ( capitals of the, Kushanas), Pataliputra (Capital of the Mauryas) etc., , •, , Mirrors of History: The towns reveal important information about the empires and the people of the society., , •, , Foreign Influences: Towns like Arikamedu in Pondicherry reflect foreign influences in the form of glasswares,, artefacts etc. from Rome. This indicates that there were strong foreign connections since early times., , Probable Questions, 1) What are the possible reasons for the emergence of towns around the 5th century BC?, 2) Illustrate with examples the significance of towns in Ancient India., 3) The division of towns in Ancient India between south and North show a good degree of similarities. Elucidate., 4) Enlist the sources of information of the towns in Ancient India., , HISTORY | Important Towns of the Ancient World, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 26 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Trade in ancient India, HISTORY, , Reasons for trade, , , Presence of Sea Routes:Traders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were, others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Examples are Barauch in Gujarat and Tamralipti in West Bengal., , , , Presence of Monsoons: Sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly., , , , Presence of Ship Building Industry: Sturdy ships had to be built for transportation. The Romans produced the best, ships during the time., , Kingdoms which traded extensively with the outside world, , , Cholas: Puhar or Kaveripattinam as their capital. Traded extensively with South East Asian Countries., , , , Cheras: Muziri is their capital. Traded extensively with the Arab World., , , , Pandyas: Madurai is their capital. Traded extensively with Srilanka and Maldives., , Silk route and its significance, , , Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago., , , , While the methods remained a closely guarded secret for thousands of years, some people from China who went to, distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known, as the Silk Route., , , , Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and West Asia, and from there, the knowledge of silk, spread further west., , , , Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and, gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route., , , , The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and, north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila, was also included in their kingdom., , HISTORY | Trade in ancient India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 27 :
, , During the Kushana rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth, , of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. The Kushanas were amongst the, earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold., , Accounts of pilgrims, , , Fa Xian: Chinese monk who visited India in early fifth century BC. Described the Gupta Empire and the society at, that time which was feudal in Nature., , , , Xuan Zang: Chinese monk who visited India in early seventh century BC. Described the Empire of King, Harshavardhana. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the, countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them.Xuan Zang, and other, pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda, (Bihar) the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period., , Significance of trade in ancient times, , , Propagation of religion especially Buddhism to countries in SouthEast Asia like Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia., , , , Growth of Pan Indian Empires like Gupta Empire., , , , Beginning of new religious sects like Bhaktism and Sufism due to better infusion of Ideas., , , , Integration of India with the world., , , , Large scale propagation of Arts, Literature and Architecture between different parts of the world., , Probable Questions, 1) The trade in ancient India was to be understood by the account of the travellers who visited India. Elucidate., 2) Illustrate the significance of trade in ancient India? Is it correct to say that trade helped in propagating Indian, culture across the globe? Justify your answer with examples., , HISTORY | Trade in ancient India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 28 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Ancient Heritage, HISTORY, , Meaning of heritage, Heritage includes arts, literature and architecture which extols the culture of a particular age., , Architecture, , , The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, is a remarkable example of the skill of Indian crafts persons. It was made of iron, about 1500 years ago. The most amazing fact is the pillar has not rusted in all these years., , , , Stupas:The word stupa means a mound. Generally, there is a small box placed at the centre or heart of the stupa., This may contain bodily remains of the Buddha or his followers, or things they used, as well as precious stones, and, coins., , , , The box, known as a relic casket, is covered with earth. Later, a layer of mud brick or baked brick was added on, top.The dome-like structure was sometimes covered with carved stone slabs., , , , Often, a path, known as the pradakshina patha, was laid around the stupa. This was surrounded with railings., , , , Entrance to the path was through gateways. Devotees walked around the stupa, in a clockwise direction, as a mark, of devotion. Both railings and gateways were often decorated with sculpture. This was a place where a magnificent, stupa once existed. Many of the stone carvings for decorating the stupa were made about 2000 years ago., , , , Temples: Some of the earliest Hindu temples were also built around the 5th century AD. Deities such as Vishnu,, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped in these shrines., , , , The most important part of the temple was the room known as the garbhagriha, where the image of the chief deity, was placed. It was here that priests performed religious rituals, and devotees offered worship to the deity., , , , A tower called shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out as a sacred place. Building shikharas, required careful planning., , , , Most temples also had a space known as the Mandapa. It was a hall where people could assemble., , HISTORY | Ancient Heritage, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 29 :
Source : NCERT, , Sanchi Stupa, , Paintings, , , Paintings were done on the walls of caves in Ancient times., , , , The colours, which are vivid even after 1500 years, were made of plants and minerals., , , , Some of the prominent paintings include Ajanta Cave Paintings, Bagh Cave paintings, Jogimara cave paintings., , , , Most of the paintings have been done anonymously., , Source : NCERT, , Ajanta cave paintings, , HISTORY | Ancient Heritage, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 30 :
Books, , , Epics:Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and include stories about gods., , , , A famous Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango Adigal, around 1800 years ago. It, is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi,, neglecting his wife Kannagi., , , , Another Tamil epic, the Manimekalai was composed by Sattanar around 1400 years ago. This describes the story of, the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi., , , , Puranas:A number of Hindu religious stories that were in circulation earlier were written down around the same, time. These include the Puranas. Purana means old., , , , The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati. They also contain, details on how they were to be worshipped., , , , There are accounts about the creation of the world and about kings., , , , The Puranas were written in simple Sanskrit verse, and were meant to be heard by everybody, including women, and shudras, who were not allowed to study the Vedas. They were probably recited in temples by priests, and, people came to listen to them. T, , , , Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana had been popular for a very long time. Some of you may be, familiar with these stories., , , , The Mahabharata is about a war fought between the Kauravas and Pandavas, who were cousins., , , , The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was sent into exile. Valmiki is recognised as the author of the, Sanskrit Ramayana., , , , Science Books:This was also the time when Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a book in, Sanskrit known as the Aryabhatiyam. He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on its, axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday. He developed a scientific explanation for, eclipses as well. He also found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle, which is nearly as accurate as, the formula we use today., , , , Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya were some other mathematicians and astronomers who made, several discoveries., , HISTORY | Ancient Heritage, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 31 :
, , Medicine Books: Ayurveda is a well-known system of health science that was developed in ancient India. The two, famous practitioners of Ayurveda in ancient India were Charaka (1st-2nd centuries C.E.) and Sushruta (c. 4th century, C.E.) Charak Samhita, written by Charak is a remarkable book on medicine. Susruta Samhita, Sushruta speaks about, elaborate surgical procedures., , Probable Questions, 1. Draw an illustration of the literature of ancient India., , 2. How does the paintings of Ajanta Caves compare with the paintings done in the Paleolithic period?, 3. The Ancient Period represents a rich source of information in Science and Medical Books. Elucidate., Previous year questions, 1. Which of the following books represents the love story between Shunga King his courtesan? (UPSC Prelims 2016), A. Abhijnana Shakuntalam, B. Malavikagnimitram, C. Raghuvamsam, D. Kumarasambhavam, 2., , Which of the following was the first to be built? (UPSC Prelims 2015), A. Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneshwar, B. Elephant Rock cut, Dhauli, C. Ajanta Caves, D. Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram, , HISTORY | Ancient Heritage, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 32 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Delhi Sultanate, HISTORY, , Importance of Delhi sultanate, The Delhi Sultanate marks the beginning of the muslim rule in India in the early 13th century., , Why Delhi became a centre of attraction?, , , It is located towards the centre of the country., , , , It is located on the banks of rivers like Yamuna., , , , Melting pot of various dynasty clans like Tomaras, Chauhans and Rajputs., , , , It had a plain topography making it easy to station troops., , Expansion of the Delhi sultanate, , , The Sultans did not control the hinterland, the lands adjacent to a city or port that supply it with goods and services,, of the cities and were therefore dependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for supplies., , , , Controlling garrison towns in distant Bengal and Sind from Delhi was extremely difficult., , , , The state was also challenged by Mongol invasions from Afghanistan and by governors who rebelled., , , , The intermingling of the foreigners with the natives also provided ample ground for expansion., , , , The empire was divided into a number of Iqtas., , , , Iqtadars administered the Iqtas., , , , Iqtas further were divided into smaller units called Parganas, Shiqqs, and the villages., , , , Amil or Munsif served as an important officer of the Parganas., , Local administration, , , The village was the smallest unit of administration., , , , The village administration was carried out by local hereditary officers and the Panchayats., , HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 33 :
, , The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc., , , , The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration., , Judicial administration, , , The Sultan was the highest judicial authority., , , , Qazi-ul-quzar was the Chief Judicial officer., , , , A Quazi was appointed in every town., , , , Criminals were punished severely (Corporal Punishment)., , Military administration, , , The Sultan was the Commander of the army, , , , The four divisions of the army were, 1. The Royal army, , 2. Provincial or Governor’s army, 3. Feudal army and, 4. War Time army, , The social life of the sultanate period, The people in the society were divided based on their nationality as, , , , Foreign Muslims, , , , Indian Muslims, , , , Hindus, , Economic conditions of the people, , , The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry., , , , The textile industry was the primary industry., , , , Paper Industry, metalwork, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works, stone cutting, Sugar industry were the other, industries of this period., , HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 35 :
, , Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic and the Urdu language originated during the Sultanate period., , Scholars of the sultanate period, Alberuni, , , An Arabic and Persian Scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni., , , , He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic., , , , He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita., , , , In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind, he had mentioned the socio-economic conditions of India., , Amir Khusrau, , , He was a great Persian poet., , , , He is said to have written four lakh couplets., , , , He was a great singer and was given the title Parrot of India (Tut-e-hind)., , , , He is said to have seen the reign of eight kings of Delhi Sultanate., , Impact of turkish conquest, , , It paved the way to a centralized political organization., , , , It re-established relations with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa., , , , A permanent army was established., , , , Trade was established due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency., , , , Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in the administration., , Causes for the disintegration of the Delhi sultanate, , , The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq period., , , , The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of the Sayyid and Lodi rulers led to the, , collapse of the Delhi Sultanate., HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 36 :
, , The rulers of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom in the South were the first to break free from Delhi., , , , Other regions like Assam, Bengal, Khandesh, Gujarat, Jaipur, Kashmir, Multan, Malwa, Sind, and Orissa also, became independent., , , , Babur ended the Lodi Dynasty by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D., which brought, the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in India., , Probable Questions, 1) Elucidate the contributions of Delhi Sultanate in the field of art, literature and architecture., 2) The coming of the Delhi Sultanate marked an epoch in the administrative organisation in the country., Critically examine., 3) Regional integration was pivotal for the growth of Delhi Sultanate. Comment, , HISTORY | Delhi Sultanate, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 37 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Mughal Dynasty, HISTORY, , Period of Mughal dynasty, Mughal dynasty is one of the two Pan Indian dynasties after the Mauryan Dynasty. It almost covered the whole of Indian, Subcontinent from the early 16th century till the mid 19th century., , Who were the Mughals?, , , The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother’s side they were descendants of, Genghis Khan (died 1227), the Mongol ruler who ruled over parts of China and Central Asia. From their father’s side, they were the successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. However, the, Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol. This was because Genghis Khan’s memory was associated with, the massacre of innumerable people. It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors. On the other, hand, the Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all because their great ancestor had captured, Delhi in 1398. They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each ruler getting a picture made of Timur and himself., , Military campaigns of Mughals, , , Babur, the first Mughal emperor (1526-1530), succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 when he was only 12, years old. He was forced to leave his ancestral throne due to the invasion of another Mongol group, the Uzbegs., After years of wandering he seized Kabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at Panipat, and captured Delhi and Agra., , Mughal traditions of succession, , , Mughals believed in the coparcenary method of succession and not the primogeniture method of succession., Coparcenary Method is a timurid custom of inheritance or the division among the sons. It is in contrast to the, primogeniture method of inheritance where the eldest son had the right to inherit the property. Primogeniture, method was followed by Mauryan and the Gupta Dynasty., , Relationship of Mughals with other rulers, , , The Mughals had cordial relations with the Rajputs of the Mewar. They entered into marital alliances with the, Rajput Kings. The balancing act brought about by defeating but not humiliating their opponents enabled the, Mughals to extend their influence over many kings and chieftains., , HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 38 :
Mughal administration, Reasons for having a robust administration, , , , Expansion of Empire, , , , Expansion of the Empire necessitated the needs for inclusion of Iranians, Indian muslims, Afghans, and the, Marathas., , Mansabdars: Mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a grading, system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities., Zat: Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called Zat. The higher the zat, the more prestigious was, the noble’s position in court and the larger his salary., Sawar:The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of Sawar or cavalrymen., They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them by their servants while the, mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country., Zabt and Zamindars:The Mughals used one term zamindars to describe all intermediaries, whether they were local, headmen of villages or powerful chieftains. Akbar’s revenue minister, Todar Mal, carried out a careful survey of crop, yields, prices and areas cultivated for a 10-year period, 1570- 1580. On the basis of this data, tax was fixed on each crop, , in cash., Zabt:Each province was divided into revenue circles with its own schedule of revenue rates for individual crops. This, revenue system was known as zabt. It was prevalent in those areas where Mughal administrators could survey the land, and keep very careful accounts. This was not possible in provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal., , Policies of Akbar, , , Administrative Policies: Abul Fazl in his book Ain-i-Akbari explained that the empire was divided into provinces, called subas, governed by a subadar who carried out both political and military functions.Each province also had a, financial officer or diwan. For the maintenance of peace and order in his province, the subadar was supported by, other officers such as the military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage, (sadr), military commanders (faujdars) and the town police commander (kotwal)., , , , Religious Policies: While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570 she started discussions on religion with the, Ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests who were Roman Catholics, and Zoroastrians. These discussions took place in, the Ibadat khana. Akbar’s interaction with people of different faiths made him realise that religious scholars who, emphasised ritual and dogma were often bigots. Their teachings created divisions and disharmony amongst his, subjects.Akbar framed a vision of governance around the idea of Sulh-i kul which stands for universal peace and, brotherhood., , HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 39 :
Literary works of the Mughal empire, Akbar commissioned the translation of many Sanskrit works into Persian. A Maktab Khana or translation bureau was, also established at Fatehpur Sikri for this purpose. The Mahabharata, Ramayana, Lilavati and Yog Vashisht were some of, the notable Sanskrit works that were taken up for translation. The Razmnama,Persian translation of the Mahabharata, contains lavish illustrations of the events of Mahabharata., , Decline of the Mughal empire, , , The Mansabdars became corrupt., , , , Weak succession of the Mughal Emperors after Aurangazeb., , , , The Coparcenary method of inheritance created more internal conflicts., , , , The presence of autonomous governor generals in provinces like Bengal , Hyderabad and Awadh gradually began to, break away from the oversight of the Mughal Emperors., , , , The rival kingdoms like Marathas and also the British Empire possessed threat for the Mughals., , Probable Questions, 1) Discuss the probable causes for the decline of the Mughal Empire., 2) The administration of the Mughal empire had borrowed features from contemporary empires in Asia. Elucidate., 3) Critically examine the religious policies of Akbar. Do you think Akbar is a hallmark for secularism in India?, Previous Year Questions, , 1. The Ibadat Khana was a place in Fatehpur Sikri served as, A. The mosque for the use of the royal family., B. Akbar’s Private Prayer Chamber., C. The hall in which Akbar had discussions with scholars of different religions., D. The room in which the nobles belonging to different religions gathered to discuss religious affairs., , HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 40 :
2. Paintings reached a climax under the reign of, A. Humayun, B. Jahangir, C. Akbar, D. Shahjahan, 3. Ramznama is the persian translation of, , A. Ramayana, B. Mahabharata, C. Upanishads, D. Vedas, , HISTORY | Mughal Dynasty, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 41 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Bhakti and Sufi Movements, HISTORY, , Evolution of Bhakti and Sufi Movement, •, , The community living through the growth of towns, trade and empires around the 8th century AD propelled new, ideas began to develop., , •, , The fundamental dictum that all living things pass through countless cycles of birth and rebirth performing good, , deeds and bad came to be widely accepted., , •, , The idea that all human beings are not equal even at birth gained ground during this period., , •, , Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas according to, which it was possible to overcome social differences and break the cycle of rebirth through personal effort., , •, , Others felt attracted to the idea of a one God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with, devotion (or bhakti). This idea was advocated in the Bhagavad Gita, grew in popularity in the early centuries of the, Common Era and reached a climax by the turn of the 8th century AD., , •, , Shiva, Vishnu and Durga as supreme deities came to be worshipped through elaborate rituals., , •, , Local myths and legends became a part of the Puranic stories, and methods of worship recommended in the, Puranas were introduced into the local cults., , •, , The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs., , •, , These developments have given rise to the idea of a supreme God., , Bhakti Movement in South India, •, , Timeline: The seventh to ninth century AD saw the emergence of new religious movement called Bhakti, movements., , •, , Proponents: Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu). They came from all castes, including those considered untouchable like the Pulaiyar and the Panars., , Features of their teaching, , •, , They were very critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to, salvation., , HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 42 :
•, , They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature (the earliest example of Tamil, literature, composed during the early centuries of the Common Era) and then with the values of bhakti. The, Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the, villages they visited, and set them to music., , •, , There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds such as potters, untouchable workers,, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, Sambandar,, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. There are two sets of compilations of their songs, , namely Tevaram and, , Tiruvacakam., , •, , There were 12 Alvars, who came from similar divergent backgrounds as that of the Nayannars. The most famous, , ones were Periyalvar, Andal(The only women Alvar), Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs were, compiled in the Divya Prabandham., , •, , As a mark of respect, between the tenth and twelfth centuries the Cholas and Pandyas built elaborate temples, around many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and, temple worship. This was also the time when their poems were compiled., , •, , Hagiographies or religious biographies of the Alvars and Nayanars were also composed. These serve as a good, source in reconstructing history of the medieval period., , Bhakti Movement in South, •, , Shankara: Shankara was born in Kerala in the eighth century. He was an advocate of Advaita or the doctrine of the, oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God which is the Ultimate Reality. He taught that Brahman, the, only or Ultimate Reality, was formless and without any attributes. He considered the world around us to be an, illusion or maya, and preached renunciation of the world and adoption of the path of knowledge to understand the, true nature of Brahman and attain salvation., , •, , Ramanuja: Ramanuja was born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century. He was deeply influenced by the Alvars., , According to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu. He propounded the, doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness in that the soul even when united with the Supreme God remained, distinct. Ramanuja’s doctrine greatly inspired the new strand of bhakti which developed in north India, subsequently., , •, , Basavanna: Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi started a movement known as, Virashaivism. This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. The Virashaivas vouched for the, equality of all human beings and were against inequalities based on caste and the ill treatment of women. They, were also against all forms of ritual and idol worship., , HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 43 :
Bhakti Movements in the North, •, , Maharashtra: Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets, whose songs in Marathi continue to inspire people., The most important among them were Janeshwar, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakkubai, and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the untouchable Mahar caste., , •, , This regional tradition of bhakti focused on the Vitthala (a form of Vishnu) temple in Pandharpur.These saint poets, rejected all forms of ritualism, outward display of opulence and social differences based on birth. A new humanist, idea emerged as they insisted that bhakti lay in sharing others’ pain., , Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis, •, , They advocated renunciation of the world., , •, , According to them the path to salvation laid in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of, oneness with it., , •, , They advocated intense training of the mind and body through practices like yoga asanas, breathing exercises and, meditation., , •, , These groups became particularly popular among low castes., , •, , Their criticism of conventional religion created the ground for devotional religion to become a popular force in, northern India., , Sufism, •, , Sufis were Muslim mystics., , •, , They rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow, human beings., , •, , Islam propagated strict monotheism or submission to one God. It rejected idol worship and considerably simplified, rituals of worship into collective prayers., , •, , However The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious, scholars., , •, , The Sufis composed poems expressing their feelings, and a rich literature in prose, including anecdotes and fables,, developed around them., , •, , Among the great Sufis of Central Asia were Ghazzali, Rumi and Sadi., , HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 44 :
•, , They developed elaborate methods of training using zikr (chanting of a name or sacred formula), contemplation,, sama (singing), raqs (dancing), discussion of parables, breath control, etc. under the guidance of a master or pir., , •, , Thus emerged the silsilas, a genealogy of Sufi teachers, each following a slightly different method (tariqa) of, instruction and ritual practice., , •, , The Chishti silsila was among the most influential orders. It had a long line of teachers like Khwaja Muinuddin, Chishti of Ajmer, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid of Punjab, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi and, Bandanawaz Gisudaraz of Gulbarga., , •, , The Sufi masters held their assemblies in their khanqahs or hospices., , •, , The assembly members discussed spiritual matters, sought the blessings of the saints in solving their worldly, problems, or simply attended the music and dance sessions., , •, , The tomb or dargah of a Sufi saint became a place of pilgrimage to which thousands of people of all faiths thronged., , New Religious Developments in North India, •, , Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama. Tulsidas’s composition, the Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi (a, language used in eastern Uttar Pradesh), is important both as an expression of his devotion and as a literary work., , •, , Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions, compiled in the Sursagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya, Lahari, express his devotion., , •, , Sankaradeva of Assam (late fifteenth century) emphasised devotion to Vishnu, and composed poems and plays in, Assamese. He began the practice of setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice that, continues to date. This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai., , •, , Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the royal family of Mewar in the sixteenth century. Mirabai became a, disciple of Ravidas, a saint from a caste considered untouchable. She was devoted to Krishna and composed, innumerable bhajans expressing her intense devotion. Her songs also openly challenged the norms of the upper, castes and became popular with the masses in Rajasthan and Gujarat., , Life and Times of Kabir, •, , Kabir in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one of the most influential saints. He was brought up in a family of, Muslim julahas or weavers settled in or near the city of Benares (Varanasi). We have little reliable information, about his life. We get to know of his ideas from a vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads said to have been, composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers. Some of these were later collected and preserved in the, Guru Granth Sahib, Panch Vani and Bijak., , HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 45 :
•, , Kabir’s teachings were based on a complete rejection of the major religious traditions. His teachings openly ridiculed, , all forms of external worship of both Brahmanical Hinduism and Islam, the pre-eminence of the priestly classes, and the caste system., , •, , The language of his poetry was a form of spoken Hindi widely understood by ordinary people., , •, , Kabir drew his followers from among both Hindus and Muslims., , Life and Times of Guru Nanak, •, , Guru Nanak was born at Talwandi (present day Nankana Sahib in Pakistan) in 1469. He was a contemporary of, , Sikander Lodi (Founder of Agra)., , •, , A regular worship that consisted of the singing of his own hymns was established there for his followers., , •, , Irrespective of their former creed, caste or gender, his followers ate together in the common kitchen (langar)., , •, , The sacred space thus created by Guru Nanak was known as dharmsal. It is now commonly known as Gurdwara., , •, , Before his death in 1539, Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers as his successor. His name was Guru Angad., , •, , Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to which he added his own in a new script known as, , Gurmukhi., , •, , The three successors of Guru Angad also wrote under the name of Nanak and all of their compositions were, compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604., , •, , In 1706, this compilation was authenticated by the last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh. It is now known as Guru, Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs., , •, , The number of Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the sixteenth century under his successors. They belonged, to a number of castes but traders, agriculturists, artisans and craftsmen predominated. This was a result of Guru, Nanak’s insistence that his followers must be householders and should adopt productive and useful occupations., , •, , They were also expected to contribute to the general funds of the community of followers., , •, , The early seventeenth century Sikh community as was referred to by the modern historians as a state within the, state, , •, , The Sikh movement began to get politicized in the seventeenth century, a development which culminated in the, institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. The community of the Sikhs, called the Khalsa Panth,, became a political entity., , HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 46 :
•, , The changing historical situation during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries influenced the development of the, , Sikh movement., , Significance, •, , A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung., They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from generation to generation. They have become, a part of our living popular culture and continue to resonate with the ears of all., , Probable Questions, Mains Questions, 1) Enumerate the differences between Bhaktism and Sufism., 2) Elucidate the contributions of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu., 3) Discuss the common causes for the rise of Bhakti Movement in India., Prelims Questions, 1. Bijak’s are compositions of, A. Kabir, , B. Surdas, C. Ramdas, D. Tulsidas, 2. Which of the following statements are true, 1. Alvars are followers of Shiva., 2. Nayanmars are followers of Vishnu., A. Both 1 and 2 are correct., , B. Only 1 is correct., C. Only 2 is correct., D. Neither 1 nor 2 is correct., 3. Guru Nanak was not a contemporary of which of the following persons, A. Vasco Da Gama, B. Sikander Lodi, C. Akbar, D. Krishnadeva Raya, HISTORY | Bhakti and Sufi Movements, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 48 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Regional Cultural Milieu, HISTORY, , Correlation between languages and development of regional cultures, Languages played an important role in propelling a parallel development of regional cultures of India. Diversity in, Languages in the form of Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu and variants of Hindi ensured that people cultivate, different ways of life., , Regional development of culture in Kerala, , , The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the, peninsula, part of present-day Kerala., , , , The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions. In fact, this is one of the earliest, examples of the use of a regional language in official records in the subcontinent., , , , The temple theatre of Kerala, which is traced to this period, borrowed stories from the Sanskrit epics. The first, literary works in Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are directly indebted to Sanskrit., , , , Lilatilakam, a fourteenth century Malayalam text dealing with grammar and poetics, was composed in, Manipravalam referring to the two languages, Sanskrit and the regional languages., , Regional development of culture in Orissa, , , Regional Development in Orissa had a direct correlation with religion., , , , The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri,, Orissa., , , , In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a, temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri., , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 49 :
Regional development of culture in Rajasthan, , , From about the eighth century, most of the present-day state of Rajasthan was ruled by various Rajput families., , , , The rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly, often choosing death on the battlefield rather than, face defeat. Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs, which were recited by specially trained, minstrels., , , , These preserved the memories of heroes and were expected to inspire others to follow their example. Ordinary, people were also attracted by these stories which often depicted dramatic situations, and a range of strong, emotions loyalty, friendship, love, valour, anger, etc., , , , Women are also depicted as following their heroic husbands in both life and death – there are stories about the, practice of sati or the immolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands., , Regional development in Uttar Pradesh, , , The Regional development in Uttar Pradesh coincided with the development of dance forms., , , , The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story., , , , The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who enthralled people with their, performances., , , , Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the, bhakti movement., , , , The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic, gestures of the kathak story-tellers., , , , Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present, features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style., , , , Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Jaipur and the other in Lucknow., , , , Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form., , , , By the third quarter of the nineteenth century it was firmly entrenched as a dance form not only in these two, regions, but in the adjoining areas of present-day Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh., , , , Rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, as well as the enactment of stories were the major features of Kathak., , , , The legacy of Kathak is such that it is recognized as one of the six classical dance forms in India, the others being, Bharatnatyam, Kuchipudi, Mohiniyattam ,Kathakali and Satrriya., , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 50 :
Relationship between painting and development of regional culture, , , Miniatures are small-sized paintings, generally done in water colour on cloth or paper. The earliest miniatures, were on palm leaves or wood., , , , Some of the most beautiful of these, found in western India, were used to illustrate Jaina texts., , , , The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters who primarily illustrated, manuscripts containing historical accounts and poetry. The Mughal paintings reached a climax during the reign of, Jahangir., , , , These were generally painted in brilliant colours and portrayed court scenes, scenes of battle or hunting, and other, aspects of social life., , , , With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states. As, a result Mughal artistic tastes influenced the regional courts of the Deccan and the Rajput courts of Rajasthan. At, the same time, they retained and developed their distinctive characteristics. Portraits of rulers and court scenes, came to be painted., , , , Different schools of paintings such as Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota and Kishangarh. Another region that attracted, miniature paintings was the Himalayan foothills around the modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh., , , , Bashol was a bold and intensive miniature painting. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta’s, Rasamanjari., , Source : NCERT, , Source : NCERT, , Jahangir’s dream, , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Dara Shikoh, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 51 :
Reasons for the development of various regional schools of painting, , , Nadir Shah’s invasion and the conquest of Delhi in 1739 resulted in the migration of Mughal artists to the hills to, escape the uncertainties of the plains., , , , Another major source of inspiration was the Vaishnavite traditions because of the influence of Bhakti and Sufi, movements., , , , The availability of soft colours including cool blues and greens, and a natural treatment of themes enabled the, regional paintings to grow by leaps and bounds., , , , The paintings were done by various members of the section of the society thus exhibiting egalitarianism., , Probable Questions, 1) There is a very good correlation between growth of regional languages and the development of regional, cultures. Elucidate with help of examples., 2) The Indian society reflects a continuum of cultural lineage since ages. Comment., , 3) Paintings are the least noticed yet one of the most important conduit for transmission of culture. Explain., Previous year questions, 1. Bani Thani , one of the most famous paintings belongs to which school?, A. Bundi, B. Kishangarh, C. Pahari, , D. Mewar, 2. Which of the following are classical dances of India, A. Kathakali, B. Garba, C. Yakshagana, , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 52 :
a. Only A is correct, b. Both A and C are correct, c. Both A and B are correct, d. Both B and C are correct, , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 53 :
NCERT, Shorts, , The Eighteenth Century Polity, HISTORY, , Crisis of the Mughal Empire, The eighteenth century was a spectre of disintegrated polity in the Indian subcontinent a large part of which was, contributed to by the disintegration of Mughal Empire. The causes of disintegration of the Mughal Empire were, , 1. Military Depletion: Aurangazeb’s Deccan expedition caused a loss of exchequer for the Mughal Empire., , 2. Increasing autonomy of the Nobles: The Nobles who were appointed as Subadars or governors in provinces began, to assert their independence., , 3. Rebellions: Peasants and Zamindars rebelled against the policies of Mughal especially in the eastern states of India.,  Treaty with British: The treaties of the British like the Treaty of Allahabad reduced the mughal emperor to a puppet, dented the symbolic might of the Mughals., , Emergence of New States, Hyderabad, , •, , Emperor: Nizam Ul Mulk (Asaf Jha) ., , •, , He was introduced by the Mughal Emperor Farruk Siyar giving him first the governorship of Awadh and later that of, Deccan., , •, , Constantly involved with power struggle with the kingdoms in the Deccan region especially with the Marathas., , Awadh, , •, , Burhan Ul Mulk or Saadat Khan was appointed the subadar of Awadh.., , •, , Importance of Awadh: Rich prosperous bed of resources and located at important trade route in Uttar Pradesh., , •, , Right of taxation of the state was given to the highest bidders. This enabled them to exert a growing influence on, the revenue system in the state., , •, , A growing network of middlemen in the form of Zamindars, moneylenders have mushroomed because of the, revenue system., , Bengal, HISTORY | The Eighteenth Century Polity, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 54 :
•, , Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as the deputy governor of the province in Bengal., , •, , He diluted the Mughal presence in the state by transferring Mughal Jagirdars to Orissa., , •, , The Bengal Province grew to become the richest province in India owing to its geographical proximity and being the, centre of Industrial activity., , Rajputs, , •, , Autonomous existence of jagirs belonging to Amber and Jodhpur., , •, , Extension of territories by jagirs wielding considerable influence outside the state of Rajasthan., , •, , Some of the important Watan Jagirs are Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur who held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai, Raj Jai Singh of Amber., , Sikhs, , •, , The Sikhs under the tutelage Guru Gobind Singh and Banda Bahadur converted Sikh outfit to a political one by, waging wars against the Mughal and Rajput rulers., , •, , The unity fostered within the Sikh clan enabled them to resist mughal governors and more importantly the attack of, Ahmed Shah Abdali., , •, , The Political Militia called Khalsa declared sovereignty by striking their own coin in 1765., , •, , Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the most important ruler of Punjab, , Marathas, , •, , The Marathas were centered around the present day state of Maharashtra., , •, , Shivaji was the most important ruler of the marathas who along with the help of powerful warrior families called as, Deshmukhs wielded territorial power and army., , •, , The Maratha army was built from the stables of peasant-pastoralists known as Kunbis., , •, , There were a group of ministers in the council of Shivaji’s government known as Ashtapradhan., , •, , Two types of Land revenue was collected- Chauth(1/4th of the land revenue collected by the zamindars) and, Sardeshmukhi(9-10 percent revenue to be paid to the head collector)., , •, , The forceful method of accepting sovereignty to the Marathas dented a severe blow in the sense that other, dynasties did not lend a helping hand when they were faced with defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761., , HISTORY | The Eighteenth Century Polity, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 55 :
•, , There were different segments of the Marathas like Peshwas of Poona, Bhosale of Nagpur, Scindia of Gwalior,, Holkar of Indore and Gaikwad of Vadodara., , Jats, , •, , The Jats were centered around the present state of Haryana., , •, , The most important leader of the Jats was Churaman., , •, , The main target for the Jats were the cities of Delhi and Agra., , •, , Jats were mainly agriculturalists and played a pivotal role in the rise of agriculture in places like Panipat and Agra., , •, , Two types of Land revenue was collected- Chauth(1/4th of the land revenue collected by the zamindars) and, Sardeshmukhi(9-10 percent revenue to be paid to the head collector)., , •, , The forceful method of accepting sovereignty to the Marathas dented a severe blow in the sense that other, dynasties did not lend a helping hand when they were faced with defeat in the third battle of Panipat in 1761., , •, , There were different segments of the Marathas like Peshwas of Poona, Bhosale of Nagpur, Scindia of Gwalior,, Holkar of Indore and Gaikwad of Vadodara., , Significance of 18th Century, •, , As we have seen the fragmented polity in 18th century India gave rise to a power vacuum which was utilized by the, British in seeking ground and power. Thus it paved the way for British consolidation and expansion till the middle of, the 20th century., , Probable Questions, 1) Clarify how mid-eighteenth century India was beset with the spectre of a fragmented polity., , 2) Briefly throw light on the administration of the Marathas. What do you think were the causes for its downfall?, , HISTORY | The Eighteenth Century Polity, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 56 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Indian Industry in the 18th, Century, HISTORY, , Indian textiles, Indian Textiles occupied a pre eminent position in the world in the mid 18th century when the Industrial Revolution was, progressing at a rapid pace in England. Among the textiles being produced in India, cotton and jute textiles were of the, finest and the best in the world. They were exported to places in South Asia like Java, Sumatra, Penang, Thailand,, , Cambodia and Malaysia. The European countries also were faced with the flooding of Indian textiles due to British, exporters., , Different names given to Indian textiles, , , Different names were given to the Textiles by different set of traders., , , , Portuguese called it calico derived from the word ‘Calicut’. Two other names were in vogue during that period., Chintz derived from the Hindi word Chhint refers to a cloth having exquisite floral designs. This propelled a huge, demand for these textiles in European countries. Bandana derived from the Hindi word Bandhna refers to any, brightly coloured and printed scarf of the neck., , , , The raw materials combined with invention of spinning jenny by John Kaye and invention of steam engine by, Richard Arkwright revolutionized the production of end products of cotton and jute. In return of the raw, materials procured from India, the British gave silver., , Communities of weavers, , , Weavers belonged to communities that specialised in weaving and skills were passed on from one generation to the, next., , , , Famous communities involved in weaving were the tanti weavers of Bengal, the julahas or momin weavers of North, India, Kaikollar and Devangs of South India., , Stages in weaving process, , , Spinning is the first stage of production where charkha and the takli were used. The thread was spun on the, charkha and rolled on the takli., , , , After spinning the thread was woven into cloth by the weaver., , , , For coloured textiles, the thread was dyed by the dyer, known as rangrez., , HISTORY | Indian Industry in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 57 :
, , For printed cloth the weavers needed the help of specialist block printers known as chhipigars., , Evolution of cotton mills, , , In 1854, the first cotton mill was set up in Bombay during the period of governor general Lord Dalhousie., , , , Growth of cotton mills demanded labour. Poor peasants, artisans and agricultural labourers worked in the mills., , , , The first major spurt in the development of cotton factory production in India, was during the American Civil War in, 1865 when cotton prices slashed and the focus was on India when textile imports from Britain declined and Indian, factories were called upon to produce cloth for European markets which earlier imported from America., , The decline of Indian textiles, There are various reasons for the decline of Indian Textiles, Competition:Indian textiles had to compete with British textiles in foreign markets., , , , High Duties: Exporting textiles to England also became increasingly difficult since very high duties were, imposed on Indian textiles imported into Britain., , , , Losing Traditional Base: Indian traditional goods market was ousted by English made cotton textiles in, African and Asian countries., , , , Specialisation: By the 1830s British cotton cloth flooded Indian markets which affected specialist weavers, and spinners. In India, handloom weaving continued as some types of cloth could not be supplied by, machines., , Evolution of iron and steel factories in India, , , The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) began producing steel in 1912., , , , In 1914 the First World War broke out and steel produced in Britain had to meet the demands of war in Europe. The, war continued for several years, so TISCO had to produce shells and carriage wheels for the war. TISCO became the, biggest steel industry within the British empire., , , , In the case of iron and steel, industrial expansion occurred when British imports into India declined and the market, for Indian industrial goods increased., , HISTORY | Indian Industry in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 58 :
Decline of industries in the 18th century, There was a systemic decline in the industrial base in the country owing to deindustrialization, a process whereby the, traditional base of the industry like weaving and handicrafts got eroded. Thus when once India had a numero uno, position in the Textile industry in the world with a global trade share of 24 percent prior to the 18th century , it slid to 4, percent at present. Thus Deindustrialization of Indian industries marked the decline of stature of India in manufacturing, in the global stage the effects of which are visible even today., , Probable Questions, 1) Examine how the decline of traditional artisanal industry in colonial India crippled the rural economy., 2) Evaluate the impacts of American Civil War on India., , HISTORY | Indian Industry in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 59 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Educational Policies of the British in, India, HISTORY, , Reasons for Educational Policies, The reasons for the introduction of educational policy by the British was not for improving the literacy of the inhabitants, of India. The primary reasons were, , 1. To create a group of Indians who could serve the purpose of being clerks in the English East India company., ,  To lessen the cost of importing trained officials from England for the company in India., , Evolution of Educational Policies, Orientalists: They refer to a group of Englishmen who were interested in learning Indian customs, tradition and, languages to propel the administrative expansion in India. Some of the famous orientalists and their contributions are, , •, , William Jones, Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed established the asiatic society of Bengal which, translated Sankrit and Persian works into English., , •, , Warren Hastings set up a Madrasa in Calcutta in 1781 to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and Islamic law., , •, , Jonathan Duncan established the Hindu College in Banaras in 1791 to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts, that would be useful for the administration of the country, , •, , Fort William College was set up by Wellesley in 1800 for training of civil servants of the Company in languages and, customs of Indians., , •, , The Charter Act of 1813 incorporated the principle of encouraging learned Indians and promoting knowledge of, modern sciences in the country. The Act directed the Company to sanction one lakh rupees annually for this, , purpose., , •, , Lord Macaulay‘s Minute (1835):The limited government resources were to be devoted to teaching of Western, sciences and literature through the medium of English language alone. The British planned to educate a small, section of upper and middle classes, thus creating a class of Indians in blood and colour but English in tastes, in, opinions, in morals and in intellect who would act as interpreters between the government and masses and would, enrich the vernaculars by which knowledge of Western sciences and literature would reach the masses. This was, called the downward filtration theory., , HISTORY | Educational Policies of the British in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 60 :
•, , Wood‘s Despatch (1854):In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a despatch on an educational system for India., Considered the Magna Carta of English Education in India, this document was the first comprehensive plan for the, spread of education in India., , •, , Hunter Education Commission (1882-83) : In 1882, the Government appointed a commission under the, chairmanship of W.W. Hunter to review the progress of education in the country since the Despatch of 1854. The, Hunter Commission mostly confined its recommendations to primary and secondary education., , •, , Raleigh Commission (1902) :The commission was set up to go into conditions and prospects of universities in India, and to suggest measures for improvement in their constitution and working. The commission resisted from, reporting on primary or secondary education.Based on its recommendations, the Indian Universities Act was, , passed in 1904., , •, , Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913: The government refused to take up the responsibility of, compulsory education, but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy and urged provincial governments to take, early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward sections., , •, , Saddler University Commission (1917-19) :The commission was set up to study and report on problems of Calcutta, University but its recommendations were applicable more or less to other universities also. It reviewed the entire, field from school education to university education., , Effect of Educational Policies, •, , The Educational policies of the British did little to uplift the masses in terms of literacy. This can be vindicated by the, fact that when India gained independence, the literacy was just 18 percent. However, British education did help, create a band of western educated intellectuals among Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra, Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra Sen who were instrumental in heralding a new way of thinking among the Indian, population and sowed the seeds of Indian Nationalism., , Probable Questions, 1. Which of the following led to the introduction of English education in India?, 1. Charter act of 1813., 2. General Committee of Public instructions, 1823., 3. Orientalist and Anglicist controversy, Which of the following is/are correct?, , HISTORY | Educational Policies of the British in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 61 :
A. Only 1 and 2, B. Only 1, C. Only 2 and 3, D. All of the above, 2. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?, 1. Sanskrit College - William Jones, 2. Calcutta Madrasa- Warren Hastings, 3. Fort William College- Arthur Wellesley, , Which of the following is/are correct?, A. 1 and 2, B. 2 only, C. 1 and 3, D. 3 only, 3. Regarding woods dispatch which of the following are true, 1. Grant in aid system was introduced., , 2. Establishment of Universities was recommended., 3. English as a medium of instructions at all levels, Which of the following is/are correct?, A. 1 and 2, B. 2 and 3, C. 1 and 3, D. 1, 2 and 3, , HISTORY | Educational Policies of the British in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 62 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Women & Caste Issues in India in the, 18th Century, HISTORY, , Problems Confronting Women, The problems faced by women in the 18th century were very different from the kinds of problems women are facing, now. Some of the problems were, , 1. Polygamy : Refers to the practice of a single person marrying many wives. This rendered the conditions of women, poor and led to their commodification., , 2. Sati: Refers to the practice of self immolation on death of husband. This was a derogatory custom being followed, because it was of the view that it will give sanctity of virtuousness to women., ,  Child Marriages: Women were married off relatively early (around the age of 10 years)., , Problems Concerning the Caste System, •, , Brahmans and Kshatriyas considered themselves as upper castes., , •, , Traders and moneylenders (often referred to as Vaishyas) were placed after them., , •, , Then came peasants, and artisans such as weavers and potters (referred to as Shudras)., , •, , At the lowest rung were those who laboured to keep cities and villages clean or worked at jobs that upper castes, considered polluting, that is, it could lead to the loss of caste status. The upper castes also treated many of these, groups at the bottom as untouchables. They were not allowed to enter temples, draw water from the wells used, by the upper castes, or bathe in ponds where upper castes bathed., , Reforms in the 18th Century, The causes for the reforms to take place in the 18th century include, 1. Printing of newspapers, magazines , books and leaflets. Owing to their accessibility they proved to be a better, source of information than manuscripts which were hitherto unavailable to the common man., ,  Role of the Reformers: Reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar tried to bring the, masses on the path of reforms by rejecting age-old customary belief., , HISTORY | Women and Caste Issues in India in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 63 :
Contributions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the pioneer of modern Indian Renaissance for the remarkable reforms he brought, in the 18th and 19th century India. Some of the reforms were, , •, , The abolition of Sati., , •, , Eradication of purdah system and child marriage., , •, , Founded the Brahmo Samaj, uniting the Brahmos in Calcutta, a group of people, who had no faith in idol-worship, and were against the caste restrictions., , •, , Introduction of an English Education System in the country teaching scientific subjects like Mathematics, Physics,, , Chemistry and Botany., , •, , Established Hindu College in 1817 along with David Hare which later went on to become one of the best, educational institutions in the country. The college recently celebrated its bicentenary in 2017., , •, , Established the Anglo-Vedic School in 1822 followed by the Vedanta College in 1826 to propagate theological, doctrines., , •, , He brought out a newspaper in Persian called Mirat ul Akbar (the Mirror of News) and a Bengali weekly called, Sambad Kaumudi (the Moon of Intelligence)., , Source : NCERT, , Raja Ram Mohan Roy, , Contributions of Social Reformers Towards Widow Remarriages, •, , In Bengal, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar used the ancient texts to suggest that widows could remarry. His suggestion, was adopted by British officials, and a law was passed in 1856 permitting widow remarriage., , HISTORY | Women and Caste Issues in India in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 64 :
•, , In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow, remarriage., , •, , In the north, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, who founded the reform association called Arya Samaj, also supported, widow remarriage., , Major Reforms for Women, •, , Muslim women like the Begums of Bhopal played a notable role in promoting education among women. They, founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in, , Patna and Calcutta., , •, , The Hindu Mahila Vidyalaya was one of the first institutions to provide girls with the kind of learning that was usual, for boys at the time., , •, , Tarabai Shinde published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), criticising the social, differences between men and women in Poona., , •, , Pandita Ramabai, a great scholar of Sanskrit, felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women, and wrote a book, about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women. She founded a widows’ home at Poona to provide shelter to, widows who had been treated badly by their husbands’ relatives., , •, , During the early phases of National movement, the women issues got sidelined but was later taken up proactively by, Nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subash Chandra Bose., , Demands for Social Equality and Justice in Various Parts of the Country, Gradually, by the second half of the nineteenth century, people from within the Non-Brahman castes began organising, movements against caste discrimination, and demanded social equality and justice in various parts of the country. The, , important ones among them are, , •, , The Satnami movement in Central India was founded by Ghasidas who worked among the leatherworkers and, organised a movement to improve their social status., , •, , In Eastern Bengal, Haridas Thakur’s Matua sect worked among Chandala cultivators. Haridas questioned, Brahmanical texts that supported the caste system., , •, , In Kerala, a guru from Ezhava caste, Shri Narayana Guru, proclaimed the ideals of unity for his people. He argued, against treating people unequally on the basis of caste differences., , HISTORY | Women and Caste Issues in India in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 65 :
•, , In Maharashtra, Phule wrote a book named Gulamgiri, meaning slavery and campaigned vociferously gender, equality., , •, , B.R. Ambedkar in western India continued with the fight against injustice. In 1927, Ambedkar started a temple, entry movement, in which his Mahar caste followers participated. Brahman priests were outraged when the Dalits, used water from the temple tank. Ambedkar led three such movements for temple entry between 1927 and 1935., His aim was to make everyone see the power of caste prejudices within society., , •, , E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, or Periyar, founded the Self Respect Movement. He argued that untouchables were the, true upholders of an original Tamil and Dravidian culture which had been subjugated by Brahmans. Periyar was an, outspoken critic of Hindu scriptures, especially the Codes of Manu, the ancient lawgiver, and the Bhagavad Gita and, , the Ramayana., , Important Social Reform Organisations, •, , The Brahmo Samaj: Formed in 1830, it prohibited all forms of idolatry and sacrifice, believed in the Upanishads, and, forbade its members from criticising other religious practices. It critically drew upon the ideals of religions like, Hinduism and Christianity by being appreciative about their both positive and negative dimensions., , •, , Young Bengal Movement: Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta, in the 1820s, promoted, , radical ideas and encouraged his pupils to question all authority. Referred to as the Young Bengal Movement, his, students attacked tradition and custom, demanded education for women and campaigned for the freedom of, thought and expression., , •, , The Ramakrishna Mission: Named after Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Swami Vivekananda’s guru, the Ramakrishna, Mission stressed the ideal of salvation through social service and selfless action. Swami Vivekananda combined the, simple teachings of Sri Ramakrishna with his well founded modern outlook and spread them all over the world., Swami Vivekananda was the first Indian in modern times who re-established the spiritual pre-eminence of Vedanta, philosophy on a global scale. But his mission was not simply to talk of religion. He was extremely pained at the, , poverty and the misery of his countrymen. He firmly believed that any reform could become successful only by, uplifting the condition of the masses. Therefore, his important call to the people of India was to rise above the, narrow confines of their religion of the kitchen and come together in the service of the nation., , •, , The Prarthana Samaj: Established in 1867 at Bombay by Atmaram Pandurang, the Prarthana Samaj sought to, remove caste restrictions, abolish child marriage, encourage the education of women, and end the ban on widow, remarriage. Its religious meetings drew upon Hindu, Buddhist and Christian texts and their interpretations., , HISTORY | Women and Caste Issues in India in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 66 :
•, , The Veda Samaj: The Veda Samaj established in Madras in 1864 was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj. It worked to, , abolish caste distinctions and promote widow remarriage and women’s education. Its members believed in one, God. They condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism., , •, , The Aligarh Movement: The Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, founded by Sayyid Ahmed Khan in 1875 at, Aligarh, later became the Aligarh Muslim University. The institution offered modern education, including Western, science, to Muslims., , •, , The Singh Sabha Movement: The first Singh Sabhas were formed at Amritsar in 1873 and at Lahore in 1879. The, Sabhas sought to rid Sikhism of superstitions, caste distinctions and practices seen by them as non-Sikh. They, promoted education among the Sikhs, often combining modern instruction with Sikh teachings., , Impacts of the Reforms, •, , Although the reform movements brought in visible change in the society, it was met with opposition from the British, and the orthodox elements of the society as it challenged the status-quo. Nevertheless the reform movements, served as launchpad for a vibrant and an all encompassing Indian society in the years to come., , Probable Questions, 1) The Women based issues received a major thrust in the 19th century Indian society. Comment., 2) Evaluate the contributions of Raja Ram Mohan Roy to the Indian reform movement. Is it correct to call him the, father of Indian Renaissance?, 3) Highlight the reform movement undertaken by EV Periyar., 4) Outline the achievements of the women social reformers in reform of women in India., , HISTORY | Women and Caste Issues in India in the 18th Century, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 67 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Visual arts in India, HISTORY, , New forms of imperial art, , , The eighteenth century saw a stream of European artists coming to India along with the British traders and rulers., , , , They began producing pictures which became widely popular in Europe and helped shape Western perceptions of, , India., , , , European artists brought with them the idea of realism., , , , European artists also brought with them the technique of oil painting, a technique with which Indian artists were not, very familiar. Oil painting enabled artists to produce images that looked real., , , , Thomas Daniell and his nephew William Daniell were the most famous of the artists who painted within this, tradition, , Source: NCERT, , Robert Clive meeting with Mir Jafar, , Portrait paintings, , , Unlike the existing Indian tradition of painting portraits in miniature, colonial portraits were life-size images that, looked lifelike and real., , , , The size of the paintings itself projected the importance of the patrons who commissioned these portraits., , HISTORY | Visual arts in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 68 :
, , In view of the rising popularity of the portraits, many European portrait painters came to India in search of profitable, , commissions., , , , Many of the Indian nawabs too began commissioning imposing oil portraits by European painters., , , , Some of these nawabs reacted against this interference; others accepted the political and cultural superiority of the, British., , Painting history, , , There was a third category of imperial art called history painting. This tradition sought to dramatise and recreate, various episodes of British imperial history, and enjoyed great prestige and popularity during the late eighteenth and, early nineteenth centuries., , , , British victories in India served as rich material for history painters in Britain. These painters drew on first hand, sketches and accounts of travellers to depict for the British public a favourable image of British actions in India., These paintings once again celebrated the British namely their power, their victories, their supremacy., , , , One of the first of these history paintings was produced by Francis Hayman in 1762 and placed on public display in, the Vauxhall Gardens in London., , , , The celebration of British military triumph can be seen in the many paintings of the battle of Seringapatam., , Popular Indian art, , , The New Popular Indian Art In the nineteenth century a new world of popular art developed in many of the, cities of India. In Bengal, around the pilgrimage centre of the temple of Kalighat, local village scroll painters, (called patuas) and potters (called kumors in eastern India and kumhars in north India) began developing a, new style of art., , Development between nationalism and art, , , Raja Ravi Varma was one of the first artists who tried to create a style that was both modern and national., , , , He mastered the Western art of oil painting and realistic life study, but painted themes from Indian mythology., , , , He dramatised on canvas, Ramayana and the Mahabharata, drawing on the theatrical performances of mythological, stories that he witnessed during his tour of the Bombay Presidency., , HISTORY | Visual arts in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 69 :
, , Responding to the huge popular appeal of such paintings, Ravi Varma decided to set up a picture production team, , and printing press on the outskirts of Bombay. Here colour prints of his religious paintings were mass produced., Even the poor could now buy these cheap prints., , , , A different vision of national art In Bengal, a new group of nationalist artists gathered around Abanindranath Tagore, (1871-1951), the nephew of Rabindranath Tagore., , , , They rejected the art of Ravi Varma as imitative and westernised, and declared that such a style was unsuitable for, depicting the nation’s ancient myths and legends., , , , They felt that a genuine Indian style of painting had to draw inspiration from non-Western art traditions, and try to, , capture the spiritual essence of the East., , , , They were also influenced by the art of Japanese artists who visited India at that time to develop an Asian art, movement., , , , After the 1920s, a new generation of artists began to break away from the style popularised by Abanindranath, Tagore. Some saw it as sentimental, others thought that spiritualism could not be seen as the central feature of, Indian culture. They felt that artists had to explore real life instead of illustrating ancient books, and look for, inspiration from living folk art and tribal designs rather than ancient art forms. As the debates continued, new, , movements of art grew and styles of art changed., , Source: NCERT, , Nala Damayanti, , HISTORY | Visual arts in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 70 :
Probable Questions, 1) Explain the contributions of the European painters of the East India Company., 2) Evaluate the contributions of Raja Ravi Varma to the Indian art form., 3) The last of the contributions of the Indian nationalism found its life in the Indian paintings. Elucidate., , HISTORY | Visual arts in India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 71 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Post Independent India, HISTORY, , Conditions pertaining to post independent period, , , The problem of Partition where 8 million refugees trespassed either boundaries., , , , The problem of the princely states, almost 500 of them, each ruled by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to, , be persuaded to join the new nation., , , , The problems of the refugees and of the princely states had to be addressed immediately. In the longer term, the, new nation had to adopt a political system that would best serve the hopes and expectations of its population., , , , India’s population in 1947 was around 350 million., , , , There were divisions between high castes and low castes, between the majority Hindu community and Indians who, practised other faiths., , , , At Independence, the vast majority of Indians lived in the villages. Farmers and peasants depended on the monsoon, for their survival., , Timeline for the linguistic reorganisation of the states, , , Administrative convenience owing to diversity., , , , In October of that year, a veteran Gandhian named Potti Sriramulu went on a hunger fast demanding the formation, of Andhra state to protect the interests of Telugu speakers. As the fast went on, it attracted much support. Hartals, , and bandhs were observed in many towns., , , , On 15 December 1952, fifty-eight days into his fast, Potti Sriramulu died., , , , The protests were so widespread and intense that the central government was forced to give in to the demand., Thus, on 1 October 1953, the new state of Andhra Pradesh came into being., , HISTORY | Post Independent India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 72 :
Aftermath of the creation of Andhra, , , After the creation of Andhra, other linguistic communities also demanded their own separate states., , , , A States Reorganisation Commission was set up, which submitted its report in 1956, recommending the redrawing of, district and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam,, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively., , , , The large Hindi-speaking region of North India was broken up into several states., , , , In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for Marathi and Gujarati speakers. In 1966,, , the state of Punjab was also divided into Punjab and Haryana, the former for the Punjabi speakers (who were also, mostly Sikhs), the latter for the rest (who spoke not Punjabi but versions of Haryanvi or Hindi)., , Rationale behind planning in India, , , Lifting India and Indians out of poverty, and building a modern technical and industrial base were among the major, objectives of the new nation., , , , In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic, , development., , , , There was a broad based agreement on what was called a mixed economy model which means both the State and, the private sector would play an important and complementary roles in increasing production and generating jobs., , , , The roles would be defined by the government and the private sector could be given leeway for implementation., , , , In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated with the able guidance of the eminent statistician P. Chandra, Mahalanobis and the political will of Jawaharlal Nehru. They focused strongly on the development of heavy, industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams. These sectors would be under the control of the State., , , , The critics had differing views on the implementation of the plan. Some felt that it had put inadequate emphasis on, agriculture. Others argued that it had neglected primary education. A small population believed that it had not taken, account of the environmental implications of economic policies., , Critical Evaluation, The policy makers tried to revive India from the scars of partition, widespread illiteracy, dissent due to language and, economic distress with astute adroitness. This has resulted in a fairly good improvement in the living conditions and, , morale of the people post Independence., HISTORY | Post Independent India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 73 :
Probable Questions, 1. Did the linguistic organisation of states strengthen the cause of Indian Unity? Critically examine., 2. Enlist the steps taken by the government towards the creation of centralised planning in India with, relevant examples., 3. Do you think Mixed economy has strengthened India’s standing in the global sphere. Why/Why not?, , HISTORY | Post Independent India, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 74 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Impact of Colonialism on, Deforestation, HISTORY, , Why is there a need for deforestation?, 1. Improvement in Land for agriculture: Growing population necessitated the clearing of forests for agriculture., 2. Requirement for sleepers for railway tracks: The spurt in railways required,  Land requirement for plantations like Rubber, tea and coffee., , Evolution of scientific forestry in India, 1. Introduced by Dietrich Brandis for the purpose of building roadways and railways., 2. Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865., 3. The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun in 1906. The system they taught here was called, scientific forestry., , 4. In scientific forestry, natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cut down. In their place, one, type of tree was planted in straight rows. This is called a plantation., , 5. Forest officials surveyed the forests, estimated the area under different types of trees, and made working plans for, forest management. They planned how much of the plantation area to cut every year. The area cut was then to be, replanted so that it was ready to be cut again in some years., 6. The 1878 Act divided forests into three categories: reserved, protected and village forests. The best forests were, called reserved forests. Villagers could not take anything from these forests, even for their own use. For house, , building or fuel, they could take wood from protected or village forests., , Effect on people, , , Responsible for rise in unrest among the people eventually leading to naxalism., , , , Feeling of Alienation., , , , Increase in inequalities between the urban and the rural population., , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 75 :
Reforms undertaken by the government, , , Passing of the Forest rights amendment act 2019 which extended the ambit of the basket of commodities classified, as Minor forest produce., , , , Prevention of atrocities act 1989 which accorded protection to Scheduled tribes., , , , Environmental Protection act 1986 which was precursor to the National Green Tribunal act 2010 thereby giving legal, sanctity., , Probable Questions, 1) Enlist the various measures taken by the government to protect Scheduled tribes., 2) Trace the growth of Naxalism in India to the growth of scientific forestry., , HISTORY | Regional Cultural Milieu, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 76 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Beginning of Modernity, HISTORY, , Meaning of the term modernity, The word modernity is a phenomenon which came into existence since the renaissance in Italy in the early 15th century., Renaissance is a term which means revival or resurgence. It involved a paradigm shift in the way people thought about, society in general and individuals in particular., , Factors that helped in heralding modernity, , , Development of Printing: Printing press was first started in Germany in the late 14th century by Guttenburg, known as the Gutenberg Printing press. A wide variety of books could be published on various subjects like religion,, economics , polity etc which spearheaded revolutions of different kinds., , , , Development of Rationality: People have started becoming aware of their rights and started questioning the, status quo prevalent in the society. Earlier the Church practically held sway over every section of the society., , , , Freedom of speech and expression: Modernity necessarily involves expressing one's likes and dislikes freely. This, was made possible by various avenues like painting, printing of books, theatres etc., , Source: NCERT, , Gutenberg’s printing press, HISTORY | Beginning of Modernity, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 77 :
Manifestation of modernity in India, , , Printing started in India with the arrival of Portuguese in India in the early 16th century., , , , Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first Malayalam book was printed by, them., , , , By 1710, Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older works., , , , From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine in english., , , , To reach a wider audience, the ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of ordinary people. Rammohun, Roy published the Sambad Kaumudi from 1821., , , , From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published, Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year, a, Gujarati newspaper, the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance., , , , The first printed edition of the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text, came out from Calcutta in, 1810., , , , By the mid-nineteenth century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s, the Naval, Kishore Press at Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published numerous religious texts in, vernaculars. In their printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at, , Effects of increasing modernity in India, , , Growth of social reform movements. Some of the famous social reformers were Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar, Chandra Vidya Sagar, Keshav Chandra Sen etc., , , , Increase in women rights and awareness. Some of the women took up the cause of women like illiteracy reduction,, poverty alleviation, etc like Tarabai Shinde, Pandita Ramabai etc., , , , Large scale improvement of macro parameters like literacy rates, lesser incidences of child marriages , banning of, Sati all became possible because of modernisation., , , , The passing of various governmental legislations like Hindu marriages act, hindu code bill, widows remarriage act, were all possible because of modernisation., , , , It fastened the process of achieving independence from the British rule and ushering in an era of planned growth, and development., , HISTORY | Beginning of Modernity, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 78 :
Probable Questions, 1. Throw light on the phenomenon of renaissance which took shape in Europe in the 15th century., 2. Printing press proved a pivotal role in the spread of modernity not only in Europe but also in India., Elucidate., 3. Throw light on the women social reformers in India and illustrate their contributions with examples., 4. Draw an outline of the after effects of spread of modernity in India. Do you think India is modern or on, , the verge of being modern?, 5. Governmental legislations underwent a paradigm shift on the account of modernity .Elucidate., , HISTORY | Beginning of Modernity, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 79 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Modernization of Asian countries, HISTORY, , Aspects which are critical in modernization, , , Geographical aspects: The size of countries play a major role. For instance modernization was easier to bring, about in Japan rather than China owing to its smaller size., , , , Ethnic groups: Multiplicity of ethnic groups in China like Hans, Uighurs, Hui, Manchu and Tibetan as compared to, Japan delayed the reforms to start in the former., , , , Dietary Habits: Chinese dietary habits were more extensive than the japanese counterparts and was particular to, a definite part of the country. This created a status quoist type of system., , , , Political system: Militias like Tokugawa shogun played a pivotal role in how societies were governed in Japan prior, to 1869. The restoration was because of three changes in Japanese Political system namely the peasantry was, disarmed and only the samurai could carry swords. This ensured peace and order, ending the frequent wars of the, previous century. Two, the daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains, each with a large degree of, autonomy. Third, land surveys identified owners and taxpayers and graded land productivity to ensure a stable, revenue base. On the contrary, the Chinese political system was monarchical in nature., , , , Influences of Literature played an important role in either of the countries to take them on the path of, modernization., , What is Meiji restoration, , , Meiji restoration refers to the overthrow of the militia Tokugawa Shogun by a culmination of social and political, , reforms. The word Meiji refers to emperor Meiji Tenno’s tenure in the late 18th century that heralded a series of, changes in the Japanese society. Some of the significant changes are., , , , Modernization of the army., , , , Establishment of Monarchy which brought in a centralised government., , , , Strengthening of the economic system by bringing in a uniform currency., , , , Emphasis on Conglomerates like Zaibatsu which are family run., , , , Roll back of the states hold on various spheres of public influence., , HISTORY | Modernization of Asian countries, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 80 :
Probable Questions, 1) How modernization of Japan was possible in the 19th century?, 2) Illustrate with examples how modernity in countries of Asia was brought about?, , HISTORY | Modernization of Asian countries, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 81 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Renaissance, HISTORY, , What is the meaning of the term renaissance?, Renaissance means rebirth or revival as coined by Jules Michelet in the 19th century. The word rebirth refers to, rekindling of interest in learning the thought of ancient Greek and Roman political thought., , Origin of renaissance, The Renaissance began in the universities and monasteries of Italy, where people rediscovered old manuscripts in Latin, and Greek on science, art and literature. These manuscripts were brought to Italy by Greek scholars fleeing, Constantinople after the city’s fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. Scholars tried to understand Greek and Roman, beliefs, which placed more emphasis on the significance of human life on Earth rather than on an afterlife., , Growth of cultural humanism, , , In literature, great Italian poets such as Petrarch began to explore human emotion. By the early 1500s three painters, namely Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael were at the height of their powers, bringing new energy and, realism to the art while architects designed new and elegant buildings that echoed the classical styles of ancient, Greece and Rome., , , , The Renaissance was fueled by new technology. Printing with movable type, developed by Johannes Gutenberg in, Germany, made books cheaper and more plentiful, so new ideas could be ready by more people., , , , At the turn of the 14th century, a new cultural movement began to take shape in Italy. This was called humanism., , Humanism promoted the idea that man was the centre of his own universe and that advancements in education,, classical arts and science should be accepted for the betterment of humankind., , , , The resulting advancement in communication because of humanist authors such as Francesco Petrarch and Giovanni, Boccaccio further helped in the interest and promotion of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values. The, mass printing of these books helped in further spreading the ideas of humanism among the masses of Europe., , , , Additionally, many scholars believe advances in international finance and trade impacted culture in Europe and set, the stage for the Renaissance.Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role of the Roman Catholic church, during the Renaissance., , HISTORY | Renaissance, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 82 :
, , This led to the Protestant Reformation Movement by the 16th-century German priest Martin Luther. The movement, , caused a split in the Catholic church as Martin Luther questioned how its practices were aligned with the teachings, of the Bible, , Effects of Renaissance, By the early 1400s and the late 1500s, Europeans set out to explore the oceans with stronger and sturdier ships made, for long voyages into the sea. When the Eastern Roman Empire (Also known as the Byzantine Empire) fell to the Turks in, 1453, the old trade links between Europe and Asia were cut.Spices were an essential part of the European diet. Thus to, , find new routes to the spice-producing islands and spirit of adventure, Europeans set sail., Spurt in the growth of Paintings and sculptures having elements of stories from bible led credence to the effects of, renaissance., , Causes of decline of renaissance, , , The Italian peninsula was a focal point of many conquests and wars by warring European factions such as the, Spanish and the French. This caused instability and disrupted the region, limiting the spread of the new ideas., , , , The change in trade routes limited the amount of money one could spend in arts and architecture instead, most, of the money was diverted towards funding new exploration fleets, , , , In response to the Reformation, there was the Counter reformation which censored artists and writers, stifling, creativity. The Council of Trent in 1545 declared humanism or any other views that contradicted the teachings of, the Catholic Church as an act of heresy, punishable by death. As a result, many reformists and thinkers fled Italy to, more hospitable countries toward the north, , Probable Questions, 1) Renaissance was a landmark event which paved the way for European colonization of the east. Discuss., 2) Why did the Renaissance begin in Italy? Give suitable reasons., 3) Compare and contrast the similarities in Italian Renaissance and Indian Renaissance., , HISTORY | Renaissance, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 83 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Society in ancient times, HISTORY, , Importance of Mahabharata, , , Texts like Mahabharata allow us to understand practices that shaped social histories., , , , It is one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE, onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier., , Interpretations of the Mahabharata, , , In 1919, under the leadership of a noted Indian Sanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar, a team of scholars initiated the task of, preparing a critical edition of the Mahabharata., , , , Initially they collected Sanskrit manuscripts of the text, written in a variety of languages, from different parts of the, country. The team compared verses from each manuscript., , , , They selected the verses that appeared common to most versions and published these in several volumes, running, into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47 years to complete., , , , There were several common elements in the Sanskrit versions of the story, evident in manuscripts found all over, the subcontinent, from Kashmir to Tamil Nadu., , , , Also evident were enormous regional variations in the ways in which the text had been transmitted over the, centuries. These variations were documented in footnotes and appendices to the main text, , Rules and varied practices in the early society, Rules about families, , , , Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives., , , , They vary in terms of number of members, their relationship with one another as well as the kinds of, activities they share., , , , Often people belonging to the same family share food, resources, work, and live together and perform, rituals together., , , , While familial ties are often regarded as natural and based on blood, they are defined in many different, , ways. Some societies regard cousins as being blood relations, whereas others do not., HISTORY | Society in ancient times, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 84 :
, , For early societies, historians can retrieve information about elite families fairly easily, it is, however, far more, , difficult to reconstruct the familial relationships of ordinary people., Rules about patriliny, , , , Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. The Mahabharata is a story about patriliny., , , , It describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who, belonged to a single ruling family, that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of the janapadas., , , , Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources (including the throne in the case of kings) of their fathers when the, father died., , , , Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards) claimed to follow this system, although there were variations, in practice: sometimes there were no sons, brothers succeeded one another, and sometimes other kinsmen(distant, relatives) claimed the throne., , , , In very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power. The concern with patriliny, was not unique to ruling families but also in ordinary families., , Rules of marriage, , , There were two systems of marriage, Endogamy and Exogamy. Marriage within the kin is called Endogamy., Marriage outside the kin is called Exogamy., , , , The lives of young girls and women belonging to elite families were often carefully regulated to ensure that they, were married at the right time and to the right person. This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana or the gift of a, daughter in marriage was an important religious duty of the father., , , , There are three types of marriage namely Monogamy (It is the practice of a man having one wife), polygamy or, Polygyny (It is the practice of a man having several wives) and Polyandry ( It is the practice of a woman having, , several husbands), , , , From 500 BCE, marriage norms were compiled in Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras and, Manusmriti. These texts recognised as many as eight forms of marriage., , , , Of these, the first four were considered as good (Which were arranged by the parents of the boy or girl) while the, remaining four were condemned( Which were not fixed by the elders) It is possible that last four forms of marriage, were practised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms., , HISTORY | Society in ancient times, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 85 :
The Gotra rules for women, , , One Brahmanical practice was to classify people in terms of gotras. Each gotra was named after a Vedic seer, and, all those who belonged to the same gotra were regarded as his descendants., , , , Two rules about gotra were particularly important - women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and, adopt that of their husband on marriage and members of the same gotra could not marry., , , , Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous. The Queens who married Satavahana rulers indicate that many of, them had their father’s gotras even after the marriage., , , , Some of the Queens belonged to the same gotra.This was opposite to the ideal of exogamy recommended in the, Brahmanical texts., , , , In fact, it exemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamy or marriage within the kin group, which is prevalent, amongst several communities in south India. Satavahanas also had marriage relations with Shakhas, Who were, considered as outcasts., , Probable Questions, 1. Mahabaratha throws light on the ancient indian society and its divisions. Critically evaluate., 2. There is a continuity in Indian society as seen in earliest to modern times. Discuss, , HISTORY | Society in ancient times, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 87 :
Common Accounts of the Travellers of the Indian Society, •, , Prevalence of Caste System., , •, , System of Corporal Punishment., , •, , Incidences of Corruption., , •, , Might of the empires., , •, , Incidences of Sati and child marriages., , Probable Questions, 1) Give an account of the Arabian and Chinese travellers in reconstructing the history of Medieval India., 2) The Vijayanagara empire is known to the world because of the accounts of travellers. Elucidate the statement., 3) The medieval literature by travellers is the window of society of its time. Explain with suitable examples., 4) Megasthenes’ Indica is the one of the earliest written accounts of Indian society seen from the lens of a foreigner., Justify the statement., , HISTORY | Account of Travellers, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 88 :
NCERT, Shorts, , The Vijayanagar Empire, HISTORY, , Location of the town of Vijayanagar, , , Located in the present day states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka., , Period of the Vijayanagar empire, , , The time period of the Vijayanagar empire is from 1336 AD- 1565 AD., , Dynasties of Vijayanagar empire, Dynasties, , Founders, , Sangama (1336-1485), , Harihara and Bukka, , Saluva (1485-1505), , Saluva Narasimha, , Tuluva (1505-1570), , Vira Narasimha, , Discovery of Vijayanagara empire, The ruins in Hampi were discovered by a british antiquarian known as Colin Mackenzie in 1800. The materials used, primarily by accounts of foreign travellers like Domingo Paes, Nicolo Conti, Fernua Nunez and Duarte Barbosa who gave, extensive and elaborate accounts of the Vijayanagar empire., , Administration of the Vijayanagar empire, , , Governance measures: There was a system of council of ministers who assisted the king in carrying out, administration. They were being nominated by the king from among the brahmin, kshatriya and Vaishya class., , , , Community of the King: Unlike the common practice of choosing the King from the Kshatriya community, the, vijayanagara kings were from the Brahmin Community., , , , Dual Rule:At a single point of time two kings ruled over a single province., , HISTORY | The Vijayanagar Empire, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 89 :
, , Provincial administration: The division of the empire into six provinces called Prant or Rajya. Each province of the, , Rajya was under a Nayak who was a member of the royal family. He looked after the civil, military and judicial, functions. Thus provincial administration illustrates decentralised administration., , , , Nayakars: This system was analogous to the Mughal administration whereby a person renders services of rent, collection and maintaining a large army. The king grants land to the Nayaks in return for the services., , Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), , , Krishnadevaraya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty., , , , He was a contemporary of Mughal King Babur. His name finds a mention in Babur’s memoir Tuzuk i Babari., , , , He was a patron of literature. He wrote Amukta Malyada, a treatise on politics in Telugu and Jambavati Kalyanam , a, sanskrit play on marriages., , , , His court consisted of Astadiggajas, a group of 8 persons who patronized various arts and literature like Tenali Rama,, Alasani Pedanna., , , , He embraced the builders of temple architecture belonging to the dravidian tradition. The Lepakshi temple, Madurai, Meenakshi Amman temple, Virupaksha temple were all splendours of the Vijayanagara empire., , Downfall of the Vijayanagar empire, 1) Constant wars with the Bahmani Kingdom: The struggle for the Raichur Doab with the neighbouring Bahmani, Kingdom dented a huge blow on the Vijayanagar empire., , 2) The decentralised administration soon led to corruption among the Nayaks., 3) Weak successors of Krishnadevaraya., 4) Opulence and wealth displayed by the Vijayanagar empire led to its downfall., 5) Expansionist policy adopted by regional kingdoms also proved to be its downfall., , HISTORY | The Vijayanagar Empire, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 90 :
Probable Questions, 1. Krishnadevaraya was not only an accomplished scholar himself but also a great patron of literature and learning., Elucidate., , 2. The Vijayanagar empire was the last of the greatest empires in Indian history. Justify the statement., 3. The temple architecture in the Vijayanagar empire marked a culmination of the dravidian era of architecture., Elucidate the statement., , HISTORY | The Vijayanagar Empire, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 91 :
NCERT, Shorts, , The Mughal agrarian society, HISTORY, , Sources of Mughal agrarian society, An elaborate account of the mughal agrarian society is obtained from the various sources the most important of which is, Ain-I-Akbari by Abul Fazl., , Ain-i-Akbari: The central purpose of the Ain-i-Akbari was to present a vision of Akbar’s empire where social harmony, was provided by a strong ruling class. Any revolt or assertion of autonomous power against the Mughal state was, in the, eyes of the author of the Ain, predestined to fail.This text meticulously recorded the arrangements made by the state to, ensure cultivation, to enable the collection of revenue by the agencies of the state and to regulate the relationship, between the state and rural magnates, the zamindars., , State of Mughal agrarian society, , , Irrigation and Technology: The factors which helped in irrigation and technology are abundance of land, labour and, mobility of peasants. The use of Araghatta (Persian Wheel) for drawing water was very pronounced. The state also, rendered support to the irrigation system., , , , Cyclicity of Agriculture: The agricultural cycle was centered around the phenomenon of cyclicity of seasons like, Kharif (monsoon season), Rabi (Winter season) and Zaid crops( summer season)., , , , Presence of zamindars:, , Zamindars refer to an autonomous head of a village who accepted the mughal, , sovereignty. They exhorted a huge sum of money from the tenants and peasants alike. This resulted in the creation, of agricultural and rural distress., , , , Land Measurement system: The measurement of land based on the fertility of the soil was adopted. This ensured, a healthy competition among different owners of land in securing the largest revenue., , , , Presence of an elaborate Public distribution system which ensured there was enough food reserves in the event of, famine or a calamity., , , , The fixing of the taxes( at 1/6th the price of the produce) led to a steady source of income for the mughal empire., , HISTORY | The Mughal agrarian society, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 92 :
Probable Questions, 1.The Mughal agrarian society had an elaborate system of administration. Illustrate with examples., 2. The Mughal agrarian system shows a remarkable similarity with the agrarian system of the delhi sultanate. Discuss., , HISTORY | The Mughal agrarian society, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 93 :
British Economic Policies, , NCERT, Shorts, , HISTORY, , Need for economic policies, The dual administration by Robert Clive in 1765 in the Bengal region made it evident that the East India company would, have been having the rights of revenue collection and not the rights to ensure law and order. This particular policy, ensured that the English East India company had all the power with no responsibility and the Nawab had all the, , responsibility with no power., Governor General Warren Hastings who succeeded Robert Clive incorporated the quinquennial system whereby the, rights of the land revenue was given to the highest bidder for 5 years. The problem of this particular method is the, incentive of collecting revenue was not correlated with the fertility of the land. To resolve this problem there was a need, for reforms., , Reforms of Lord Cornwallis, Lord Cornwallis introduced a series of reforms out of which his agricultural policies paved the way for various types of, agrarian methods of settlements in different parts of the country., The most important agrarian reforms is Permanent settlement introduced in the regions of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa by, Lord Cornwallis., The salient features of Permanent settlement is, , , , Landlords or Zamindars were recognised as the owners of the land., , , , They were given hereditary rights of succession of the lands under them., , , , The amount to be paid by the landlords was fixed., , , , The fixed amount was 10/11th portion of the revenue for the government and 1/10th was for the, Zamindar., , , , The Zamindar also had to give the tenant a patta which described the area of the land given to him and the, rent he had to pay the landlord., , , , Zamindars being sons of the soil, it was thought that they could reach the far corners of the region and also, , understand local customs very well., HISTORY | British Economic Policies, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 94 :
, , Because of the permanent nature of the system, there was a sense of security for everyone., , , , The company knew the amount it would get in revenue. The landlord also was assured of the amount., , , , Finally, the farmers also, in lieu of the patta were certain of their holdings and knew how much rent was to, be paid., , , , Since the settlement was of a permanent nature, the Zamindars would have an interest in the improvement, in the land thereby improving the revenue., , Impacts of the permanent settlement:, , , , In Mughal era, Zamindar was not the owner of the land but only a collector of revenue., , , , The Zamindars became wealthier., , , , Further, Zamindars were not the same old hereditary landholders, but anyone could become a Zamindar, provided he had good connection in East India Company or some other hack., , , , They all became petty capitalists and they invested in trade, commerce thus some positive impact on other, segments of economy was seen., , , , For East India Company, this system of New Zamindars secured the British Dominion in India., , , , A new crop of unofficial middlemen also grew between the Zamindars and Peasants., , , , A Zamindar would sublet the land to the middlemen and would relocate to big cities like Calcutta to live a, luxurious life., , , , Zamindars thus turned into Absentee landlords due to permanent settlement., , , , But not everything was rosy for Zamindars., , , , Company retained the ultimate ownership and was able to sell the land via public auction if the fixed rent, was not paid on the due date by Zamindar., , , , The Zamindar had to deposit the collected revenue on a day fixed before sunset, if not done, he would lose, part or full of estate and then the estate would be sold in open auction., , , , Many Zamindars turned defaulters and it created problems., , HISTORY | British Economic Policies, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 95 :
Ryotwari system, , , It was introduced by Thomas Munroe in 1820 in Madras., , , , The major change in the policy over the earlier ones were the ownership rights were handed over to the peasants., , , , The British East India company collected revenue directly from the peasantry., , , , It was better than Permanent settlement in the sense that there were no intermediaries., , Mahalwari system, , , It was introduced by Holt Mackenzie and William Bentinck in 1820 in Madras., , , , It was introduced in Central province, North West frontier province, Agra, Punjab and Gangetic Valley., , , , The land was divided into mahals or a unit of village., , , , It was better than Permanent settlement in the sense that there were no intermediaries, , Probable Questions, 1. Give an account of the British economic policies in the eighteenth century., 2. List down the impacts of the permanent settlement to agriculture in India., , HISTORY | British Economic Policies, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 96 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Revolt of 1857, HISTORY, , What is the meaning of revolt?, The meaning of revolt is a large often unregulated response against the ruling regime. Some of the most famous revolts, in history include french Revolution, Russian revolution , Chinese revolution. The major features of the revolts are, , 1. They are unplanned in nature., 2. They are mostly leaderless although a ceremonial head is present., 3. They do not have a defined objective., 4. The people partaking in the revolts are having vested interests., , Occurrences of Revolts in India, Name of the Uprising, , Region, , Leaders, , Bhil Uprising, , Western Maharashtra(Khandesh), , Sevaram, , Ramosi Uprising, , Satara, , Chittur Singh, Umaji Naik, , Poligar rebellion, , Carnatic region, , Veerapandiya Kattabomman, , Wahabi Movement, , Rae Bareilly, , Syed Ahmed, , Santhal Rebellion, , Jharkhand, , Sido and Kanho, , Revolt of 1857, , Parts of Central and North India, , Nana Saheb, Rani Jhansi,Maulvi, Ahmedullah,Begum Hazrat, Mahal, , Causes of revolt of 1857, , , Social and Religious causes: British acts relating to the banning of Sati in 1829 and Hindu widow remarriage act, 1856 brought in resentment among the native indians as it impinged on their beliefs., , , , Economic causes: The economic policies of the british like permanent settlement, ryotwari system and mahalwari, system created hardships for the rural farmers and tenants. Since the soldiers were from an agrarian lineage, they, could not bear the humiliation., , HISTORY | Revolt of 1857, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 97 :
, , Military causes: The extension of British dominion in India had adversely affected the service condition of the, , Sepoys. They were required to serve in an area away from their homes without the payment of extra Bhatta. An, important cause of Military discontent was the General Service Enlistment Act, 1856, which made it compulsory for, the sepoys to cross the seas, whenever required. The Post Office Act of 1854 withdrew the free postage facility for, them., , , , Political Causes: Measures such as Doctrine of Lapse adopted by Lord Dalhousie in 1850’s which annexed regions, like Satara, Nagpur caused widespread discontent among the people alike., , Causes of failure, , , Some of the rulers like Scindia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, the, Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala, Sindh, and Kashmir, and the Rana of Nepal provided active support to the, British., , , , The military equipment of the rebels was inferior., , , , Comparative lack of efficient leadership., , , , The modern intelligent Indians also didn't support the cause., , , , The revolt was confined mainly to Northern and Central India with South India and Western India remaining aloof., , Impact of revolt of 1857, The revolt of 1857 served as a glorious example of Hindu Muslim unity. It brought the British administration to its toes, and transferred the power from the company to that of the British Crown. The Mutiny served the first stepping stone of, , Indian Nationalism in years to come. In more ways than one it is called the first war of Indian Independence as said by, V.D. Savarkar., , Probable Questions, 1) The revolt of 1857 was a culmination of sporadic events that preceded it. Illustrate with examples., 2) The revolt of 1857 had multidimensional causes. Evaluate the statement., , HISTORY | Revolt of 1857, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 98 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Colonial Cities, HISTORY, , Meaning of Colonial Cities, •, , Colonial Cities are the cities which served as bases for the English East India Company in India. The major colonial, cities in India include Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras., , Importance of Colonial Cities, •, , They served as bases for the East India company in India., , •, , Helped in Mobilization of the troops of the army., , •, , They were the starting points for building communication lines and robust administrative systems that can be, replicated in rest of the places., , •, , They acted as centres for dissemination of information., , Important Colonial Cities and their Influences, Madras, Served as the first colonial city by the British who established their base in 1639. This was the most important centre for, the british in South India. The salient features ar, 1. Administration: Most of the Architectural marvels like Fort St.George, Victoria Public hall, Rippon building, the, Indian post office, Central Railways., , 2. Educational Reforms:Many educational institutions like Madras Medical College, School of Survey were, instrumental in spreading educational revolution., 3. Financial Centre: Madras served as an important centre for the British raj. The ryotwari system in the vast tracts of, southern part of Indian states., , Bombay, Served as the first colonial city by the British who established their base in 1668. This was the most important centre for, the british in Western India. Marvels like Gateway of India, Asiatic society was built for the ease of British administration., HISTORY | Colonial Cities, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 99 :
1. Educational Reforms:Many educational institutions like Grant Medical College, JJ School were instrumental in, spreading educational revolution., 2. Financial Centre: Bombay served as an important centre for the British raj. The ryotwari system in the vast tracts of, southern part of Indian states and it being closer to the Suez canal brought in a lot of trade., , Delhi, Served as the first colonial city by the British who established their base in 1911. This was the most important centre for, the british in Northern India. The salient features are, 1. Administration: Most of the Architectural marvels like Rashtrapati Bhavan,National Museum had british roots., , 2. Seat of Capital: Delhi was the capital for the British India, 3. Financial Centre: Delhi served as an important centre for the British raj.Most of the offices of the government were, located at Delhi., , Calcutta, Served as the first colonial city by the British who established their base in 1690. This was the most important centre for, the british in Eastern India. The salient features are, 1. Administration: Most of the Architectural marvels like Victoria Memorial, Asiatic society of Calcutta was built for the, , ease of British administration., 2. Educational Reforms: Many educational institutions like Medical College and Hospital Calcutta, Presidency College, were instrumental in spreading educational revolution., 3. Financial Centre: Calcutta served as an important centre for the British raj. The fertile Gangetic plains were, instrumental in earning revenue. Bengal was the richest province in India., , Probable Questions, 1. The colonial cities played an important role in shaping India. Elucidate, , HISTORY | Colonial Cities, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 100 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist, Movement, HISTORY, , Relationship between Leaders and Nationalism, There is an intricate relationship between the leaders and the nation they lived in. Their actions were dictated by the, society where they lived in. The countries by whose name include Italy by Garibaldi, United States of America by, George Washington, South Africa by Nelson Mandela and India by Gandhi., , The Early Beginnings of Gandhi, In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to his homeland after two decades of residence abroad. These, years had been spent for the most part in South Africa, where he went as a lawyer, and in time became a leader of the, Indian community in that territory. It was in South Africa that Mahatma Gandhi first forged the distinctive techniques of, nonviolent protest known as satyagraha, first promoted harmony between religions, and first alerted upper -caste, Indians to their discriminatory treatment of low castes and women., On Gokhale’s advice, Gandhiji spent a year travelling around British India, getting to know the land and its peoples. At, , the annual Congress, held in Lucknow in December 1916, he was approached by a peasant from Champaran in Bihar,, who told him about the harsh treatment of peasants by British indigo planters., , Meaning of Non-Cooperation Movement, The time he spent at Champaran and later for labour rights in Kheda and Ahmedabad mill in 1917 and 1918 respectively, cemented him the belief of non violent resistance as a useful tool for achieving self governance. The meaning of noncooperation does not mean violence. It means that there is passive resistance against policies of the British., , Contributions of Gandhi to the National Movement, Champaran(1917), •, , The Champaran agitation in Bihar was Gandhi's first active involvement into the fold of Indian freedom politics. The, Champaran farmers were being forced to grow Indigo and were being tortured if they protested. Raj Kumar Shukla,, an oppressed farmer approached Gandhiji to hear the plea of indigo farmers in Champaran. Gandhi along with, Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kriplani went to Champaran and heard out the farmer's demands., , HISTORY | Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 101 :
•, , Because of their continued support for the farmers demand’s an indigo commission was setup which waived the, extent of growing Indigo. This was the first example of successful non resistance movement., , Ahmedabad Mill Strike(1918), •, , Ahmedabad Mill Strike was one of the earliest labour strike movements organised for mobilizing the plague bonus, for the workers. They were successful in meeting 70 percent of their demands. This was the first movement in which, Gandhiji adopted the policy of fast until death., , Kheda(1918), •, , When Kheda, a village in Gujarat, was badly hit by floods, the local farmers appealed to the rulers to waive off the, , taxes. Here, Gandhi started a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of taxes., , •, , He also arranged a social boycott of the mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials). In 1918, the Government, relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended., , Khilafat Movement, •, , Gandhi's influence on the Muslim population was remarkable. This was evident in his involvement in the Khilafat, Movement. After the first World War, the Muslims feared for the safety of their Caliph or religious leader and a, worldwide protest was being organised to fight against the collapsing status of the Caliph., , •, , Gandhi became a prominent spokesperson of the All India Muslim Conference and returned the medals he had, received from the Empire during his Indian Ambulance Corps days in South Africa. His role in the Khilafat made him a, national leader in no time., , Non-cooperation Movement, •, , Gandhi had realised that the British had been able to be in India only because of the co-operation they received, from the Indians. Keeping this in mind, he called for a non-cooperation movement., , •, , With the Congress' support and his indomitable spirit, he convinced people that peaceful non-cooperation was the, , key to Independence. The ominous day of Jallianwala Bagh Massacre triggered the non-cooperation movement., Gandhi set the goal of Swaraj or self-governance, which since then became the motto of Indian freedom movement., , Salt March, •, , Also known as the Dandi Movement, Gandhi's Salt March is considered to be a pivotal incident in the history of, freedom struggle. At the Calcutta Congress of 1928, Gandhi declared that the British must grant India dominion, status or the country will erupt into a revolution for complete independence. The British did not pay heed to this., , HISTORY | Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 102 :
•, , As a result, on December 31, 1929, the Indian flag was unfurled in Lahore and the next January 26 was celebrated as, the Indian Independence Day. Then, Gandhi started a Satyagraha campaign against the salt tax in March 1930. He, marched 388 kilometers from Ahmedabad to Dandi in Gujarat to make salt. Thousands of people joined him and, made it one of the biggest marches in Indian history., , Quit India Movement, •, , During the Second World War, Gandhi was determined to strike the British Empire with a definitive blow that would, secure their exit from India. This happened when the British started recruiting Indians for the war., , •, , Gandhi protested strongly and said that the Indians cannot be involved in a war that is in favour of democratic, purposes when India itself is not a free country. This argument exposed the two-faced image of the colonisers and, within half a decade, they were out of this country., , Probable Questions, 1) How different would have been the national movement if Gandhiji would have not taken part in it?, 2) Gandhi’s twin tool of Ahimsa and Satyagraha proved a valuable weapon in heralding the national movement in, India. Critically analyze., 3) Is Gandhiji’s views and ideas still relevant today? Justify your answer with examples., , HISTORY | Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 103 :
NCERT, Shorts, , Partition and Its Effects, HISTORY, , Challenges Faced Because of Partition, The initial few years of independent India were full of daunting challenges and concerns regarding national unity and, territorial integrity of India. Freedom came with Partition, which resulted in large-scale communal violence and, displacement and unprecedented violence challenged the very idea of a secular India. Independent India faced three, kinds of challenges, , •, , The first and immediate challenge was to shape a nation that was united, yet accommodative of the diversity in our, society., , •, , The second challenge was to establish democracy. India adopted representative democracy based on the, parliamentary form of government. These features strived to ensure that the political competition would take place, in a democratic framework., , •, , The third challenge was to ensure inclusive development and well-being of the entire society. Due to the widespread, poverty, the real challenge now was to evolve effective policies for economic development and eradication of, , poverty., , Events of Partition, On 15 August 1947, two nation states came into existence, because of partition of the division of British India into India, and Pakistan. According to the two nation theory advanced by the Muslim League, India consisted of two sets of, people- Hindus and Muslims. Due to the forceful circumstances and several political developments in 1940's the political, competition between the congress and the Muslim League and the British role led to the decision for the creation of, Pakistan., A very important task at hand was demarcation of boundaries. After the 3rd June plan of Mountbatten a British jurist, Radcliffe was invited to fix the problem and to form two boundary commissions one for Bengal and one for Punjab. On, 17th August, 1947 he announced his award., , Limitation of the Radcliffe Award, •, , He had no prior knowledge about India., , •, , He had no advisors and experts to advise him about India., , HISTORY | Partition and Its Effects, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 104 :
•, , Six weeks deadline that Radcliffe received was very less in deciding the boundary. It was decided to follow the, , principle of religious majorities which means that areas where the Muslims were in majority would make up the, territory of Pakistan. The remaining was to stay with India., The principle of religious majorities had entailed with it so many difficult positions namely, , •, , There were two areas of concentration with Muslim majority in the West and Eastern parts of India. Hence, it was, decided that the new country Pakistan will comprise two territories, West and East Pakistan., , •, , All the Muslims were not in favour of joining Pakistan. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, the leader of the North West, Frontier Province, strongly opposed the two nation theory., , •, , Two Muslims majority concentrated provinces of British India, Punjab and Bengal had very large areas with non, Muslims population in the majority. Eventually it was decided that these two provinces would be bifurcated, according to the religious majority at the district or even lower level., , •, , The last difficult position was of minorities on both the sides of the border. Minorities then on either side lived in, fear and fled from their homes to save their lives from brutal violence unleashed during partition., , Consequences of Partition, •, , There were brutal killings, atrocities, rapes, on both sides of the border. The cities like Lahore, Amritsar, Kolkata, (then Calcutta) got divided into Communal Zones., , •, , As against 2.7 million hectares abandoned by Hindus and Sikhs in West Punjab, there were only 1.9 million, hectares left behind by Muslims in East Punjab. The shortfall was made more acute by the fact that the areas in the, west of the province had richer soils, and were more abundantly irrigated. To begin with, each family of refugee, farmers was given an allotment of four hectares, regardless of its holding in Pakistan., , •, , Loans were advanced to buy seed and equipment., , •, , Each family was asked to submit evidence of how much land it had left behind. Applications were received from 10, March 1948. Within a month, more than half a million claims had been filed. These claims were then verified in, open assemblies consisting of other migrants from the same village., , •, , Leading the rehabilitation operations was the director general of rehabilitation, Sardar Tarlok Singh of the Indian, Civil Service. The task of rehabilitation took time to accomplish and by 1951, the problem of the rehabilitation of the, refugees from West Pakistan had been fully tackled., , •, , The rehabilitation of the east took years and it was more difficult because of the constant exodus of Hindus from, East Bengal continued for years., , HISTORY | Partition and Its Effects, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved

Page 105 :
Plan of Consolidation, The broad strategy for national consolidation after 1947 involved territorial integration,Mobilization of political and, institutional resources, Economic development, Adoption of policies which would promote social justice, remove glaring, inequalities and to provide equal opportunities. This was achieved by a combination of astute debates and discussions, led by the constituent assembly members and economic policy makers like Mahalanobis and Jawaharlal Nehru., , Probable Questions, 1) Partition of India was brought about without much thought and consensus. Critically analyze., 2) What were the measures taken in order to combat the after effects of Partition in India., , HISTORY | Partition and Its Effects, , Copyright © 2014-2021 Testbook Edu Solutions Pvt. Ltd.: All rights reserved