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Published by:, Shashi Bhatnagar, Shashi Prakashan, I-826, Ansals Palam Vihar, Gurgaon-122017, Phone: 0124-4071551, E-mail: ajaishashi@gmail.com, © Author, , Distribution & Marketing Rights reserved with, 4238 A, 1-Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002, Phone: 40556600 (100 Lines), Fax: 40556688, Website: www.fullcircleeducation.in, E-mail: info@fcepl.in, Branches:, • Ahmedabad • Bengaluru • Chennai • Dehradun • Guwahati • Hyderabad • Jaipur • Kochi, • Kolkata • Lucknow • Mumbai • Ranchi, , 5th Revised Edition, , Visit https://telegram.me/booksforcbse for more books., , “This book is meant for educational and learning purposes. The author(s) of the book has/have taken all reasonable, care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of, any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the author(s) has/have been unable to track any source and if any, copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action.”
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PREFACE, It gives me immense pleasure to present the thoroughly revised and updated edition, of Psychology-XII. It is prepared in accordance with the latest CBSE syllabus., The Salient features of this book are:, • Chapter at a Glance of each chapter will give you a complete understanding of the, chapter in concise form., • All NCERT Textual Questions are solved., • This book also incorporates Learning Checks Questions, Very Short Answer, Type Questions, Short Answer Type Questions, Long Answer Type Questions, in, accordance with the latest CBSE syllabus., • The book has a comparative advantages for the students since the book features, Case Studies and Practicals have also been given., • CBSE Examination Papers have also been given., I acknowledge with gratitude and humility the help received from my trusted colleagues, in revising this book. It may not be possible to enlist all those who rendered their, valuable help in this venture. I hope the teachers and students of Psychology will, cherish my effort., I would like to acknowledge and admire the contribution of my wife and children for, their support, patience and love., Readers of this book are in a real sense, members of an extended family of students., I would like to hear your reactions and comments., A.K. Bhatnagar, , (iii)
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SYLLABUS, One Theory Paper, , Marks: 70, , Units, , Period, , Weightage in, Marks, , I, , Variations in Psychological Attributes, , 20, , 9, , II, , Self and Personality, , 24, , 10, , III, , Meeting Life Challenges, , 14, , 7, , IV, , Psychological Disorders, , 24, , 10, , V, , Therapeutic Approaches, , 20, , 7, , VI, , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 20, , 8, , VII, , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 22, , 7, , VIII, , Psychology and Life, , 13, , 6, , IX, , Developing Psychological Skills, , 13, , 6, , Total, , 170, , 70, , UNIT-I: VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES, , 20 periods, , The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Individual Differences in Human Functioning, 3. Assessment of Psychological Attributes, 4. Intelligence, 5. Theories of Intelligence, a) Theory of Multiple Intelligences, b) Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, c) Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous successive Model of Intelligence, 6. Individual Differences in Intelligence, a) Variations of Intelligence, 7. Culture and Intelligence, 8. Emotional Intelligence, 9. Special Abilities, a) Aptitude: Nature and Measurement, 10. Creativity, UNIT-II: SELF AND PERSONALITY, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Self and Personality, 3. Concept of Self, 4. Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self, a) Self-esteem, Self-efficacy and Self-regulation, 5. Culture and Self, 6. Concept of Personality, , (iv), , 24 periods
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7. Major Approaches to the Study of Personality, a) Type Approaches, b) Trait Approaches, c) Psychodynamic Approach, d) Behavioural Approach, e) Cultural Approach, f) Humanistic Approach, 8. Assessment of Personality, a) Self-report Measures, b) Projective Techniques, c) Behavioural Analysis, UNIT-III: MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Nature, Types and Sources of Stress, 3. Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health, a) Stress and Health, b) General Adaptation Syndrome, c) Stress and Immune System, d) Lifestyle, 4. Coping with Stress, a) Stress Management Techniques, 5. Promoting Positive Health and Well-being, a) Life Skills, , 14 periods, , UNIT-IV: PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS, 24 periods, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Concepts of abnormality and psychological Disorders, 3. Classification of Psychological Disorders, 4. Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour, 5. Major Psychological Disorders, a) Anxiety Disorders, b) Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, c) Trauma-and Stressor-Related Disorders d) Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders, e) Dissociative Disorders, f) Depressive Disorder, g) Bipolar and Related Disorders, h) Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders, i) Neurodevelopmental Disorders, j) Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders, l) Feeding and Eating Disorders, m) Substance Related and Addictive Disorders, UNIT-V: THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Nature and process of psychotherapy, a) Therapeutic relationship, 2. Types of therapies, a) Psychodynamic Therapy, c) Cognitive Therapy, e) Biomedical Therapy, 3. Rehabilitation of the Mentally Ill, , 20 periods, , b) Behaviour Therapy, d) Humanistic-existential Therapy, f) Alternative Therapies, , UNIT-VI: ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION, 20 periods, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Explaining Social Behaviour, 3. Nature and Components of Attitudes, 4. Attitude Formation and Change, a) Attitude Formation, b) Attitude Change, c) Attitude-Behaviour Relationship, 5. Prejudice and Discrimination, 6. Strategies for Handling Prejudice, 7. Social Cognition, 8. Schemas and Stereotypes, 9. Impression Formation and Explaining, 10. Behaviour of Others through Attributions, a) Impression Formation, b) Attribution of Causality, , (v)
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11. Behaviour in the Presence of Others, 12. Pro-social Behaviour, a) Factors Affecting Pro-social Behaviour, UNIT-VII: SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES, 22 periods, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Nature and Formation of Groups, 3. Type of Groups, 4. Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour, a) Social Loafing, b) Group Polarisation, 5. Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience, 6. Cooperation and Competition, a) Determinants of Cooperation and Competition, 7. Social Identity, 8. Intergroup Conflict: Nature and Causes, 9. Conflict Resolution Strategies, UNIT-VIII: PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE, 13 periods, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Human-Environment Relationship, a) Different Views of the Human-Environment Relationship, 3. Environmental Effects on Human Behaviour, a) Human Influence on the Environment, b) Noise, c) Pollution, d) Crowding, e) Natural Disasters, 4. Promoting Pro-environmental Behaviour, 5. Psychology and Social Concerns, a) Poverty and Discrimination, b) Aggression, Violence, and Peace, c) Mahatma Gandhi on Non-violence, d) Health, e) Impact of Television on Behaviour, UNIT-IX: DEVELOPING PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS, 13 periods, The topics in this unit are:, 1. Introduction, 2. Developing as an effective Psychologist, 3. General Skills, 4. Observational Skills, 5. Specific Skills, a) Communication Skills, b) Psychological Testing Skills, 6. Interviewing Skills, 7. Counselling Skills, Practicals , 30 Marks 60 Periods, A. Development of case profile:, Using appropriate methods like, interview, observation and psychological tests., B. Test administration:, Students are required to administer and interpret five tests., C. In Practical examination, the student will be required to administer and interpret two psychological tests., Distribution of Marks:, (i) Practical File, 10 Marks, (ii) Viva Voce (Case profile and practical), 05 Marks, (iii) Two practicals (5 for conduction and 10 for reporting)., 15 Marks, Prescribed Books:, 1. Psychology, Class XI, Published by NCERT, 2. Psychology, Class XII, Published by NCERT, Note: The above textbooks are also available in Hindi medium., , (vi)
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CONTENTS, Section A: Theory, 1. Intelligence and Aptitude.........................................................................................., , 9, , 2. Self and Personality.................................................................................................... 43, 3. Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges.................................................... 88, 4. Psychological Disorders............................................................................................ 116, 5. Therapeutic approaches............................................................................................ 152, 6. Attitude and Social Cognition.................................................................................. 184, 7. Social Influence and Group Processes..................................................................... 208, 8. Psychology and Life................................................................................................... 232, 9. Developing Psychological Skills.............................................................................. 260, , Section B: Practical, • Practicals...................................................................................................................... 276, • Case Studies................................................................................................................ 286, • Viva-Voce Questions.................................................................................................. 297, • CBSE Examination Paper - 2015 (Delhi)................................................................305, • CBSE Examination Paper - 2015 (All India)..........................................................307, • CBSE Examination Paper - 2016 (Delhi)................................................................309, • CBSE Examination Paper - 2016 (All India)..........................................................311, • CBSE Examination Paper - 2017 (Delhi)................................................................313, • CBSE Examination Paper - 2018..............................................................................315, , (vii)
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QUESTION PAPER DESIGN, PSYCHOLOGY, , CODE NO. 037, , CLASS-XII, , TIME: 3 Hours, , Max. Marks: 70, Learning, checks, (LC), (1 Mark), , Short, Answer-I, (SA-I), (3 Marks), , Short, AnswerII, (SA-II), (4 Marks), , Long, Answer, (LA), (6 Marks), , Total, Marks, , %, Weightage, , S., No., , Typology of, Questions, , 01, , Remembering:, (Knowledge based Simple, recall questions, to know, specific facts, terms,, concepts, principles, or, theories, Identify, define,, or recite, information), , 3, , 2, , –, , 2, , 1, , 21, , 30%, , Understanding:, (Comprehension –to be, familiar with meaning, and to understand, conceptually, interpret,, compare, contrast,, explain, paraphrase, or, interpret information), , –, , 4, , 1, , 1, , 1, , 21, , 30%, , 3, , –, , 1, , 2, , –, , 14, , 20%, , 4, , –, , 1, , –, , –, , 07, , 10%, , –, , –, , 1, , 1, , –, , 07, , 10%, , 10 × 1 = 10, , 6 × 2 = 12, , 4 × 3 = 12, , 6 × 4 = 24, , 2 × 6 = 12, , 70(28), , 100%, , 02, , 03, , 04, , 05, , Application: (Use, abstract information in, concrete situation, to, apply knowledge to new, situations, Use given, content to interpret a, situation, provide an, example, or solve a, problem), High Order Thinking, Skills: (Analysis &, Synthesis- Classify,, compare, contrast, or, differentiate between, different pieces of, information, Organize, and/or integrate unique, pieces of information, from a variety of sources), Evaluation: (Appraise,, judge, and/or justify, the value or worth of a, decision or outcomes, TOTAL, , Testing, Competencies, , Very, Short, Answer, (VSA), (2 Marks), , • Reasoning, • Analytical, Skills, • Critical, Thinking, Skills etc., , (viii)
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Section A, Theory, , 1, , Intelligence and, Aptitude, , FACTS THAT MATTER, • Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics, and behaviour patterns., • Approaches explaining individual differences in psychological functioning., 1. Trait Approach: Personal traits cause change in behaviours. [INTERNAL FACTORS], 2. Situationism is a view which states that situations and circumstances in which one is, placed to influence one’s behaviour., [EXTERNAL FACTORS], 3. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a result of, influence of external (situational) factors than personality traits., • Assessment:, 1. Predict future behaviour-intervention to affect a change in behaviour., 2. First step in understanding a psychological attribute., • Formal Assessment: Objective, standardized, organized—psychologists are trained in, making formal assessment., • Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to another—open to, subjective interpretation., • Attributes:, 1. Attributes chosen for assessment depend upon the purpose, e.g., improvement of a weak, student intellectual strengths and weaknesses are measured., 2. An attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific, procedures., • Some Domains of Psychological Attributes, Psychological, Attributes, , Definition, , Uses of Test, , 1. Intelligence, , Global capacity to understand the, world, think rationally, and use, available resources effectively, when faced with challenges., , Provides a global measure of, general cognitive competence, including the ability to profit from, schooling., , 2. Aptitude, , An, individual’s, underlying Used to predict an individual’s, potential for acquiring skills., capability if given the proper, environment and training., , 9
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3. Interest, , An individual’s preference for Helps decide what subjects/courses, engaging in one or more specific can be pursued comfortably and, activities relative to others., with pleasure., , 4. Personality, , Relatively enduring characte- Measures unique characteristics,, ristics of a person that make her explains and predicts future, or him distinct from others., behaviour., , 5. Values, , Enduring beliefs about an ideal Determines the dominant values, mode of behaviour., of a person., , • Assessment Methods, Assessment Methods, , Definition, , Uses of Method, , 1. Psychological Test, , Objective, and, standardized Clinical, diagnosis,, measure of an individual’s mental personnel selection,, and/or behavioural characteristics. and training., , guidance,, placement,, , 2. Interview, , Seeking information from a person Counsellor-client interaction, emon a one-to-one basis., ployee selection, journalism., , 3. Case Study, , In-depth study of the individual Clinical psychologists, based on, in terms of his/her psychological data generated using different, attributes, physiological history in methods., the context of his/her psychosocial, and physical environment., , 4. Observation, , Employing systematic, organized, Disadvantages, and objective procedures to record 1. Observer has little control over, behavioural phenomena occurring, the situation., naturally in real time., 2. Reports may suffer from, subjective interpretations of, the observer., , 5. Self-Report, , Person provides factual infor- Obtained by an interview schedule,, mation about himself/herself, questionnaire, psychological test,, opinions, beliefs., personal diary., , INTELLIGENCE, Wechsler:, • Definition: The global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act, purposefully, and to deal effectively with his/her environment., • Understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value for adaption to the, environment., • Intelligence test most widely used., Gardner and Sternberg:, • An intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies, or shapes it., , 10, , Psychology—XII
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• Approaches to Study Intelligence, Psychometric/Structural Approach, , Information-Processing Approach, , Considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. Describes the processes used in intellectual, reasoning and problem solving., Expresses an individual’s performance in terms of Focus on how an intelligent person acts,, a single index of cognitive abilities., emphasizes studying cognitive functions, underlying intelligent behaviour., Focus on knowing the structure of intelligence., , THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE, A. Psychometric Approach:, 1. Uni/One-Factor Theory (Alfred Binet):, • Definition: The ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well., • First psychologist who formalized the concept of intelligence in terms of mental, operations., • Differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals., • Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be, used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment., 2. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman) [1927]:, • Employed a statistical method called factor analysis., • Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific factors (S-factor)., (i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and common to all, performances., (ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to excel in their, respective domains, 3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone):, (i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and ideas)., (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and computational skills)., (iii) Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns and forms)., (iv) Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving details)., (v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly)., (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information)., (vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented facts)., 4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen):, , Abilities operates at two levels:, Level I – Associative learning., [output is equal to input, rote memory], Level II – Cognitive competence., [output is more than input], 5. Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford) [1988]:, • Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents and, products, (i) Operation: what the respondent does, e.g., cognition, memory retention., (ii) Contents: the nature of materials or information on which intellectual, operations are performed, e.g., visual, auditory., (iii) Products: the form in which information is processed by the respondent, e.g.,, relations, systems, transformations., • Classification includes 6 × 5 × 6 categories—the model has 180 cells., • Each cell is expected to have at least one (can have more than one) factor or ability, and is described in terms of all three dimensions., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 11
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B. Information-Processing Approach:, 1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner):, • Intelligence is not a single entity; distinct types of intelligences exist independent, of each other., • Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a solution to a, problem., • Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence., (i) Linguistic: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s, thinking and understand other. Persons high on this ‘word-smart’, e.g., poets, and writers., (ii) Logical-Mathematical: Skills in problem solving, thinking logically and, critically and abstract reasoning , e.g., scientists., (iii) Spatial: The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming mental, images (visual images and patterns), e.g., sculptors, painters, architects,, interior decorators., (iv) Musical: The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical rhythms and, patterns., (v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: The use of the whole body or portions of it creatively and, flexibly for display, construction of products and problem solving, e.g., athletes,, dancers, actors., (vi) Interpersonal: Skill of an individual to understand the needs, motives feelings, and behaviours of other people for better understanding and relationship. High, among psychologists counsellors politicians., (vii) INTRA PERSONAL: Refers to the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives,, desires, knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that, knowledge to effectively relate to others, e.g., philosophers., (viii) Naturalistic: Complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world, and sensitivity to the features of the natural world, e.g., botanists, zoologists., 2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) [1985]:, • Definition: The ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish, one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture., • Three Basic Types of Intelligence:, (i) Componential Intelligence/Analytical Intelligence: The analysis of information to solve problems, , Three components:, (a) Knowledge Acquisition—responsible for learning and acquisition of the, ways of doing things., (b) Meta or Higher Order Component—planning concerning what to do, and how to do it., (c) Performance Component—actually doing things ., (ii) Experiential/Creative Intelligence: Using past experiences creatively to, solve novel problems., — Ability to integrate different experiences in an original way to make new, discoveries and inventions., — Quickly find out what information is crucial in a given situation., , 12, , Psychology—XII
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(iii) Contextual/Practical Intelligence: The ability to deal with environmental, demands encountered on a daily basis—, — may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’, — easily adapt to their present environment/select a more favourable, environment, modify the environment to fit their needs., 3. Planning, Attention–arousal and Simultaneous-Successive (PASS) Model of, Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby) [1994], • Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three, neurological systems, called the functional units of brain, • These units are responsible for—, (i) Arousal/Attention:, — Arousal and attention enable a person to process information., — An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a, problem., — Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention and attend to, stimuli., (ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing:, — Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate, them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension, e.g., RSPM., — Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the recall of one, leads to the recall of another, e.g., learning of digits, letters., (iii) Planning:, — Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a, target, and evaluate their effectiveness., — If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or, situation., • These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by, reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment., • These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own, distinctive function., Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Nagliery):, • Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age., • Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions, presumed to be independent of schooling., • Results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with, learning problems., , INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE:, The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins, and adopted children., Relationship, , Reared Together, , Reared Apart, , Identical Twins, , 0.90, , 0.72, , Fraternal Twins, , 0.60, , Sibling, , 0.50, , 0.25, , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 13
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CORRELATION OF INTELLIGENCE , • Separated early in childhood—show considerable similarity in their intellectual,, personality and behavioural characteristics., • Adopted Children—children’s intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than, adoptive parents., • Role of Environment—as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to move, closer to that of their adoptive parents., • Disadvantaged Children—adopted into families with higher socio-economic status, exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores., 1. Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good family, background, and quality schooling increases intelligence., 2. There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of, complex interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)., 3. Heredity sets a range within which an individual’s development is actually shaped by, the support and opportunities of the environment., • Assessment of Intelligence, 1905: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful attempt to formally, measure intelligence., 1908: Gave the concepts of:, Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to, people of her/his age-group., Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth., Retardation was being two mental age years below the chronological age., 1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of Intelligence, Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to ratio between MA and CA. Formula—mental age, divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100 (to avoid the decimal point)., • Average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age., • Frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called, the normal curve—symmetrical around the central value, called the mean., Range, , Category, , Below 70, , Mental Retardation, , 90-110, , Normal Intelligence, , Above 130, , Intellectual Giftedness, , VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE, 1. Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):, The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation, as significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with, deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental period., , 14, , Psychology—XII
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In order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show:, (i) Significantly sub average intellectual functioning, e.g., IQ below 70., (ii) Deficits in adaptive behaviour or the capacity to be independent and deal effectively, with one’s environment., Deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between 0-18 years., IQ Range, , Retardation, , 55–69, , Mild, , 40–54, , Moderate, , 25–39, , Severe, , Below 25, , Profound, , Mild retardation—development is typically slower than that of their peers but they can, function quite independently, hold jobs and families. Level of retardation increases—lag, behind their peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in self-care skills and, simple social and communication skills., 2. Intellectual Giftedness, Lewis Terman (1925): Study to show how intelligence was related to occupational success, and life adjustment. These individual show higher performance because of their outstanding, potentialities., Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of, areas., • Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high commitment., • Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger attention span,, good memory, sensitivity to environmental changes, early appearance of language skills., • Other characteristics are advanced logical thinking and problem solving, high speed, in processing information, high level creative thinking, high self-esteem, independence., • Incorrect to equate with brilliant academic performance: each gifted student, possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics, e.g., athletes., Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, e.g., social, and are often called, prodigies., Types of Intelligence Tests, Individual or Group Test, Group, , Individual, , Can be administered to several persons Can be administered to one person at a time., simultaneously., Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar Require the test administrator to establish a, with subject’s feelings., rapport with the subject., Seek written answers in a MCQ format., , Allow answer oral/written, manipulation of objects., , answers, , or, , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 15
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Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests, Culture Biased, , Culture Fair, , Show a bias to the culture developed Can be applied meaningfully to all cultures., in eg type of questions and language, usage., Culturally appropriate—does not discriminate, against individuals of different cultures., , Verbal, Non verbal or performance Tests, Verbal, , Non-Verbal, , Performance, , Require verbal responses Use pictures or illustrations Require subjects to manipulate, in either oral or written as test items, e.g., RSPM., objects to perform a task;, form., written language not necessary, for answering., Can only be administered, to literate people., , Can be easily administered to, persons from different cultures, , CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE, A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to adapt to their environment., The cultural environment provides a context for intelligence to develop., Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and achievements in art and, literature., Sternberg:, • Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of, culture., Vygotsky (Russian psychologist):, • Culture provides a social context in which people live, grow and understand the world, around them., • Elementary mental functions (e.g., walking, crying) are universal; the manner in, which higher mental functions such as problem solving and thinking operate are largely, culture produced., Technological Intelligence, Technologically advanced societies., , Integral Intelligence, Less developed societies., , Personal achievement founded on abilities of Social and emotional skill in relating to, reasoning and judgement are emphasized., people are valued., Focus on cognitive parameters—persons are Holistic perspective, emphasized connectivity, well versed in skills of attention, observation, with the social and world environment., analysis, performance, speed and achievement, orientation., , 16, , Psychology—XII
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• Equal attention given to cognitive and non-cognitive processes and their, integration:, (i) Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem, solving and effective communication)., (ii) Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the, needy, concern about others and recognizing others perspectives)., (iii) Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty,, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation)., (iv) Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence, patience, hard work,, vigilance and goal directed behaviour)., , EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, , Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression and, regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side of intelligence., (i) Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way, as IQ is used to express intelligence., (ii) Salovey and Mayer: The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to, discriminate among them and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions., , SPECIAL ABILITIES, Aptitude indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after, training., (i) People with similar intelligence differed widely in acquiring certain knowledge or skills,, called aptitudes., (ii) With proper training these abilities can be considerably enhanced., Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that, activity., (i) In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and, interest., Aptitude Tests, Independent (Specialized), , Multiple (Generalized), , Clerical, mechanical, numerical and typing Differential Aptitude Test (DAT), General, aptitude tests., Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB)., , • Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and problem solutions that are novel, and appropriate., • It refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to came up with unique solutions, to problems., • Creativity involves the production of same thing new and original–it may be an idea, object or, solution to a problem., • Creativity can get manifested in different levels and in different areas., • Everyday creativity/Day to day creativity. It could be reflected in day to day activities like, writing, teaching, story telling, flower arrangement, dance etc., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 17
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• Special talent creativity/Higher order creativity. It is related to outstanding creative, achievements e.g. inventions and discoveries., • Creativity is always reality oriented, appropriate, constructive and socially desirable., • Everyday creativity could be seen in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit, creativity and that all may not be operating at the same level., • Researches suggest that children mostly express their imagination through physical activities, and in non verbal ways, although when language and intellectual functions are fully developed, and store of knowledge is adequately available then creativity is expressed through verbal, modes too., • There is no disagreement that creativity in determined by both heredity and environment., • Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity., • Environmental factors stimulate the development of creativity., • No amount of training can transform an average person to develop special talent creativity or, higher order creativity like Tagore, Einstein or Shakespear., , CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE:, • Certain level of intelligence in necessary to be creative, but a high level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be creative., • Researchers have found that both high and law level of creativity can be formed in highly, intelligent children and also children of average intelligence., • Relation between creativity and intelligence is positive., Creativity Tests, , Intelligence Tests, , •, , These test use open ended questions., , •, , Maximum scope to assess expression of • Measure abilities which involve convergent, spontaneity, originality and imagination., thinking., , •, , Focus on divergent thinking., , • Focus on assessing abilities., , •, , GUILFORD, KHATANA, PARAMESH., , • BAQER MEHDI and PASSI developed, creativity tests., , •, , See relationships between unrelated things., , • Person has to think right solution., , • These tests use close ended questions., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Aptitude: A combination of characteristics indicative of individual’s potential to acquire, some specific skills with training., • Aptitude Tests: Tests meant to measure individual’s potential to predict future, performance., • Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas regarding a topic., • Case Study: An intensive study of an individual or a situation to develop general principles, about behaviour., • Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental activities association with thought, decision, making, language, and other higher mental processes., , 18, , Psychology—XII
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• Cognitive Assessment System: A battery of tests designed to measure the four PASS, (Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-Successive) process., • Componential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think, critically and analytically., • Contextual Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the practical intelligence, used in solving everyday problems., • Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects, and problem solutions that are novel and, appropriate., • Culture-fair Test: A test that does not discriminate examinees on the basis of their culture, experiences., • Emotional Intelligence: A cluster of traits or abilities relating to the emotional side of, life-abilities such as recognizing and managing one’s own emotions, being able to motivate, oneself and restrain one’s impulses, recognizing and managing others’ emotions, and, handling interpersonal relationship in an effective manner. It is expressed in the form of an, emotional quotient (EQ) score., • Experiential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the ability to use past, experiences creatively to solve novel problems., • Factor Analysis: Mathematical procedure, involving correlations, for sorting trait terms or, test responses into clusters or factors; used in the development of test designed to discover, basic personality traits. It identifies items that are homogeneous or internally consistent, and independent of others., • Fluid Intelligence: Ability to perceive complex relationship, reason abstractly, and solve, problems., • Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living things are passed on in their genes., • Group Test: A test designed to be administered to more than one individual at the same, time, in contrast to individual test., • Individual Differences: Distinctiveness and unique variations among people’s, characteristics and behaviour patterns., • Individual Test: A test that must be given to a single individual at a time, typically, by a specially trained person. The Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests are examples of, individual test., • Intellectual Giftedness: Exceptional general intellectual efficiency shown in superior, performance in a wide range of tasks., • Intelligence: The capacity to understand the world, to think rationally, and to use resources, efficiency when faced with challenges., • Intelligence Quotient (IQ): An index derived from standardized intelligence tests, indicating a ratio of mental age to chronological age., • Intelligence Test: Test designed to measure person’s level of intelligence., • Interest: An individual’s preference for one or more specific activities., • Interview: Purposeful conversation through face to face interaction., • Mental Age (MA): A measure of intellectual functioning combined with varying degrees of, deficits in adaptive behaviour., • Mental Retardation: Sub-average intellectual functioning combined with varying degrees, of deficits in adaptive behaviour., • Normal Probability Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution. Most, scores are found near the middle, and fewer and fewer occur towards the extremes. Many, psychological characteristics are distributed in this manner., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 19
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• Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on, the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test., • Observational Method: Employing systematic, organised and objective procedures to, record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time., • Observation method: Employing systematic organised and objective procedures to record, behavioural phenomena occurring naturally., • Performance Test: A test in which the role of language is minimized, the task requiring, overt motor responses other than verbal., • Planning: In Das PASS model of intelligence, it involves goal setting, strategy selection,, and monitoring of goal-oriented., • Problem-solving Behaviour: The activity and mental processes involved in overcoming, the obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie between an animal and its goal., • Psychological Test: An objective and standardized in instrument for measuring an, individual’s mental and behavioural traits; used by psychologists to help people make, decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves., • Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives, potential and limitation., • Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels of physical stimulation., • Simultaneous Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model that involves, integrating elements of the stimulus situation into composite and meaningful patterns., • Situationism: A principle which states that situations and circumstances outside oneself, have the power to influence behaviour., • Successive Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model where elements of the, stimulus situation are responded to sequentially., • Values: Refers to the enduring beliefs about an ideal made of behaviour., • Verbal Test: Test in which a subject’s ability understand in making and use words and, concepts is important in making the required responses., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence?, Ans. Psychological motion of intelligence is quite different from the common sensed motion of, intelligence., Generally people saw intelligence as mental alertness, ready art, quickness in learning, and ability to understand relationships., Oxford dictionary explained intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding and knowing., Accordingly Alfred Binet also used these attributes and defined intelligence as ability to, judge well, understand well and reason well., Later Wechsler gave a comprehensive definition in terms of its functionality, i.e., its, value for adaptation to environment. He defined intelligence as “the global and aggregate, capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with, his/her environment.”, Present day psychologists such as Gardner and Sternberg emphasized that “Intelligent, individual not only adapts to the environment, but actively modifies or shapes it.”, , 20, , Psychology—XII
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Sternberg views intelligence as “ the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to, accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture.” , Q2. What extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)?, Discuss., (CBSE 2014), Ans. (i) Whether intelligence is evolved or it is developed due to the environment, is a, question of debate., (ii) Lot of studies have been done to determine the role of nature and nurture., (iii) Here we will discuss the controversy with the help of various twin studies, adoption, studies and environmental studies., On the basis of twin studies co-relation results are as follows:, (i) Identical twins reared together correlate, 0.90, (ii) Identical twins reported early in childhood and reared in different environments, correlate, 0.72, (iii) Fraternal twins reared together correlate 0.60, (iv) Siblings reared together correlate, 0.50, (v) Siblings reared apart correlate, 0.25, • Adoption Studies before the Age of 6-7 Years, These studies of adopted children show that children’s intelligence is more similar, to their biological parents., These studies provide evidence that intelligence is determined because of nature., • Adoption Studies after the Age of 6-7 Years, , According to these studies as children grew older tends to more closer to that of, their adoptive parents., , Environmental Studies, Evidence for the influence of environment (Nurture) on the basis of Twin studies., (i) The intelligence score of twins reared apart as they grew older, tends to more closer, to that of their adoptive parents., (ii) On the basis of differences in environment, children from disadvantaged homes, adopted into families with higher, socio-economic status exhibit an increase in their, intelligence scores., (iii) Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence. Factors such as nutrition, good, family background and quality schooling increase growth rate of intelligence., (iv) There is general consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of, complex interaction of heredity (Nature) and environment (Nurture)., (v) Heredity provides the potentials and sets a range of growth whereas environment, facilitates the development of intelligence., Q3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner., (CBSE 2008), Ans. Gardner’s theory based on information processing approaches functions on three basic, principles:, (i) Intelligence is not a single entity, there exist multiple intelligences., (ii) The intelligences are independent from each other., (iii) Different types of intelligences work together to provide a solution of problem., Gardner has so far proposed eight intelligences, however all individuals do not possess, them in equal proportion. The particular situation or the context decides the prominence, of one type of intelligence over the others., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 21
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Following are the eight types of intelligence:, 1. Linguistic: This is related to reading, writing, listening, talking, understanding, etc. Poets exhibit this ability better than others., 2. Logical-Mathematical: This type of intelligence deals with abstract reasoning and, manipulation of symbols involved in numerical problems. It is exhibited in scientific, work., 3. Spatial: This type of intelligence is involved in perceiving third dimension formation, of images. It is used while navigating in space, forming, transforming and using, mental images. Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, care drivers, sculptors and, painters have highly developed spatial intelligence., 4. Musical: Persons with musical intelligence show sensitivity to pitch and tone, required for singing, playing and instrument, composing and appreciating music, etc., 5. Bodily Kinesthetic: It requires the skills and dexterity for fine coordinated motor, movements, such as those required for dancing, athletics, surgery, craft making etc., 6. Inter-personal: It requires understanding of motives, feelings and behaviours of, other people. Sales people, politicians, teachers, clinicians and religious readers, have high degree of inter-personal intelligence., 7. Intra-personal: It is related to understanding one’s self and developing a sense of, identity. e.g., philosophers and spiritual leaders., 8. Naturalistic: It is related to recognizing the flora and fauna, i.e., natural world and, making a distinction in the natural world. It is more possessed by hunters, farmers,, tourists, students of biological sciences etc., Q4. How does the Triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence?, (CBSE 2012-13), Ans. 1. Robert J. Sternberg proposes a theory of intelligence based on information, processing approach in 1985 known as the Triarchic theory of intelligence., 2. According to Sternberg, intelligence is an ability to adapt, to shape and select, environment to accomplish ones goals and those of ones society and culture., 3. This theory attempts to understand the cognitive processes involved in problem, solving., 4. According to him there are three types of intelligences:, (i) Componential intelligence (Analytical): This dimension specifies the cognitive, processes that underlie an intelligent behaviour., This dimension serves three different functions:, (a) Knowledge acquisition components: These are the processes used in, learning, encoding, combining and comparing information., (b) Metacomponents: ‘Meta’ means higher. These are executive processes. They, control monitor and evaluate cognitive processing., (c) Performance components: These components execute strategies prepared, by metacomponents to perform a task., For example, While studying students plan the lesson chapterwise, they make, schedules, categories the learning material and do integrate the information to, comprehend well., (ii) Experiential intelligence (Creative): This dimension specifies how experiences, effect intelligence and how intelligence effects a person’s experiences., , 22, , Psychology—XII
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(a) Experiential intelligence refers to an individual’s ability to make use of one’s, past experiences to deal with novel situations creatively and effectively., (b) This intelligence is mostly high among scientists and creative people., (c) For example if a person is trapped in a room, he finds out a way of coming out, of the room using rope or ladder etc. in a creative way. He had some knowledge, of getting out from this situation by watching out a movie few years back., (iii) Contextual intelligence (Practical): This dimension specifies the ability to deal, with environmental demands on daily basis., (a) It is individual’s ability to make use of his/her potential to deal with day-to-day, life., (b) It may be called street smartness or ‘business sense’., (c) People high in this ability are successful in life., • It deals with the ways people handle effectively their environmental demands, and adapt to different contexts with available resources., Q5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three ‘neurological, systems’. Explain with reference to PASS model., Ans. According to PASS model, theory based on information processing approach, intellectual, activity involves the interdependent functioning of the three neurological systems called, the functional units of the brain., These units are responsible for:, • the arousal and attention., • the simultaneous and successive processing., • the planning., , Arousal and Attention, (i) State of arousal helps in attending to the stimuli., (ii) Arousal and attention enable a person to process information., (iii) Optimal level of arousal focuses our attention on relevant aspects of a problem., (iv) Too much or too little arousal interferes with attention and performance., , Example: Arousal helps the individual to focus ones attention on reading, learning and, revising the contents of the material to be learnt., , Simultaneous and Successive Processing:, Simultaneous Processing refers to perceiving relations amongst various, concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for comprehension., For e.g., in Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM Test) choosing appropriate, pattern by comprehending relationship., Successive Processing refers to recalling information serially so that one recall leads, to another recall. For example, learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables., , Planning:, 1. After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated., 2. Planning involves reaching to the target and evaluating their effectiveness. Planning, allows us to think of possible courses of action and implementing them., 3. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or the, situation., 4. For example, to take a test scheduled by your teacher, you’d have to set goals, plan a, time schedule of studies, get clarifications in case of problems or think of other ways, to meet your goals., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 23
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Q6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?, Ans. Yes, culture, which is a set of beliefs, customs, attitudes and achievements in art of, literature, affects the process of intellectual development., • According to Sternberg, intelligence is a product of culture., • Vyotsky believes that while elementary mental operations are common, higher, mental activities like problem-solving and thinking are culturally produced., • Technological Intelligence, (i) Promotes an individualistic pattern of action., (ii) Individuals in technologically educated western societies possess this kind of, intelligence., (iii) They are well versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, speed, moves, abstraction, generalisation, creativity, Minimum moves etc., • Integral Intelligence, (i) Intelligence in the Indian tradition is integral intelligence., (ii) It views intelligence from a holistic perspective., (iii) It gives equal attention to cognitive and non-cognitive processes, as well as, their integration., (iv) ‘Buddhi’ is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire., (v) It has effective, motivational as well as cognitive components., It includes:, (i) Cognitive competence (discrimination, problem-solving)., (ii) Social competence (respect for elders, concern for others, respecting opinions of, others)., (iii) Emotional competence (self regulation, self monitoring)., (iv) Entrepreneurial competence commitment, persistence, patience)., Q7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the bases of their IQ scores?, Ans., , (i) IQ is an index of brightness., (ii) It is the ratio of mental age to chronological age., (iii) The concept of IQ was given by William Stern who gave the formula to calculate IQ, i.e.,, , MA, CA × 100, Above average, Below average, Average, , •, •, •, •, •, , 24, , • If MA > CA , MA < CA , MA = CA , IQ is relatively stable., Average IQ is 100., It is a good predictor of potential., IQ scores are distributed in a population in such a way that most people tend to fall, in the middle range of the distribution., This can be shown in the form of following table., , Psychology—XII
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Classification of People on the Basis of IQ, IQ Range, Above 130, , Descriptive Label, , Per cent in the Population, , Very superior, , 2.2, , 120–130, , Superior, , 6.7, , 110–119, , High average, , 16.1, , 90–109, , Average, , 50.0, , 80–89, , Low average, , 16.1, , 70–79, , Borderline, , 6.7, , Mentally challenged/retarded, , 2.2, , Below 70, , Q8. Discuss various types of intelligence tests., Or, How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence? , (CBSE 2008, 2014), Ans. Types of Intelligence Tests:, , Individual or group tests based on contact:, Individual Test:, (i) Administered to one individual at a time., (ii) Requires the administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive, to his/her feelings, mood and expressions during the testing sessions which provides, understanding of other aspects of subjects personality., (iii) Allows people to answer orally or in written form or manipulate the objects as per, the tester’s instructions., • Example: Stanford Binet intelligence scale, WAIS, WISSC, Alexander Pass, along test., , Group Test:, (i) Administered to several individuals at a time simultaneously., (ii) Do not allow an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings., (iii) Seek answers in a Multiple-choice format., (iv) It is relatively economical and less time consuming., (v) Example: Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta, Group Test on Intelligence, by S. Jalota., Verbal, Non-verbal and Performance Tests based on Mode of Administration:, , Verbal Tests:, (i) Requires subject to give verbal responses either orally or in written form., (ii) Can be administered to literates only., (iii) Example: CIE, Verbal Group Test, Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale., , Non-verbal Test:, • Has pictures or illustrations as test items., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 25
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• Example: Ravens progressive matrices. In this test the subject examines an, incomplete pattern and chooses a figure from the alternatives that will complete, the pattern., • Reduces culture biases., • Example: SRPM, CIE Non-verbal group test of Intelligence., , Performance Test:, • Requires the subject to manipulate objects to perform the test., • Written language is not necessary for answering the items., • Example: Kohs’s Block designs test. Here the subject is asked to arrange the blocks, in a specified period to produce a given design, Bhatia’s Battery performance test., • Can be administered to persons from different cultures and reduce culture biases., • Example: Draw a Man Test by Pramila Pathak, Kohs Block designs test., Culture Biased or Culture Fair Tests based on Nature of Items used:, • Psychological tests that show a bias toward the culture in which they are developed, are Culture Biased Tests., • Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class, cultural ethos. (Middle class white subjects perform well on these tests). The items, do not consider favourably to Asians and Africans., • Culture Fair Tests: One does not discriminate against as individuals belong to, different cultures., • Non-verbal and Performance Tests reduce cultural influences., To overcome the limitation of Culture biased tests, Culture fair tests were developed. e.g., non-verbal and performance tests are called so because people of any culture could take, them. For e.g. Standard progressive Matrices and Bhatia’s Battery Performance Test., Q9. How intelligence is normally distributed?, Or, , All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their, intellectual ability? Explain., (CBSE 2014), Ans. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. They vary in their intellectual, ability. Some are exceptionally bright and some are below average. Scores of most people, tend to fall in the middle range of the distribution. Rest of the scores gradually and, symmetrically decline towards both the sides but never touch the X-axis., (i) The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped, curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical around, the central value, called the mean., (ii) On the basis of IQ, people are classified in different groups. It is clear that only 2.2, percent people who possess above 130 IQ range are very intelligent or very superior,, their IQ score is more than 130., (iii) People falling between 90-109 IQ range are considered as average. The mean IQ, score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90-110 have, normal intelligence., (iv) Those with IQ below 70 are suspected to have ‘mental retardation’. Mental retardation, refers to sub-average intellectual functioning. The behaviour is maladaptive and, manifest in four forms i.e., mild, moderate, severe and profound mental retardation., , 26, , Psychology—XII
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The extreme right also lie to 2.2 percent population which are known as gifted i.e.,, they enjoy exceptional intelligence, exceptional talent and exceptional creativity., Classification of People on the Basis of IQ, IQ Range, Above 130, , Descriptive Label, , Percent in the Population, , Very superior, , 2.2, , 120–130, , Superior, , 6.7, , 110–119, , High average, , 16.1, , 90–109, , Average, , 50.0, , 80–89, , Low average, , 16.1, , 70–79, , Borderline, , 6.7, , Mentally challenged/retarded, , 2.2, , Below 70, , Q10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and, Why?, Ans. (i) IQ is a good predictor of potential., (ii) EQ is a good predictor of success., – Researchers had proved that—EQ helps in dealing with students who are, stressed and face challenges of the outside world., – It improves the academic performance., – It is very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the, classroom., – They are less anti-social and more co-operative., Q11. How is ‘aptitude‘ different from ‘interest‘ and intelligence?, Ans. Aptitude:, (i) Aptitude refers to combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s, potential to acquire some specific skills with training., (ii) It is specific mental ability or teach ability of an individual to learn a particular, skill., (iii) It is the potentiality to perform a particular activity., (iv) Aptitude is a determiner to learn a particular skill., , Interest:, (i) Interest refers to preference for a particular activity or what one enjoys doing., (ii) Interest are acquired/learnt., (iii) Interest is a facilitator., An individual with high scientific aptitude having strong interest in mechanical activities, is more likely to be successful mechanical engineer., (i) Intelligence is a global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally,, act purposefully and to deal effectively with her/his environment., (ii) Intelligence is a general mental ability., (iii) It is product of heredity and environment., (iv) It does not require training for the growth., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 27
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Q12. How is creativity related to intelligence?, , (Delhi Board 2010), , Or, How creativity and creativity tests are related but different from each other?, Ans. Creativity and intelligence are positively correlated because high ability is component of, creativity. A highly intelligent person may not be creative but all the creative persons, are definitely high in intelligence., (i) Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are, novel, appropriate and useful., (ii) Intelligence is subset of creativity., (iii) Terman found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. The, same time, creative ideas could come from persons who did not even one of those, identified as gifted, followed up through out their adult life, had become well known, for creativity in some field., (iv) Researchers have found that both high and low level of creativity can be found, in highly intelligent children and also children of average intelligence. The same, person can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent, once must be creative., Creative tests are different from intelligence tests:, (i) Creative tests measure creative thinking ability whereas intelligence tests, measure general mental ability., (ii) Creative tests measure convergent and divergent thinking whereas, intelligence test measure convergent thinking only., (iii) Creative tests measure imagination and spontaneous expression to produce, new ideas, to see new relationship, to guess causes and consequences and ability to, put things in a new context. Intelligence tests measure potential., (iv) In creative tests questions are open-ended that have no specified answers whereas, intelligence tests mostly use close-ended questions., , MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. Who among the following defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the, individual to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment?, (a) Spearman, (b) Binet, (c) David Wechsler, (d) Galton, Q2. Who among the following was the first person that devised systematic tests to measure, intelligence of children?, (a) Terman, (b) Binet, (c) Thorndike, (d) Wechsler, Q3. ________________ of Standford University revised Binet’s scale intended for school, children in the United States., (a) Wechsler, (b) Spearman, (c) Terman, (d) Thurstone, , 28, , Psychology—XII
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Q4. The ratio which states the relationship between the mental age and the chronological, age is called the—, (a) Development Quotient (DQ ), (b) Intelligence Quotient (IQ), (c) Performance Quotient (PQ), (d) None of the above, Q5. Spearman said that there was a generability employed by people while adjusting with, different sorts of intellectual tasks. This factor is called the—, (a) Specific factor (b) General factor, (c) Multi-factors, (d) None of the above, Q6. Who among the following had given the ‘Structure of Intellect Model’ of intelligence?, (a) Spearman, (b) Thurstone, (c) Guilford, (d) Thorndike, Q7. Tests designed to measure capacities, that is to predict what one can accomplish with, training, are called—, (a) Achievement tests, (b) Aptitude tests, (c) Intelligence tests, (d) Interest tests, Q8. Test scores ______________ when they are dependable, reproducible and consistent., (a) Unreliable, (b) Reliable, (c) Valid, (d) Invalid, Q9. ________, a cousin of Charles Darwin developed the first test designed to measure, intelligence., (a) Alfred Binet, (b) Francis Galton, (c) Lewis Terman, (d) None of the above, Q10. An I.Q. below _____________ is generally considered mental retardation., (a) 100, (b) 70, (c) 120, (d) 110, Q11. Louis Terman, who was responsible for the Stanford-Binet, adopted the __________ as, an index of mental development., (a) Mental Age (M A), (b) Intelligence Quotient (I Q), (c) Development Quotient (D Q), (d) Performance Quotient (P Q), Q12. ____________ retarded people have the I Q ranging from 25 to 39., (a) Mild, (b) Moderate, (c) Severe, (d) Profound, Q13. Who among the following psychologists made the first attempt to classify mental, retardation in terms of intelligence?, (a) Seguin, (b) Terman, (c) Binet, (d) Wechsler, Q14. Moderately retarded people have the I.Q. range of ___________ on the Wechsler Scales., (a) 25 to 39, (b) 40 to 54, (c) 55 to 69, (d) 20 to 25, Q15. Distinctiveness and variations among people’s characteristics and behavioural patterns, is called:, (a) Situationism, (b) Individual differences, (c) Assessment, (d) Variability, Q16. Who defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well and reason well?, (a) Binet, (b) Wechsler, (c) Sternberg, (d) Gardner, Q17. Intelligence is the ability to shaping and adaptation. This notion was proposed by—, (a) Binet and Simon(b) Wechsler, (c) Sternberg, (d) Gardner, Q18. The theory that assumes intelligence as one similar set of abilities is called—, (a) Uni factor, (b) Two factor, (c) Hierarchical, (d) Structure of model, , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 29
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Q19. Two factor theory was proposed by—, (a) Arthur Jensen (b) Guildford, , (c) Spearman, , (d) Binet, , Q20. Arthur Jensen model of intelligence consists of abilities operating at two levels. They, are—, (a) Spatial and perceptual speed, (b) Associative learning and cognitive component, (c) ‘G’ factor and ‘S’ factor, (d) Visual and semantic, Q21. Guildford’s model of intellect include _______________ cells., (a) 120, (b) 130, (c) 180, Q22. Who devised the concept of IQ?, (a) Binet and Simon, (c) Wechsler, , (b) William Stern, (d) Spearman, , Q23. An IQ between the range of 90-100 is—, (a) Average, (b) Below average, , (c) Borderline, , (d) 100, , (d) Mentally retarded, , Q24. Giftedness according to Teacher’s point of view is the combination of high ability, high, creativity and—, (a) high judgement, (b) high thinking, (c) high commitment, (d) high motivation, Q25. Who pioneered the construction of intelligence test in Hindi?, (a) C.B. Rice, (b) S.M. Mohsin, (c) Mahalanobis, , (d) Uday Pareek, , Q26. Preference for a particular activity is called: (What one enjoys doing), (a) Aptitude, (b) Interest, (c) Intelligence, (d) Attitude, Q27. PASS model of intelligence emphasizes functioning of 3 functional units of brain namely, arousal, planning and ____________________:, (a) successive and simultaneous and processing, (b) semantic and spatial, (c) conceptual and comprehensive, (d) speed and symbolic, Q28. Cognitive assessment system (CAS) can be administered to children between the ages–, (a) 5-18, (b) 7-14, (c) 6-12, (d) 8-16, Q29. IQ is calculated as–, , MA, , CA, , 100, , MA, , (a) CA × 100, (b) MA × 100, (c) CA × 100, (d) 100 × CA, Q30. Terms referring to remarkable ability in a specific field is called:, (a) Giftedness, (b) Intellectually superior, (c) Talent, (d) Intelligent, , Answer, 1. (c), 11. (b), 21. (c), , 30, , 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (b), 6. (c), 7. (b), 8. (b) 9. (b), 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (c), 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (a) 29. (a), , Psychology—XII, , 10. (b), 20. (b), 30. (c)
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II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. What do you mean by individual differences?, Ans. (i) Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s, characteristics., (ii) Different traits can exist in varying degrees in an individual., (iii) Each one of us is unique as we possess a novel or typical combination of various, traits., Q2. How individual differences are useful for the society?, Ans. (i) Individual differences make the world beautiful, purposeful and goal directed., (ii) Different people have different needs and to satisfy the different needs, different, types of skills are required. That is why variability is a fact of nature which, helps in adaptation., Q3. Why does the behaviour of an individual vary from situation to situation?, Ans. The behaviour of an individual varies from situation to situation because although our, behaviours are influenced by our personal traits but it is also influenced by situational, factors., Situations and circumstances in which one is placed influences person’s behaviour., Q4. What is situationist perspective of human behaviour?, Ans. The situationist perspective views human behaviour as resulting from interaction of, external and internal factors. It is product of traits and environmental factors., This approach believes that external factors play more important role to determine, individual differences., Q5. What do you mean by psychological assessment?, Ans. Psychological Assessment uses systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities,, behaviours and personal qualities of individuals. Our assessment may be formal or, informal., , Formal assessment is objective, standardized and organized. Informal assessment, varies from case to case and from one assessment to another and therefore is open to, subjective interpretations., Q6. What is intelligence?, Ans. (i) According to Wechsler, intelligence is a global capacity to think rationally, deal, effectively and act purposefully., (ii) According to Binet, intelligence is an ability to reason well, to judge well and to, understand well., Q7. What is an intelligence test?, Ans. Intelligence tests are standardized tools which provide a global measure of a person’s, general cognitive competence including the ability to profit from schooling., Q8. What is aptitude?, Ans. Aptitude is a combination of characteristics indicative of an individuals potential to, acquire some specific skills with training. For example, possession of certain qualities, in different proportion to become a dancer or a computer programmer. It is individual, teachability., Q9. What are aptitude tests?, Ans. (i) Aptitude tests are meant to measure an individual’s potential which in turn helps, to predict future performance., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 31
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(ii) Aptitude tests are available in two forms: Independent (specialized) aptitude, tests. For example, typing aptitude test or mechanical aptitude test and Multiple, (generalized) aptitude tests, for example- Differential Aptitude Test., Q10. What is interest?, Ans. Interest refers to what one enjoys doing. It is an individual’s preference for engaging in, one or more specific activities relative to others. e.g., Interest Inventory developed by, NCERT, Comprehensive Interest Schedule (CIS)., Q11. What is personality?, Ans. According to Allport, personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those, psychophysical systems which determine his/her characteristic pattern of behaviour and, thought., Q12. What do you mean by values?, Ans. Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour. It deals with do’s and, dont’s. It is an important attribute of human personality which has a strong evaluative, and ‘ought to be’ aspect., Q13. What is a psychological test?, (CBSE 2007), Ans. Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure of an individual’s, mental and behavioural characteristics., Q14. What is an interview?, Ans. Interview is verbal interaction between respondent and a researcher to gather, information about the respondent., (i) It is a purposeful conversation in face-to-face situation., (ii) Interview may be structured or may be unstructured., Q15. What is observation?, Ans. (i) Careful perception is observation., (ii) It involves systematic, organized and objective procedures to record behavioural, phenomenon occurring naturally in real life situation., Q16. What is self report?, Ans. Self report is a method in which a person provides factual information about himself/, herself and opinions, beliefs etc. she/he holds., Q17. What is CAS?, Ans. J.P. Das and Naglieri have developed a battery of tests, known as Cognitive Assessment, System (CAS)., (i) It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive, functions., (ii) These are independent of schooling., (iii) The battery of test is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age., (iv) It measures intelligence of normal as well as of retarded children., Q18. Differentiate between talent and giftedness., Ans. Talent is a narrow term. It refers to remarkable ability in a specific field., (i) The highly talented are called ‘prodigies’. Giftedness is an exceptional general, ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas., , 32, , Psychology—XII
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Q19. What is Buddhi?, Ans. (i) Buddhi according to J.P. Das is the knowledge of one’s self., (ii) It is based on conscience, will and desire., (iii) The Notion of Buddhi contains combination of cognitive, affective and motivational, aspects of personality., Q20. How Sternberg’s Concept of Intelligence is different from other concepts?, Ans. According to Sternberg, intelligence is not only adaptation, directional ability,, comprehension and self-evaluation, it also improves activity like shaping and selecting, the environment., , Sternberg emphasised that intelligence does not simply mean possessing certain abilities, but also the use of these abilities in real life situations., Q21. What is Contextual Intelligence?, (CBSE 2007), Ans. (i) Contextual intelligence is a concept of Triarchic theory given by Sternberg., (ii) Contextual intelligence refers to ‘Street Smartness’ or ‘Situationally Smart’., (iii) It is the effective management of the business of everyday life., (iv) People high on contextual intelligence remain practical and down to earth in life., Q22. What is ‘Planning’ in Intelligence according to J.P. Das?, Ans. (i) Planning is concept of PASS model., (ii) Planning refers to the generation of plans or problems. It involves goal setting,, strategy selection and performance monitoring., (iii) It allows the individual to think of possible course of actions, implement them,, evaluate their effectiveness and, if the plan does not work, modify it., Q23. What is mental age?, Ans. (i) The concept of Mental age (MA) was given by Alfred Binet., (ii) It refers to a measure of intellectual functioning expressed in terms of age., Q24. Mention main characteristics of a bell-shaped curve., Ans. (i) Bell-shaped curve involves symmetrical distribution i.e., the left half of the curve is, a mirror image of the right half., (ii) It is a Uni Modal distribution., (iii) The values of mean, median and mode all coincide., (iv) The curve never touches the X-axis. It is asymptotic., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. “No two individuals are alike.” Explain., Ans. (i) Human beings distinctly differ in size, shape, appearance, reaction time and, innumerable other aspects of our personality and behaviour., (ii) Individual differences stand for the variations and distinctiveness among, individuals., (iii) Individual differences stand for those differences which, in their totality, distinguish, one individual from another., Q2. What is case study?, (Delhi Board 2013), Ans. (i) Case study refers to a systematic reconstruction of the past. It is an in-depth study, of the individual in terms of his/her psychological attributes, psychological history, in the content of his/her psychological and physical environment., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 33
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(ii) Case studies are widely used in clinical settings to deal with problems related to, maladjustment., (iii) Case studies use interview, observation, questionnaire and psychological tests., Q3. Differentiate between interpersonal and intra-personal intelligence., Ans. Inter-personal Intelligence:, (i) Sensitive to understand others, behaviour., (ii) It is understanding the motives, feelings and the behaviour of others., (iii) Example: Psychologists, politicians, social workers., , Intra-personal Intelligence:, (i) Awareness of one’s own feeling, motives and desires., ( ) This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations., (iii) Example: Philosophers, spiritual leaders., Psychologists, counsellors and religious leaders have dominance of both inter-personal, as well as intra-personal types of intelligence., Q4. Explain two-factor theory of intelligence., Ans. (i) Charles Spearman (1972) proposed the ‘Two Factor Theory’ of intelligence., (ii) According to him, intelligence consists of General (’G’) and Specific (‘S’) factors., (iii) This theory maintained that all intellectual activities share a single common factor,, called ‘G’ factor characterised as mental energy., (iv) ‘G’ is considered responsible for relationships between different human activities., Positive correlations between any two factors were attributed to ‘G’ factor., (v) In addition to general factor, this theory also postulates a number of specific (‘S’), factors each being strictly specific to a single activity and helps to excel in that, particular area., Q5. What is structure of intellect model?, Ans. (i) On the basis of more than two decades of factor analytical research, J.P. Guilford, proposed a three-dimensions box-like model, which is known as Structure-ofIntellect Model., (ii) This theory organizes intellectual traits along three dimensions: Operations—, what the respondent does, Contents—the nature of the material or information on, which operations are performed, and Products—the form in which information is, processed by the respondents., (iii) Guilford’s classification include 6 × 5 × 6 categories, resulting into 180 cells in the, model., Q6. What is integral intelligence?, Ans. (i) The term integral intelligence refers to the Indian notion of intelligence contrary, to Western view of intelligence which is limited to cognitive domain only., (ii) Indian view is more inclusive and view of intelligence in a wider perspective., (iii) It considers the social and emotional domain as well as task performance and, emphasising on the connectivity between the social and work environment., Q7. Discuss the feeling aspect of intelligence., , Or, What is emotional intelligence?, , 34, , Psychology—XII, , (CBSE 2013)
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Ans., , (i) According to Salovey and Mayer, emotional intelligence is the ability to, comprehend one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them and to, use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions., (ii) It is a cluster of abilities relating to the emotional side of life., (iii) Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional information, accurately and effectively., (iv) It is good predictor of success in life., (v) Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own emotion and other’s, emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s, thinking and actions., (vi) EQ emotional Quotient in the measure of emotional intelligence., , Q8. Mention some characteristics of emotionally intelligent person., (CBSE 2013), Ans. (i) Emotionally intelligent person can perceive others emotions accurately and sensitive, to one’s own feelings and emotions., (ii) They are sensitive towards ones own emotions and thoughts while solving problems., (iii) Emotionally intelligent persons are sensitive towards others emotions through their, body language and para language., (iv) They are able to control and regulate ones emotions and their expression to achieve, harmony and peace., Q9. Define giftedness. What are the characteristics of gifted children?, , (CBSE 2008), , Or, , How gifted children can be identified?, Ans. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety, of areas. It is combination of high ability, high creativity and high commitment., Following are important characteristics of gifted children:, (i) Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem solving behaviour., (ii) High speed in processing information., (iii) Superior generalisation and discrimination ability., (iv) Advanced level of original and creative thinking., (v) High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem., (vi) Independent and non-conformist thinking., (vii) Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. What are the methods used for Psychological assessment?, , (CBSE 2011 outside Delhi, CBSE 2014), Ans. Several methods are used for psychological assessment. Some of them are:, (i) Psychological Tests: There are objective and standardized measure of an, individual’s mental and/or behavioural characteristics., 1. These objective tests have been developed to measure all the dimensions of, psychological attributes. e.g., intelligence, aptitude etc., 2. Psychological tests are widely used for clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel, selection, etc., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 35
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(ii), , (iii), , (iv), , (v), , 3. Projective tests have also been developed for assessment of personality., Interview: Interview is purposeful conversation seeking information from a person, on a one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many or many-to-one basis., 1. It may be structured or unstructured., Case-Study:, 1. Case studies are an in-depth study of the individual in terms of is/her, psychological attributes, and physical environment., 2. These are based on data generated by different methods, e.g., interview,, observation, questionnaire, psychological tests, etc., 3. Case study is reconstruction of the past., Observation: Observation involves implying systematic, organized and objective, procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time., 1. The major problems with observational methods are that the observer has, little control over the situation and the reports may suffer from subjective, interpretations of the observer., 2. It is very time consuming and requires profession expertise., Self-report: Self-report is a method in which a person provides factual information, about himself/herself and/or opinion, beliefs etc. that he/she holds. This information, can be obtained by an interview schedule, questionnaire, a psychological test etc., , Q2. How psychometric approach of intelligence is different from information processing, approach?, (CBSE 2011), Ans. (i) The psychometric approach of intelligence is also known as the structural, approach., (ii) It considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It explains an individual’s, performance in term of a single index of cognitive abilities., (iii) It focuses on the structure of intelligence, i.e., what is intelligence. e.g., the unifactor, theory, the two factor theory, the theory of primary mental abilities, etc., (iv) Information processing approach describes the processes people use in, intellectual reasoning and problem solving., (v) The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. It emphasizes, on studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour., (vi) e.g., theory of multiple intelligences, PASS model and triarchic theory of intelligence., Q3. Elaborate the status of intelligence testing in India., Ans. The development of intelligence tests in India has for long remained one of the fascinating, and popular academic pursuits., (i) The first systematic attempt to standardize a test of intelligence was Binet’s, intelligence test which was adopted by Dr. Rice in Urdu and Punjabi in 1930’s., (ii) Mahalanobis also attempted to standardize Binet’s test of intelligence in Bengali., Attempts were also made to develop Indian norms for some other foreign tests like, WAIS, RPM and Kohs’ Block Design test and others., (iii) The first doctorate on test construction was awarded to K.G. Desai in1954 for the, development of a group test of intelligence in Gujarati., (iv) Dr. S.M. Mohsin developed first group test of intelligence in Hindi., (v) Some tests developed in India include Group test of intelligence by Prayag Mehta,, Draw a man test by Promila Pathak, CIE Non-verbal test etc., , 36, , Psychology—XII
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Q4. Discuss uses and abuses of intelligence test., Ans. Intelligence tests serve many useful purposes if used by trained professionals., , Uses of Intelligence Test: Intelligence test assists in selection, counselling, guidance,, self analysis and diagnosis., Abuses of Intelligence Test: Intelligence test causes ill effects/misuses/abuses if used, by naive testers., (i) Poor performance on a test is stigma to children which affects adversely to the, performance., (ii) Test results may lead to discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders., (iii) Most of the intelligence tests favour middle class and higher class population, because of culture bias., (iv) Most of intelligence tests ignore creativity and practical aspects of life., Q5. What is mental retardation?, (CBSE 2008), Ans. The term mental retardation refers to intellectual functioning that is considerably, below average combined with varying degrees of difficulty in meeting the demands of, everyday life. In shorts it is a deficit in potential., The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views mental retardation, as “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with, deficits in adaptive and manifested during the developmental period.”, People are appropriately regarded as mentally retarded if—, • they attain IQ’s below 70 on an appropriate intelligence test., • it is deficit in potential., • their adaptive skills are inadequate to cope with the ordinary daily tasks. On the, basis of low IQ alone, over two percent of our population can be regarded as retarded., • the deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e., between zero, and eighteen years of age., Two points are worth nothing—first, low performance on a test may also be due to, defects in vision, hearing and health which may lead to categorizing a person as mentally, challenged. So these conditions should be kept in mind. Second the person’s linguistic, and cultural backgrounds must also be taken into consideration., , Categories of mental retardation, Category Characteristics, , IQ Scores, , Behavioural, , Mild Retardation, , 55-69, , Development typically slower than peers but, can function independently, can hold jobs, and may lead families life., , Moderate Retardation, , 40-54, , Slower than peers in language and motor, abilities, they can be trained in self-help, skills, social and communication skills,, require moderate level of supervision in, daily tasks., , Severe Retardation, , 25-39, , Incapable of managing life and its basic, needs, , Profound Retardation, , Below 25, , Need constant care for their entire lives., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 37
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Q6. Differentiate between intelligence and aptitude., Ans. 1. Intelligence: Intelligence refers to the general ability of a person to do certain, things at a given time., (i) It is a product of heredity and environment and does not require training for, the growth., 2. Aptitude:, (i) It is the potential ability of an individual to acquire specific skills., (ii) It requires training also to capitalize the ability., (iii) It is teachability in the individual., Q7. What are the uses of aptitude tests?, Ans. Aptitude refers to special capacity or capacities. Tests designed to measure capacities,, i.e., to predict what one can accomplish with training are called aptitude tests. They, serve some useful purposes:, 1. Aptitude tests measure mere specific abilities: Mechanical aptitude tests, measure various types of eye-hand co-ordination., 2. Selection: Aptitude tests are used for employee selection. They test specific abilities, required for a particular job., 3. Career guidance: Aptitude tests also provide career guidance to the student., Aptitude tests help them to select a proper career by discovering the abilities they, possess., 4. Prediction: Aptitude tests are used to predict success in various specific professions., Q8. Differentiate between Simultaneous Processing and Successive Processing?, , (CBSE 2013, 2014), Ans. (i) The concepts are introduced by J.P. Das, Kirbi and Nagliery in their PASS model of, intelligence., (ii) Simultaneous Processing takes place when one perceives relations amongst, various concepts and integrate them into meaningful patterns for, comprehension., (iii) For e.g., Raven’s progressive matrices (RPM Test)—a design is presented from, which a part has been removed. Subject has to choose one of the six options that, appropriately complete the design., (iv) Simultaneous processing helps in grasping the meaning and the relationship, between the given variables., (v) Successive Processing takes place when one is able to arrange all the, information serially., (vi) Each step in the series helps to understand the next step, i.e., one recall leads, to another recall—e.g., learning of digits and letters and multiplication tables., Q9. Differentiate between technological and integral intelligence., (Delhi BoardCBSE 2012), Ans. (i) Technological Intelligence: It is Western view of intelligence which includes, following skills:, — Generalization, — Abstraction, — Speed, — Minimal moves, — Creativity, — Mental manipulation. The concept of technological intelligence is based, on urbanization, schooling, technological advancement and child rearing, practising., , 38, , Psychology—XII
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(ii) Integral Intelligence: It is identified as Indian view of intelligence. It includes, following competencies:, (iii) Cognitive capacity: Sensitivity to context, understanding discrimination, problem, solving, and effective communication, (iv) Social competence: Respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and, the needy, concern about others, recognizing others’ perspectives., (v) Emotional competence: Self-regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty,, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation., (vi) Entrepreneurial competence: Commitment, persistence, patience, hard work,, vigilance and goal-directed behaviours., Q10. What is creativity?, Ans. (i) Creativity refers to the ability to thinks in novel and unusual ways and to come up, with unique solutions to problems., (ii) Creativity is reality-oriented, appropriate, constructive and socially desirable., (iii) Individual’s vary in terms of the level and the areas in which they exhibit creativity., (iv) It may be related to simple occupations and may be higher levels i.e., related to the, artists, the scientists, the inventors etc., however they are not working at the same, level., (v) Creativity may be doing things differently. It is working on what has already been, done earlier by way of modifications, by putting things in new perspectives or to new, use., (vi) It is determined by both heredity and environment. Limits of the creative, potential are set by heredity. Environmental factors stimulate the development., e.g., Motivations, commitment, family support, peer influences, opportunities etc., , V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA: 6 Marks ), , Q1. Explain theories related to Psychometric Approach of Intelligence., Ans. The psychometric approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It, expresses an individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities., (i) Alfred Binet conceptualized intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities, which can be used for solving all problems in individual’s life. This theory of, intelligence is called uni or one-factor theory of intelligence., (ii) Charles Spearman introduced the two-factor theory of intelligence employing a, statistical method called factor analysis., — He said that intelligence consisted of a general (g-factor) and some specific, factors (s-factor)., — The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to all, performances., — In addition to the g-factor, he said that there is an s-factor which is not common, and help the individual to excel in a particular field., (iii) Theory of primary mental abilities was proposed by Louis Thurston., — It says that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities. Each ability is, relatively independent from others., These ability are: (i) Verbal comprehensions, (ii) Numerical Abilities,, (iii) Spatial Relations, (iv) Perceptual Speed, (v) Word fluency, (vi) Memory,, (vii) Inductive Reasoning., , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 39
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(iv) Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence, consisting of, abilities operating at two levels., , Level-I: associative learning in which output is more or less similar to the input., , Level-II: called cognitive competence, involves high order skills as they transform, the input to produce an effective output., (v) Structure-of-intellect-model: Proposed by J.P. Guilford., (vi) He classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations, contents, and products., (vii) Operations are what the respondent does. e.g., memorization of a poem., (viii) Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual, operations are performed. e.g., poem is familiar or unfamiliar, learner using a, particular sense modality, method use., (ix) Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent., e.g., understanding and application of the theme of poem. , Q2. What is creativity? How is it related to intelligence and how are creativity tests different, from intelligence tests?, Ans. Creativity is the ability to think in different ways, to find causes and consequences, to, connect ideas that otherwise may not seem like they can be connected., • Creativity is an ability to perform some activity with honesty/originality or, differently., Creativity correlates well with intelligence., Creativity requires a minimum level of intelligence. Beyond that level, intelligence is not, needed to ensure creativity., According to the research conducted by Terman in the 1920’s, which followed up, gifted people throughout their adult lives, none of them were known for creativity in, their fields. Other researchers have also conducted researches in their field and have, found that everybody has the potential to increase their level of creativity. It was also, found that both high and low levels of creativity was found in intelligent children. The, same was also found in children of average intelligence., It is not necessary that intelligent people in the conventional sense, have a high level of, creativity., Creativity Tests, , Intelligence Tests, , •, , Assess divergent thinking focussing on • Assess convergent thinking where focus on, imagination is spontaneity using open, one specified right answer., ended questions., , •, , Do not have any right or wrong answer., , •, , Try to measure your ability to think • Try to measure intelligence that, according, in various ways, to find causes and, to the oxford dictionary is perceiving,, consequences, to connect ideas that, learning, understanding and knowing., may otherwise seem like they cannot be, connected., , 40, , Psychology—XII, , • Have right or wrong answers
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•, , Some people have tried to develop, creativity tests in various fields for eg:, mathematical creativity., , •, , EGS. of psychologists that have developed • EGS. of psychologists who have developed, creativity tests:, intelligence tests: J.C. Raven, • GUILFORD, • PASSI, • Mehdi, , TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Information processing approach to intelligence is represented in the, (a) Multiple intelligence theory, (b) One-factor theory, (c) Triarchic theory, (d) Two-factor theory, 2. What is ‘emotional intelligence’?, 3. Using past experience creatively to solve novel problems is known as ______intelligence., 4. Individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills is known as ______., 5. Entrepreneurial Competence refers to:, (a) Respect for social order, (c) Discrimination, , (b) Self exposure, (d) Commitment, , 6. Howard Gardener's theory intelligence is known as:, (Delhi Board 2008), (a) Theory of PMA, (b) Theory of Multiple intelligences, (c) Triarchic theory, (d) Two factor theory, 7. Refers to an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills., , (Delhi Board 2009), , 8. Information processing approach to intelligence is representation in the:, (Delhi Board 2010), (a) Multiple intelligences, (c) One-factor theory, , (b) Triarchie theory, (d) Two factor theory, , 9. Ability to use past experiences creatively to solve now problems in known as., (a) Musical intelligence, (c) Experiential intelligence, , (Delhi Board 2010, Outside Delhi), (b) Interpersonal intelligence, (c) Contextual intelligence, , 10. Using post experiences creativity to solve new problems is known as _________, intelligence., (Delhi Board 2011), 11. Individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills is known as ____________., (Delhi Board 2012), 12. Entrepreneurial competence refers to __________., (a) Respect for social order, (b) Self exposure, (c) Discrimination, (c) Commitment, , (Delhi Board 2013), , 13. _____________ is a method in which a person provides factual information about herself, himself., (Delhi Board 2014), , Intelligence and Aptitude, , 41
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Part-B, 14., 15., 16., 17., 18., 19., 20., 21., 22., 23., , Define ‘individual differences’., What is ‘assessment’?, Differentiate between formal and informal assessment., Mention IQ ranges of mild, moderate and severe levels of mental retardation., What is meant by spatial intelligence?, Define intelligence as given by Sternberg., Describe successive processing., What is aptitude?, Explain why Interest assessment is important., What is componential intelligence?, , Part-C, 24., 25., 26., 27., , Differentiate between aptitude, interest and intelligence., How does Arthur Jensen explain the concept of intelligence?, How is Thurstone’s theory of intelligence different from Spearman’s theory of intelligence?, “We should guard against the erroneous practices associated with intelligence tests.”, Discuss., 28. What is mental retardation? State two causes of mental retardation., 29. Is intelligence normally distributed? Comment., , Part-D, 30., 31., 32., 33., 34., , What is creativity? How it is related to intelligence., (CBSE 2010), Explain the nature of technological intelligence., “Intelligence is a function of heredity and environment.” Discuss., How does Triarchic theory explain intelligence?, What is Emotional intelligence? Give two characteristics of emotionally intelligent, person., (Delhi Board 2013), 35. Define intelligence quotient. How are individual tests different from group tests?, 36. Explain giftedness. How can gifted children be identified? List the characteristics of, gifted children., , Part-E, 37. Explain componential intelligence., (Delhi Board 2013), 38. What are the different assessment methods that can be used for assessing psychological, attributes?, 39. How does conceptualization of intelligence differ from one culture to another?, 40. Differentiate between simultaneous and successive processing., (Delhi 2013-14), 41. “Intelligence is not a single entity rather has multiple dimensions.” Discuss., 42. Discuss the Triarchic theory of intelligence giving suitable examples., 43. What is the meaning of assessment? Describe the key features of any two methods used, in Psychological assessment., (Delhi Board 2014), 44. Discuss how interplay of nature and nurture influences intelligence. Distinguish between, culture for and culture-biased tests., (Delhi board 2010-14), 45. Discuss Gardener's theory of Multiple intelligence with suitable examples., (Delhi Board 2010), , , 42, , Psychology—XII, ,
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2, , Self and Personality, , FACTS THAT MATTER, • Self refers to the totality of an individuals conscious experiences, ideas thoughts and feelings, with regard to her self or him self., • The study of self and personality help us to understand ourselves as well as others., • The structure of self can be understood in terms of identity of the intended and the, devlopment of personal and social self., • Personal identity refers to those attributes of a person that make him/her different from, others., • Social identity refers to those aspects of a person that link him/her to a social or cultural, group or are derived from it., Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and, feelings with regard to himself or herself., Subject, , Object, , Who does something (actor)., , Which gets affected (consequence)., , Self actively engages in the process of knowing Self gets observed and comes to be, itself., known., , Kinds of Self, (i) Formed as a result of the interaction of the biological self with the physical and sociocultural environment., (ii) Biological self developed as a result of our biological needs., Personal Self, , Social/Familial/Relational Self, , Primarily concerned with oneself., , Emerges in relation with others., , Emphasis comes to be laid on those aspects, of life that relate only to the concern the, person, such as personal freedom, personal, responsibility, personal achievement, or, personal comforts., , Emphasises such aspects of life as cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice,, support or sharing. This self values family, and social relationship., , • Self-concept is the way perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies, and attributes. A person’s self-concept can be found out by asking the person about himself/, herself., • Self-esteem is the value judgment of a person about himself/herself., 1. Assessment present a variety of statements to a person, and ask him/her to indicate the, extent to which those statements are true for him or her., 2. By 6 to 7 years, children have formed self-esteem in four areas—academic, social and, physical/athletic competence, and physical appearance become more refined with, age., , 43
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3. Overall self-esteem: It is the capacity to view oneself in terms of stable disposition and, combine separate self-evaluations into a general psychological image of oneself., 4. Self-esteem has a strong relationship with our everyday behaviour. Children with low, self-esteem in all areas often display anxiety, depression, and increasing anti social, behaviour., 5. Warm and positive parenting helps in development of high self-esteem among children–, allows them to know they are accepted as competent and worthwhile., • Self-efficacy is the extent to which a person believes they themselves control their life, outcomes or the outcomes are controlled by luck or fate or other situational factors., 1. A person who believes that he/she has the ability or behaviour required by a particular, situation demonstrates high self-efficacy., 2. The notion of self-efficacy is based on Bandura’s social learning theory. He showed, that children and adults learned behaviour by observing and imitating others., 3. People’s expectations of achievement also determine the type of behaviour in which they, would engage, as also the amount of risk they would undertake., 4. Strong sense of self-efficacy allows people to select, influence, and even construct the, circumstances of their own life; also feel less fearful., 5. Society, parents and own positive experiences can help in the development of a strong, sense of self-efficacy by presenting positive models during the formative years of children., • Self-regulation refers to the ability to organize and monitor one’s own behaviour., 1. People who are able to change their behaviour according to the demands of the, environment are high on self-monitoring., 2. Self-control is learning to delay or refer the gratification of needs., 3. Will-power is the ability to respond to situational pressure with resistance and control, over ourselves., 4. Self-control plays a key role in the fulfilment of a long-term goal., 5. Indian culture tradition provides certain effective mechanisms (fasting in vrata or roza, and non-attachment with worldly things) for developing self-control., • Techniques of self-control:, 1. Observation of own behaviour: provides necessary information that may be used to, change, modify or strengthen certain aspects of self., 2. Self-instruction: instructs ourselves to do something and behave the way we want to., 3. Self-reinforcement: rewards behaviours that have pleasant outcomes., , CULTURE AND SELF:, Indian, , Western, , Shifting nature of boundary between self and Boundary is relatively fixed., other (individual self and social self)., Does not clear dichotomies., , Holds clear dichotomies between self and other,, man and nature, subjective and objective., , Collectivistic culture: Self is generally not Individualistic Culture: Self and the group, separated from one’s own group; rather both exist as two different entities with clearly, remain in a state of harmonious co-existence., defined boundaries; individual members of the, group maintain their individuality., , 44, , Psychology—XII
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CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY, • Personality refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that characterized an, individual’s behaviour across different situation over a period of time., 1. Derived from persona (Latin), the mask used by actors in Roman theatre for changing, their facial make-up., 2. Once we are able to characterize someone’s personality, we can predict how that person, will probably behave in a variety of circumstances., 3. An understanding of personality allows us to deal with people in realistic and acceptable, ways., , Features of Personality:, 1. Personality has both physical and psychological components., 2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is fairly unique in a given individual., 3. Its main features do not easily change with time., 4. It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal or external, situational demands; adaptive to situations., , APPROACHES TO STUDY PERSONALITY, Type Approach, , Trait Approach, , Examines certain broad patterns Focuses, on, the, specific, in the observed behavioural psychological attributes along, characteristics., which individuals tend to differ, inconsistent and stable ways., Each pattern refers to one type, in which individuals are placed, in terms of the similarity of their, characteristics with that pattern., , Interactional, Approach, S i t u a t i o n a l, characteristics, play, an, important, role, in, determining, our, behaviour., , Traits along which individuals External, reward, or, can be rated in terms of the threats available in a, degree of presence or absence of particular situation., the trait., , • TYPE APPROACHES, 1. Hippocrates (Greek Physician), (i) Proposed a typology of personality based on fluid or humour., (ii) Classified people into four types (i.e., sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and, choleric); characterised by specific behavioural features., 2. Charak Samhita (Treatise on Ayurveda), (i) Classifies people into the categories of vata, pitta and kapha on the basis of three, humoural elements called tridosha., (ii) Each refers to a type of temperament, called prakriti (basic nature) of a person., 3. Typology of personality based on the trigunas, i.e., sattva, rajas, and tamas., — Sattva guna—cleaniness, truthfulness, dutifulness, detachment, discipline., — Rajas guna—intensive activity, desire for sense gratification, dissatisfaction,, envy, materialism., — Tamas guna—anger, arrogance, depression, laziness, helplessness, All the three gunas are present in every person in different degrees—the dominance of, any guna leads to a particular type of behaviour., , Self and Personality, , 45
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4. Sheldon, Using body built and temperament as the main basis for classification:, (i) Endomorphic (fat, soft and round)—relaxed and sociable., (ii) Mesomorphic (strong musculature, rectangular, strong body build)—energetic, and courageous., (iii) Ectomorphic (thin, long, fragile)—brainy, artistic and introverted., — Limited use in predicting behaviour—simple and similar to stereotypes., 5. Jung, Grouped people into two types, widely recognized., (i) Introverts: People who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw, themselves in the face of emotional conflicts, and are shy., (ii) Extraverts: Sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow dealing directly, with people, and react to stress by trying to lose themselves among people and, social activity., 6. Friedman and Roesenman, Tried to identify psycho-social risk factors and discovered types., (i) Type-A (susceptible to hypertension and coronary heart disease): Highly, motivated, impatience, feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being, always burdened with work. Such people find it difficult to slow down and relax., (ii) Type-B The absence of Type–A traits., , Moris continued this research and identified:, (iii) Type-C (prone to cancer): Co-operative, unassertive patient, suppress negative, emotion, show compliance to authority., (iv) Type-D (prone to depression)., Personality typologies are usually too simplistic as human behaviour is highly complex, and variable. Assigning people to a particular personality type is difficult. People do not, fit into such simple categorization schemes so neatly., , TRAIT APPROACHES, A trait is considered as a relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual, differ another. They are:, Relatively Stable over Time, — Generally consistent across situations., — Their strengths and combination vary across individuals leading to individual, differences in personality., 1. Allport’s Trait Theory (Gordon Allport), (i) Individuals possess a number of traits—dynamic in nature and determine, behaviour., (ii) Analysed words people use to describe themselves—provided a basic for, understanding human personality—and categorized them into—, — Cardinal Traits: highly generalized disposition, indicates the goal around, which a person’s entire life revolves. e.g., Hitler’s Nazism., — Central Traits: less pervasive in effect, but still quite generalized disposition., e.g., sincere., — Secondary traits: least generalized characteristics of a person. e.g., likes, mangoes., , 46, , Psychology—XII
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(iii) The way an individual reacts to a situation depends on his/her traits., (iv) People sharing the same traits might express them in different ways., 2. Personality Factors (Raymond Cattell), (i) Identified primary traits from descriptive adjectives found in language., (ii) Applied factor analysis, a statistical technique to discover the common structure, on which people differ from each other., — Source or Primary Traits (16): stable, building blocks of personality—, described in terms of opposing tendencies., — Surface Traits: result out of the interaction of source traits., (iii) Developed Sixteen Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire for the assessment of, personality., 3. Eysenck’s Theory (H.J. Eysenck), (i) Reduced personality into two broad dimensions which are biologically and, genetically based and subsume a number of specific traits., — Neuroticism (anxious, moody, touchy, restless) vs. Emotional stability (calm,, even tempered, reliable)—the degree to which people have control over their, feelings., — Extraversion (active, gregarious, impulsive, thrill seeking) vs. Introversion, (passive, quiet, caution, reserved)—the degree to which people are socially, outgoing or socially withdrawn., (ii) Later proposed a third dimension, Psychoticism (hostile, egocentric, and antisocial), vs. Sociability, considered to interact with the other two dimensions., (iii) Developed Eysenck Personality Questionnaires to study these dimensions of, personality., Five-Factor Model of Personality (Paul Costa and Robert McCrae), Personality Trait, , High, , Low, , Openness to Experience, , Imaginative, curious, open to new ideas, interested Rigid., in cultural pursuits., , Extraversion, , Socially active, assertive, outgoing, talkative, fun- Shy., loving., , Agreeableness, , Helpful, co-operative, friendly, caring, nurturing., , Neuroticism, , Emotionally unstable, anxious, worried, fearful, Well adjusted., distressed, irritable, hypertensive., , Conscientiousness, , Achievement-oriented, dependable, responsible, Impulsive., prudent, hardworking, self-controlled., , Hostile, Selfcentered, , (iv) Useful in understanding the personality profile of people across cultures, (v) Consistent with the analysis of personality traits found in different languages and, methods, , Self and Personality, , 47
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• Psycho-dynamic Approach (Sigmund Freud), A Levels of Conciousness, 1. Conscious—thoughts, feelings and action of which people are aware., 2. Preconscious—mental activity which people may become aware only if they attend to, it closely., 3. Unconscious—mental activity that people are aware of., (i) A reservoir of instinctive or animal drives—stores all ideas and wishes that arise, from sexual desires., (ii) Cannot be expressed openly and therefore are repressed or concealed from conscious, awareness., (iii) Constant struggle to find a socially acceptable way to express unconscious, awareness., (iv) Unsuccessful resolution of conflicts results in abnormal behaviour, , Means to Approach the Unconscious, 1. Free Association—a method in which a person is asked to openly share all the thoughts,, feelings and ideas that come to his/her mind., 2. Dream Analysis., 3. Analysis of Errors—mispronunciations, forgetting., Psycho-analysis is a therapeutic procedure, the basic goal which is to bring repressed, unconscious material to consciousness, thereby helping people to live in a more self-aware, and integrated manner., B Structure of Personality, 1. Freud gave an imaginary division of mind it believed in internal dynamics which can be, inferred from the ways people behave., 2. Three competing forces—i.e. id, ego and superego influence behaviour relative strength, of each structure determines a person’s stability., • Id:, 1. Source of a person’s instinctual energy—deals with immediate gratification of primitive, needs, sexual desires and aggressive impulses., 2. Works on the pleasure principle, which assumes that people seek pleasure and try to, avoid pain., 3. Demanding, unrealistic and does not care for moral values, society, or other individuals., 4. Energised by instinctual forces, life (sexual) instinct (libido) and death instinct., • Ego:, 1. Seeks to satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in accordance with reality., 2. Works on the reality principle, and directs the id towards more appropriate ways of, behaving., 3. Patient and reasonable., • Superego:, 1. Moral branch of mental functioning., 2. Tells the id and ego whether gratification in a particular instance is ethical, 3. Controls the id by internalizing the parental authority the process of socialization., According to Freud personality is Biological determined. It is instinctive. Life instinct, and death instinct determine behaviour., • Life instinct is dominant in human behaviour., , 48, , Psychology—XII
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C Ego Defence Mechanisms, 1. A defence mechanism is a way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality unconsciously., 2. It defends the ego against the awareness of the instinctual reality., 3. It is normal and adaptive; people who use mechanism are often unaware of doing so., (i) Repression: Anxiety provoking behaviours or thoughts are totally dismissed by, the unconscious., (ii) Projection: People attributes their own traits to others., (iii) Denial: A person totally refuses to accept reality., (iv) Reaction Formation: A person defends against anxiety by adopting behaviours, opposite to his/her true feelings., (v) Rationalisation: A person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour seem, reasonable and acceptable., D Stages of Personality/Psycho-sexual Development (Five Stage Theory of Personality), 1. The core aspects of personality are established early, remain stable throughout life, and, can be changed only with great difficulty., 2. Problems encountered at any stage may arrest development, and have long-term effect, on a person’s life., Stage, , Age, , Pleasure-seeking, Centre, , Development, , Oral, , Infancy, , Mouth (feeding,, thumb sucking), , Basic feeling about the world are established., , Anal, , 2-3 years, , Anus, (experience, pleasure in moving, their bowels), , (i) Learns to respond to demands of society., Basis for conflict between the id (desire for, (ii) babyish pleasure) and the ego (demand for, adult, controlled behaviour)., , Phallic, , 4-5 years, , Phallus, , (i) Begin to realize the differences between, males and females., (ii) Become aware of sexuality and the sexual, relationship between their parents., , Latency, , 7-Puberty, , Genital, , Puberty, , (i) Grows physically, but sexual urges are, relatively inactive., (ii) Energy is channelled into social or, achievement related activities., Genitals, , (i) Attains, maturity, in, psycho-sexual, development., (ii) Sexuality, fear and repressed feeling of, earlier stages are once again exhibited., Learn to deal with members of the opposite, (iii) sex in a socially and sexually mature way., , Self and Personality, , 49
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Oedipus Complex (Male), , Electra Complex (Female), , Love for mother, hostility towards the father, and Attaches her love to the father and tries to, fear of punishment or castration by the father., symbolically marry him and raise a family., Accepts his father’s relationship with his mother Identifies with her mother and copies her, and models his own behaviour after his father., behaviour as a means of getting (or sharing, in) her father’s affection., , , Resolution of Complex, 1. Identification with same sex parent., 2. Giving up sexual feeling for sex parent., Failure of a child to pass successfully through a stage leads to fixation to that stage. The, child’s development gets arrested at an earlier stage., Regression occurs when a person’s resolution of problems at any stage of development is, less than adequate. People display behaviours typing of a less mature stage of development., • Post-Freudian Approach, , Neo-analytic or Post-Freudian View, (i) Less prominent role to sexual and aggressive tendencies of the Id., (ii) Expansion of the concept ego., (iii) Emphasis on human qualities of creativity, competence, and problem solving., 1. Carl Jung: Aims and Aspirations are the source of energy, (i) Saw human being as guided by aims and aspirations., (ii) Analytical Psychology; personality consists of competing forces and structures, within the individual (that must be balanced) rather than between the individual, and the demand of society, or between the individual and reality., (iii) Collective unconscious consisting of archetypes or primordial images; not, individually acquired, but are inherited—found in myths, dreams and arts of all, mankind., (iv) The self-strive for unity and oneness; for achieving which, a person must become, increasingly aware of the wisdom available in one’s personal and collective, unconscious, and must learn to live harmony with it., 2. Karen Horney: Optimism, (i) Optimistic view of human life with emphasis on human growth and self actualisation, (ii) Challenge to Freud’s treatment of women as inferior—each sex has attributes to, be admire by the other, and neither sex can be viewed as superior or inferior;, countered that women were more likely to be affected by social and cultural factors, than by biological factors., (iii) Psychological disorders were caused by disturbed interpersonal relationship during, childhood., (iv) When parents’ behaviour toward a child is indifferent, discouraging and erratic, the, child feels insecure and a feeling called basic anxiety results—deep resentment, toward parents or basic hostility occur due to this anxiety., 3. Alfred Adler: Lifestyle and Social Interest source of energy–attainment of, personal goals., (i) Individual Psychology: human behaviour is purposeful and goal directed., (ii) Each one of us has the capacity to choose and create., , 50, , Psychology—XII
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(iii) Personal goals, goals that provide us with security and help us in overcoming the, feelings of inadequacy, are the sources of our motivation., (iv) Every individual suffers from the feeling of inadequacy and guilt, i.e., inferiority, complex, which arise from childhood., 4. Erich Fromm: The Human Concerns, (i) Social orientation viewed human beings as social beings who could be understood, in terms of their relationship with others., (ii) Character traits (personality) develop from our experiences with their individuals., (iii) Psychological qualities such as growth from our experiences of potentials resulted, from a desire for freedom. And striving for justice and truth., (iv) People’s dominant character traits in a given work as forces in shaping the social, processes and the culture itself, 5. Erik Erikson: Search for Identity, (i) Rational, conscious ego processes in personality development., (ii) Development is viewed as a lifelong process, and ego identity is granted a central, place in this process., (iii) Identity crisis at the adolescent age—young people must generate for themselves a, central perspective and a direction that can give them a meaningful sense of unity, and purpose., • Criticism to Psychodynamic Theories, 1. The theories are largely based on case studies; they lack a rigorous scientific basis., 2. They use small and a typical individual as samples for advancing generalisations., 3. The concepts are not properly defined, and it is difficult to submit them to scientific, testing., 4. Freud has used males as the prototype of all human personality development and, overlooked female experiences and perspectives., • Behavioural Approach, 1. Focus on learning of stimulus—response connection and their reinforcement., 2. Personality is the response of an individual as sample for advancing generalization., 3. The concepts are not properly defined, and it is difficult to submit them to scientific, testing., 4. Freud has used males as the prototype of all human personality development and, overlooked females experiences and perspective., • Cultural Approach, 1. Considers personality as an adaptation of individuals or group to the demand of their, ecology and culture., 2. A group’s economic maintenance system plays a vital role in the origin of cultural and, behavioural variations., 3. The climatic conditions, the nature of terrain of the habitat and the availability of food, determine people’s settlement patterns, social structures, division of labour, and other, features such as child-rearing practices. Economic maintanence system., 4. These elements constitute a child’s overall learning environment—skills, abilities,, behavioural styles, and value priorities are viewed as strongly linked to these features., , Self and Personality, , 51
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• Humanistic Approach, , Carl Rogers, 1. Fully functioning individual—fulfilment is the motivating force for personality, development (people try to express their capabilities, potentials and talents to the fullest, extent possible)., 2. Assumptions about human behaviour:, (i) It is goal-oriented and worthwhile., (ii) People (who are innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualising, behaviour., 3. People are constantly engaged in the process of actualising their true self., 4. Ideal self is the self that a person would like to be—correspondence between ideal and, real self = happiness, discrepancy = dissatisfaction., 5. People have tendency to maximize self-concept through self-actualisation., 6. Personality development is a continuous process., 7. Role of social influences in the development of self-concept—positive social conditions, lead to a high self-concept and self-esteem, generally flexible and open to new experiences., 8. An atmosphere of unconditional positive regard must be created in order to ensure, enhancement of people’s self-concept., 9. Client-centered therapy that Rogers developed basically attempts to create this, condition., • Abraham Maslow, 1. Attainment of self-actualisation, a state in which people have reached their own fullest, potential., 2. Optimistic and positive view of man who has the potentialities for love, joy and to do, creative work., 3. Human beings are considered free to shape their lives and to self-actualisation., 4. Self-actualisation becomes possible by analysing the motivations that govern our life., • Characteristics of Healthy Person, 1. Healthy become aware of themselves, their feelings, and their limits; accept themselves,, and what they make of their own responsibility; have ‘the courage to be’., 2. They experience the ‘here-and-now’; are not trapped., 3. They do not live in the past or dwell in the future through anxious expectation and, distorted defences., • Assessment of Personality, , A formal effort aimed at understanding personality of an individual is termed as personality, assessment., , Assessment refers to the procedures used to evaluate or differentiate people on the basis, of certain characteristics., The goal of assessment is to understand and predict behaviour with minimum error and, maximum accuracy., Besides promoting our understanding, assessment is also useful for diagnosis, training,, placement, counselling, and other purposes., Assessment of Personality, , Psychometric, Tests, , 52, , Psychology—XII, , Self Report, Measures, , Projective, Techniques, , Behaviourial, Techniques
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Self Report Measures, , Projective Techniques, , •, , It was Allport who suggested that the best • Direct methods of personality assessment, method to assess a person is by asking, cannot uncover the unconscious part of our, her/him about herself himself., behaviour., , •, , Fairly structured measures, based on • Techniques based on assumption that a, theory that require subjects to give verbal, less structured or unstructured stimulus, responses using some kind of rating scale., or situation will allow the individual to, project her/his feelings, desires and needs, on to that situation. These projections are, interpreted by experts., , •, , The method requires the subject to, objectively report her/his own feeling, with respect to various items. Responses, are accepted at face value, scored in, quantative terms and interpreted on basis, of norms for the test., , •, , eg. MMPI, EPQ, 16 PF, Direct technique, , • E.G. RORSCHACH Inkblot test, thematic, apperception test, sentence completion, test, Draw-a-person test., Indirect technique, , Besides promoting our understanding assessment is also useful for diagnosis, training,, placement, counselling and other purposes., , MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY, , , , , , , Developed by HATHAWAY and McKINLEY, Effective in identifying varieties of psychopathology, Revised version is MMPI–2, Consists of 567 statements. The subject has to judge each statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’., The test is divided into 10 sub scales which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, depression,, hysteria, psychopathic deviant, masculinity-feminity, paranoia, psychasthenia,, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion., In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory., (JMPI), , EYSENCK PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE, Developed by Eysenck, Initially assessed 2 dimensions of personality: hitroversion–Extraversion and emotionally, stable-emotionally unstable. Emotional stability instability., These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits., Later on, Eysenck added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It is linked to, psychopathology-sociobility., It represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people, and, a tendency to defy social conventions. A person scoring high on this dimension tends to be, hostile, egocentric and antisocial., , Self and Personality, , 53
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SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE, Developed by cattell, Test provides declarative statements, and the subject responds to a specific situation by, choosing from a set of given alternative., Can be used with high school level students as well as with adults., Found useful in career guidance, vocational exploration, and occupational testing., , LIMITATIONS/CRITICISMS OF SELF REPORT MEASURES, Social Desirability: Tendency on the part of the respondent to endorse items in a socially, desirable manner., Acquiescence: tendency of the subject to agree with items/questions irrespective of their, contents. Often appears in the form of saying ‘Yes’ to items. These tendencies render the, assessment of personality less reliable., , SIMILARITIES OF PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES, Stimuli relatively or fully unstructured and poorly defined., Person being assessed usually not told about the purpose of assessment and the method of, scoring and interpretation., The person is informed that there are no correct or incorrect responses., Each response in considered to reveal a significant aspect of personality., Scoring and interpretation are lengthy and sometimes subjective., , RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST, Developed by Herman Rorschach., Test consists of 10 ink blots. 5 in black and White, 2 with red ink, 3 in pastel colours., Blots are symmetrical indesign with a specific shape or form. Each blot is printed in the, centre of a white cardboard of about 7" × 10" size., Cards are administered indivisually in 2 phases., Performance proper: Subjects are shown the cards and asked to tell what they see in, them., Enquiry: A detailed report of the response is prepared by asking the subject where, how,, and on what basis the response was made., Fine judgement is needed to place the responses in a meaningful context. The interpretation, of this test requires extensive training., , THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST, Developed by Morgan and Murray, Consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card., Each picture depicts one or more people in a variety of situations. Each picture is printed on, a card., Some cards are used with adult males or females. Others are used with boys or girls., 20 cards are appropriate for a subject though lesser cards have also been used., The cards are presented one at a time, the subject is asked to tell a story describing the, situation presented in the picture what led to the situation, what is happening at the, moment, what will happen in the future and what characters are feeling and thinking?, Indian adaptation: Uma chaudhary, , 54, , Psychology—XII
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ROSENZWEIG’S PICTURE-FRUSTRATION STUDY, Developed by Rosenzweig to assess how people express aggression in the face of a frustrating, situation., The test presents with the help of cartoon like pictures a series of situation in which one, frustrates another, or calls attention to a frustrating condition., The subject is asked to tell what the other person will say or do. The analysis of responses, is based on the type and direction of aggression., An attempt is made to examine whether the focus is on the frustrating object or on the, protection of the frustrated person or on constructive solution of the problem., The direction of aggression may be towards oneself, environment or it may be turned off as, an attempt to gloss over or made the situation., Indian Adaptation: Pareek, , DRAW-A- PERSON TEST, Subject is asked to draw a person on sheet of paper., After the completion, subject is asked to draw the figure of an opposite sex person., The subject is asked to make a story about the person as if she/he was a character in a novel, or play., , INTERPRETATIONS, Ommission of facial features: person tries to evade a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal, relationship., , Graphic emphasis on neck: Lack of control over impulses., Disproportionately large head: Organic brain disease and preoccupation with headaches., , BENIFITS OF PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES, Helps us to understand unconscious motives, deep rooted conflicts and emotional complexes, of an individual., , LIMITATIONS, Interpretation of responses requires sophisticated skills and specialised training., Problems associated with reliability of scoring and validity of interpretations., , BEHAVIOURAL ANALYSIS, A person’s behaviour in a variety of situations can provide us with meaningful information, about her/his personality., Data Contained From Observer’s Report, , Interview, , Observation, , Ratings, , Nomination, , Situational Tests, , INTERVIEW, Involves talking to the person being assessed and asking specific questions., Interviews may be structured or unstructured., , Self and Personality, , 55
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Structured, , Unstructured, , •, , Address very specific questions and follow • Interviewer seeks to develop an impression, set procedure., about a person being assessed and asking, specific questions., , •, , Done to make objective comparison of • The may a person presents her/himself, persons being inter mimed., and answers the questions carries enough, potential to reveal his/her personality., , OBSERVATION, Requires careful training of the observer and a fairly detailed guideline about analysis of, behaviour in order to assers the personality of a given person., , LIMITATIONS OF INTERVIEW AND OBSERVATION METHODS, , , , , , Professional training required., Demanding and time consuming., Maturity of psychologist is a precondition for obtaining valid data through these techniques., Mere presence of observer may contaminate the results., , BEHAVIOURAL RATINGS, Used in educational and industrial settings., Ratings usually taken from people who know the assessee intimately and have interacted, with her/him over a period of time or have had the chance to observe him/her., They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural, qualities. There may involve different numbers or descriptive terms., In order to use ratings effectively, traits should be clearly defined in terms of carefully, stated behavioural anchors., , LIMITATIONS OF RATING, Halo Effect: Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgements of different, traits eg. most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable of unfavourable trait. This, often forms the basis of a raler’s overall judgement of a person. This is known a halo effect., Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle scale (Middle category bias), by avoiding extreme positions or in extreme position (extreme response bias) by avoiding, middle categories on the scale., , NOMINATION, Used in obtaining peer assessment, Each person is asked to choose one or more persons of the group with whom she would like, to work, study, play participate etc. The person may be asked to specify the reason for his/, her choices., Nominations received can be analysed to understand the personality and behavioural, characteristics of a person., , LIMITATIONS OF NOMINATION, May be affected by personal biases., , 56, , Psychology—XII
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SITUATIONAL TESTS, Most commonly used is situational stress test., Provides information about how a person behaves under stressful situations., Test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed to be, non-cooperative and interfering., The person is instructed to play a role for which she is observed., A verbal report is also obtained on what she was asked to do., The situation may be a realistic one or may be created through a video play., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Alienation: The feeling of not being part of society or a group., • Anal stage: The second of Freud’s psycho-sexual stages, which occurs during the child’s, second year. Pleasure is focused on the anus and on retention and expulsion of faeces., • Antisocial Personality: A behavioural disorder characteristics by truancy, delinquency,, promiscuity, theft, vandalism, fighting, violation of common social rules, poor work record,, impulsiveness, irrationality, aggressiveness, reckless behaviour, and inability to plan, ahead. The particular pattern of behaviour varies from individual to individual., • Archetypes: Jung’s term for the contents of the collective unconscious; images or symbols, expressing the inherited patterns for the organization of experience., • Cardinal Trait: According to All port, a single trait that dominates an individual’s entire, personality., • Central Traits: The major trait considered in forming an impression of others., • Client centred therapy: The theraphentic approach developed by Carl Rogers in which, therapist helps clients to clarify their true feelings and come to value who they are., • Collective Unconscious: Inherited portion of the unconscious, as postulated by Carl, Jung. The unconscious shared by all human beings., • Defence Mechanisms: According to Freud, ways in which the ego unconsciously tries, to cope with unacceptable id impulses, as in repression, projection, reaction formation,, sublimation, rationalisation, etc., • Deinstitutionalisation: The transfer of former mental patients from institution into the, community., • Ego: The part of the personality that provides a buffer between the id and the outside., • Evolution apprehension: The fear of being evaluated negatively by others who are, present (an audience)., • Extraversion: One of the dimensions of personality in which interests are directed, outward to nature and other people rather than inwards to the thoughts and feelings of self, (introvert)., • Humanistic Approach: The theory that people are basically good and tend to grow to, higher levels of functioning., • Id: According to Freud, the impulsive and unconscious part of the psyche that operates, through the pleasure principle toward the gratification of instinctual drives. The Id is, conceived as the true unconscious, or the deepest part of the psyche., • Ideal Self: The kind of person we would like to be. Also called ego-ideal/idealized selfimage., • Identity: The distinguishing character of the individual—who each of us is, what our roles, are, and what we are capable of., , Self and Personality, , 57
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• Inferiority Complex: According to Adler, a complex developed by adults who have not, been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority they developed as children, when they were, small and limited in their knowledge about the world., • Interview: Verbal interaction between a respondent and a researcher to gather information, about the respondent., • Introversion: One of the dimensions of personality in which interests are directed inwards, rather than outwards (extrovert)., • Latency Period: In Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual stages, the period between the phallic, stage and the mature genital stage (period from age 4 to 5 to about 12) during which interest, in sex is sublimated., • Libido: Freud introduced this term. In Freud’s treatment, libido was quite simply a direct, or indirect sexual expression., • Meta needs: In the hierarchy of needs, those at the top, such as self-actualisation, selfesteem, aesthetic needs, and the like, which can only be satisfied when lower order needs, are satisfied., • Observational Method: A method in which researcher observes phenomenon that occurs, naturally without being able to manipulate., • Oedipus Complex: The Freudian concept in which the young child develops an intense, desire to replace the parent of the same sex and enjoy that affection of the opposite sex, parent., • Personal Identity: Awareness of oneself as a separate, distinct being., • Phallic Stage: Third of Freud’s psycho-sexual stages (at about age five) when pleasure is, focused on the genitals and both males and females experience the ‘Oedipus complex’., • Projection: A defence mechanism; the process of unwittingly attributing one’s own traits,, attitudes, or subjective processes to others., • Projective Techniques: The utilization of vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus, objects or situation in order to elicit the individual’s characteristic modes of perceiving his/, her world or of behaving in it., • Psycho-dynamic Approach: Approach that strives for explanation in terms of motives, or, drives., • Psycho-dynamic Therapy: First suggested by Freud; therapy based on the premise that, the primary sources of abnormal behaviour are resolved past conflicts and the possibility, that unacceptable unconscious impulses will enter consciousness., • Rationalisation: A defence mechanism that occurs when one attempts to explain failure, or shortcoming by attributing them to more acceptable causes., • Reaction Formation: A defence mechanism in which a person denies a disapproved, motive through giving strong expression to its opposite., • Regression: A defence mechanism that involves a return to behaviours characterized of an, earlier stage in life. The term is also used in statistics, in which with the help of correlation, prediction is made., • Repression: A defence mechanism by which people push unacceptable, anxiety provoking, thoughts and impulses into the unconscious to avoid confronting them directly. In short it, is unconscious forgetting., • Repression: A defense mechanism by which people push unacceptable, anxiety provoking, thoughts and impulses into the unconscious to avoid confronting them directly. [Unconscious, forgetting], , 58, , Psychology—XII
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• Self-actualization: A state of self-fulfilment in which people realize their highest potential, in their own unique way., • Self-efficacy: Bandura’s term for the individual’s beliefs about his or her own effectiveness;, the exception that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes., • Self-esteem: The individual’s personal judgment of his or her own worth; one’s attitude, toward oneself along a positive-negative dimension., • Self-regulation: It refers to our ability to organize and monitor our own behaviour., • Social Identity: A person’s definition of who he or she is; includes personal attributes (selfconcept) along with membership in various groups., • Super Ego: According to Freud, super ego is the final personality structure to develop;, it represents society’s standards of right and wrong as handed down by person’s parents,, teachers, and other important figures., • Surface Traits: R.B. Cattell’s term for clusters of observable trait elements (response), that seems to go together. Factor analysis of the correlations reveals source traits., • Trait: A relatively persistent and consistent behaviour pattern manifested in a wide range, of circumstances., • Trait Approach: An approach to personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary, to describe personality., • Type Approach: Explanation of personality based on broad categoires which are mostly, determined by body constitution and temperament., • Typology: Ways of categorizing individuals into discrete categories or types e.g., Type-A, personality., • Unconscious: In psycho-analytic theory, characterizing any activity or mental structure, which a person is not aware of., • Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes of behaviour or end-state of existence; attitudes, that have a strong evaluative and ‘ought’ aspect., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?, Ans. Self is an organized cognitive structure. It can be understood in terms of subject and, object or I and Me. It refers to the totality of one’s conscious thoughts, and feelings which, pertain to one’s own self., , Indian Concept of Self, • Self is characterized by the shifting nature of the boundaries., • The Indian view does not make rigid dichotomies., • It is based on collectivistic Indian society., , Western Concept of Self, • The boundaries between self and the group are rigid., • It holds clear dichotomies between self and group., • It is based on individualistic society of the West., Q2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult, development?, (Delhi board 2011, 2014), Ans. (i) Learning to delay or defer from gratification of needs is called self-control. It emerges, from self-regulation., , Self and Personality, , 59
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(ii) Self-regulation is behavioural component of self., (iii) It refers to an ability to organize and monitor ones own behaviour. People who, can change their behaviour according to the demands of the external environment, are high on self-monitoring., (iv) Self-regulation leads to self-control., (v) It plays a key role in fulfilment of long-term goals., (vi) Indian culture provides us effective mechanisms like fasting (vrata or roza) and nonattachment with worldly things to develop self-control., (vii) It is ones ability to say ‘No’., Psychological techniques to develop self-control are:, (a) Observation of Own Behaviour: it provides us with necessary information that, may be used to change, modify, or strengthen certain concepts of self., (b) Self-instruction: We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way, we want., (c) Self-reinforcement: It involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes, (like going to see a movie with friends if we do well in exams)., — Self-control is important for the development of mature personality. This is the, reason that all cultures emphasise the self-control. It helps in the fulfilment, of long-term goals. Indian cultural tradition provide us with certain effective, mechanisms. e.g., fasting in varta or roja and know attachment with worldly, things for developing self-control., — Self-control is also important for effective functioning of social network., Q3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?, Ans. The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means a mask, or false face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. According to, Gordon Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those, psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.”, One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on, what it was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four, categories:, (i) Dynamic approaches, which emphasize on-going interaction among motives,, impulses and psychological processes., (ii) Type and train approaches, which focus on people’s characteristics, stubbornness,, shyness and so forth and how these characteristics are organized into systems., (iii) Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the, individual’s subjective view of the world., (iv) Learning and behavioural approaches, which emphasize the way habits are, acquired through basic learning process., Q4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach? , (CBSE 2007), Ans. Trait approach psychologists explain personality on the basis of specific psychological, characteristics., , Type approach psychologists believe that personality can be classified into broad, categories., , 60, , Psychology—XII
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Traits are relatively stable, persistent and characteristic patterns of behaviour which, makes the individual different from others., (i) These are overlapping, i.e., inclusive in nature., (ii) Traits are specific psychological characteristics. e.g., shy or timid., Types are cluster of similar traits., (i) These are broad categories., (ii) These do not overlap, i.e., exclusive in nature. e.g., extrovert or introvert., Q5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality?, Ans. The Id:, (i) The Id is the original source of personality, present in the newborn infant, from, which the ego and super ego later develop., (ii) It consists of everything that is inherited, including the instinctual drives—sex and, aggression., (iii) It is closely linked to the biological processes and provides the energy source—the, libido for the operation of all three systems., (iv) It is totally unconscious and works on pleasure principles regardless of any, external potential costs of seeking the gratification of impulses., , The Ego:, (i) The ego develops out of Id because of the necessity for dealing with the real, world. The ego’s task is to hold the Id in check until conditions allows for satisfaction, of its impulses., (ii) It operates on reality principles. For example, a hungry man would want to have, food at any cost due to id impulses, but it is the ego which delays this hunger impulse, until the appropriate conditions are found., (iii) The ego is essentially the executive of the personality. It keeps a person working for, a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the realities of life., (iv) Ego mediates between the demands of id, the realities of the world and the demands, of the super ego., , The Super Ego:, (i) It is related to the values and morals of the society as taught to us by our parents, and others. It works according to social norms., (ii) It is concerned with morality—whether various ways that could satisfy id impulses, are right or wrong., , The main functions of the super ego are:, (i) To inhibit the unacceptable impulses of Id such as sex and aggression., (ii) Freud assumed that Id is energised by two instinctual forces, called life instinct, and death instinct. Life instinct is individuals, tendency to construct whereas, death instinct is for the destruction. According to Freud, life instinct is more, dominant among human beings., According to Freud, the instinctual life force that energises the Id is called Libido., It works on the pleasure principle, and seeks immediate gratification. It is source of, energy., Q6. How would Horney’s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler?, Ans. While Karen Horney focuses more on interpersonal relationships during childhood,, Alfred gives greater importance to personal goals of an individual., , Self and Personality, , 61
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There are, in my opinion, Horney would attribute the cause of depression to parental, relations with children which are characterized by excessive interference or indifference., Deep anxiety would result from the behaviour rewards the child which, if is erratic,, indifferent and discouraging feelings of isolation and helplessness will also emerge., , Alfred Adler would, on the other hand, attribute depression to the feeling of inadequacy, and guilt arising within the individual, due to the inability to achieve his/her personal, goals. These goals provide an individual with security and are important in overcoming, feelings of inadequacy. If individual is not able to attain the goals and could not overcome, inferiority appropriately then it leads to depression., Q7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow, mean by self-actualization?, (CBSE 2013, 2010), Ans. Humanistic theories emphasise personal responsibility and innovate tendencies toward, personal growth. They focus on the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings, and beliefs especially with regard to the self., • According to humanistic approach, we human beings are most creative, growing,, fully functioning and self-actualizing people., • Fully functioning persons, according to Rogers theory, psychologically healthy, persons who live life to the fullest., • They live in the here and now and trust their own feelings. They are sensitive to the, needs of others but they do not allow society’s standards to shape their feelings or, actions to an excessive degree., • Rogers suggests that each individual has a concept of ideal self. If there is, discrepancy between real self and ideal self then individual develops maladjustment., • Rogers proposed two basic assumptions:, (a) Human behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile., (b) People always choose adaptive and self-actualizing behaviour., • Rogers believed that many individuals fail to become fully functioning persons, because they grow up in an atmosphere of conditional positive regard and develop, distorted self-concepts which interferes with personal growth. Such people fail to, self-actualise., • All human beings desire unconditional positive regard, freedom of choice and feeling, of fulfilment for attainment of self-actualization., • Humanistic theories don’t deny the importance of past experience but they generally, focus on the present., , Maslow’s Contribution to Humanistic Approach, Maslow’s Self-Actualization, • It is a state which people have reached their own fullest potential., • He had an optimistic view of man who has potentialities for love, joy and creative, work., • According to him, human beings are free to shape their lives and to self-actualise., Q8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems, do we face in using these methods?, Ans., • Observational method is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an, effective method of describing behaviour., , 62, , Psychology—XII
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• A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many respects., (i) Selection: Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter., Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation., (ii) Recording: While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using, different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour, whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail, using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc., (iii) After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they, have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it., (iv) Observation is a skill. A good observation is a skill. A good observer knows, what he/she is looking for, whom he/she wants to observe, when and where the, observation needs to be made., • Observation can be of the following types :, (a) Non-Participant vs. Participant Observation:, 1. Non-participant observation, (i) To observe the person or event from a distance., (ii) The observer may become part of the group being observed., (iii) In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that he/she is, being observed. For example, you want to observe the pattern of interaction, between teachers and students in a particular class., (iv) Install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see, later and analyse. Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class, without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of, observation is called non-participant observation., 2. Participant observation, (i) In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the, group of people being observed., (ii) the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that, they start accepting him/her as one of the group members., (iii) the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed, would vary depending upon the focus of the study., The advantage of the observation method is that it enables the researcher to study, people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs. However, the, observation method is labour-intensive, time-consuming, and is susceptible to the, observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the, person or the event., Q9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used, structured personality tests?, (Delhi Board 2010 Part), Ans. Structured personality tests are self-report measures that have the following features:, • Questions are direct and structured., • They are called self-report because the examinee has to respond objectively to the, items of the measure and his/her response are accepted as they are., • They are objective in nature and they deal with the present state of mind., , Self and Personality, , 63
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— Self-report measures use inventories and questionnaires to assess conscious, part of personality., — Goal of the test may be revealed., — These tests assess only conscious part of personality, • Their results depend on motivation and emotional state of the examinee; they are, non-projective and direct inferences are made., Some of the self-report measures are:, 1. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): This test was developed by Eysenck, to assess two basic dimensions of personality namely introverted—extroversion and, emotionally stable—emotionally unstable (Neuroticism)., 2. MMPI: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. This test was developed by, Hathaway and Mckinely., • It has been found very effective in detecting psycho-pathology like, hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria etc., • The test is divided into 10 sub scales. This test helps in clinical diagnosis of, various mental disorders like hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, etc., • It has two sets MMPI–I and MMPI–II. Now-a-days, MMPI–II is being used., • It has 567 items in the form of affirmative statements. The subject judges each, item ‘statements’ as true or false., • MMPI is one of the very good tests for clinical purposes (diagnosis)., • Indian version of MMPI is also available named as Jodhpur Multiphasic, Personality Inventory (JMPI) by Malik and Joshi., , 16-PF Questionnaire, (Delhi board 2010), • It is developed by Cattell., • It identifies large set of personality descriptions—subjected to factor analysis to, identify basic personality structure., • Subject responds to situation by choosing from alternatives., • This test is being used with high school level students in India for career guidance, and counselling., , Problems Faced by self-report Measures, • Social Desirability: It is a tendency on part of the respondent to endorse items in, a socially desirable manner., • Acquiescence: It is a tendency of the subject to agree with items/questions, irrespective of contents., • Testing and understanding personality require great skill and training., • People become self-aware and conscious, hesitate to share thoughts and feelings, and motivation. If they do it, it is done in a socially desirable manner. So, the real, personality characteristics are not manifested., Q10. State in common features of projective techniques. Describe anyone projective technique., Or, , Explain how projective techniques assess, personality are widely used by psychologists?, Ans., , 64, , personality., , Which, , projective tests of, (CBSE 2013, 2010, 2007), , • Projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists., • Projective techniques are most indirect method to assess personality., , Psychology—XII
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• Psycho analytic theory proposed that behaviour is also determined by unconscious, forces., • The projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and, feelings., — The stimulus material is relatively or fully unstructured and poorly defined., — The person being assessed is usually not told the purpose and the method of, scoring and interpretation before the administration of test., — The person is informed that there are no right or wrong responses., — Each response is considered to reveal a true and significant aspect of personality., — The scoring and interpretation in projective assessment are lengthy and, subjective., , Projective Techniques, — Developed to assess unconscious motives, feelings and conflicts., — A less structured or unstructured stimulus or situation will allow the individual to, project his/her feelings, desires and needs on to that situation., — Projections are interpreted by experts., — Cannot be scored objectively, require qualitative analysis for which a rigorous, training is needed., 1. The Rorschach Inkblot Test (Hermann Rorschach), • Consists of 10 inkblots—5 black and white, 2 with red ink, 3 in pastel colours., • Blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form, made by dropping ink, on a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half (hence called inkblot test)., • The cards are administered individually in two phases:, — Performance proper: The subjects are shown the cards and are asked to, tell what they see in each of them., — Inquiry: A detailed report of the response is prepared by asking the subject, to tell where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made., • Fine judgment is necessary to place the subject’s responses in a meaningful context., Use and interpretation of this test requires extensive training, 2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Morgan and Murray, • This test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card—each, picture card depicts one or more people in a variety of situations., • Some cards are used specifically with adult males or females, boys or girls—have, been modified for the children and the aged., • The cards are presented one at a time and the subject is asked to tell a story, describing the situation presented in the picture—what led up to the situation, what, is happening at the moment, what will happen in the future, what the characters, are feeling and thinking?, • Uma Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is also available., 3. Rosenzweig’s Picture-Frustration Study (P-F Study), • This study assesses how people express aggression in the face of a frustrating, situation., • Presents with the help of cartoon-like pictures a series of situations in which one, person frustrates another, or calls attention to a frustrating condition., • The subject is asked to tell what the other (frustrated) person will say or do., , Self and Personality, , 65
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• The analysis of responses is based on the type and direction of aggression—examine, whether the focus is on the frustrating object (environment), or on protection of the, frustrated person (oneself), or on constructive solution of the problem., • Pareek has adapted this test for the Indian population, 4. Sentence Completion Test, • This test makes use of a number of incomplete sentences—the starting part of the, sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the sentence., • The type of endings used by the subjects reflect their attitudes, motivation and, conflicts., • The test provides subjects with several opportunities to reveal their underlying, unconscious motivations., 5. Draw-a-Person Test, • In this test, the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper and then a, figure of an opposite sex person., • Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if he/she was a, character in a novel or play., • Some examples of interpretations are as follows:, — Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly, conflict-ridden interpersonal relationships., — Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests lack of control over impulses., — Disproportionately large head suggests organic brain disease and preoccupation with headaches., , Limitations, • Interpretation of the responses requires sophisticated skills and specialized training., • There are problems associated with the reliability of scoring and validity of, interpretations., Q11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though, his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using, Carl Rogers’ terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant’s family., Ans. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. His, family ‘claims’ to love him, but disapproves of his choice of career., This fact warrants my attention towards an important terminology given by Carl, Rogers, i.e., unconditional positive regard., As the desire of Arihant to become a singer is contradicted by his family, it results in a, situation of negative social conditions which will reduce his level of self-concept and selfesteem., His inability to fulfil his goal will prevent him from becoming a ‘fully functioning person’., Moreover, his conception of an ‘ideal self’ involves him being a singer, while his ‘real, self’ is not one due to familial pressure. This discrepancy between the real and ideal self, results in dissatisfaction and unhappiness., The provision of unconditional positive regard which includes empathy, love and warmth, irrespective of other factors is necessary for Arihant., According to Rogers, a person attains self-actualization only when people have reached, their own fullest potential., His inability to pursue singing will not allow self-actualization to occur which will, prevent his psychological health and well-being., , 66, , Psychology—XII
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MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. Who among the following psychologists divided all personalities into introverts and, extraverts?, (a) Freud, (b) Carl Jung, (c) Adler, (d) Erikson, Q2. Which of the following personality types is described as noisy, callous and fond of physical, activity?, (a) Endomorph, (b) Ectomorph, (c) Mesomorph, (d) None of the above, Q3. A __________ refers to any characteristics in which one individual differs from another, in a relatively permanent and consistent way., (a) Personality, (b) Trait, (c) Humanistic, (d) Concept, Q4. Who among the following saw personality as composed of three major systems, the Id,, the ego and the super ego?, (a) Carl Jung , (b) Erik Erikson, (c) Sigmund Freud , (d) Erik Fromm, Q5. The ___________ is the original source of personality, present in the newborn infant., (a) Id, (b) Ego, (c) Super ego, (d) None of the above, Q6. The ego obeys the ______ principle., (a) Pleasure, (b) Reality, (c) Moral, (d) Perfection, Q7. Which of the following systems is the internalized representation of the values and, morals of society as taught to the child by the parents and others?, (a) Id, (b) Ego, (c) Super ego, (d) Libido, Q8. The method of reducing anxiety called __________ is to push the impulse out of awareness, into the unconscious., (a) Regression, (b) Repression, (c) Suppression, (d) Ration, Q9. In which of the following psycho-sexual stage of the development pleasure is obtained, through stimulation of the mouth?, (a) The oral stage , (b) The anal stage, (c) The phallic stage , (d) The genital stage, Q10. ___________ have been devised as one method for uncovering unconscious motives., (a) Inventory, (b) Projective tests, (c) Behavioural assessment, (d) Situational tests., Q11. Which of the following is most widely used projective technique?, (a) The Rorschach test, (b) The thematic apperception test, (c) 16 personality factor, (d) Both (a) and (b), Q12. ___________ refers to the characteristic patterns of behaviour and way of thinking that, determine a person’s adjustment to his environment., (a) Motivation , (b) Personality, (c) Development , (d) Thinking, Q13. _______ defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those, psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”, (a) Sheldon, (b) G.W. Allport, (c) Kwarren, (d) Freud, , Self and Personality, , 67
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Q14. Who among the following psychologists has tried to describe personality in terms to, traits?, (a) Cattell, (b) G.W. Allport, (c) Eyesenck, (d) All of the above, Q15. Which of the following scales has been useful in measuring anxiety, hostility, and, hallucination, phobias and suicidal impulses?, (a) 16 PF, (b) MMPI, (c) TAT, (d) Adjective, check, list, Q16. Which of the following approaches of personality emphasizes on-going inter-actions, among motives, impulses and psychological processes?, (a) Type and trait approaches, (b) Dynamic approach, (c) Learning and behavioural approaches, (d) None of these, Q17. According to psycho-analytic theory, the sexual energy that underlines the biologically, based urges is called the, (a) Ego , (b) Defense mechanisms, (c) Libido , (d) Oedipus, Q18. The ___________ consists of elaborate ways of behaving and thinking which constitute, the ‘executive function’ of the person., (a) Id, (b) Ego, (c) Super ego, (d) Dream, Q19. Which of the following levels of consciousness or awareness is proposed by Freud?, (a) The conscious , (b) The preconscious, (c) The unconscious , (d) All of the above, Q20. Freud described ____________ as “the royal road to the unconscious.”, (a) Id, (b) Dreams, (c) Sex, (d) Aggressions, Q21. Which of the following parts of body Freud referred as erogenous zones?, (a) The mouth, (b) The anus, (c) The genitals, (d) All of the above, Q22. Freud believed that if a child’s needs at one of the psycho-sexual stages were either, unsatisfied or over satisfied. ________ would take place., (a) Identification, (b) Fixation, (c) Repression, (d) Pleasure, Q23. Which of the following periods of psycho-sexual development was not considered by, Freud to be very important to the development of personality?, (a) Oral stage, (b) Phallic, (c) Latency, (d) Genital, Q24. According to Jung ________ are inherited ways of organizing, or reacting to our experience, with the world., (a) Collective unconscious, (b) Archetypes, (c) Personal unconscious, (d) Complex, Q25. According to dynamic theorists, people use ________ to reduce their anxiety and guilt., (a) Unconscious , (b) Defense mechanism, (c) Dreams , (d) Traits, Q26. The five-factor model of personality was given by—, (a) H.J. Eysenck , (b) Morgan and Murray, (c) Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, (d) Hathaway and McKinley, , 68, , Psychology—XII
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Q27. The MMPI inventory was devised by—, (a) Hathaway and McKinley, (c) Eysenck , , (b) Allport, (d) Morgan and Murray, , Q28. 16 Personality factor questionnaire was developed by—, (a) Cattell, (b) Allport, (c) McKinley, , (d) Morgan, , Q29. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by:, (a) Morgan and Murray , (b) McKinley, (c) Allport , (d) Hathaway, Q30. The Trigunas are—, (a) Vata, Pitta, Kaph , (c) Pitta, Rajas, Sattva , , (b) Sattva, Rajas, Tamas, (d) Kapha, Mastva, Pitta, , Q31. The ___________ are fat, soft and round., (a) Endomorphs, (b) Ectomorphs, , (c) Mesomorphs, , (d) Metamorphs, , Q32. ________ refers to our ability to organize and monitor our own behaviour., (a) Self-efficiency , (b) Self-esteem, (c) Self-regulation , (d) Self-concept, Q33. As persons we always make some judgment about our own self is known as—, (a) Self –regulation (b) Self-esteem, (c) Self-concept, (d) Self-efficacy, Q34. _______ emerges in relationship with others and emphasises such aspects of life as unity, and co-operation is known as, (a) Personal self , (b) Social self, (c) Social identity , (d) Personal identity, Q35. _______ refers to those attributes of a person that make him/her different from others., (a) Social identity (b) Personal identity (c) Social control, (d) Social self, Q36. Self-efficacy is based on social learning theory of, (a) Carl Jung, (b) Erikson, (c) Freud, , (d) Bandura, , Q37. _______ refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings with regard to himself/herself., (a) Personality, (b) Trait, (c) Self, (d) Repression, Q38. Carl Jung’s theory is known as—, (a) Five Stage theory , (b) Analytical Psychology, (c) Cardinal theory , (d) One-factor theory, Q39. Optimistic view of human life with emphasis on human growth and self-actualization, in, the post-Freudian era was given by—, (a) Erik Erikson , (b) Erich Fromm, (c) Karen Horney , (d) Alfred Alder, Q40. ‘Personal Goals’ and ‘Inferiority Complex’ are a part of which theory?, (a) Individual Psychology, ( ) Pro-social theory, (c) Five stage theory , (d) Analytical Psychology, Q41. Social beings desire for freedom, striving for justice and truth are a part of whose theory?, (a) Erich Fromm, (b) Erick Erikson, (c) Carl Rogers, (d) J.P. Guilford, , Self and Personality, , 69
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Q42. What is the structural unit of personality for behaviourists?, (a) Response, (b) Fixation, (c) Stimulus, , (d) Repression, , Q43. Which approach attempts to understand personality in relation to the features of, environmental and cultural environment?, (a) Humanistic Approach, (b) Behavioural Approach, (c) Cognitive Approach , (d) Cultural Approach, Q44. Name one person who has contributed to the development of humanistic perspective of, personality., (a) J.P. Guilford, (b) Alfred Adler, (c) Carl Rogers, (d) Karen Horney, Q45. What is the idea proposed by Carl Rogers?, (a) Adaptation , (b) Fully functioning person, (c) Socialisation , (d) Self-actualisation, Q46. The theory of self-actualization was given by—, (a) Carl Rogers, (b) Karen Horney, (c) Erik Erikson, , (d) Abraham Maslow, , Q47. Situation tests are:, (a) Those which provide us with information about how a person behaves under stressful, situation., (b) Those used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings., (c) Those used for the assessment of personality of a person., (d) Those which involve talking to the person being assessed and asking specific, questions., , Answer, 1., 11., 21., 31., 41., , (b), (d), (d), (c), (a), , 2., 12., 22., 32., 42., , (c), (b), (b), (c), (a), , 3., 13., 23., 33., 43., , (b), (b), (c), (b), (d), , 4., 14., 24., 34., 44., , (c), (d), (a), (b), (c), , 5., 15., 25., 35., 45., , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , (a), (b), (b), (b), (b), , 6., 16., 26., 36., 46., , (b), (b), (c), (d), (d), , 7., 17., 27., 37., 47., , (c), 8. (b) 9., (c) 18. (b) 19., (a) 28. (a) 29., (c) 38. (b) 39., (a), , (a), (d), (a), (c), , 10., 20., 30., 40., , (b), (b), (a), (a), , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. How is personal identity different from social identity?, Ans. Personal Identity: It refers to those attributes of a person that make him different, from others. e.g., name, qualities, characteristics, beliefs, etc., Social Identity: It refers to those aspects of a person that link him to a social or cultural, group or are derived from it. e.g., when someone says that he is a Hindu or a Muslim he, is trying to indicate his social identity., Q2. Why social self is called familial or relational self?, Ans. Social self values family and social relationships. Hence, it is referred as familial or, relational self., Q3. Define personality assessment., Ans. Personality assessment is formal way of understanding human behaviour., The goal of personality assessment is to understand, modify and predict human behaviour, with minimum error and maximum accuracy., , 70, , Psychology—XII
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Q4. What is Libido?, Ans. Libido refers to instinctual life force that energises the Id. It works on the pleasure, principal and seeks immediate gratification., The concept of Libido was given by Dr. Sigmund Freud. According to him, Libido is the, source of energy., Q5. What are Traits?, Ans. Traits are :, (a) Traits are relatively stable over time., (b) They are generally consistent across situations., (c) Their strength and combination vary across individuals leading to individuals, differences and personality., Q6. Explain interactional approach of personality., (CBSE 2013), Ans. This approach holds that situational characterises play an important role in determining, our behaviour. People may behave as dependent or independent of their internal, personality traits but because of external rewards or threats available in a particular, situation., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. Define personality., Or, Explain the concept of Personality., (CBSE 2013), Ans. • Personality refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and, situations., • Personality is a dynamic organisation within the individual of those psycho-physical, systems which determine individual’s characteristic pattern of behaviour and, thought., In simple words it is enduring characteristic of an individual which makes him different, from others., Personality is characterised by the following features:, • It has both physical and psychological components each personality is unique., • Main features of personality do not easily change with time., • Personality is a dynamic organization in the sense that some of its features may, change due to internal and external situational demands., Q2. Differentiate between Personal Self and Social Self., (Delhi board 2010), Ans. Personal Self:, • Personal self leads to an orientation in which one feels primarily concerned with, oneself., • After fulfilling biological needs other components like personal freedom, personal, responsibility, personal achievement or personal comfort, emerges as a part, of personal self., • It is different from personal identity. e.g., “I am A.K. Bhatnagar.” This is my personal, identity. “I desire to teach in university.” This is my personal self., Social Self:, • Social self emerges in relation with others., , Self and Personality, , 71
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Q 3., Ans., , Q4., Ans., , Q5., Ans., , • It emphasizes on aspects of life as co-operation, unity, affiliation, sharing, and sacrifice etc. It focuses on family and relationship, therefore it is also called, relational or familial self., • Social self is different from social identity. e.g., “I am a psychology teacher in a, school” is my social identity. “I am an understanding and empathetic teacher” is my, social self., What is self-esteem?, • Self-esteem is cognitive component of self., • The value judgment of a person about herself/himself is called self-esteem., • It can be high or low. To assess it, we present a variety of statements to a person and, ask him to indicate the extent to which they are true for him. e.g., we may ask a child, to what extent the statement “I am good at homework” or “I am highly liked by my, peers” is true. If he responds as them to be true, he will have a high self-esteem than, someone who says “no”., • Studies show that children seem to have formed self-esteem in atleast four areas by, the age of 6-7, i.e., academic competence, social competence, physical/athletic, competence, and physical appearance., What is self-efficacy?, • Self-efficacy is cognitive component of self., • Self-efficacy refers to ones own effectiveness in achieving ones life outcomes., • It is an individual’s belief about his/her own capabilities to get success in specific, situation., • The notion of self-efficacy is based on Bandura’s social learning theory. His initial, studies showed that children and adults learn behaviour by observing and imitating, others. People’s expectations of mastery or achievement and their convictions about, their own effectiveness determine the type of behaviour they would engage in. The, amount of risk they would undertake also determines this., • A strong sense of self-efficacy allows us to select, influence, and construct the, circumstances of our life., What is social learning?, Learning by observing others is referred as social learning., • The concept was developed by Bandura., • It is based on observation without any direct reward or reinforcement administrated, to the learner., • This kind of learning is also called modelling or observational learning., • The social learning approach does not propose traits or dispositions., • It uses the present conditions of learning and the case in the situation for determining, the pattern of behaviour., • The emphasis is on the current situation rather than other’s desire or conflicts in, personality., , Q6. Explain concept of defense mechanism., , (Delhi Board 2014), Or, , Explain interactional approach of personality., (CBSE 2013), Ans. Ego Defense Mechanisms, • A defense mechanism is a way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality, unconsciously which are regulated by the ego., , 72, , Psychology—XII
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• It defends the ego against the awareness of the instinctual needs., • It is normal and adaptive; people who use defence mechanisms are often unaware, of doing so., 1. Repression: Anxiety provoking behaviours or thoughts are totally dismissed, by the unconscious. It is unconscious forgetting., 2. Projection: People attribute their own traits to others., 3. Denial: A person totally refuses to accept reality., 4. Reaction Formation: A person defends against anxiety by adopting behaviours, opposite to his/her true feelings., 5. Rationalization: A person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour, seem reasonable and acceptable., Q7. How does Erich Fromm differ from Freud’s approach to personality?, Ans. • According to Freud, approach personality is biologically oriented whereas Erich, Fromm’s theory of personality has a social orientation., • He viewed human beings basically as social beings., • For him, personality traits develop due to social interaction whereas, according to, Freud, roots of personality development lies in innate tendencies and unconscious, desires., Q8. What functions do dream serve according to Freud?, Ans. Dreams are considered as the royal road to unconscious. Mainly they serve following, purposes:, — They work as safeguards of sleep., — They work as wish fulfilment device. We can give expression to impulses and desires, we find unacceptable during our waking hours., — Dreams release unconscious tension arising out of conflicts between Id and Ego., Q 9. How Oedipus and Electra complex are different?, Ans. In the phallic stage, Freud speculated that at this time the child fraternizes sexual, relation with parents of the opposite sex which Freud termed as the Oedipus, complex for boys and Electra complex for girls., A male child experiencing Oedipus complex tends to get sexually attracted toward, his mother and has a hostility toward his father. They come to know this is unlikely,, boys give up their sexual feelings for their mother and start to see their fathers as role, models., A female child experiencing Electra complex tries to act as his mother in order to get, that love from his father. They have a feeling of hostility toward their mother., Later on girls when realise that this is highly unlikely then they give up their sexual, desire and start seeing their mother as a role model., Q10. Discuss Behavioural Rating to assess personality., (CBSE 2008, 2009, 2010), Ans. • Behavioural rating refers to degree of agreement or disagreement of the rater on a, particular issue on three or five point scale., • Ratings are used in education and industrial setting., • These are taken from people who know each other intimately and have interacted, with them., • It attempts to put individuals into categories in terms of their behavioural qualities., , Self and Personality, , 73
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Limitations of Behavioural Rating:, (i) Raters display bias that influence their judgments of different traits., Example: The single favourable or unfavourable trait forms the basis of a rater’s, over all judgment of a person. This process is called the Halo Effect., (ii) Raters have a tendency to put individuals in the middle of the scale, i.e., Middle, Category Bias or in the extreme position, i.e., Extreme category bias., The limitations can be overcome by either, • Appropriate training of the rater, or, • Developing scales with minimum biases., Q11. Define observation. Explain the limitations of observation as a method to evaluate, personality., Ans. • Observation refers to systematic, organised and objective gathering and recording, relevant information by a trained observer from natural setting., • It is careful perception., • It is a sophisticated method and cannot be carried out by untrained people. It requires, careful training of the observer., Limitations of Observational Method:, 1. Professional training is required for collection of useful data though these methods, are quite demanding and time consuming., 2. Maturity of the psychologist is a precondition for obtaining valid data through these, techniques., 3. Mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results., Q12. What is an interview? Explain its limitations., Ans. Interview refers to purposeful conversation between two or more than two people in a, face-to-face situation., Interviews involve interacting with the person being assessed and asking questions. It, is of two types. Unstructured and Structured., Limitations of Interviews, Its limitations are as follows:, (a) Time consuming and demanding., (b) Maturity of psychologist is a precondition for getting valid data., Q13. How personality can be assessed through DAPT?, Ans. DAPT—Draw-A-Person-Test. It is a simple test based on the psycho-dynamic approach,, where the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper. After that he/she is, asked to draw a person of the opposite sex. Finally the subject is asked to make a story, about the person assuming that he/she is one of them., Some examples of interpretation are as follows:, • Missing of facial features suggests that person tries to evade a highly conflict ridden, interpersonal relationship., • If there is a graphic emphasis on the neck that suggests lack of control over impulses., • Disproportionally large head suggests organic brain disease and a pre-occupation, with headaches., , 74, , Psychology—XII
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Q14. Who is a healthy person?, Ans. According to humanistic theorists, healthy people share the following characteristics:, • Healthy people enjoy self-awareness and self-acceptance., • They believe that their life outcomes are their own responsibility., • They live in present., • They do not live in the past and dwell in anxious future., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. Differentiate between self and personality., Ans. • Self is awareness of our being, i.e., our existence. It is the awareness of one’s, individuality and uniqueness., • Self is the core whereas personality is its manifestation., • Personality is the expression of this notion of self, i.e., how do I behave across the, situation based on my awareness of my being in the world., Let’s take an example—when I say ”I am one who easily gets hurt”. This description, of my ‘self’ leads to me being a very emotional, sensitive and touchy person. All my, interactions and relations with the world and vice-versa are related to traits-described, above what is called my ‘personality’., Q2. Explain the concept of self., Ans. • Self is an organized cognitive structure., • It refers to the totality of one’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings, with regard to himself or herself., • It is acquired and can be changed by the external environment., • It involves mental representation of one’s personal experiences and thought processes., • The self can be understood in terms of ‘I’ i.e., The subject and ‘Me’ i.e., the object., The ‘I’ aspect of self is the lower ‘Knower’ whereas the ‘Me’ aspect is the ‘Known’., e.g. “I am a teacher” is my ‘I’ whereas getting knowledge from any source gives me, pleasure, is my ‘Me’., • Self has two components one real self and another ideal self. Real or possible self, is what we might become or should become an ideal self is what we aspire or want to, achieve., • We are not born with the notion of our ‘self’. It starts developing at the age of two, years, due to social interaction with parents, peers, teachers, relatives, etc., Q3. Distinguish between source traits and surface traits. Give suitable examples., , (CBSE 2008), Ans. • Raymond Cattell applied a statistical technique called factor analysis., • He emphasized that each individual has a common structure of personality, which is, unique to each individual., • He found 16 primary/source traits., Source Traits:, • Source traits are the more basic traits with opposing tendencies., • They are the building blocks of personality and are largely stable because they, develop step by step., , Self and Personality, , 75
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Example – Aggression – source trait., Surface Traits: Surface traits are caused by the interaction of source traits. These, traits are somewhat unstable and observable. Raymond B. Cattell described them in, terms of opposing tendencies, such as cool verses warm, dominant verses passive, etc., According to Cattell, ways of expressing aggression differ among different individuals, and its root lies in source trait of aggression., Q4. Distinguish between cardinal, central and secondary traits proposed by Allport using, suitable examples., (CBSE 2008), Ans. All port distinguished between cardinal, central and secondary traits – all these traits, form a hierarchy., Cardinal Traits: These are the traits which are so dominant that nearly all of the, individual’s actions can be traced back to them., • These are highly generalized dispositions. If a person’s whole life seems to be, organized around the goal of achievement, it becomes a cardinal trait of his or her, personality. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence, Mother Teressa’s humanitarianism, are examples of cardinal traits., Central Traits: All port described them as characterizing an individual’s behaviour to, some extent but not in a complete way as cardinal traits., • These are less generalized disposition in comparison to cardinal traits., • He described central traits as those that might be mentioned in a letter of, recommendations or certification., For Example: Honest, calm, talkative, touchy, etc., Secondary Traits: These are the traits that exert relatively weak and limited effects, on the behaviour. These are least generalized characteristics of the person like ‘likes, chocolates’ or ‘prefer foreign cars’. These traits can be changed over time., All port proposed that the way a person reacts in situations depends on his traits., However, people sharing the same trait may express it in different ways., Q5. What are the broad dimensions of personality proposed by H.J. Eysenck?, (CBSE 2008), Ans. • H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced to two dimensions., • These dimensions are presumed to be biologically and genetically based., • They are opposed to each other. These dimensions include numerous specific traits., These dimensions are as follows:, — Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability:, • It refers to the degree to which people have control over their feelings., • At one extreme of this dimension are highly neurotic people., • They are anxious, moody, touchy, restless and quickly loose control., • People, who are calm, even-tempered, reliable and remain under control, occupy the, other extreme., — Extroversion vs. Introversion:, • It refers to the extent to which people are socially outgoing or socially withdrawn., • At one extreme are those who are active, gregarious, impulsive and thrill-seeking., • At other extremes are the people who are passive, quiet, cautious and reserved., — Psychotism vs. Sociability: A third dimension was developed by Eysenck, later. This dimension results due to interaction with the above-mentioned two, , 76, , Psychology—XII
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dimensions. A person who scores high on psychotism dimension tends to be, hostile, ego-centric and anti-social., Sociability refers to tendency of individual to follow social norms., Q6. Discuss five-factor model of personality., Ans. Paul Costa and Robert MacCrae have done extensive research on all the possible, personality traits. They found that all the findings indicate a set of five-factors. They are, often called ‘Big Five’. These factors are described below:, 1. Openness to Experience: Those who score high on this factor are imaginative,, curious, open to new ideas and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, low, scoring persons are rigid., 2. Extroversion: It characterizes people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing,, talkative, and fun a loving. It is the opposite of shy, timid and socially withdrawn., 3. Agreeableness: This factor represents the traits of people who are helpful, cooperative, friendly, caring and nurturing. It is the opposite of hostile and being selfcentered., 4. Neuroticism: People scouring high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious,, worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. Its opposite is well adjusted., 5. Conscientiousness: Those who display a high degree of this factor are achievementoriented, dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking, self-controlled. Its, opposite is impulsivity., Q7. What is self-actualization?, Ans. Maslow proposed the concept of self-actualization. He proposed that human needs exist, in a hierarchy, ascending from the basic biological and safety needs to the more complex, psychological motivations to the final highest need at the top self-actualization., , By self-actualization he meant:, (i) The development of full individuality, with all parts of the personality in, harmony., (ii) It is a state in which individuals have attained their fullest true potential., (iii) It is the basic motivating force., (iv) It is a tendency towards fulfilment, towards actualization, towards the, maintenance and enhancement of the organism. As the organism grows it seeks, to fulfil its potential within the limits of its heredity., Q8. What are the three levels of consciousness as proposed by Freud? How unconscious is, important?, Ans. Freud proposed three levels of consciousness or awareness:, Conscious: This includes our current thoughts whatever we are thinking about or, experiencing at a given moment., Preconscious: Beneath the conscious is the much larger preconscious. This contains, memories that are not the part of current thoughts but can be easily accessible with a, moment’s reflection. For example, what we had for breakfast or our parents, first names., Unconscious: Beneath the preconscious and forming the bulk of human mind is the, unconscious., (i) It includes thoughts, desires and impulses of which we remain largely unaware., (ii) Freud believed that much of it was once conscious but has been actively repressed—, driven from consciousness because it was too anxiety-provoking. For example,, , Self and Personality, , 77
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Freud contended that shameful experiences or unacceptable sexual or aggressive, urges are often driven deep within the unconscious., (iii) The process of repression is itself unconscious and automatic. We do not choose to, repress an idea or impulses, it just happens., (iv) The fact that we are not aware of them, however in no way prevents them from, affecting our behaviour. They continue to operate underground, often converting, the repressed conflict into anxiety or even psychological disorders., (v) It is storehouse of repressed libidinal energy., Q9. What are defense mechanisms? Discuss few defense mechanisms. , (CBSE 2008, Delhi Board 2014), Ans. • According to Dr. Sigmund Freud defense mechanisms are ways in which the ego, unconsciously tries to cope with unacceptable libidinal desires and resolves conflicts., • In simple words, Ego defense mechanism are ways of resolving the conflict by, distorting the reality unconsciously., • It distorts reality to resolve conflicts and therefore provides temporary relief., • Its optimum use is healthy but excessive usage lead to maladjustment., • Defense mechanisms are regulated by the ego. It is different from lying because, lying is intentional but use of defense mechanism is unconscious., Some important defense mechanisms are as follows:, 1. Repression: In this type of defence mechanism, anxiety-provoking behaviours or, thoughts are totally dismissed by the unconscious., • People become totally unaware of that wish or desire when they have repressed it., When a person says, “I do not know why I did that.”, • Repression may be referred as unconscious forgetting. It is the basic defence, mechanism., • It is unconscious forgetting., 2. Regression: It occurs when a person’s resolutions of problems at any stage of, development is less than adequate., • It is going back to good old golden days of childhood., 3. Displacement: Redirective an impulse towards a less threatening or safer target., 4. Projection: People attribute their own traits, attitudes or subjective processes to others., A person who has strong aggressive tendencies may see other people as acting in an, excessively aggressive way towards him., • It is blaming others for ones own conflicts, anxieties and guilt., 5. Denial: A person totally refuses to accept the reality. Someone suffering from HIV/AIDS, may altogether deny his/her illness., 6. Reaction Formation: Person denies a disapproved motive through giving strong, expression to its opposite. e.g., a person with strong sexual urges, who channels his/her, energy into religious activities, presents a classical example of reaction formation., 7. Rationalization: A person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour seem, reasonable and acceptable. When a student buys a set of new pens after doing poorly in, an examination, he/she may try to rationalize his/her behaviour by asserting, “I will do, much better with these pens.”, • It is giving good excuses and basically using ‘sour grape phenomena’., Q10. How do the post Freudians differ from Freud?, Ans. Many brilliant students and colleague of Freud disagree with Freud on several issues, like biological determination of human behaviour and Freud but too much emphasis, , 78, , Psychology—XII
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on libido as a source of energy. According to these scholars, human personality is, basically socially determined. On such issues they separated themselves from Freud and, proposed their own theories although they believed in other postulates of Freud. These, psychologists were known as post Freudians., They disagreed with Freud particularly on the following views:, — They have given attention to social determinants of personality and conscious, reality instead of Freud’s biological determinism., — They put less emphasis on the importance of general sexual urges or libidinal, energy., — They have extended personality development beyond childhood to include the entire, life-span., — The ego is viewed as the seat of creativity, planning and the formation of selffulfilling goals., Q11. Explain behaviouristic approach of personality development. , (CBSE 2013 Outside Delhi), Ans. Behaviourists Approach of Personality:, • This theory of personality was originally developed by J.B. Watson, an American, psychologist., • This approach does not give importance to the internal dynamics, i.e.,, intrapsychic conflicts of behaviour., • Behaviourist believed in data which is definable, observable and measurable., They studied only the overt manifestation of behaviour., • They focus on learning of stimulus-response connections and their, reinforcement., • According to behaviourists, response is the structural unit of personality., • The response which is positively reinforced, i.e., satisfies the needs is repeated again, and again and thus becomes a habit., • Personality is simply a bundle of habits., • Personality is not biologically determined, it is learnt and acquired through, experience., • This learning occurs through Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning, Skinner’s, Operant Conditioning and Bandura’s Observational Learning., Q12. Explain cultural approach of personality., Ans. Cultural Approach of Personality:, • This approach explains personality in terms of individual ecology and cultural, environment., • Individual personality is determined by Group Economic Maintenance System., • Personality is very much influenced by climatic conditions, availability of food,, availability of employment and nature of terrain etc., • The Economic Maintenance System determines people’s economic activities,, settlement patterns, social structures, division of labour and other features, like child-rearing practices., • Individual psycho-physical system, skills, behavioural styles and value, priorities are determined by the rituals, ceremonies, religious practices,, art, games, etc., , Self and Personality, , 79
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• People develop various personality qualities in an attempt to adapt to the, ecological and cultural features of a group’s life., There may be two groups belonging to two different types of cultures:, 1. Birhor Society: Children of this society are allowed from an early age to move, into the forest and learn hunting and gathering skills independently. Thus, children from this society get freedom, autonomy and achievement oriented, from childhood., 2. Agricultural Societies: Children are socialized to be obedient to elders,, nurturing to youngsters and responsible to their duties., , V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA : 6 Marks ), , Q1. Describe the type approach to personality., (Delhi Board 2008), Ans. Type theories assume that people can be classified into a few categories or types on, the basis of certain characteristics they possess. These categories do not overlap and, represent a class of individuals said to share a common collection of characteristics., Following are the main type theories:, 1. Theory of Tridoshas: Charak Samhita of Ayurveda or the Indian science of, medicine classifies people on the basis of three elements called ‘Dashas’ i.e., vata,, pitta and kapha—each of these refer to a type of temperament of the person., (a) Kapha (Water) Element: It is produced by the joint action of Jala (water) and, Prithvi (earth)., (b) Vata (Air) Element: Vata is produced by an interaction of Akasha (ether) and, Vayu (air)., (c) Pitta (Fire) Element: Pitta emerges out of an interaction of Vayu and Agni., 2. Theory of Trigunas: According to Upnishad there are three types of personalities, based on virtues (gunas), (a) Sattva: Sattva Guna includes virtues like truthfulness, detachment, discipline,, sharp intelligence, self-control and spirituality., (b) Rajas: Rajas Guna includes some worldly attributes, like desire for sense, gratification, and materialistic mentality etc. They are creative and jealous., (c) Tamas: Tamas Guna consists of all the vices of the world, mental imbalance,, anger, arrogance, lazyness, etc., 3. Hippocrates, a Greek physician known as ‘father of modern medicine’ classified, personality on the basis of humours, fluids, temperament which are as follows:, (a) Sanguine: cheerful, active and optimistic., (b) Phlegmatic: touchy, sluggish, calm and apathetic., (c) Melancholic: sad, brooding and morose., (d) Choleric: irritable, hot-tempered and excitable., 4. Sheldon has classified personality on the basis of body constitution., (a) Endomorphic: They are fat, soft and round and are relaxed and sociable, fond, of eating and pleasure-loving., (b) Mesomorphic: They have strong muscular structure, have rectangular and, strong body built. They are energetic and courageous, outgoing, assertive and, dominating., , 80, , Psychology—XII
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(c) Ectomorphic: They are thin, long and fragile in body built. They are brainy,, artistic, introvert and are fond of solitude and inward-looking., 5. Carl Jung grouped all people into:, (a) Introverts: They are socially withdrawn, passive, quiet cautious and reserved., (b) Extroverts: Socially outgoing, talkative, impulsive and thrill-seeking., 6. Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman (1974) identified psychological variables, related to heart disease and suggested that individuals can be grouped into two, personality types:, (a) Type–A: Type–A, coronary-prone behaviour pattern, is characterized by high, motivation, impatience and hyperactivity. They are always in hurry, over, burdened with work, competitive and never satisfied., (b) Type–B: Type B, neutral behaviour pattern, is characterized by an easy-going,, non-competitive and relaxed life-style., 7. More recently researches by Moris have suggested ‘Type–C’ and ‘Type–D’ personality., (a) Type–C personalities are cancer-prone and characterized by unassertiveness,, suppression of anger and compliance with external authorities just to avoid, confrontation., (b) Type–D personalities are mostly pessimist and prone to develop depression., Q2. Discuss Freud’s psycho-analytic theory of personality., Ans. • One of the most comprehensive approaches to personality and its development was, formulated by Sigmund Freud., • According to him behaviour is determined by the interplay of events and conflicts, within the inner life of the individual is central to his approach., Following are the postulates of psycho-analytic theory:, (i) Levels of Consciousness: Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg., — The small part that shows above the surface of the water is conscious. It, is individuals awareness. Beneath this conscious realm is the much larger, Preconscious which contains information that is not currently on our mind, but we could bring into consciousness if called upon to do so., — Finally beneath the preconscious and forming the bulk of the iceberg below, the water is the Unconscious which is a storehouse of desires, impulses and, inaccessible memories which affect our thoughts and behaviour., (ii) Structure of Personality: Freud divided personality into three major systems –, Id, Ego and Super ego—that interact to govern human behaviour., ID: Id is the most primitive part of the personality, it is the storehouse of all basic, primitive needs. Id works on pleasure principle and seeks immediate gratification, of the impulses., Ego: Ego is the reality based aspect of self. It develops out of Id. It is governed, by the reality principle – the gratification of impulses must be delayed until the, situation is appropriate., SUPER EGO: It is the inner voice of thoughts and should nots. It is the values, and morals of society and comprises the individual’s conscience., (iii) Ego-defense Mechanism: When conflicts among Id, ego and the super ego is not, resolved then the ego experiences anxiety, intense feeling of nervousness, tension, and worry. According to Freud the ego uses defence mechanism for the maintenance, of the self., , Self and Personality, , 81
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Q3. Discuss psycho-sexual stages of development., Ans. Stages of Personality/Psycho-sexual Development (Five Stage Theory of, Personality), • The core aspects of personality are established early, remain stable throughout life,, and can be changed only with great difficulty., • Problems encountered at any stage may arrest development, and have long-term, effect on a person’s life., Stage, , Age, , Pleasure-seeking, Centre, , Development, , Oral, , Infancy, , Mouth, (feeding, Basic feelings about the world are established., thumb sucking), , Anal, , 2-3 years, , Anus (experience, pleasure in moving, their bowels), , (i) Learns to respond to demands of society., (ii) Basis for conflict between the Id (desire for, babyish pleasure) and the ego (demand for, adult, controlled behaviour)., , Phallic, , 4-5 years, , Phallus, , (i) Begin to realize the differences between males, and females., (ii) Become aware of sexuality and the sexual, relationship between their parents., , Latency, , 7-Puberty, , Genital, , Puberty+, , (i) Grows physically, but sexual urges are, relatively inactive., (ii) Energy is channelled into social or achievement, related activities, Genitals, , Oedipus Complex (Male), , (i) Attains maturity in psychosexual development, (ii) Sexuality, fears and repressed feelings of, earlier stages are once again exhibited, (iii) Learn to deal with members of the opposite sex, in a socially and sexually mature way, , Electra Complex (Female), , Love for the mother, hostility towards the father, Attaches her love to the father and tries to, and fear of punishment or castration by the father. symbolically marry him and raise a family., Accepts his father’s relationship with his mother Identifies with her mother and copies her, and models his own behaviour after his father., behaviour as a means of getting (or sharing, in) her father’s affection., , Q4. Evaluate psycho-analytical theory of personality critically., Ans. • Many psycho-analytical concepts are vague and not operationally defined and the, hypotheses derived from them can not be tested. Thus, much of the theory is difficult, to evaluate scientifically., • Several of Freud’s postulates are not consistent with the findings of modern, research—for instance his ideas about the meaning of dreams., , 82, , Psychology—XII
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• The theory is based on a small number of clinical case studies especially of upper class, women, which cannot be considered as representative of human beings generally., • This theory is criticized for having male-centered perspective and it views women as, more sensitive and dependent on men., • The theory has been criticized for over-emphasis on sexual desires of Id because, social and cultural factors also influence personality development., However some aspects of Freud’s theory continue to gain acceptance as they are modified, and improved through empirical scrutiny. e.g., role of childhood experience in personality, development is being recognized., Q5. Discuss post Freudian approach to personality., Ans. Post Freudian Approach: Post Freudians are those psychologists who separated, themselves from Freud on two basic issues:, • Biological determinism, i.e., life instinct and death instinct regulate human, behaviour., • Freud’s too much emphasis on libido as a source of energy., 1. Carl Jung:, • He developed his own theory, i.e., analytical psychology., • Basic assumption—personality consists of competing forces within the individual, rather than between the individuals., — According to Jung, individual’s aims and aspiration are the source of energy., • Jung proposed a concept of Collective Unconsciousness, i.e., inherited part of the, unconscious., • It contains archetypes, i.e., Premordial Images. These images are not individually, acquired but are inherited. e.g., the concept of God or fear of darkness., • They gave a less prominent role to sexual and aggressive tendencies of the ID, and expansion of the concept of EGO. They emphasized human qualities like, creativity. Libido is not the source of energy., 2. Alfred Adler:, • His theory is known as Individual Psychology., • Basic assumption–human behaviour is purposeful and goal directed., • Personal goals are the source of our motivation like dominance and status. , • These goals provide us security and help us in overcoming feelings of inadequacy/, inferiority., • According to Adler, every individual suffers from the feeling of inferiority which, arises during the childhood., • Overcoming this inferiority is essential for optimum personality development., 3. Karen Horney:, • She said we are social beings., • She adopted the optimistic view of human life with emphasis on human growth, and self-actualization., • She was opposed to Freud’s gender discrimination., • According to her, each sex has equal attributes and gender differences are socially, determined not biologically., • She argued that psychological disorders were caused by disturbed interpersonal, relationships during childhood., , Self and Personality, , 83
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• Due to faulty rearing practices, the child develops basic anxiety which leads, to feeling of isolation and helplessness among children and interferes with their, healthy development., 4. Erich Fromm:, • He viewed human beings as basically socially beings who could be understood in, terms of their relationship with others., • He argued that psychological qualities such as growth and self-actualization occur, from a desire of freedom and striving for justice and truth., • According to him, personality develops from our experiences with other individuals., 5. Erik Erikson:, • He believed that personality development is a continuous social process., • He gave the concept of identity during adolescence., • His theory lays stress on rational, conscious ego processes in personality development., • He proposed eight stages of development on the basis of pshycho-social development., • Development starts at the process of conception till death., Q6. Discuss various projective techniques to assess personality., Ans. The projective techniques were developed to assess personality based on the psychoanalytic theory of personality. Some of the projective techniques are:, 1. The Rorschach Inkblot Test:, • A German psychiatrist, Herman Rorschach developed this technique., • This test consists of 10 symmetrical unstructured Inkblots. Five of them are black, and white and five are coloured., • The cards are individually administered., • The test is divided into two phases:, (a) Performance proper: In this phase, the person is asked what can he make, out of the card and in the second phase., (b) Inquiry: In this phase the person is asked to explain his responses. The, interpretation requires training., 2. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):, • The test was developed by Morgan and Murray in 1935., • It consists of a series of 30 unstructured picture cards and one blank card. Some, cards are for males (M), some for females (F), and some for boys (B) and girls or, combination., • The cards are presented one at a time., • The person is asked to write a story involving whatever is shown on the cards, including why this is occurred, who are these people, what are they doing end will, be the and of this story., 3. Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study (The P-F Study):, • This test was developed by Rosenzweig., • This test uses frustration and aggression as the main focus., • It presents a series of cartoons in which one cartoon frustrates another., • The analysis of response is based on type and direction of aggression. They are, obstacle dominance (emphasis on the frustrating object), ego defence (emphasis, on protection of the frustrated person) and need persistence (emphasis on the, constructive solution of the problem)., , 84, , Psychology—XII
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• Its Indian adaptation developed by Pareek is also available., • Sentence Completion Test: In this test a number of stems consisting of a few, words are presented. The task is to complete the sentence, e.g. my father…. It is, expected that the type of ending used reflects the motivation, conflicts and attitudes, of the person., • Draw-A-Person Test: The examinee in this test is asked to draw a person, and, then he/she is asked to draw the figure of another person of opposite sex., • Finally the examinee is required to make up a story about the person as if he/she, were a character in a novel or a play., ‘Machover’ has used it for personality assessment using psycho-dynamic approach to, analyse the drawings., Q7. How personality can be assessed through behavioural analysis?, , (Delhi Board 2010), , Ans. Personality of a person can be assessed though behavioural analysis by using, observational report which contains data from the following., 1. Interview:, • It involves interacting with the person being assessed and asking certain questions., It is of two types—unstructured interview and structure interview., • The interviewer asks certain amount of questions and develops an impression., • The answers given by the person are assessed and tell quite a lot about the, personality of the person., • The interviewer asks certain specific questions and it is done in a set procedure., • This is done to make objective comparison of the people being interviewed., 2. Observation:, It is a sophisticated method and cannot be carried out by untrained people. It requires, careful training of the observer. Even though the technique is frequently used but has, its own limitations., Limitations of Observation, • It is professional training is required for collection of data., • It is a time-consuming method., • Maturity of the psychologist is required for obtaining valid data., • Presence of the observer may contaminate results thus leading to manipulation of, information., 3. Behavioural Ratings:, • Behavioural rating are used to assess personality in educational and industrial, settings., • They put people in categories in terms of their behavioural qualities which may, involve different numbers or descriptive terms., • These are device by which a rater can record his judgment of another person or of, himself on the traits defined by the scale., • The statements rating scales may create confusion therefore traits should be clearly, defined., For the success of raters familiarity of the event is important., , Self and Personality, , 85
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4. Nomination:, • Nomination is used to obtain peer assessment., • Here each person is asked to choose one or more persons of the group with whom he/, she likes to work, study, play, etc., • The choosers are asked reasons for his/her choice., • This is highly reliable method and thus tells us about the behavioural qualities of, the person., 5. Situational Tests:, • Most common is the situational stress test which provides information about how a, person behaves in a particular situation in stressful situation., • This test involves role playing., • The situation given may be a realistic or a created one through a video play., , TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Tendency of respondent to enclose uterus in socially desirable manner is known as:, (a) Acquiescence , (b) Self report, (b) Social desirability , (d) Halo effect, 2. Tendency to put individuals in the extreme positions is called ___________ bias., , (Delhi Board 2013), 3. When a person tries to make unreasonable feelings/behaviours seem reasonable and, acceptable it is known as ____________, (Delhi Board 2012), 4. Individuals having high motivation, lack of patience and who are always in a hurry are, characterised as type _________ Personality., (Delhi Board 2011), 5. Dismissing anxiety provoking behaviours or thoughts from the consciousness is known, as:, (Delhi board 2011), (a) Projection, (b) Rationalisation (c) Repression, (d) Denial, 6. Type–D Personality is characterised by proneness to _________., , (Delhi Board 2010 outside), 7. In _______ defense mechanism people attribute their own traits to others., , (Delhi Board 2010), 8. Attributes of a person that make him different from others is referred to as __________, identity., (Delhi Board 2008), , Part-B, 9. Distinguish between personal self and social self., 10. Explain the notion of self-efficacy., 11. Use an example to explain fixation and regression., 12. How did Maslow define self-actualization?, 13. What do you understand by social identity?, , 86, , Psychology—XII, , (Delhi Board 2011)
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14. Who proposed the theory of Individual Psychology? What are its basic assumptions?, 15. What is self-regulation?, 16. What is meant by Personal identity., , (Delhi Board 2011 Outside Delhi), , Part-C, 17. What are the features of Personality?, 18. How does the ecological and cultural environment affect personality?, 19. Explain interactional approach to personality., 20. Give two limitations of behavioural rating., , Part-D, 21. Distinguish between self-efficacy and self-regulation., 22. Critically examine the psycho-dynamic theory of personality., 23. Discuss any two self report measures of assessing personality., 24. Explain Humanistic Approach to Personality., , (Delhi Board 2012, 2010, 2013), , 25. Differentiate between personal self and social self giving examples., 26. How is assessment of personality done using indirect techniques?, 27. What is the Five-Factor Model of Personality?, 28. Explain Behavioural rating used in assessment of personality., , (Delhi Board 2014), , Part-E, 29. What is meant by delay of gratification? Discuss the techniques used for self control? , (CBSE 2011), 30. What do you understand by personality? Explain assessment of personality using, behavioural analysis., (Delhi Board 2011), 31. Why do we need to assess personality? What are the major forms of personality, assessment?, 32. How does trait approach differ from type approach?, 33. State the common features of projective techniques. Describe any one projective, technique., 34. Explain the concept the personality. Discuss main propositions of humanistic approach, to personality., 35. Explain Ego defence mechanism illustrate with examples projection as a defence, mechanism., (Delhi Board 2014), , , , Self and Personality, , 87
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3, , Human Strengths and, Meeting Life Challenges, , FACTS THAT MATTER, Basic features of stress:, Stress is a part of life. Stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but an ongoing, transactional process between the individual and the environment., Life is full of challenges. Such as challenges posed by examination to students, challenges, about a carrier, think of a child who loses his/her parents, a young women who loses her, husband in an accident or children who are physically or mentally challenged and so on., All of us try to meet these challenges in our own way., Life challenges are not necessarily stressful. Much depends how a challenge is viewed., Stress is like electricity which provides energy but too high or too little energy, becomes, hazardous. Similarily too much stress or too little stress have adverse effect for our well being,, optimum stress is healthy., Stress have two levels: Eustress–that is good, healthy, positive inspiring and motivating., Distress: It is negative, unhealthy de motivating and causes our body’s wear and tear., • Nature of stress: The word stress has its origin in the latin word ‘strictus’, meaning, tight or narrow and stringer, the verb meaning to tighten., These root words reflect the internal feelings of tightness and constriction of muscles and, breathing, a common sign of stress., The reaction of external stressor is called strain., Stress functions as a causes as well as effects., Hans selye, the father of modern stress researches, defined stress as ‘the non specific, response of the body to any demand.’, Many researchers do not agree with selye on his concept of general and non specific, responses. They believe that different individuals may have different characteristic modes, of responses., • According to lazarus stress is cognitive process. It is not outside, it is in the thinking and, perception of the individual., • Signs and symptoms of stress: There are individual differences in coping pattern of, stress response and therefore the warning signals or signs also vary in its intensity., The signs of stress are very much dependent on how individual views them or its dimension, i.e. Intensity duration, predictability or complexity., The warning signs and its manifestation as symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional,, cognitive and behavioural., • Life Challenges and adjustment: Life is a big challenge. It presents a continuous chain, of struggle for existence and survival for example if one aspires to join civil services, one, works very hard but is not selected one may change one’s goal and feel inclined to join, lecturership in any university., By restoring to such means one protects ones self from the possible injury to ones ego,, failure or frustration. It is sort of shifting to more defensive position in order to face the, challenge of circumstances after getting failure in earlier attempt or attempts., This special virtue and strength of the living organism is termed as adjustment., , 88, , Psychology—XII, , 88
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“Adjustment is a process by which living organism maintains a balance between its need, and the circumstances that influence the satisfaction of these needs.”, • Different stressors may produce different patterns of stress reaction., • Stress is embedded in the ongoing process that involves individuals interacting with, their social and cultural environment. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive state. It is, a disruption in homeostasis/imbalance that gives rise to resolution of the imbalance/, restoration of homeostasis., • Perception of stress is dependent on an individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and, the resources available to deal with them., Primary Appraisal: Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing, environment as positive, neutral or negative in its consequences. Negative events are, appraised for their possible harm, threat or challenge., (i) Harm appraisals is the assessment of the damage that has already been done by an, event., (ii) Threat appraisals is the assessment of possible future damage that may be brought, about by the event., (iii) Challenge appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability, to cope with the stressful event, the potential to overcome and even profit from the, event., Secondary Appraisal: Secondary appraisal refers to that assessment of one’s coping, abilities resources and whether they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge, of the event. These resources may be mental, physical, personal or social. If he/she thinks, one has a positive attitude, health, skills and social support to deal with the crises, he/she, will feel less stressed., Appraisals are very subjective and will depend on many factors:, (i) Past experience of dealing with such a stressful condition: If one has handled, similar situations very successfully in the past, they would be less threatening for, him/her., (ii) Whether the stressful event is perceived as controllable, i.e., whether one has mastery, or control over a situation., REACTIONS OF STRESS, 1. Physiological: Arousal plays a key role in stress related behaviours., The hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways:, (i) The first pathway involves the autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland, releases large amount of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the, blood stream. This leads to physiological changes seen in fight-or-flight response., (ii) The second pathway involves the pituitary gland which secrets the corticosteroid, (cortisol) which provides energy., 2. Emotional reaction of Stress: Negative emotions such as fear, anxiety, embarrassment,, anger, depression or even denial., 3. Behavioural reaction of Stress: Depending on the nature of the stressful event;, confrontative action against the stressor (fight) or withdrawal from the threatening event, (flight)., 4. Cognitive reaction of Stress: Beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses, its, causes or controllability. These include responses such as inability to concentrate, and, intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 89
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Stresses which people experience also vary in terms of intensity (low intensity vs. high, intensity), duration (short term vs. long term), complexity (less complex vs. more, complex) and predictability (unexpected vs. predictable)., Types of Stress, A. Physical and Environmental Stress: Demands that change the state of our body, (overexert ourselves physically, lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, or fail to get, enough sleep)., Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable, such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the summer, winter cold, disasters., B. Psychological Stress: These are stresses that we generate ourselves in our minds., These are personal and unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources, of stress. We worry about problems, feel anxiety, or become depressed., (i) Frustration results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or someone, that hinders us from achieving a desired goal (social discrimination, low grades)., (ii) Conflicts may occur between two or more incompatible need or motives., , Pressure (Exceptations), (a) Internal pressure stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to, ourselves, (b) Social pressure may be brought about from people who make excessive demands, on us. Also, there are people with whom we face interpersonal difficulties., C. Social stress: Social stress is caused due to social interaction., Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, trouble with, neighbours, rapid social change, poverty, discrimination, poor societal conditions are example, of social stress., SOURCES OF STRESS, There vary widely from person to person., 1. Life Events: Major life events can be stressful, because they disturb our routine and, cause upheaval. If several of these life events that are planned (e.g., moving into a new, house) or unpredicted (e.g., break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short, period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to the, symptoms of stress., 2. Hassles: Personal stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings in our daily, life. These daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the individual, who is often the one coping alone with them as others may not even be aware of them as, outsiders., 3. Traumatic Events: Variety of extreme events (fire, train or road accident, robbery,, earthquake, tsunami). The effects of these events may occur after some lapse of time and, sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and intrusive thoughts,, etc. Severe trauma can also strain relationships. Professional help will be needed to cope, with them., Effects of Stress of Psychological Functioning and Health, 1. Emotional Effects: Experience mood swings, show erratic behaviour that may alienate, them from family and friends, start a vicious circle of decreasing confidence, leading to, more serious emotional problems., 2. Physiological Effects: Increases the production of certain hormones, such as adrenaline, and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart-rate, blood-pressure, levels, metabolism and physical activity. Helps us function more effectively when we are, under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the body in the, long-term effects., , 90, , Psychology—XII
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3. Cognitive Effects: If pressures due to stress continue, one may suffer from mental, overload. This suffering from high level of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose, their ability to make sound decisions, poor concentration, and reduced short-term memory, capacity., 4. Behavioural Effects: Disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism , reduced work, performance., Burn out: State of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion., Stress and health: Stress may play a role in 50 to 70% of all physical illness, primarily, through its effect on the immense system., By draining out resources and keeping us off balance physiological, stress upsets our, complex internal chemistry., It may interfere with efficient operation of our immune system–the mechanism through, which our body recognised and destroy potentially harmful substances and intruders such, as bacteria, virus and fungi known as antigens. When stress is prolonged, it affects physical, health and impairs psychological functioning., The physical exhaustion fatigue, in the signs of chromic fatigue weakness and low energy., The mental exhaustion appears in the form of irritability, anxiety, feeling of helplessness and, hopelessness., This state of physical emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as burnout which, leads to poor health., General Adaptation Syndrome given by Hans Selye:, 1. Alarm Reaction Stage: The presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation, of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system. This triggers the release of hormones producing, the stress response. Now the individual is ready for fight or flight., 2. Resistance Stage: If stress is prolonged, the resistance stage begins. The parasympathetic, nervous system calls for more cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes, efforts to cope with the threat, as through confrontation., 3. Exhaustion stage: Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains, the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of exhaustion. The physiological, systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become ineffective and susceptibility, to stress-related diseases such as high blood-pressure becomes more likely., Criticisms of GAS: Assigning a very limited role to psychological factors in stress., Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain, the, immune system., How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leckocytes) within the, immune (antigens) such as viruses leads to the production of antibodies., (i) T cells: destroy invaders, T-helper cells increase immunological activity (attacked by, HIV)., (ii) B cell: produce antibodies., (iii) Natural killer cells: involve in the fight against both viruses and tumours., Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the, defence against various infections and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer cell, cytotoxicity have been found in people who are highly stressed. Stressed individuals, may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing, physical illness., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 91
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Stress and life style: Researches are indicating that the current leading causes of, premature deaths are attributable to a significant degree to characteristics that makeup each, persons life style., Life style refers to the overall patterns of decision and behaviours that determine health, and quality of life., Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to pathogens which are, agents causing illness. Stressed people have poor nutritional habits, steep less and are likely, to engage in smoking and alcholial abuse., Researches revealed that health promoting behaviour like balanced diet, regular exercise,, family support etc play important role in good health., Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses, to stressful situations or events that are intended to resolve the problem and reduce, stress., Endler and Parker:, 1. Task-oriented Strategy: Obtaining information about the stressful situation and about, alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; deciding priorities and acting so, as to deal directly with the stressful situation., 2. Emotion-oriented Strategy: Efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotion;, venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done to change, things., 3. Avoidance-oriented Strategy: Denying or minimizing the seriousness of the situation;, conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement by self protective, thoughts., Lazarus and Folkman:, 1. Problem-focused strategies attack the problem itself, with behaviours designed to, gain information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. They increase, the person’s awareness, level of knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping, options. They can act to reduce the threat value of the event., 2. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit, the degree of emotional disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the, event itself., Stress Management Techniques:, 1. Relaxation Techniques: Reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of, illnesses such as high blood-pressure and heart diseases. Starts from the lower part of the, body and progresses up to the facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed., Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the body., 2. Meditation Procedures: A sequence of learned techniques for re focusing of attention, that brings about an altered state of consciousness. Such a thorough concentration that, the meditator becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state, of consciousness., 3. Bio-feedback: Monitors and reduces the physiological aspects of stress by providing, feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied by relaxation, training., (i) Developing an awareness of the particular physiological response., (ii) Learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions., (iii) Transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life., , 92, , Psychology—XII
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4. Creative Visualization: Creative visualization is a subjective experience that uses, imagery and imagination. Before visualizing one must set oneself a realistic goal, as it, helps build confidence. It is easier to visualize if one’s mind is quiet, body relaxed and eyes, are closed., 5. Cognitive Behavioural Techniques: These techniques aim to inoculate people against, stress. Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum., Replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and rational ones, i.e., Follow, through., (i) Assessment involves discussing the nature of the problem and seeing it from the, view-point of the person/client., (ii) Stress reduction involves learning the techniques of reducing stress such as, relaxation and self-instruction., 6. Exercise: can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced in, response to stress. Improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of the lungs,, maintains good circulation, lowers blood pressure, reduces fat in the blood, improves the, body’s immune system., Promoting, Positive, Health and Well-being., (a) Stress Resistant Personality (Kobasa):, People with high levels of stress but low levels of illness share three characteristics,, which are referred to as the personality traits of hardiness (a set of beliefs about, oneself, the world, and how they interact)., (i) Commitment (personal commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life)., (ii) Control (control over sense of purpose and direction in life)., (iii) Challenge (changes in life as normal and positive rather than as a threat)., (b) Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals, to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life., 1. Assertiveness: Helps to communicate clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is the ability to say ‘no’ to a request, to state an opinion without being, self-conscious, or to express emotions., 2. Time Management: Learning how to plan time and delegate can help to relieve the, pressure. The central principle of time management is to spend your tie doing the things, that you value, or that help you to achieve your goals., 3. Rational Thinking: When we are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective bias to attend, to negative thoughts and images from the past, which affect our perception of the present, and the future. Challenging your distorted thinking and irrational beliefs, driving, out potentially intrusive negative anxiety-provoking thoughts, and making positive, statements., 4. Improving Relationships: The key to a sound lasting relationship is communication., Listening to what the other person is saying, expressing how you feel and what you think,, and accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different from your, own., 5. Self-care: If we keep ourselves healthy, firm and relaxed, we are better prepared, physically and emotionally to tackle the stresses of everyday life. Our breathing patterns, reflect our state of mind and emotions. Rapid and shallow breathing from high in the, chest, with frequent sighs., 6. Overcoming Unhelpful Habits: Unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, avoidance,, procrastination, etc. are strategies that help to cope in the short term but which make one, more vulnerable to stress., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 93
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1., 2., 3., , 4., , , , , , (c) Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual well-being,, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health comprises the, following constructs: “a healthy body; high quality of personal relationships; a sense, of purpose in life; self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks; and resilience to stress, trauma, and change.”, Diet: A balanced diet can life one’s mood, give more energy, feed muscles, improve, circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the immune system and make one feel better to, cope with stresses of life., Exercise: Regular exercise plays an important role in managing weight and stress, and, is shown to have a positive effect on reducing tension, anxiety and depression., Positive Attitude: Some of the factors leading to a positive attitude are—having a fairly, accurate perception of reality; a sense of purpose in life and responsibility; acceptance and, tolerance for different view-points of others, taking credit for success, accepting blame, for failure, being open to new ideas, having a sense of hour with the ability to laugh at, oneself., Positive Thinking: Optimism, which is the inclination to expect favourable life outcomes,, has been linked to psychological and physical well-being., (d) Social Support: The existence and availability of people on whom we can rely, upon, people who let us know that they care about, value, and love us. Perceived, support, i.e., the quality of social support is positively related to health and well, being, whereas social network, i.e., the quantity of social support is unrelated to, well-being, because it is very time-consuming and demanding to maintain a large, social network. Social support may be in the form of tangible support or assistance, involving material aid, such as money, goods, services, etc. Family and friends also, provide informational support about stressful events., Resilience and Health: Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the, maintenance of positive adjustment under challenging life conditions. It has been described, as the capacity to ‘bounce back’ in the face of stress and adversity. Resilience has, recently been defined in terms of three resources—I HAVE (social and interpersonal, strengths), I AM (inner strengths), I CAN (interpersonal and problem-solving skills)., Examination Anxiety (evaluative apprehension/stress) involves feelings of tension, or uneasiness that occur before, during or after an examination. Many people find it, helpful in some ways, as it can be motivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay, focused on one’s performance. High stress can interfere with the student’s preparation,, concentration and performance. Spend enough time for study, overview and weigh one’s, strengths and weaknesses, discuss difficulties with teacher and classmates, plan a, revision time-table, condense notes, space out revision periods, and most importantly on, the examination day concentrate on staying calm., , Adjustment and adaptation:, “Adjustment is a continuous process by which a person varies his behaviour to produce a, more harmonious relationship between himself and his environment.”, Adjustment helps us keeping balance between our need and the capacity to meet these, needs., Adjustment is a subjective process. It is always related to some object and it varies from, culture to culture., Adjustment is the end product of coping., Adaptation is structural or functional change that enhances the organisms survival value., • It is a biological mechanism., , 94, , Psychology—XII
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• In general adaptation is a term used in biological sciences for learning new ways for, survival where as adjustment is psychological process to cope with the demands of the self, and the environment., Contemporary Psychologists have shown increasing interest in understanding what makes, life good and meaningful., Positive Psychology systematically investigates the positive aspects that is the strengths, and virtues of human beings such as wisdom and knowledge [curiosity, love, emotional, intelligence etc], courage [Bravery, industry, integrity] justice [Loyalty, Equity, Leadership], Temerance [Self control, prudence, Modesty] Transcendence [Excellence gratitude, Hope,, optimism, zest]., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Adaptation: Structural or functional change that enhances the organism’s survival, value., • Alarm Reaction: The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome characterized by an, emergency reaction involving the mobilization of energy through adrenal and sympathetic, activity., • Appraisal: Refers to evaluation and interpretation., • Arousal: The tension experienced at the thought of others being present, and/or, performance being evaluated., • Conflict: A state of disturbance in which resulting from opposing motivates, drives, needs, or goals., • Coping: The process of trying to manage demands that are appraised as taxing or, exceeding one’s resources., • Exhaustion: State in which energy resources have been used up and responsiveness is, reduced to a minimum., • General Adaptation syndrome (GAS): It consists of two phases—an alarm phase, during which the organism makes efforts to cope with the threat, resistance phase during, which the organism makes efforts to cope with the threat as through confrontation and an, exhaustion phase which occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and depletes, its physiological resources., • Hardiness: It is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world, and how they interact. It has, three characteristics, i.e., commitment, control and challenge., • Homeostasis: A state of physiological balance within the body., • Life Skills: Abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enable individuals to deal, effectively with the environment., • Life style: In the context of health psychology, the overall pattern of decision and, behaviours that determine health and quality of life., • Meditation: A technique of turning one’s concentration inward and achieving an altered, state of consciousness., • Optimism: The tendency to seek out, remember and expect pleasurable experiences., • Positive Health: It includes a healthy body, good interpersonal relationship, a sense of, purpose in life, and resilience to stress, trauma and change., • Psychoneuroimmunology: Interaction among behavioural, neuroendocrine and, immunological processes of adaptation., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 95
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• Relaxation Training: A procedure in which clients are taught to release all the tension, in their bodies., • Resilience: The maintenance of positive adjustment under challenging life conditions., • Social Support: Social support in defused are the existence and availability of people on, whom we can rely upon, people who at us know that they care about, value and care us., • Stress: Our response to event that disrupts or threatens to disrupt our physical and, psychological functioning., • Stressors: Events or situations in our environment that cause stress., • Token Economy: Forms of behaviour therapy based on operant conditioning in which, hospitalized patients earn tokens, they can exchange valued rewards, when they behave, in ways the hospital staff considers to be desirable., • Eustress: The level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for, achieving peak performance and managing minor crises., • Distress: Latter manifestation of stress that causes our body’s wear and tear., • Strain: Reaction to external stressors., • Hans Selye (Father of modern stress research) defined stress as a non-specific response, of the body to any demands., • Social Support: Social support is defence as the existence and availability of people on, whom we can roly upon, people who let us know that they care about, value and core us., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life., Ans. The pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus event that disturbs the, equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. Origin in the Latin word ‘strictus’,, meaning tight/narrow and ‘stringere’ (to tighten). Stress may get manifested in two, forms :, (a) Eustress : The level of stress that is good for you and is one of a person’s best assets, for achieving peak performance and managing minor crises. This is positive, healthy, and inspiring., (b) Distress: Manifestation of stress that causes our body’s wear and tear. It is negative,, unhealthy and demotivating., Stressors: Events that cause our body to give the stress response. Whatever causes, stress is known as stressor., Strain: Reaction to external stressors is known as strain., Hans Selye (Father of modern stress research) defined stress as a non-specific response, of the body to any demands., Basic Features of Stress:, 1. Different stressors may produce different patterns of stress reaction., 2. Stress is embedded in the ongoing process that involves individuals interacting, with their social and cultural environment. Stress is a dynamic mental/cognitive, state. It is a disruption in homeostasis/imbalance that gives rise to resolution of, the imbalance/restoration of homeostasis., Perception of stress is dependent on an individual’s cognitive appraisal of events and, the resources available to deal with them., , 96, , Psychology—XII
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Q2. State the symptoms and sources of stress., Ans. • Everyone has higher own pattern of stress response. So the warning signs may vary,, as may their intensity., • Some of us know our pattern of stress response and can understand the depth of the, problem by the nature and severity of our own symptoms or changes in behaviour., • These symptoms of stress can be physical, emotional and behavioural., A wide range of events and conditions can generate stress; among the most important of, these are major stressful life events such as death of a loved one or personal injury, the, annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that affect our lives., (i) Recent Life Events:, • Changes, both big and small, sudden and gradual affect our life from the moment, we are born., • We learn to cope with small, everyday changes but major life events can be, stressful because they disturb our routine and cause trouble., • If several of these life events that are planned (e.g., moving into a new house), or unpredicted (e.g., break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short, period of time, we find it difficult to cope with them and will be more prone to the, symptoms of stress., (ii) Daily Hassles: There are daily hassles from which we have to cope like noisy, surroundings, quarrelsome neighbours, electricity and water shortage, traffic jams,, and so on., The more stressed people report as a result of daily hassles, the poorer is the, psychological well-being., (iii) Traumatic Events:, • These include being involved in a variety of extreme events such as fire, train or, road accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami, etc., • The effects of these events may occur after some lapse of time and sometimes, persist as symptoms of anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and intrusive thoughts etc., • Severe trauma can also strain relationships., Q3. Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an, example., Ans. Hans Selye’s GAS Model explains the influence of stress on the body., • From his studies, he found that there was a similar pattern of bodily responses in, animals to a variety of stressors., • According to Hans Selye, stress refer to non-specific bodily reactions. He believed, that stresses may be many but responses are only physiological reactions. Selye is, known as ‘father of modern stress researches’. He did many experiments on animals, in extreme climatic conditions as well as he observed chronic patients and concluded, that reaction of stress is the same., • On the basis of his experimental conclusions, he gave a pattern of stress reactions. He, called this pattern the General Adaptation Syndrome and it involves three stages:, 1. Alarm Reaction: The presence of a harmful stimulus or stressor leads to activation, of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex system., This triggers the release of hormones which produces the stress response and prepares, the individual for fight or flight., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 97
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2. Resistance: If stress is prolonged, the parasympathetic nervous system calls for more, cautious use of the body’s resources., During this stage, an individual makes an effort to cope with the threat., 3. Exhaustion: Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional stressors drains, the body of its resources and leads to burn out., The physiological systems involved in the first two stages become ineffective and, susceptibility to stress-related diseases like high blood-pressure increases., This model is widely criticized because it focuses only on physiological aspects of stress, and ignores the psychological dimension of stress., Q4. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress., Ans. Coping is a dynamic, situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of concrete responses, to stressful situations that are intended to resolve the problem and reduces stress., Endler and Parker gave following Coping Strategies:, 1. Task-oriented Strategy:, • It is goal management through confrontation with the problem., • This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation and making, best use of resources available., • It also involves prioritising and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful, situation., • Mostly it is used by optimists., Task-oriented strategies are particularly effective when the resources in the, environment are within the control of the individual., It is cognitive response to stress., 2. Emotion-Hyper oriented Strategy:, • It is emotion management., • This strategy involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions., Individual works on his emotions rather than situations and goals., • This mainly happens when the stressful event is such that it can not be, manipulated in any way eg. loss of spouse or a family member., • The individual deals with his emotions of anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness etc., and tries to gain hope and happiness again in his life., • It can also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration or deciding that, nothing can be done to change things., • Emotion oriented strategies are particularly effective when the resources in the, environment are beyond the controlled of the individual., , Avoidance–Hyper oriented strategy, • It is avoiding stressful event by indulging in different activities. Individual does, not want to accept that he is facing such a stressful situation., • This involves denying or minimising the seriousness of the situation., • It also involves conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and their replacement, by self protective thoughts., • Watching T.V., attending parties or going to sleep are example of this type of, coping., • It is basically escapism by using defense mechanisms., , 98, , Psychology—XII
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According to Lazarus and Folkman, coping responses can be divided into two, types of responses:, (a) Problem-Focused:, • It includes taking direct action to solve the problem., • It is seeking information that will be relevant to the solution for, e.g., developing, a study schedule to cope up with the semester demands and thereby reduce, examination pressure., • It is basically confronting with the problem using all the available resources., (b) Emotion-Focused: It refers to reduction of the negative emotional reaction to, stress. e.g., by distracting oneself from the problem, relaxing or seeking comfort from, others., Q5. Explain Behavioural effects of stress., , (CBSE 2013), Or, , , Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning., Ans. Physiological Effects: When the human body is placed under physical or psychological, stress, it increases the production of certain hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. It, causes:, • Changes in heart-rate, blood-pressure levels, metabolism and physical activity., • Slowing down of digestive system., • Constriction of blood vessels., Cognitive Effects: High levels of stress can lead to:, • Mental overload., • Impairment in the ability to make sound decision., • Poor concentration., • Reduced short term memory., Emotional Effects: Those who suffer from stress are more likely to experience:, • Mood swings., • Erratic behaviour., • Maladjustment with family and friends., • Feeling of anxiety and depression., • Increased physical and psychological tension., • Intolerance., • Impatience., Behavioural Effects: Stress affects our behaviour in the form of:, • Eating less nutritional food., • Increasing intake of stimulants such as caffeine or excessive consumption of, cigarettes, alcohol and drugs., • Disrupted sleep pattern., • Reduced work performance., Q6. Describe how life skills can help meet life’s challenges., Ans. Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enables individual to, deal effectively with stressful situations., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 99
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Few such skills are as follows:, , (i) Assertiveness:, • It helps to communicate, clearly and confidently, our feelings, needs, wants and, thoughts., • It is ability of an individual to say ‘no’ to a request which is against his wishes., • If one is assertive then he or she feels confident high self-esteem and maintains, his/her identity., (ii) Time Management:, • Learning time management determines quality of life., • It is setting the priorities, goals and values in life., Each day making list of things one wants to accomplish:, • Arranging work schedule., • Changing perception of time., • Setting aside time in schedule for exercise and leisure activities, • Learning to plan time., (iii) Rational Thinking:, • It is challenging the distorted thinking and irrational beliefs., • Deriving the anxiety provoking thoughts., • Making positive statements., • It is learning to ignore negative thoughts and images., (iv) Improving Relationship: It consists following essential skills:, (a) Listening to what the other person is saying., (b) Expressing what one feels and thinks., (c) Accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings, even if they are different from, your own., (d) Avoiding jealously and sulking behaviour., (v) Self-care: Healthy mind in healthy body., • Learning right pattern of breathing i.e., relaxed, slow, stomach-centered breathing, from diaphragm., • Avoiding environmental stress like pollutions, because it affects our mood., (vi) Overcoming Unhelpful Habits: Perfectionism, avoidance, procrastination and, our strategies which provides short-term gain but makes the individual vulnerable, to stress., Perfectionists want to get everything just as they want which is not always possible., Avoidance is ignoring the issue and refusal to face it or accept it., Procrastination means putting off what we know we need to do, i.e., postponing the, things like ‘I will do it later’ just to avoid confrontation due to the fear of failure., Q7. Describe briefly four factors which facilitate development of positive health. (CBSE 2013), Or, , Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being., Ans. Factors facilitating positive health and well-being are:, 1. Diet: Diet can affect health independently or may enhance or modify the effects of, stress in combination with other factors:, (a) How much nutrition one needs depends on one’s activity level, genetic structure,, , 100, , Psychology—XII
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climate and health history. In fact, there is no one diet, which is ideal for everyone,, in all situations., (b) Stress is supposed to affect diet and weight in many ways. People, who are under, stress or in a negative moods are often seen eating more. They seek ‘comfort, foods’ or foods that make them feel better., (c) Stress may increase consumption of less healthy foods. Such people gain weight, and loose stamina to fight stress., (d) Obesity and weight gain is a problem for a section of the society. A much larger, section of the society, which is below the poverty line, suffer from malnutrition., (e) In the condition of poverty, women are the one who are most malnourished. Studies, have shown that in India diets of female children and women are inadequate due, to discriminatory practices., 2. Exercise:, • Exercise is directly related to promoting positive health., • Two kinds of physical exercises essential for good health are ‘stretching exercises’, such as yogic asanas and ‘aerobic exercises’ such as jogging, swimming and, cycling., • Stretching exercises have a calming effect., • Aerobic exercises increase the arousal level of the body., • Yogic asanas provide systematic stretching to all the muscles and joints of the, body and massages the glands and other body organs., • Regular exercise reduces stress because it improves efficiency of vital body organs, and improves immune system., • Positive health and well-being come through a positive attitude of the mind., • Positive health is the state of complete physical, mental, social and spiritual wellbeing. It is not merely the absence of disease., • Positive health comprises high quality of personal relationships, a sense of, purpose in life, self regard, mastery of life skills and resilience to stress, trauma, and change., 3. Positive Attitude:, Positive health and well-being can be realized by:, • Perceiving the reality fairly accurately., • Tolerating and understanding different points of view., • Having a sense of purpose in life., • Having a sense of responsibility, accepting blame for failures and taking credit for, success., • Being open to new ideas, activities, or ways of doing things., • Having a good sense of humour, to be able to laugh at oneself and absurdities of life, helps to see things in their proper perspective., 4. Positive Thinking:, • Positive thinking leads to a belief that adversity can be handled successfully whereas, negative thinking and pessimism anticipate disaster., • Optimism, which is the inclination to expect favourable life outcomes is directly, linked to psychological and physical well-being., • Optimists use more problem-focused coping and seek advice and help from others., This optimism function helps the individual to cope up stress effectively., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 101
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Q8. How does stress affect the immune system?, Ans. Stress can cause illness by impairing the workings of the immune system. The immune, system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside., The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy, foreign bodies (antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to the production of antibodies., There are several kinds of white blood cells or leucocytes within the immune system,, including T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper, cells increase immunological activity. It is these T-helper cells that are attacked by the, Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno Deficiency, Syndrome (AIDS). B cells produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are involved in the, fight against both viruses and tumours., Q9. Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is, likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it., Ans. • Loosing a long-term job is a life event which is likely to be a cause of stress to an, individual., • A person’s response to stress largely depends on how the events are appraised or, interpreted., • This was explained by Lazorus in his Cognitive theory of stress., • According to this theory, stress depends on his primary or secondary appraisal. A new, or changing event is positive, negative or neutral., • A negative event, such as loosing a long-term job, can be appraisal for its harm, instead, a challenge., • If it is appraised as a threat, which may result in future damage, it will result in high, levels of stress., • If it appraised as a challenge, then the individual, who lost the job, will have more, confident expectations of the ability to cope with the stressful event, overcome it., • If appraised as a harm, assessment of the damage, which has already been caused by, the event, will result in high stress., • Through secondary appraisal, one’s coping abilities and resources are analysed as to, whether they are sufficient in meeting the harm, threat or challenge., Q10. Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your, friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives?, Ans. High school students these days avoid extremely stressful lives, with increasing, completion, expectations and demands. Therefore, I would suggest ‘task-oriented, strategy’ as explained by Endler and Parker, to be an effective means in coping with, stress., Task-oriented coping involves:, 1. Obtaining information about a stressful situation., 2. Deciding our priorities., 3. Dealing directly with the stressful situation., Such an approach helps during exams and project deadlines., I would also suggest the adoption of positive attitude and thinking which promotes, health and well-being., A positive attitude where the individual has a fairly accurate perception of reality; ability, to take credit for success and blame for failure; acceptance and tolerance for other’s viewpoints., , 102, , Psychology—XII
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Positive thinking interns of being optimistic. Optimism points towards the inclination, to expect favourable life outcomes. An optimist will always use problem-focused coping, and try and find the source of stress. Relaxation Techniques, Exercise, Balanced Diet all, contribute significantly to stress reduction., Q11. We know that certain life-style factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like, cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour. Explain, why?, Ans. Life-style is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s, health and quality of life. An individual, when stressed, is more likely to expose himself/, herself to pathogens—agents causing physical illness., Stressed individuals have poor nutritional habits, disturbed sleeping patterns, tendency, to engage in health-risking behaviours such as intake of stimulants such as caffeine,, alcohol, cigarettes, drugs like tranquil lies such health impairing behaviours develop, gradually and provide pleasant experiences temporarily, but have detrimental long-term, consequences., As they are addictive, and pleasurable, individuals using these psychoactive substances, are unable to give them up., • Such type of life-style ultimately cause serious health hazards like cancer, diabetes, and coronary heart diseases., • Knowing that faulty lifystyle causes various physical and psychological hazards., Still people continue, because the consequences and side effects are not likely to, occur immediately. Their effects get manifested after several years. So people ignore, them. Because they are aware with the side effects. They develop anxiety because, of inconsistency in their attitude and behaviour but because this lifestyle becomes a, part of their habit pattern. So they find it very difficult to change and continue such, hazardous lifestyle and ultimately it causes a stage of burn out., , MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. __________ is used to describe the unpleasant emotional state that results from blocked, goal seeking, rather than the event itself., (a) Conflict, (b) Frustration, (c) Aggression, (d) Regression, Q2. The physical, environmental and social causes of the stress state are termed—, (a) Stress, (b) Stressors, (c) Distress, (d) None of the above, Q3. The general adaptation syndrome consists of three stages which include—, (a) the alarm reaction , (b) the stage of resistance, (c) the stage of exhaustion, (c) all of the above, Q4. Frustration-aggression is a very famous hypothesis proposed by—, (a) Roger , (b) Dollard and Miller, (c) Maslow , (d) Endler and Parker, Q5. ___________ are also major stressors., (a) Frustration, (b) Conflict, (c) Aggression, (d) Both (a) and (b), Q6. The father of modern stress research is—, (a) Elder, (b) Lazarus, (c) Hans Selye, (d) Parker, , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 103
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Q7. The reaction to external stressors is called—, (a) Strain, (b) Stress, (c) Tension, (d) Stress response, Q8. Hans Selye defined stress as—, (a) The patter of responses an organism makes to extreme event that disturbs the, equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope., (b) The non-specific response of the body to any demand., (c) All challenges, problems and difficult circumstances., (d) The phenomenon that increases the probability of one’s survival., Q9. The cognitive theory of stress was proposed by—, (a) Selye, (b) Endlar, (c) Parker, (d) Lazarus, Q10. Which are types of stress appraisal given by Lazarus?, (a) Environmental, psychological and social., (b) Primary and secondary., (c) Cognitive, emotional, psychological and social., (d) Physical, personal and social., Q11. The three types of stress are—, (a) Physical and environmental, psychological and social., (b) Physical, personal and social., (c) Physiological, behavioural and emotional., (d) All of the above., Q12. An earthquake comes under which of the following types of stress?, (a) Social stress , (b) Physical and environmental stress, (c) Social stress , (d) None of the above, Q13. Frustration, conflicts, internal and social pressures are sources of which of the following, kinds of stress?, (a) Psychological stress , (b) Physical and environmental stress, (c) Social stress , (d) None of the above, Q14. The measure of stressful life events was developed by—, (a) Singh, Kaur and Kaur, (b) Holmes and Rahe, (c) Lazarus and Folkman, (d) Das, Naglieri and Kirby, Q15. The study of links between the brain, the mind and the immune system is known as—, (a) Psychoneurology , (b) Psychoimmunology, (c) Psychoneuroimmunology, (d) Psychology, Q16. T cells, B cells and Natural killer cells are kinds of—, (a) Red blood cells (b) White blood cells (c) Antibodies, , (d) Antigens, , Q17. Disease-causing agents are known as—, (a) Leucocytes, (b) Antigens, , (d) Pathogens, , (c) Antibodies, , Q18. _____________ is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress., (a) Exhaustion , (b) Coping, (c) Management of stress, (d) Dealing with stress, Q19. The coping strategies given by Endler and Parker is—, (a) Task-oriented and Emotion-oriented, (b) Avoidance-oriented, task-oriented and emotion-oriented, , 104, , Psychology—XII
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(c) Problem-focused and emotion-focused, (d) None of the above, Q20. The problem-focused and emotion-focused coping responses were given by—, (a) Lazarus , (b) Folkman, (c) Lazarus and Folkman, (d) Endler and Parker, Q21. Which of the following coping behaviours are problem-focused?, (a) Making efforts to improve one’s performance after a setback, (b) Hiding examination results from parents, (c) Finding fault with classmates for poor marks in tests, (d) Feeling sorry for poor marks in a test, Q22. Frustration results from—, (a) Incompatibility between two or more needs or motives, (b) Blocking and needs/motives, (c) Expectation from oneself and others, (d) Excessive demands, , Answer, 1. (b), 11. (a), 21. (a), , 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (d) 6. (c), 7. (a), 8. (b) 9. (d), 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (b), 22. (b), , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , 10. (b), 20. (c), , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. Define Stress., (Delhi Board 2008), Ans. Stress can be defined as the pattern of responses an organism makes to the stimulus, event that disturbs the equilibrium and it exceeds a person’s ability to cope., • It is neither a stimulus nor a response, it is a transactional process between the, individual and his environmental demands., • Hans Selye defines stress as “the known specific response of the body to any demand”., It means regardless of the cause of threat, the individual will respond with the same, physiological pattern of reactions., Q2. What is distress?, Ans. Many times it is found that high levels of stress lead to greater strain. They create, distress. It is harmful. Consistent distress may lead to problems., Q3. What is positive stress or eustress?, Ans. Sometimes we also experience positive stress or eustress. It occurs when we have, positive experiences or uplifts, which are welcome. It is healthy and provides positive, reinforcement., Q4. What are stressors?, Ans. Any event or a situation that gives rise to stress is called a stressor. The stimulus events, include a large variety of external and internal conditions called stressors., Q5. What is strain?, Ans. Strain is overt manifestation of stress. Stress is the external event or stimulus and, strain is the resultant effect, mostly in terms of health consequences., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 105
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Q6. How stress is a basic ingredient of life?, Ans. , • Stress is a basic ingredient of life., • Our biological system is equipped with some stress alarms that are essential for, survival and allow one to function effectively in many situations., • Without undergoing stress, there can be no constructive and creative activity., • For examples, (a) certain level of stress is necessary to perform better in the, examinations., Q7. What is coping?, Ans. Coping is defined as the process of managing external and/or internal demands that tax, or exceed the resources of the person., Q8. What is life-style?, Ans. Life-style refers to an individual over all behavioural patterns and decision-making that, determines a person’s health and quality of life., Q9. What is hardiness?, Ans. , • The concept was given by Kobasa., • It is set of views regarding oneself, the environment and interaction between the two., Q10. What are life skills?, Ans. Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behaviour that enables the individual to, deal effectively with stressful situations., Q11. What is the function of immune system?, Ans. • The basic functions of the immune system are detecting and identifying antigen,, neutralizing them and removing them from the body., • It is the mechanism through which our body recognizes and destroys potentially, harmful substances and intruders., Q12. Describe the meaning of burn out., Ans. • The state of physical and psychological exhaustion is technically called burnout., • It is seen in the signs of chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy., Q13. What is psychoneuroimmunology?, Ans. It is a branch of psychology which focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and, immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. What is stress resistant personality?, (CBSE 2011, 2014), Ans. Studies by Kobasa have shown that people with high levels of stress but low levels, of illness are labelled as stress-resistant personality. They share three characteristics, which are referred to as the personality traits of Hardiness., Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, the world and how they interact. It consists, of ‘the three C’s:, , Commitment:, , • Commitment in terms of a sense of personal commitment to what one is doing., • Stress-resistant personalities have commitment to work, family, hobbies and social, life., , 106, , Psychology—XII
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Control:, • An individual should have a sense of control over his life., • Stress-resistant personalities have control in terms of a sense of purpose and, direction in life., Challenge:, • An individual should always be ready to face challenges in life., • Stress-resistant personalities view changes in life as normal and positive rather, than as a threat., Q2. How resilience and health are related to each others?, Ans. • Resilience has been described as the capacity to ‘bounce back’ in stressful situations., • It is manifested in the form of self-worth, self-confidence, independence and selfreliance., • Resilient children can face adversity and lead psychologically healthy and meaningful, life., Now-a-days resilience is being defined in the perspective of three resources., (a) I have [social strength e.g., trust in people around], (b) I am [inner strength i.e., high self-esteem], (c) I can [inter-personal and problem-solving skills], To develop resilience, children and adolescents need to have more than one of these, strengths., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. How adaptation is different from adjustment?, Ans. Adaptation:, • Adaptation is a biological term., • It is structural or functional change that enhances the organism’s survival value., • Biological adaptation is property of phenotypic features or organisms relative to, selection demands of the environment., , Adjustment:, • A well-adjusted person is someone who engages in behaviour that are appropriate, for the culture and a given inter-personal situation., • Adjustment is a condition of harmonious relationships between the social and, physical environments., • The concept of adjustment refers to active and creative efforts to live effectively and, satisfactorily., • Adjustment is the psychological process by which an individual manages or copes, with various demands., • An adjustment is the outcome of individual’s effort of coping., • We are considered well-adjusted when we deal successfully with our situations such, as in home, schools and work places without much problem., • Adjustment is the outcome of coping., • Adjustment is a process which has four parts—, (i) a need or motive in the form of a strong persistent stimulus,, (ii) the thwarting or non-fulfillment of the need,, , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 107
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(iii) varied activity, or exploratory behaviour accompanied by problem-solving, and, (iv) some response that removes or at least reduces the initiating stimulus that brings, satisfaction and completes the process of adjustment., • Adjustment is a subjective process. It varies from culture to culture and is a, continuous process., Q2. Discuss cognitive theory of stress., Ans. Stress is a dynamic cognitive state. It is state of mental disequilibrium., • According to Lazarus, an individual’s response to stressor largely depends upon the, perceived event and how they are appraised or interpreted., • Primary appraisal refers to the perception of a new or changing environment as, positive, neutral or negative in its consequences., Negative events are evaluated for their possible harm, threat or challenge., (a) Harm is the assessment of damage already been done., (b) Threat is the assessment of possible future damage., (c) Challenge is associated with confidence to cope with stressor, overcoming it and, taking advantage of the event., • If we perceive an event as stressful on the basis of primary appraisal, we most, probably try to make secondary appraisal., • Secondary appraisal is the assessment of ones coping and resources available to, meet the harm, threat and challenge of the event., • These appraisals are very subjective and based on many factors like stressors, intensity durability, complexity and predictability., It also depends on person characteristics like physical health, mental health,, temperament, self-concept and cultural background., Appraisals are also determined by individual’s resources like money, medical care, skills,, coping style, social and professional support and last but not the least is spirituality in, the individual., Q3. Explain the various types of stressors/stress., Ans. There are three major types of stress, viz. physical and environmental, psychological and, social., 1. Physical and Environmental Stress:, Physical stresses are demands that change the state of our body. For example,, disabilities, malnutrition, injury, etc., Environmental stresses are aspects of our surroundings that are often unavoidable, such as air-pollution, noise, crowding, heat, etc. They can also be catastrophic events, or disasters such as fires, earthquakes or floods., 2. Psychological Stress [Internal Sources of Stress], This is stress that we generate ourselves in our minds. These are personal and, unique to the person experiencing them and are internal sources of stress. Some of, these are:, (a) Frustration: Results from the blocking of needs and motives by something or, someone that hinders us from achieving a desired goal. There could be a number, of causes of frustration such as social discrimination, inter-personal hurt, low, grades in school, etc., (b) Conflict: It may occur between two or more incompatible needs or motives. e.g.,, whether to study psychology or sociology., , 108, , Psychology—XII
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(c) Pressure:, • Internal Pressures: It refers to expectations. Stress from beliefs based upon, expectation from inside us to ourselves such as, ‘I must do everything perfectly’., • Social Pressures: It may be brought about from people who make excessive, demands on us. This can cause even greater pressure when we have to work, with them. Also, there are people with whom we face inter-personal difficulties., e.g., ego issues., 3. Social Stress:, It is induced from external factors and results from interaction with other people., Social events like death or illness in the family, strained relationships, rapid social, change, poverty, discrimination and lack of social support are examples of social, stress. These social stresses vary widely from person to person., , e.g., living in a colony where extremely heterogeneous socio-economic groups live, together., Q4. What are the stress management techniques?, (Delhi Board 2014 ), Ans. Stress is a silent killer. It plays a significant role in physical illness and disease. Stress, can be managed. Some of techniques of stress management are as follows:, , Relaxation Techniques:, • It is a skill that reduces symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of illnesses, such as high blood-pressure and heart diseases., • Deep breathing is used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the, body., • Relaxation starts from the lower part of the body and progresses towards facial, muscles and ultimately relaxes whole body., Meditation Procedures:, • It is a yogic exercise of withdrawing the mind from all external stimuli., • Meditation consists of refocusing of attention that brings about an altered state of, consciousness., • It involves such a thorough concentration that the meditator becomes unaware of, any outside stimulus., , Bio-feedback: , (Delhi Board 2014), • It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspect of stress by providing, feedback about current physiological activity., • It is often accompanied by relaxation training. It involve three stages:, 1. Developing an awareness of the particular physiological response. e.g., heartrate, blood-pressure, etc., 2. Learning ways of controlling the physiological response in quiet condition., 3. Transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life., , Creative Visualization:, • Creative visualization is the technique of using ones imagination to create what, one wants in his/her life. It is creating clear image, idea or feeling of something an, individual wishes to manifest., • It is a subjective experience that uses imagery and imagination., • Before visualizing, one must set oneself a realistic goal., • It helps to build confidence and one must prevent the interference of unbidden, thoughts., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 109
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• Deriving creative energy in which solving problem in daily life., (a) For example Make some very positive, affirmative statements to yourself (allowed, or silently) such as “Here I’m spending a wonderful weekend in the mountains., What a beautiful vacation!”, (b) You can end your visualization with the firm statements to yourself : “This, or, something better now manifest for me in totally satisfying and harmonious ways,, for the highest good of all concern.”, (c) Do this process only as long as you find it enjoyable and interesting., Cognitive Behavioural Techniques:, • CBT is developed by Meichenbaum. It is also known as enoculation training., • The technique aims to reduce stress by replacing negative and irrational thoughts, with positive and rational ones. There are three main phases:, 1. Assessment: Discussing the nature of the problem with empathy., 2. Stress reduction techniques: Relaxation training and self instruction, 3. Application and follow through: The individual imagines using the stress, reduction techniques learned in the second phase in difficult situations, and/or, engages in role play of such situations with the therapist. Finally, the technique, is used in real life situations., , Exercise:, • Exercise can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal experienced in, response to stress., • Regular exercise improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of the, lungs, maintains good circulation, lowers blood-pressure and improves the body’s, immune system., • Exercises may be aerobic and may be stretching., • Exercise reduces stress., • At least four times of a week for thirty minutes at a time is effective., Q5. How positive health and well-being can be achieved through positive attitude?, Ans. Positive health and well-being can be realized by:, (i) Perceiving the reality fairly accurately., (ii) Tolerating and understanding different points of view., (iii) Having a sense of purpose in life., (iv) Having a sense of responsibility, accepting blame for failures and taking credit for, success., (v) Being open to new ideas, activities, or ways of doing things., (vi) Having a good sense of humour, to be able to laugh at oneself and absurdities of life, helps to see things in their proper perspective., Q6. “Many people are their own enemies and do precisely those things that are bad for their, health.” Discuss., Ans. People develop different styles and habits, many of which are health-impairing. Many, people are their own enemies and do precisely those things that are bad for their health., Some people drink heavily, even when they know that it is damaging their liver., • Smoking is another health impairing habit. It is found that lung cancer and heart, disease kill the largest number of smokers., • Alcohol and drug abuse are very common health-impairing habits., , 110, , Psychology—XII
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• The addiction to alcohol and narcotics damage the liver, respiratory system, intestine, and can cause neurological and infectious diseases as secondary complication., • Many of these drugs can also damage one’s ability to think logically and coherently., • Most of the people who engage in such harmful habits have a tendency to, underestimate the risk of damaging their health., • The modern life-style has led to violation of many basic principles of health and paid, little attention to what do we eat, where do we live and how do we think., Q7. What is the relationship between stress and health/illness?, Ans. • Stress may play a role in 50% to 70% of all physical illness., • Stress has been implicated in the occurrence of heart disease, high blood-pressure,, hardening of the arteries, ulcers and even diabetes., • Evidence suggests that stress upsets our complex internal chemistry., • It interferes with efficient operation of our immune system. Studies with humans, suggest that disruptions in inter-personal relationships, loneliness, academic, pressure, and even daily hassles can produce imbalances in the immune system and, causes burn out. Uncontrollability is one of the features shared by stressors., • Research has shown that optimism, regular exercise and feelings of control over, stressful events are associated with well-being of the individual., Q8. How stress and life-style are related to each other?, Ans. • Life-style is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determined a, person’s health and quality of life., • Stress can lead to unhealthy life-style because stressed individuals may be more, likely to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness., • Stressed people develop poor food habits, sleep disturbances and are likely to engage, in behaviours like smoking and alcohol abuse., • Such health impairing behaviours develop gradually and provide pleasant, experiences temporarily however ignore their long-term damaging effects., Q 9. “Social support is positively related to psychological well-being.” Discuss., Ans. Social support is defined as “the existence and availability of people on whom we can, rely upon, people who are caring and sharing.” Someone, who believes that he or she, belongs to a social network of communication and mutual obligation, experiences social, support., Social support can be viewed as:, (i) Perceived Support: The strength and quality of social support that can be provided, only by individuals which is positively related to health and well-being., (ii) Social Network: The number of people who are available to provide support, i.e.,, the quantity of social support is unrelated to well-being, because it is very timeconsuming and demanding., Social support has three forms:, (a) Tangible Support: It refers to assistance involving material such as money, goods,, services, etc. For example, an individual provides financial support to his unemployed, friend., (b) Informational Support: Family and friends provide this support. For example,, if an individual lost his job and is searching another job then his elders, friends or, senior colleagues may provide ways and means to search new job., (c) Emotional Support:, • During stress, we all have experience strain., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 111
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• Anxiety, loss of self-esteem, frustration, pressure and general manifestation of, stress are experienced by everybody., • Supportive friends and family provide emotional support by reassuring the, individual that he/she is loved, valued and cared for., Research has demonstrated that social support effectively reduces psychological distress., , V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA : 6 Marks ), , Q1. “Stressors result in a variety of stress reaction.” Discuss., Ans., , 1., , Stressors result in a variety of stress reactions, which may be physiological,, behavioural, emotional and cognitive., , 2. Physiological level arousal plays a key role in stress-related behaviours. The, hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways. The first pathway involves the, autonomic nervous system. The adrenal gland releases large amount of catecholamines, (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the blood stream. This leads to physiological, changes seen in fight-or-flight response. The second pathway involves the pituitary, gland, which secretes the corticosteroid (cortisol) which provides energy., 3. The emotional reactions to experience of stress include negative emotions such as, fear, anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression or eve denial., 4. The behavioural responses are virtually limitless, depending on the nature of the, stressful event. Confrontative action against the stressor (fight) and withdrawal from, the threatening event (flight) are two general categories of behavioural responses., 5. Cognitive responses include beliefs about the harm or threat an event poses and, beliefs about its causes or controllability. These include responses such as inability, to concentrate, and intrusive, repetitive or morbid thoughts., Q2. What is positive psychology? How positive psychologists have identified virtues and, strengths of human beings?, Ans. • Contemporary psychologists have shown increasing interest in understanding what, makes life good and meaningful. This development is termed as positive psychology., • Positive psychology systematically investigates the positive aspects that is the, strengths and virtues of human beings., • Positive psychologist seek “to find and nurture genius and talent”, and “to make, normal life more fulfilling, not just to cure mental illness”., • Martin Seligman has provided leadership to the movement of positive psychology., • On the basis of researches on around two hundred texts from various spiritual books,, they were able to identify a set off human virtues shared by various traditions. These, are as further:, A. Wisdom and Knowledge:, 1. Curiosity/Interest in the World: An openness to experience; flexibility about, things that don’t fit your preconception., 2. Love of Learning: Taking pleasure in learning new thing; taking every, opportunity to expend your knowledge and expertise., 3. Judgment/Critical Thinking/Open-Mindedness: Thinking things thoroughly, and examining them from all sides; not jumping to conclusions; being objective., 4. Ingenuity/Originality/Practical Intelligence: Finding new and practical, ways of achieving results; creativity; ‘street wisdom’., , 112, , Psychology—XII
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5. Social, Intelligence/Personal, Intelligence/Emotional, Intelligence:, Understanding your own and others’ motives and feelings; acting in socially, effective ways., 6. Perspective: Able to adopt the ‘big picture’ so as to act wisely; good at problemsolving and giving advice., B. Courage:, 1. Valour and Bravery: Willing to confront challenges and difficulty; prepared to, adopt unpopular or dangerous positions., 2. Perseverance/Industry/Diligence: Finishing what you start; prepared to take, on difficult projects; doing what you say you’ll do – and more., 3. Integrity/Genuineness/Honesty: Living in a genuine, authentic way; down to, earth and without pretence., , Humanity and Love, 1. Kindness and Generosity: Helping to higher people; putting others’ interests, as highly as your own., 2. Loving and Allowing Oneself to be Loved: Valuing and engendering close, and intimate relations with others., C. Justice:, 1. Citizenship/Duty/Teamwork/Loyalty: Working hard for the success of the, group; valuing group goals and purposes; respecting authority., 2. Fairness and Equity: Avoiding any personal bias; being guided by principles, concerning equality; talking prejudice., 3. Leadership: Organizing activities well and seeing that they happen; maintaining, good relationship in and between groups., D. Temperance:, 1. Self-Control: Checking your own impulses when appropriate; repairing negative, feelings; managing yourself., 2. Prudence/Discretion/Caution: Being careful; no saying things you might, regret; resisting short term., 3. Humility and Modesty: Not seeking the spotlight; letting your accomplishments, speak for themselves; unpretentious., E. Transcendence:, 1. Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence: Appreciating excellence in all domains;, able to feel awe and wonder., 2. Gratitude: Not taking things for granted; expressing gratitude to other; appreciating, life., 3. Hope/Optimism/Future-Mindedness: Maintaining a positive stance towards the, future; expecting the best; leading a goal-directed life., 4. Spirituality/Sense of Purpose/Faith/Religiousness: Strong and coherent set of, beliefs about larger purpose or meaning; acting in accordance with these beliefs., 5. Forgiveness and Mercy: Forgiving those who hurt or offend you; able to transform, how you feel; generosity of spirit., 6. Playfulness and Humour: Laughing and creating laughter; seeing the light side, of life., 7. Zest/Passion/Enthusiasm: Throwing yourself and soul into activities; inspiring, others., , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 113
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TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. The state of complete physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is termed as—, (a) Distress , (b) Burn out, (c) Nervous breakdown , (d) Breakdown, 2. The father of research on modern stress is—, (a) Hans Seyle, (b) Lazarus, (c) Folkman, , (d) Kobasa, , 3., 4., 5., 6., , Frustration is one source of psychological stress. (True or False), Explain ‘Eustress’., The reaction to external stressor is called __________ ., ___________ is the term used to describe stress level that helps in achieving peak, performance., 7. What is stress? Give examples from daily life., 8. Creative visualisation is a subjective experience that uses imagery and ________., , (Delhi Board 2014), 9. Frustration is one source of Psychological stress. True/False, (Delhi Board 2013), 10. ___________ is the term used to describe stress level that helps in achieving peak, performance., (CBSE Outside Delhi 2011), 11. Individual’s reaction to external stressor is called., (a) Strain, (b) Conflict, (c) Pressure, (d) Frustration, 12. An individual’s level of stress which helps in achieving peak success and managing, menor crisis is known as., (CBSE 2010), (a) Stress, (b) Distress, (c) Eustress, (d) Strain, 13. Blocking of needs and motives that cause hindrance in achieving the desired goal results, in:, (CBSE 2009), (a) Stress, (b) Conflict, (c) Frustration, (d) Aggression, 14. A dynamic situation specific reaction to stress is known as _________ ., , (CBSE 2008), , Part-B, 15., 16., 17., 18., 19., 20., 21., 22., , Explain Biofeedback., (CBSE 2014), Explain the behavioural effects of stress., How would you differentiate between adaptation and adjustment? (Handout), Explain the term ‘Burn out’., (CBSE 2010), What is meant by well-being?, Describe the three sources of stress., How stress and illness are related to each other., Explain the term coping., (CBSE 2011), , Part-C, 23. How life-style and stress are related to each other?, 24. How do Lazarus and Folkman explain the concept of copying?, , 114, , Psychology—XII
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25. How can social support help in promoting positive health?, 26. Differentiate between the three major types of stress., , Part-D, 20. Explain the concept of stress resistant Personality. Give Suitable example., , (CBSE 2014), 21. Describe briefly four factors which facilitate development of positive health. , (CBSE 2013), 22. What are the effects of stress on psychological functioning and health?, 23. Discuss the strategies for coping with stress., (CBSE 2010), 24. Explain the concept of stress giving examples from daily life., (CBSE 2011), 25. Explain Token economy technique., (CBSE 2009), 26. Describe General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), , Part-E, 27. What are the effects of stress on psychological functioning? Explain. (CBSE 2009, 2012), 28. Discuss the strategies to cope with stress giving examples., , (CBSE 2010, 2011, 2012), , 29. Discuss various stress management techniques., , , Human Strengths and Meeting Life Challenges, , 115
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4, , Psychological Disorders, , FACTS THAT MATTER, CONCEPT OF ABNORMALITY:, • There are many definitions of abnormality but none has got universal acceptance., • Most definitions have certain common features called four Ds': Deviance, Distress,, Dysfunction and Danger, Psychological Disorders are • deviant - different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre, • Distressing - unpleasant and upsetting to the person and to others, • dysfunctional - interfering with the person's ability to carry out daily activities, in a constructive way, • and possibly dangerous to the person or to others., The word 'abnormal' literally means "away from the normal", • It implies deviation from some clearly defined norms or standards., • There are two basic and conflicting views :, The first approach views, • abnormal behaviour as a deviation from social norms., Many psychologists have stated that 'abnormal' is simply a label that is given to a, behaviour which is deviant from social expectations., • Each society has norms, which are stated or unstated rules for proper conduct., • Behaviours, thoughts and emotions that break social norms are called abnormal., • A society's norms grow from its particular culture - its history, values, institutions, habits,, skills, technology, and arts., • Thus, a society whose culture values competition and assertiveness may accept aggressive, behaviour as normal whereas, • Society that gives importance to cooperation and family values (such as in India), may consider aggressive behaviour as unacceptable or even abnormal., • A society's values may change over time, causing its views of what is psychologically, abnormal to change as well., • Serious questions have been raised about this definition. It is based on the assumption, that socially accepted behaviour is not abnormal, and that normality is nothing more than, conformity to social norms., The second approach views, • abnormal behaviour as maladaptive., • Many psychologists believe that the best criterion for determining the normality of, behaviour is not whether society accepts it but whether it fosters the well-being of the, individual and eventually of the group to which he/she belongs., • Well-Being is not simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and, fulfillment, i.e. the actualization of potential., • According to this criterion, conforming behaviour can be seen as abnormal if it is, maladaptive, i.e. if it interferes with optimal functioning and growth. For example, a, , 116
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student in the class prefers to remain silent even when s/he has questions in her/ his, mind., • Describing behaviour as maladaptive implies that a problem exists., Psychological disorders :, • Often characterised by superstition, ignorance and fear., • It is commonly believed that psychological disorder is something to be ashamed of., • The stigma (shame, disgrace or dishonor) attached to mental illness means that, people are hesitant to consult a doctor or psychologist because they are ashamed of, their problems., • Psychological Disorder which indicates a failure in adaptation should be viewed as any, other illness., Historical Background of Psychological Disorder:, The history of abnormal psychology has been viewed through different periods of history., The Ancient Theory, • It states that abnormal behavior can be explained by the operation of supernatural, and magical forces such as evil spirits (bhoot-pret), or the devil (shaitan)., • Exorcism, i.e. removing the evil that resides in the individual through counter magic and, prayer, is still commonly used., • In many societies, the shaman, or medicine man (ojha) is a person who is believed, to have contact with supernatural forces and is the medium through which spirits, communicate with human beings., • Through the shaman, an afflicted person can learn which spirits are responsible for, her/his problems and what needs to be done to appease them., The Biological or Organic Approach, • A recurring (persistent) thing in the history of abnormal psychology is : The belief that, individuals behave strangely because their bodies and their brains are not working, properly., • In the modern era, there is evidence that body and brain processes have been linked to, many types of maladaptive behaviour., • For certain types of disorders, correcting these defective biological processes results in, improved functioning., The Psychological Approach, • Psychological problems are caused by inadequacies in the way an individual thinks, feels,, or perceives the world., • All three of these perspectives — supernatural, biological or organic, and, psychological have recurred throughout the history of Western civilization., The Organism Approach, • Pertains to ancient western world, • Approach was given by Hippocrates, Socrates in general and Plato in particular., • They viewed disturbed behaviour as arising out of conflicts between emotion and reason., • Galen elaborated on the role of the four humours in personal character and temperament., According to him, the material world was made up of four elements Earth, Air, Fire and, Water which combined to form four essential body fluids, viz, blood, black bile, yellow bile,, and phleam. Each of these fluids was seen to be responsible for a different temperament., Imbalances among the humours were believed to cause various disorders., • This is similar to the Indian notion of the three doshas of vata, pitta and kapha, which, were mentioned in the Atharva Veda and Ayurvedic texts., , Psychological Disorders, , 117
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In the Middle Ages:, • Demonology and superstition gained renewed importance in the explanation of abnormal, behaviour., • Demonology related to a belief that people with mental problems were evil and there are, numerous instances of 'witch-hunts' during this period., • During the early Middle Ages, the Christian spirit of charity prevailed and St. Augustine, wrote extensively about feelings, mental anguish and conflict. This laid the groundwork, for modern psychodynamic theories of abnormal behaviour., The Renaissance Period was marked by increased humanism and curiosity about behaviour., Johann Weyer emphasized, • psychological conflict and disturbed interpersonal relationships as causes of psychological, disorders., • He also insisted that 'witches' were mentailly disturbed and required medical, not, theological treatment., The Age of Reason and Enlightenment, • The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were the age of Reason and Enlightenment., • During this age scientific method replaced faith and dogma as ways of understanding, abnormal behaviour., The Reform Movement, • The growth of scientific attitude towards Psychological Disorders in the 18th Century, contributed to the reform movement and to increased compassion for people who suffered, from these disorders., • Reforms of asylums were initiated in both Europe and America. One aspect of the reform, movement was the new inclination for deinstitutionalization which placed emphasis on, providing community care for recovered mentally ill individuals., In recent years, there has been a convergence of these approaches, which has resulted in an, Interactional or Bio-Psycho-Social approach. From this perspective all three factors, i.e., Biological. Psychological and Social play important roles in influencing the expression and, outcome of psychological disorders., Classification of Psychological Disorders (PD), • To understand PD we have to do classification of PD., • Classification of psychological disorders is done in groups based on the shared, characteristics of the group., Why Classification ?, Classifications are useful because they enable psychologists, psychiatrists and social, workers., • to communicate with each other about the disorder,, • to help in understanding the causes of psychological disorders, and, • to know the processes involved in their development and maintenance., DSM, • The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has published an official manual, describing and classifying various kinds of psychological disorders., • The current version of it is “The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental, Disorders, IV Edition (DSM- IV)”., • Evaluates the patient on five axes or dimensions rather than just one broad aspect of, 'mental disorder'., • These dimensions relate to biological, psychological, social and other aspects., , 118, , Psychology—XII
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• The classification scheme officially used in India is the 10th revision of International, Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10 which is known as ICD-10 Classification of, Behavioural and Mental Disorders., • It was prepared by the World Health Organization (WHO)., • For each disorder, a description of the main clinical features or symptoms, and of other, associated features including diagnostic guidelines is provided in this scheme, FACTORS UNDERLYING ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR, • Psychologists used different approaches., • Each approach in use today emphasizes a different aspect of human behaviour, and, explains and treats abnormality in line with that aspect., • These approaches also emphasize the role of different factors such as biological,, psychological and interpersonal, and soclo-cultural factors., I. Biological Factors, • Influence all aspects of our behaviour., • Biological factors such as faulty genes, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition,, injuries and other conditions may interfere with normal development and functioning, of the human body. These factors may be potential causes of abnormal behavior., • According to this biological model, abnormal behaviour has a biochemical or, physiological basis., • Biological researchers have found that psychological disorders are often related to, problems in the transmission of messages from one neuron to another., • A tiny space called synapse separates one neuron from the next, and the message must, move across that space. When an electrical impulse reaches a neuron's ending, the nerve, ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a neurotransmitter., • Studies indicate that abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters can lead to specific, psychological disorders., • Anxiety disorders have been linked to low activity of the neurotransmitter gamma, amino butyric acid (GABA)., • schizophrenia linked to excess activity of dopamine, and, • depression linked to low activity of serotonin., II. Genetic factors, • Linked to mood disorders, schizophrenia, mental retardation and other, psychological disorders., • Researchers have not been able to identify the specific genes that are the culprits., • It appears that no single gene is responsible for a particular behaviour or a psychological, disorder., • In fact, many genes combine to help bring about our various behaviours and emotional, reactions, both functional and dysfunctional., • Although there is sound evidence to believe that genetic biochemical factors are involved, in mental disorders as diverse as schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, etc. and biology, alone cannot account for most mental disorders., 1. Psychological model, • Provides a psychological explanation of mental disorder., • As per this model Psychological and interpersonal factors play an important role in, abnormal behaviour. These factors include, maternal deprivation (separation from the mother, or lack of warmth and, stimulation during early years of life),, , Psychological Disorders, , 119
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Faulty parent-child relationships (rejection, overprotection, over- permissiveness,, faulty discipline, etc.),, Maladaptive family structures (inadequate or disturbed family), and, Severe stress., • The psychological models include the psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, and, humanistic-existential models., The psychodynamic model is the oldest and most famous of the modern psychological, models., Psychodynamic theorists believe that, • Psychological forces within the person of which he/she is not consciously aware, whether, normal or abnormal, determine behaviour., • These internal forces are considered dynamic, i.e. they interact with one another and, their interaction gives shape to behaviour, thoughts and emotions., • Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the result of conflicts between these forces., • This model was first formulated by Freud who believed that three central forces shape, personality—instinctual needs, drives and impulses (id), rational thinking (ego), and, moral standards (superego)., • Freud stated that abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious mental, conflicts that can be generally traced to early childhood or infancy., 2. The Behavioural Model, • This model states that both normal and abnormal behaviours are learned and psychological, disorders are the result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving., • The model concentrates on behaviours that are learned through conditioning and proposes, that what has been learned can be unlearned., • Learning can take place by, classical conditioning: temporal association in which two events repeatedly occur, close together in time., operant conditioning: behaviour is followed by a reward, and, social learning: learning by imitating others' behaviour., • These three types of conditioning account for behaviour, whether adaptive or maladaptive., 3. The Cognitive Model, • This model states that abnormal functioning can result from cognitive problems., • People may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational and, inaccurate., • People may also repeatedly think in illogical ways and make overgeneralizations, that is,, they may draw broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event., The humanistic-existential model, • Humanists believe that human beings are born with a natural tendency to be friendly,, cooperative and constructive, and are driven to self-actualize, i.e. to fulfill this potential, for goodness and growth., • Existentialists believe that from birth we have total freedom to give meaning to our, existence or to avoid that responsibiiity. Those who shirk from this responsibility would, live empty, inauthentic and dysfunctional lives., III. Socio-cultural Factors (war, violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic, and employment problems) create stress and can lead to psychological problems., (i) Family system likely to produce abnormal functioning in individual members. e.g.,, enmeshed structure in which members are over involved in each other’s activities—, children have difficulty becoming independent., , 120, , Psychology—XII
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(ii) Social networks in which people operate (social and professional relationships)—, people isolated and lacking social support likely to become depressed., (iii) Societal labels and roles assigned to troubled people influence abnormal, functioning. For example, person, who breaks societal norms called ‘deviants’ and, ‘mentally ill’—labels stick so that the person is encouraged to act sick, gradually, accepts and plays the role and functions in a disturbed manner., IV. Diathesis-Stress Model:, Psychological disorders develop when a diathesis (biological predisposition to, disorder) is triggered by a stressful situation; three components—, (i) Diathesism presence of a biological aberration which may be inherited., Diathesis may carry a vulnerability to develop a psychological disorder—, person is ‘at risk’ or ‘predisposed’ to develop the disorder., (ii) Presence of pathogenic stressors, i.e., factors/stressors that may lead to, psychopathology—if an ‘at risk person’ is exposed to these stressors, predisposition, may evolve into a disorder. e.g., anxiety, depression, schizophrenia., V. Interactional approach, i.e., Biological, Psychological and social factors in combination, cause mental disorders., , Main Disorders:, 1. Anxiety Disorders:, High levels of anxiety that are distressing and interfere with effective functioning is, known as anxiety disorder., Anxiety: A diffuse vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehensions without, any apparent reason., , Symptoms: Rapid heart-rate, shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss of appetite,, fainting, dizziness, sweating, sleeplessness, frequent urination and tremors., Disorder, Generalised, anxiety, disorder, (GAD), , Panic, Disorder, , Phobias, , Description, Symptoms, Prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears Worry and apprehensive, that are not attached to any particular object., feelings about the future., Hyper, vigilance—, constantly, scanning, the, environment for dangers., Motor tension—person is, unable to relax, is restless, and visibly shaky and tense., Recurrent anxiety characterised by feelings of Shortness of breath, dizziness,, trembling,, palpitations,, intense terror and dread., Denotes an abrupt surge of intense anxiety choking, nausea, chest pain, rising to a peak when thoughts of a particular of discomfort, fear of going, crazy, losing control or dying., stimulus are present., Thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner., Often develop gradually with GAD., Specific phobias—irrational fears of a certain, stimulus or event., Social phobias—intense and incapacitating, fear and embarrassment when dealing with, others., Agoraphobia—fear of entering unfamiliar, situation; ability to carry out normal life, activities severely limited., , Psychological Disorders, , 121
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ObsessiveCompulsive, Disorder, , PostTraumatic, Stress, Disorder, (PTSD), , Inability to control preoccupation with, shameful, embarrassing thoughts., Obsessive—inability to stop thinking about a, particular idea or topic., Compulsive—need to perform certain behaviours, or carry out a particular act repeatedly., Recurrent, dreams,, Followed by a traumatic or stressful event., flashbacks,, impaired, concentration and emotional, numbing., , 2. Obsessive compulsive and related disorders: The term obsessive-compulsive disorder, refers to a disorder of the brain that affects behaviour., The DSM-5 groups OCD, body dysmorphic disorder and Trichotillomania (Hair pulling, disorder) together., According to DSM-5, OCD was removed from the Anxiety disorders section and given its, own chapter., 3. Trauma and Stress Related Disorders: Include disorders in which exposure to a, traumatic or stressful event is listed explicitly as a diagnostic electrician. These include, reactive attachment disorder, discuhilsted social engagement disorder, PTSD, acute, stress disorder and adjustment disorder., These disorders reflect close relationship with Anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive, and related disorders and dissociative disorders., 4. Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders:, Somatic symptom and related disorders are mental health disorders characterised by, an intense focus on physical (somatic) symptoms which cause significant distress and/or, interfere with daily functioning. In these disorders individual having a significant focus, on physical symptoms such as pain, weakness or shortness of breath., Earlier this disorder was named as somatoform disorders., Physical symptoms in the absence of a physical disease., Individual has psychological difficulties and complains of physical symptoms for, which there is no biological cause., Disorder, Pain, Disorders, , Somatisation, Disorders, Conversion, Disorders, , 122, , Description, Extreme and incapacitating pain either, Without any identifiable biological symptoms., Greatly in excess of what might be expected to, accompany biological symptoms., Active coping—remaining active and ignoring, pain., Passive coping—reduced activity and social, withdrawal, Multiple or chronic bodily complaints, presented in a dramatic and exaggerated way., Vague and recurring symptoms without, any organic cause, Loss or impairment of motor or sensory, function without physical cause but may be a, response to stress and psychological problems., , Psychology—XII, , Symptoms, , Headaches, fatigue, heart, palpitations, fainting spells,, vomiting, allergies, Paralysis, blindness, deafness,, difficulty in walking., Symptoms often occur after a, stressful exper-ience and may, be quite sudden.
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Hypochondriasis, , Persistent belief that he is suffering from, a serious illness., Despite, • Medical evaluation., • Lack of physical findings., • Obsessed towards health., Obsessive preoccupation and concern with the, condition of body organs and continually worry, about their health., , 5. Dissociative Disorders, , Dissociation: Severance of the connection between ideas and emotions involves, felling of unreality, estrangement depersonalisation, loss or shift of identity., , Sudden temporary alteration of consciousness that blot out painful experience, Disorder, Dissociative, Amnesia, , Description, Extensive but selective memory loss without organic cause. Inability, to remember the past specific events or personal information., Often related to a stressful and traumatic report. , Unexpected travel away from home and workplace/stressful, Dissociative Fugue, environment., Assumption of a new identity., Inability to recall Previous identity., Ends when person ‘wake up’ with no memories of events occurred during, Fugue., Dissociative, Person assumes alternate, contrasting personalities that may or, Identity, (Multiple may not be aware of each other., Personality), Often associates with traumatic experience in childhood or a history of, physical abuse. , Depersonalization, , Dreamlike state in which person has a sense of being separated, from self and reality., Change of self-perception, sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed. , , 6 Depressive and Related Disorders, Depressive Disorders: This is a mental health disorder characterised by persistently, depressed mood or loss of interest in activities, causing significant impairment in daily, life., It is persistent feelings of sadness, worthlessness hopelessness and lack of interest. This, leads to a range of behavioural and physical symptoms. It includes changes in sleep,, appetite, energy level, concentration, daily behaviour or self esteem. It can also be, associated with thoughts of suicide., Disturbances in or prolonged emotion estate., Depression—symptoms (term used for normal feeling of loss or failure) and, disorder (variety of negative and behavioural changes), Disorder, Description, Symptoms, Major, depressive A period of depressed and/or Change in body weight, constant, Disorder, loss of interest and pleasure in sleep problems, tiredness, inability, to think clearly, agitation, greatly, most activities., slowed behaviour, thoughts of, death and suicide, excessive guilt, of feeling of worthlessness., , Psychological Disorders, , 123
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Mania, Bipolar Disorder, (Manic depressive), , Rarely appear independently,, usually, alternate, with, depression., Mania and depression are, alternately, present, and, interrupted by periods of, normal mood., , Euphoric (high), extremely active, and talkative, easily distractible., Highest lifetime risk of suicide, attempt., , Factors Predisposing towards Depression: / Risk Factors, 1. Genetic make-up or heredity., 2. Age—young adulthood (women), early middle age (men)., 3. Gender—women are more likely to report a depressive disorder., 4. Negative life events., 5. Lack of social support., Risk Factors predicting Likelihood of Suicide., 1. Age—highest among teenagers, young adults and those over 70 years., 2. Gender—men have a higher rate of contemplated suicide., 3. Ethnicity—cultural attitudes, e.g., Japan—suicide is appropriate to deal with feelings, of disgrace., 4. Recent occurrence of serious life events., 5. Negative expectations, setting unrealistically high standards, being over critical in, self-evaluation., Prevention of Suicide (be alert to following symptoms):, 1. Changes in eating and sleeping habits., 2. Withdrawal from friends, family and regular activities., 3. Violent actions, rebellious behaviour, drug and alcohol abuse., 4. Difficult in concentration, loss of interest in pleasurable activities., 5. Marked personality change., 7. Bipolar and Related Disorder: Bipolar and related disorders are separated from, the depressive disorders in DSM-5 and placed between the chapters in schizophrenia, spectrum and other psychotic disorders and depressive disorders in recognition of their, place as a bridge between the two diagnostic classes in terms of symptomatology family, history and genetics., 8. Schizophrenic Spectrum and other Psychotic Disorders:, , Schizophrenic and the other psychotic disorders are some of the most impairing forms of, psychopathology., The spectrum of psychotic disorders includes schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder,, delusional disorder, schizotypal disorder as well as psychosis associated with substance, use or medical conditions., The primary clinical features of these disorder, describe the known cognitive and these, biological changes associated with schizophrenia, describe potential risk factors and/or, causes for the development of schizophrenia., These psychotic disorders in schizophrenic spectrum show symptoms like delusions,, hallucinations, disorganised speech and behaviour, abnormal motor behaviour including, catatonia, and negative symptoms like avolition, blunted affect, flat affect and alogia., , Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for a group of psychotic disorders in which, personal, social and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of—, (i) Disturbed thought processes, (ii) Strange perceptions,, (iii) Unusual emotional states, (iv) Motor abnormalities., 1. Positive Symptoms: excesses of thought, emotion and behaviour; ‘pathological, excesses’ or ‘bizarre additions’ to a person’s behaviour., , 124, , Psychology—XII
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Symptoms, , Definition, , Types, , Delusions, , A false belief firmly, held on inadequate, grounds., Unaffected by rational, argument., Has no basis in reality., , Persecution (most common)- belief, of being plotted against, spied on,, slandered, threatened, attacked,, deliberately victimized, , Formal, Thought, Disorders, , Inability to think logical., Speak in peculiar ways., Makes communication, very difficult., , Loosening of associations,, derailment— rapidly shifting from, one topic to another so that the normal, structure of thinking is muddled and, becomes illogical., Neologisms—inventing new words or, phrases, Perseveration—persistent and, inappro-priate repetition of the same, thoughts., , Hallucinations, , Perceptions that occur in, the absence of external, stimuli, , Auditory (most common)- hear sounds, or voices that speak words, phrases, and sentences directly to the patient, (second person hallucination) or talk to, one another referring to the patient as, s/he (third person hallucination)., Tactile—forms of tingling, burning., Somatic—something happening inside, the body such as a snake crawling, inside one’s stomach., Visual—vague perceptions of colour or, distinct visions for people or objects., Gustatory—food or drink taste, strange., Olfactory—smell of poison or smoke., , Inappropriate, Effect, , Emotions that are, unsuited to the situation., , 2. Negative Symptoms:, ‘pathological deficits’., Symptom, , deficits, , of, , thought,, , emotion, , and, , behaviour;, , Definition, , Alogia (poverty of speech), , Reduction in speech content., , Blunted Effect, , Show less feelings than most people do., , Flat Effect, , Show no emotions at all., , Avolition (loss of volition), , Apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of, action., , Social Withdrawal, , Withdraw socially, become totally focused on own ideas, and fantasies., , Psychological Disorders, , 125
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3. Psychomotor Symptoms:, Symptoms, , Definition, , Catatonic Stupor, , Remain motionless and silent for long stretches of time., , Catatonic Rigidity, , Maintaining a rigid, upright posture for hours., , Catatonic Posturing Assuming awkward, bizarre positions for long periods., , 4. Sib-Types of Schizophrenia:, Type, , Characteristics, , Paranoid, , Preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations., , Disorganized, , Disorganized speech and behaviour; inappropriate or flat effect., , Catatonic, , Extreme motor immobility; excessive motor inactivity; extreme, negativism (i.e., resistance to instructions) or mutism (i.e.,, refusing to speak)., , Undifferentiated, , Does not fit any of the sub-types but meets symptoms criteria., , Residual, , Has experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia; shows, only negative symptoms., , Children and Developmental Disorders:, • Specific to children and if neglected, can lead to serious consequences later in life., • Children have less self-understanding and they have not yet developed a stable sense, of identity—unable to cope with stressful events., • Although their inexperience and lack of self-sufficiency make them easily upset by, problems that seem minor to an adult, children typically bounce back more quickly., A. Behavioural disorders:, • Classification of Children’s Disorders (Achenbach):, Externalisation, Under controlled., , Internalisation, Over controlled., , Behaviours that are disruptive and often Experiences depression, anxiety, and, aggressive and aversive to others in the discomfort that may not be evident to, child’s environment., others., , (a) Externalization:, 1. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):, • Inattentive: finds and difficult to substation mental effort during work, or play—does not listen, cannot concentrate, does not follow instructions, is, disorganized, easily distracted, forgetful., • Impulsive: Unable to control their immediate reaction or think before they, act— find it difficult to wait or take turns, resting immediate temptation or, delaying gratification., • Hypoactive: In constant motion, may fidget squirm climb and run around the, room aimlessly, always on the go and talk incessantly., 2. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD):, • Display age-inappropriate amount of stubbornness—are irritable, defiant,, disobedient, and behave in hostile manner. , • Rated in boys and girls are not very different., , 126, , Psychology—XII
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3. Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Behaviour:, • Display age-inappropriate action and attitudes that violate family expectations,, societal norms and personal or property rights of others., • Aggressive actions that cause or produced harm to people or animals, property, damage, major deceitfulness or theft, and serious rule violations., • Different types of aggressive behaviour, such as verbal aggression (directed at, inflicting injury to other), proactive aggression (dominating and bullying other, without provocation)., (b) Internalization:, 1. Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD), • Excessive anxiety or even panic experienced by children at being separated, from their parents., • May have difficult being in a room by themselves, going to school alone are, fearful of entering new situation, and cling to and shadow their parents’ every, move., • To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss screen throw severe tantrums, or make suicidal gestures., Depression:, The ways in which children express and experience depression are related to their, level of physical emotional and cognitive development., , An infant may show sadness by being passive and unresponsive—a pre-schooler, may appear withdrawn and inhibited; a school-age child may be argumentative and, combative; and teenager may express feeling of guilts and hopelessness., B. Pervasive Developmental Disorders., Characterized by severe and widespread impairments in social interaction and, communication skills, and stereotyped patterns of behaviours, interests and activities., (a) Autistic Disorder or Autism: [Pervasive Development Disorder], • Difficulty in social interaction and relating to other people—unable to initiate, social behaviours, seen unresponsive to other people’s feelings, unable to share, experiences or emotions with others., • Serious, persistent abnormalities in communication and language—many never, develop speech and those who do, have repetitive and deviant speech patterns., • Show narrow patterns of interests and repetitive behaviours, e.g., lining, up objects or body movements such as rocking—motor movements may be selfstimulatory (hand flapping) or self-injurious (banging their head against the wall)., • About 70 percent children are also mentally retarded., (b) Mental Retardation: [Developmental disorder], • Mental retardation refers to below average intellectual functioning., • IQ approximately 70 or below., • Deficit or impairment in adaptive behaviour particularly in the areas of, communication, self care, home living, social interpersonal skills, academic skills,, vocational adjustment work etc., • Manifested before the age of 18 years., • It can get manifested at four levels i.e., Mild (IQ range 50-70), Moderate (IQ range 35-49), Sevese (IQ range 20-34) Profound (IQ = Below 20), , Psychological Disorders, , 127
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9. Neurodevelopmental Disorders: These are impairments of the growth and development, of the brain or CNS. A narrower use of the term refers to a disorder to brain function, that affects emotion, learning ability, self control and memory and that unfolds as an, individual develops and grows., These disorders are a group of disorders that develop due to an abnormal brain development, or by damage at an early age. The most known disorders are ADHD, ASD, Dyslexia or, language disorders., 10. Disruptive, Impulse Control and Conduct Disorders: DSM-5 has a new chapter, on disruptive, impulse control and conduct disorders. These disorders refer to a group, of disorders that include oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, intermittent, explosive disorder, kleptomania and pyromania., These disorders can cause people to behave angrily or aggressively towards people or, property., This disorder includes conditions involving problems in the self control of emotions and, behaviours. It includes recurrent pattern of negativistic defiant, disobedient, and hostile, behaviour towards authority figures., 11. Feeding and Eating Disorders: (Disorders related to youth), , In the current psychiatric nomenclature of the diagnostic and statistical manual of, mental disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) the feeding and eating disorders category includes, three eating disorder syndromes – anorexia Nervosa, Bulinua Nervosa, and Binge eating, disorder and three conditions that were modified and moved from the section on feeding, and eating disorders of infancy or early childhood in DSM-IV-TR-Pica, rumination, disorder, and Avoidant-Restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID)., • Anorexia nervosa: a distorted body image that leads him/her to see himself/herself, as overweight—refuses to eat, exercises compulsively, develops unusual habits such, as refusing to eat in front of others, may lose large amounts of weight and even, starve himself/herself to death., • Bulimia nervosa: may eat excessive amounts of food, then purge his/her body of, food by using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting—feels disgusted, and ashamed when he/she binges and is relieved of tension and negative emotions, after purging., • Binge eating : frequent episodes of out-of-control eating., 12. Substance Related and Addictive Disorders:, Substance use disorders are among the most common mental health disorders among, adolescents. They cause considerable morbidity and mortality. These disorders involve, significant environmental contexts and biological processes which contribute to risk for, and development of these disorders., DSM-V categorised substance use disorders now as substance related and addictive, disorders because they are considering whether addictive disorders should include nonsubstance use disorders. For example whether disorders such as pathological gambling, (PG) should be grouped together with substance, green that they share many features., Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use of, the substance involved., Substance Dependence, , Substance Abuse, , Intense craving for the substance to which Recurrent and significant adverse consequences rethe person is addicted—the person shows lated to the use of substances., tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and compulsive drug-taking., , 128, , Psychology—XII
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Tolerance—the person has to use more of People who regularly ingest drugs damage their, family and social relationships, perform poorly at, a substance to get the same effect., Withdrawal—physical symptoms that works, and create physical hazards., when a person stops or cuts down on the, use of a psychoactive substance, i.e., a, substance that has the ability to change, an individual’s consciousness, mood and, thinking processes, Substance, , Abuse, , Dependence, , Effects, , Alcohol, , Body builds up a tolerance. Body, builds, up, a, Withdrawal, symptoms tolerance., occur., Withdrawal symptoms, occur., , Children of persons with, disorder—higher rates of, psychological problems,, (anxiety,, depression,, phobias and substancerelated disorders)., Excessive, drinking, health seriously damage, physical health., , Cocaine, , Pattern of abuse:, Person may be intoxicated, throughout the day., Functions poorly in social, relationships and at work., , Dominates the person’s, life-tolerance., Withdrawal symptoms:, feelings of depression,, fatigue, sleep problems,, irritability and anxiety., , Dangerous effects on, psychological, functioning and physical wellbeing may also cause, problems in short-term, memory and attention., , Heroin, , Significantly interferes with Lives revolve around, social and occupational the, substance—build, functioning., up a tolerance for it and, experience a withdrawal, reaction., , Overdose: slows down the, respiratory centres in the, brain, almost paralyzing, breathing, in many cases, causing death., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Abnormal Psychology: Serenities study of abnormal behaviour. By using scientific, Techniques, Psychology attempts to describe, explain and predict abnormal behaviour., • Anti-Social Behaviour: refers to any behaviour that is considered harmful or disruptive, within a group or society. Aspects of behaviour such as aggression or deserimination, would fall into this category., • Anorexia nervosa: Disorder involving severe loss of body weight, accompanied by an, intense fear of gaining weight or becoming ‘fat’., • Anxiety: A state of psychic distress characterized by fear, apprehension, and physiological, arousal., • Anxiety Disorders: Disorders in which anxiety is a central symptom. The disorder is, characterized by feelings of vulnerability, apprehension, or fear., • Autism: Pervasive developmental disorder beginning in infancy and involving a wide, range of abnormalities, including deficits in language, perceptual, and motor development,, defective reality testing, and social withdrawal., • Delusions: Irrational beliefs that are held despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary., , Psychological Disorders, , 129
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• De-institutionalisation: Movement whose purpose is to remove from care-giving, institution such as large mental hospitals all those patients who do not present a clear, danger to others or to themselves and to provide treatment an sheltered living conditions, for them in the community., • Depersonaliaation Disorder: Dissociative disorder in which there is a loss of the sense, of self., • Diathesis-stress Model: A view that the interaction of factors such as biological, predisposition combined with life stress may cause a specific disorder., • Dissociation: A split in consciousness whereby certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviour, operate independently from others., • Exorcism: Religiously inspired treatment procedure designed to drive out evil spirits or, forces from a ‘possessed’ person., • Eating disorders: A term which refers to a serious disruption of the eating habits or the, appetite. The main types of eating disorders are Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa and, Binge eating., • Genetics: A branch of Biology referring or relating to genes. Inherited genes are basic, unit of inheritance., • Hallucination: A false perception which has a compulsive sense of the reality of objects, although relevant and adequate stimuli for such perception is lacking. It is an abnormal, phenomenon., • Hypochondriasis: A psychological disorder in which the individual is dominated by, preoccupation with bodily processes and fear of presumed diseases despite reassurance, from doctor that no physical illness exists., • Hyperactivity: Condition characterised by over active, poorly controlled behaviour and, lack of concentration., • Main symptom of ADHD: Severe and frequent problems of either or both attention to, tasks or hyperactive and impulsive behaviour., • Mental retardation: Subnormal intellectual functioning associated with impairment in, adaptive behaviour and identified at an early age., • Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that carry message across the synapse to the dendrite, (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron., • Norms: A generalised expectation shared by most members of a group or culture that, underlies views of what is appropriate within that group., In terms of Psychological testing norms are standards of test performance that permit the, comparison of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have taken the, same test. This is the criteria to compare or typical score of an average group., • Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: A disorder characterized by obsession or compulsions., • Phobia: A strong, persistent. And irrational fear of some specific object or situation that, presents little or no actual danger to a person., • Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Patterns of symptoms involving anxiety reactions,, tension, nightmares, and depression following a disaster such as an earthquake or a flood., • Schizophrenia: A group of psychotic reactions characterized by the breakdown of, integrated personality functioning, withdrawal from reality, emotion blunting and, distortion, and disturbances in thought and behaviour., • Somatoform disorder: Condition involving physical complaints or disabilities occurring, in the absence of any identifiable organic cause., , 130, , Psychology—XII
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• Substance Abuse: The use of any drug or chemical to modify mood or behaviour that, results in impairment., • Syndrome: Group or pattern of symptoms that occur together in a disorder and represent, the typical picture of the disorder., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania., Ans. Depression and Mania are mood disorders. These are characterized by disturbances in, mood or prolonged maladaptive emotional state., The main types of mood disorders include:, 1. Major Depression disorders, 2. Mania, 3. Biopolar Disorders, Depression may get manifested as a symptom of a disorder or a major disorder in itself., 1. Major depressive disorders are defined as a period of depressed mood and/or loss, of interest or pleasure in most activities, together with other symptoms which may, include., , Symptoms of Depression:, • Loss of energy, great fatigue., • Change in body weight,, • Constant sleep problems., • Tiredness., • Inability to think clearly., • Agitation., • Greatly slowed behaviour., • Thoughts of death and suicide., • Breakup in relationship., • Negative self-concept., • No interest in pleasurable activities., • Other symptoms include excessive quilt or feelings of worthlessness., , Factors Predisposing towards Depression:, • Genetic make-up, Heredity is an important risk factor for major depression and bipolar disorders., • Age is also a risk factor. For instance, women are particularly at risk during young, adulthood, while for men the risk is highest in early middle age., • Gender also plays a great role in this differential risk addition. For example, women, in comparison to men are more likely to report a depressive disorder., • Situational factors like negative life event, lack of social support and not able to, live up to expectations etc. are few examples., 2. Mania:, Symptoms of mania., • Increase in activity level., • Euphoric., • Excessively talkative., • Easily distracted., • Impulsive., • Less than usual amount of sleep., • Inflated self esteem., • Excessive involvement in pleasurable activities., 3. Biopolar Disorders:, Mood disorder, in which both mania and depression are alternately present, is, sometimes interrupted by periods of normal mood. This is known as bipolar mood, disorder. (Bipolar mood disorders were earlier referred to as manicdepressive, disorders.), • It is cyclic in nature., , Psychological Disorders, , 131
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• In bipolar disorders, depression alternates with periods of mania, and shows, behaviour that is quite opposite to depression., • In the manic state, the individual turns megalomaniac. Person develops grandiose, cognitions and doesn’t consider the negative consequences before acting on these, grandiose plans., • Speech is often rapid, as if she has to say as many words as possible in the time, allotted., • The risk of a suicide attempt is highest in case of bipolar mood disorders., Q2. Describe the characteristics of hyperactive children., Ans. Achenbach has identified two factors in behavioural disorders:, • Externalizing Factors, • Internalizing Factors, These disorders must manifest before the age of 18., On the basis of these two factors he classified children’s disorders in two categories:, • The externalizing disorders or undercontrolled emotions: Behaviours that are, disruptive and often aggressive and aversive to others in the child’s environment., • The Internalizing disorders or over-controlled emotions: Those conditions, where the child experiences depression, anxiety, and discomfort that may not be, evident to others., 1. Externalizing Disorders:, (a) Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)., (b) Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)., (c) Conduct Disorder., (a) Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD):, The two main features of ADHD are:, (i) Inattention, (ii) Hyperactivity-impulsivity., , Inattention:, • Children who are inattentive find it difficult to sustain mental effort during, work or play., • They have a hard time keeping their minds on any one thing or in following, instructions., Common complaints are that, • The child does not listen, cannot concentrate, does not follow instructions,, is disorganized, easily distracted forgetful, does not finish assignments, and, is quick to lose interest in boring activities., • Children who are impulsive, unable to control their immediate reactions or, to think before they act., • They find it difficult to wait or take turns, have difficulty resisting, immediate temptations or delaying gratification., • Minor mishaps such as knocking things are common whereas more serious, accidents and injuries can also occur., • Hyperactivity also takes many forms. Children with ADHD are in constant, notion. Sitting still for some time through a lesson is impossible for them., The child may fidget, squirm, climb and run around the room aimlessly., • Parents and teachers describe them as ‘driven by a motor’, always on the go,, and talk a lot., • Boys are four times more prone for this diagnosis than girls., , 132, , Psychology—XII
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(b) Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD):, • Age-inappropriate amounts of stubbornness,, • Irritable,, • Defiant, disobedient, and, • Behave in a hostile manner., Unlike ADHD, the rates of ODD in boys and girls are not very different., (c) Conduct Disorder and Antisocial Behaviour refer to age-inappropriate, actions and attitudes that violate family expectation, societal norms, and the, personal or property rights of other., The behaviours typical of conduct disorder include:, • Aggressive actions that cause or threaten harm to people or animals,, • Non-aggressive conduct that causes property damage,, • Major dishonesty,, • Theft and, • Serious rule violations., Children show many different types of aggressive behaviour, as—1, • Verbal aggression (i.e., name-calling, swearing),, • Physical aggression (i.e., hitting, fighting),, • Hostile aggression (i.e., directed at inflicting injury to others),, • Proactive aggression (i.e., dominating and bullying others without, provocation)., 2. Internalizing disorders, (a) Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD) (b) Depression, (a) Separation anxiety disorder is an internalizing disorder unique to children. Its, most prominent symptom is—, • Excessive anxiety or even panic experienced by children at being separated from, their parents., • Have difficulty being in a room by themselves, going to school alone, are fearful, of entering new situations, and cling to and shadow their parents’ every move., • To avoid separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe, tantrums, or make suicidal gestures., (b) Depression:, • An infant may show sadness by being passive and unresponsive; a, preschooler may appear withdrawn and inhibited; a school-age child may be, argumentative and combative; and a teenager may express feelings of guilt, and hopelessness., Q3. What do you understand by substance abuse and dependence?, (Outside Delhi 2009, Delhi Board 2014), Ans. Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use, of the substance involved are called substance abuse disorders., These disorders include problems associated with using and abusing such drugs as, alcohol, cocaine and which alter the way people think, feel and behave., There are two sub-groups of substance-use disorders:, (a) Substance Dependence refers to intense craving for the substance to which, the person is addicted., The person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and compulsive drug taking., Tolerance means that the person has to use more and more of a substance to get the, same effect., , Psychological Disorders, , 133
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Withdrawal refers to physical symptoms that occur when a person stops or cuts, down on the use of a psychoactive substance, i.e., a substance that has the ability to, change an individual’s consciousness, mood and thinking processes., (b) Substance Abuse refers to recurrent and significant adverse consequences related, to the use of substances., People, who regularly consume drugs, damage their family and social relationships,, perform poorly at work, and create physical hazards., Substance abuse disorders are a joint result of physiological dependence and, psychological dependence. Physiological dependence refers to withdrawal, symptoms, i.e., the excessive dependence of the body on drugs. Psychological, dependence, on the other hand, refers to the strong craving for a drug because of, its pleasurable effects., , The three most common forms of substance abuse:, • Alcohol abuse and dependence, • Heroin abuse and dependence, • Cocaine abuse and dependence, Alcohol Abuse and Dependence:, • People, who abuse alcohol, drink large amounts regularly and rely on it to help them, face difficult situations., • Eventually, the drinking interferes with their social behaviour and ability to think, and work., • For many people the pattern of alcohol abuse extends to dependence. That is their, bodies build up a tolerance for alcohol and they need to drink even greater amounts, to feel its effects., • They also experience withdrawal responses when they stop drinking. Alcoholism, destroys millions of families and careers., • Intoxicated drivers are responsible for many road accidents., • It also has serious effects in the children of persons with this disorder., • These children have higher rates of psychological problems. Particularly anxiety., • Depression phobias and substance-related disorders., • Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health. Some of the ill effects of, alcohol can be been on health and psychological functioning., , Heroin Abuse and Dependence:, • Heroin intake significantly interferes with social and occupational functioning., • Most abusers further develop a dependence on heroin, revolving their lives around, the substance, building up a tolerance for it, and experiencing a withdrawal reaction, when they stop taking it., • The most direct danger of heroin abuse is an overdose, which slows down the, respiratory centres in the brain, almost paralyzing breathing, arid in many cases, causing death., • Regular use of cocaine may lead to a pattern of abuse in which the person may be, intoxicated throughout the day and function poorly in social relationships and at, work., • It may also cause problem in short-term memory and attention., • Dependence may develop, so that cocaine dominates the person’s life, more of, the drug is needed to get the desired effects and stopping it results in feeling of, depression, fatigue, sleep problems, irritability and anxiety., , 134, , Psychology—XII
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• Cocaine poses serious dangerous effects on psychological functioning and physical, well-being., Q4. Can distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it., Ans. Term ‘eating disorder’ refers to serious disruption of the eating habit or the appetite, manifested as distorted body image. The main types are:, • Anorexia nervosa, • Bulimia nervosa, • Binge eating, In anorexia nervosa, the individual has:, • A distorted body image that leads him/her to see himself/herself as overweight., • Often refusing to eat, exercising compulsively and developing unusual habits such as, refusing to eat in front of others., • Anorexic may loose large amounts of weight and even starve himself/herself to death., In bulimia nervosa,, • The individual may eat excessive amounts of food, then purge his/her body of food by, using medicines such as laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting., • The person often feels disgusted and ashamed when She/he binges and is relieved of, tension and negative emotions after purging., In binge eating, there are frequent episodes of out-of-control eating., Q5. “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms.” How are, psychological disorders diagnosed?, Ans. Psychological disorders are diagnosed on the basis of two classifications, i.e., DSM or IV, and ICD-X., • Classification of psychological disorders consists of a list of categories of specific, psychological disorders grouped into various classes on the basis of some shared, characteristics., • International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) is classification of behavioural and, mental disorders., • ICD-10 refers to international classification of diseases and its 10th revision is being, used., • It is developed by WHO under one broad heading ‘Mental Disorders’ which is based, on symptoms., (The classification scheme is officially used in India), • The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has published an official manual, of psychological disorders:, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, IVth Edition (DSM-IV)., • It Evaluates the patient on five axes or dimensions rather than just one broad aspect, of ‘mental disorder’., • These dimensions relate to biological, psychological, social and other aspects., Uses of Classification:, • Classifications are useful because they enable psychologists, psychiatrists and social, workers to communicate with each other about the disorders., • Helps in understanding the causes of psychological disorders and the processes, involved in their development., • It helps in Clinical diagnosis., Q6. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions., (Delhi Board 2014), Ans. • Sometimes anxiety and tension are associated with obsessions—persistent unwanted, thoughts, impulses or ideas or compulsions—seemingly irrational behaviours, repeatedly carried out in a fixed, repetitive way., , Psychological Disorders, , 135
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• People with obsessive-compulsive disorders find their obsessions or compulsions, distressing and debilitating but feel unable to stop them., • The compulsive actions are usually carried on to alleviate the anxiety caused by, obsessions. A person provoked with anxious thoughts may try to block them out by, compulsively counting steps while walking. Another person obsessed with the idea, that he is guilty or dirty, may wash his hands every few minutes, sometimes till the, bleed., • The symptoms of OCD include a contamination – an obsession of contamination, followed by washing or compulsive avoidance of the object. Shame and disgust and, the feeling of being easily contaminated are common. Patients usually believe that, the contamination is spread from object to object or person to person by the slightest, contact., (a) Pathological Doubt—Obsession of doubt followed by the compulsion of, checking. Patients have an obsessional self-doubt and are always feeling guilty, about having forgotten something. The checking may involve multiple trips back, to the house to check the stove., (b) Intrusive Thoughts—repetitive thoughts of a sexual or aggressive act that is, reprehensible to the patient. This is usually not followed by compulsions., (c) Symmetry—he need for symmetry and precision, which can lead to a compulsion, of slowness. Patients can literally take an hour to shave their faces or eat a meal., (d) Other symptom patterns may include religions obsessions and compulsive, hoardings as well as trichotillomania (compulsive half pulling) and nail-biting., Q7. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate., Ans. • Abnormal behaviour is a relative term. It is a matter of degree. It is qualitative, difference. There is no quantitative difference between normal and abnormal., • The word ‘Abnormal’ literally means away from the normal. It implies deviation from, some clearly defined norms or standards., • Various Views to explain Abnormality:, 1. Abnormality as Deviation from Social Norms:, • Each society has social norms, which are stated or unstated rules for proper, conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and emotions that break societal norms are called, abnormal., • Behaviour violates social norms or threatens or makes anxious those observing, it. Violation of norms makes abnormality a relative concept; various forms of, unusual behavioural can be tolerated depending on the prevailing cultural, norms. Yet this component is also at once too broad and too narrow., • A society’s values may change over time. Serious questions have been raised, about this definition., • It is based on the assumption that socially accepted behaviour is not abnormal,, and that normality is nothing more than conformity to social norms., • This approach has major shortcomings and there are serious questions against, this approach., 2. Abnormality in terms of Maladaptive Behaviour:, • Recent approach views abnormal behaviour as maladaptive. Many psychologists, believe that the best criterion for determining the normality of behaviour is not, , 136, , Psychology—XII
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whether society accepts it but whether it facilitates the well-being of the, individual and eventually of the group to which he/she belongs., • Well-being is not simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and, fulfilment. Maladaptive behaviour refers to—Behaviour that causes problems, in life., — It is inadequate reaction to the stressful situation., — It ranges from relatively minor but troubling fears to severe distortions of, reality., 3. Concept of four D’s: Now-a-days many psychologists believe that if an individual’s, behaviour manifests significant deviance, distress, danger and dysfunction in his/, her behavioural pattern, then it should be treated as abnormal., Q8. While speaking in public, the patient changes topics frequently. Is this a positive or, a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms and sub-types of, schizophrenia., Ans. While speaking in public, the patient changes topics frequently. This is a symptom of, derailment. This is one of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia; is the descriptive, term to a group of psychotic disorders in which personal, social and occupational, functioning deteriorate as a result of disturbed thought processes, strong perceptions,, unusual emotional states, and motor abnormalities., The social and psychological causes of schizophrenia are tremendous, both to patients, as well as to their families and society., Symptoms of schizophrenia:, • Positive Symptoms—comprise excesses and provide reduction of distress in the, patient. It comprises excesses of thought, emotion, and behaviour., • Negative Symptoms—deficits of thought, emotion and behaviour., • Psychomotor Symptoms., Positive Symptoms of Pathological Excesses :, 1. Disorganized Thinking and Speech:, • People with schizophrenia may not be able to think logically, and may speak in, peculiar ways., • Formal thought disorders can make communication extremely difficult., • It refers to problems in the organization of ideas and in speaking so that a listener, can understand., • These include derailment, i.e., rapidly shifting from one topic to another so that the, normal structure of thinking becomes illogical (loosening of association, derailed)., • Inventing new words, phrases, i.e., neologism and persistent and inappropriate, repetition of the same thoughts., 2. Delusion: It is a false belief that is firmly held on inadequate grounds. It is not, affected by emotional argument, and has no basis in reality., • Delusion of Persecution: belief that they are being plotted against, spied on,, slandered, threatened, attacked or deliberately victimized., • Delusions of Reference: in which they attach special and personal meaning to, the actions of others or to objects and event. They believe that they can read others, mind., • Delusions of Grandeur: people believe themselves to be specially empowered with, supernatural powers., , Psychological Disorders, , 137
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• Delusions of Control: they believe that their feelings, thoughts and actions are, controlled by others., 3. Hallucinations: Perceptions that occur in the absence of external stimuli., • Auditory hallucinations are most common in schizophrenia. Patients hear sounds, or voices that speak words, phrases and sentences directly to the patients (second, person hallucination) or talk to one another referring to the patient as he/she (third, person hallucination)., • Tactile hallucinations (i.e., forms of tingling, burning)., • Somatic hallucinations (i.e., something happening inside the body such as a, snake crawling inside one’s stomach), • Visual hallucinations (i.e., vague perceptions of colour or distinct visions of people, or objects)., • Gustatory hallucinations (i.e., food or drink taste strange)., • Olfactory hallucinations (i.e., smell of smoke)., 4. Inappropriate Effect, i.e., emotions that are unsuited to the situation., , Negative symptoms are ‘pathological deficits’, • Alogia—poverty of speech, i.e., a reduction in speech and speech content., • Blunted effect—reduced expression of emotions., • Flat effect—no expression of emotions., • Avolition—social withdrawal., , Psychomotor Symptoms:, • Schizophrenics move less spontaneously or make odd gestures. These symptoms, may take extreme forms known as catatonia., • Catatonic stupor: motionless and silent for long stretches of time., • Catatonic rigidity: maintaining a rigid, upright posture for hours., • Catatonic posturing: assuming awkward, bizarre positions for long periods., Q9. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms., , (Delhi Board 2008, 2010), Ans. , • According to Freud, the anxiety and conflicts were believed to be converted into, physical symptoms., • Dissociation can be viewed as severance of the connections between ideas and, emotions., • Dissociation involves amnesia, feelings of unreality, estrangement, depersonalization, and sometimes a loss or shift of identity., • Sudden temporary alterations of consciousness that blot out painful experiences are a, defining characteristic of dissociative disorders., Four conditions are included in this group—Dissociative amnesia, Dissociative, fugue, disseminative identity disorder and depersonalization., 1. Dissociative Amnesia: is characterized by extensive but selective memory, loss that has no organic cause (e.g., head injury). Some people cannot remember, anything about their past. Others can no longer recall specific events, people, places,, or objects, while their memory for other events remains intact., • This disorder is often associated with an over-whelming stress., , 138, , Psychology—XII
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2. Dissociative Fugue:, , Symptoms:, • Unexpected travel away from home or workplace., • The assumption of a new identity., • Inability to recall the previous identity., • The fugue usually ends when the person suddenly ‘wakes up’ with no memory of the, events that occurred during the fugue., 3. Dissociative identity disorder, often referred to as multiple personality, is the, most dramatic of the dissociative disorders., • It is often associated with traumatic experiences in childhood., • The person assumes alternate personalities that may or may not be aware of each, other., 4. Depersonalization involves a dreamlike state in which the person has a sense of, being separated both from self and from reality., • In depersonalization, there is a change of self-perception., • The person’s sense of reality is temporarily lost or changed., • The patient experiences change in his body parts., Q10. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia be, a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed., Ans. An intense, persistent irrational fear of something that produces conscious avoidance of, the feared subject, activity or situation is called a phobia., • Phobias can vary in degree and how much they interfere with healthy adaptation, to the environment. Some otherwise normal and well-adjusted persons also have, phobias., , Phobias are mainly of three types :, 1. Specific phobias are those directed towards specific objects and situations and can, be varied. e.g., acrophobia (fear of heights), pyrophobia (fear of fire), and hydrophobia, (fear of water)., 2. Social phobia is a fear of social situations, and people with this phobia may avoid, a wide range of situations in which they fear they will be exposed to, scrutinized and, possibly humiliated by other people., 3. Agoraphobia: is the term used when people developed a fear of entering unfamiliar, situations., Social learning theories work on the principle that our experience be it positive or, negative such as phobia of lizards/cockroaches are the result of learning process which, start early in life. Small children can play with snakes; they are not aware of the danger, involved. For them it is just another play object, as they grow up the fear of these things, are instilled by their parents and society which is reinforced and accounts for reactions, like phobia., A psychoanalytical account for the same could involve attribution to some unconscious, or/and repressed experiences. For example, suppose in your childhood you watched, a group of roudy boys brutally torturing a cockroach/snake, which eventually died,, although you going about the incidence after some days, but it might remain in back of, your mind forever, which might explain your phobia to cockroaches which might remind, you of the incidence and disturbs you emotionally., , Psychological Disorders, , 139
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Q11. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does, anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types., [Delhi Board 2014 OCD], Ans. Anxiety is usually defined as a diffused, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and, apprehension without any apparent reason, therefore it has been called ‘butterflies in, the stomach’, Anxious individual shows combinations of the following symptoms:, Rapid heart-rate, Shortness of breath, Diarrhoea, Loss of appetite, Fainting, Dizziness,, Sweating, Sleeplessness, Frequent urination, Tremors., Types of Anxiety Disorder:, There are many types of anxiety disorders:, (a) Generalized anxiety disorder which consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained, and intense fears that are not attached to any particular object., The symptoms include:, • Worry and apprehensive feelings about the future., • Hyper vigilance, which involves constantly scanning the environment for dangers., • It is marked by motor tension, as a result of which the person is unable to relax., • Restlessness., • Shaky and tense., , Other symptoms of anxiety, (b) Panic disorder—consists of recurrent anxiety attacks in which the person, experiences intense terror., • A panic attack denotes an abrupt attack of intense anxiety, rising to a peak when, thoughts of a particular stimuli are present., • Such thoughts occur in an unpredictable manner., • It continues for six and seven minutes and then patients becomes normal., , Clinical Features:, • Shortness of breath, • Dizziness, • Trembling, • Palpitations, • Choking, • Nausea, • Chest pain or discomfort, • Fear of going crazy, • Losing control or feeling of dying, (c) Phobic Disorders:, • People who have phobias have irrational fears related to specific objects, people, or, situations., • Phobias can be grouped into three main types, i.e., specific phobias, social phobias,, and agoraphobia., • Specific phobias are the most commonly occurring type of phobia. Specific phobias, are unwarranted fears caused by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or, situation. This group includes irrational fears such as intense fear of a certain type, of animal, or insects., • Social phobias intense and incapacitating fear and embarrassment when dealing, with others, e.g., crowded market, fear of closed space and stage fear., • Agoraphobia: people develop a fear of entering in an unfamiliar situations. Many, agoraphobics are afraid of leaving their home. So their ability to carry out normal, life activities is severely limited., , 140, , Psychology—XII
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(d) Obsessive Compulsive Disorders:, • Obsessive Behaviour: is the inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or, topic. The person involved often finds these thoughts to be unpleasant and shameful, but can not control them., • Compulsive Behaviour: Thus is the need to perform certain behaviours over and, over again. Many compulsions deal with counting, ordering, checking, touching and, washing., • Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: People affected by this disorder are unable to, control their preoccupation with specific ideas and are unable to prevent themselves, from repeatedly caring out a particular act or series of acts that affect their ability, to carry out normal activities., In OCD unwanted thoughts combine with compulsive acts., (e) Post-traumatic Stress Disorders:, • People who have been caught in a natural disaster (such as tsunami)., • Victims of bomb blasts by terrorists., • Serious accident., • In a war-related situation., , Symptoms:, • Immediate reactions, i.e., denial and disorientation., • Physiological reactions. e.g., recurrent dreams, nightmares and flashbacks., • Cognitive reactions. e.g., impaired concentration, memory loss., • Emotional numbing. e.g., emotional numbness and suicidal tendencies., • Social reaction. e.g., apathy and withdrawal., , MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. Behaviour interfering with the person’s ability to carry out daily activities in a, constructive way is dysfunctional ., Q2. Different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre behaviour is called Abnormal ., Q3. Method used to remove spirits/evil through counter magic and prayer is Exoreism., Q4. Organic approach believes—, (i) Disturbed behaviour as arising out of conflict between body and brain., (ii) Disturbed behaviour result of conflict between emotion and reason., (iii) Conflict between the way an individual fear and the demands of the society., (iv) Give importance to scientific method to study abnormal behaviour., Q5. The concept of four humours is given by Galen ., Q6. Renaissance period gives importance to supernatural powers in determining abnormal, determining. (True/False)., Q7. 1 CD–10 gave description of clinical symptoms and their associated features including, diagnostic guidelines., Q8. Anxiety disorders may be caused due to which neurotransmitter GABA ., Q9. Schizophrenia may be due to excess activity of Dopamine ., Q10. Depression may be due to low activity of Serotonin ., , Psychological Disorders, , 141
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Q11. Biological pre-disposition to the disorder is called Diathesis stress model ., Q12. Humanistic believe shrinking from one’s responsibility lead to abnormal behaviour., (True/False)., Q13. When a patient feels extreme and incapacitating pain either with biological symptoms, or without biological symptoms is called pain disorder ., Q14. Disorder associated with euphoric extreme activities like talking is called Mania ., Q15. Bipolar disorder is accompanied mania and depression sometimes interrupted by, periods of normal mood. (True/False), Q16. Muddled, illogical thinking due to shifting from one topic to another is Derailment ., Q17. Positive symptoms associated with inventing new words and phrases is called Neologism., Q18. Persistent and inappropriate repetition of the same thoughts is Perseveration ., Q19. Identify which kind of delusion each of these is?, (a) A person believes he/she is going to be the next president. (epandure), (b) One who believes his wife is trying to kill him. (Persecution), (c) One who believes he/she is reincarnation of god and make things happen. (grandure), (d) One who believes that the tsunami occurred to prevent him/her from enjoying him/, her holidays. (Persecution), Q20. Child showing stubbornness extreme disobedient and hostile behaviour suffer from , ODD ., Q21. Age inappropriate actions violating family expectations, societal norms is conduct, disorder ., Q22. Frequent episode of out of control eating is called Binge eating ., Q23. An individual consuming excesses amounts of food and then taking it out through, laxatives or by vomiting is suffering from Bulimia Nervosa ., , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. What is abnormality?, Ans., , • ‘Abnormal’ literally means away from the normal., • Abnormality refers to that maladjustment oriented, socially unacceptable human, behaviour which proves dysfunctional, distressing, dangerous and significantly, deviant to the individual and to the society., , Q2. What are neurotransmitters?, Ans. Neurotransmitters are chemical substances released into synapse by the pre-synaptic, neuron that transmit nerve impulses from one neuron to another., Q3. What is GABA?, Ans. GABA stands for ‘gamma aminobutyric acid’. It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter., Q4. Name the disorders which are related to genetic factors., Ans. Genetic factors have been linked to mood disorders, schizophrenia, mental retardation, and other psychological disorders., Q5. What is interactional approach to explain psychological disorders?, Ans. According to interactional or bio-psycho-social approach, all three factors, i.e., biological,, psychological and social, play important roles in influencing the expression and outcome, of psychological disorders., , 142, , Psychology—XII
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Q6. What are delusions?, Ans. A delusion is a false belief that is firmly held on inadequate grounds. It is not affected, by rational argument, and has no basis in reality., Q7. What is alogia?, Ans. Alogia means poverty of speech, i.e., a reduction in speech and speech content. This, may be a symptom of schizophrenia., Q8. What is avolition?, Ans. Avolition means apathy and an inability to start or complete a course of action. People, with this disorder may withdraw socially and become totally focused on their own ideas, and fantasies. This may be a symptom of schizophrenia., Q9. Why it is believed that psychological disorder is something to be ashamed of stigma?, Ans. It is commonly believed that psychological disorder is something to be ashamed of, because of the stigma attached to mental illness. It means that people are hesitant to, consult a psychiatrist or psychologist because they are ashamed of their problems., Q10. What is the meaning of ‘well-being’?, Ans. Well-being refers to the maintenance and survival of the individual including growth, and feeling of fulfilment., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. Write the main features of abnormal behaviour., Ans. Most of the definitions of abnormal behaviour have certain common features often called, the ‘four Ds’. They are following:, (i) Deviance: Psychological disorders are deviant (different, extreme, unusual, even, bizarre)., (ii) Distress: It means unpleasant and upsetting to the person and to others., (iii) Dysfunctional: It means interference with the person’s ability to carry out daily, activities in a constructive way., (iv) Dangerous: It means the behaviour is dangerous to the person or to others., Q2. What is diathesis-stress model?, Ans. Diathesis-stress model views abnormal behaviour as the result of stress operating, on an individual with a biological, psycho-social or socio-cultural predisposition toward, developing a specific disorder. Diathesis refers to biological predisposition. This model, has three components, 1. Diathesis or presence of some biological aberrations which may be inherited., 2. May carry a vulnerability to develop psychological disorder., 3. Presence of pathological stressor may lead to psychopathology., Q3. What are the ways of preventing suicide?, Ans. Suicide can be prevented by being alert to some of the symptoms which include:, (i) changes in eating and sleeping habits., (ii) withdrawal from friends, family and regular activities., (iii) violent actions, rebellious behaviour, running away., (iv) drug and alcohol abuse., (v) marked personality change., (vi) persistent boredom., , Psychological Disorders, , 143
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(vii) difficulty in concentration., (viii) complaints about physical symptoms., (ix) loss of interest in pleasurable activities., However, seeking timely help from a professional counsellor/psychologist can help to, prevent the likelihood of suicide., Q4. Name the commonly abused substances?, Ans. Commonly abused substances (following the DSM-IV-TR classification):, (i) Alcohol., (ii) Amphetamines—dextroamphetamines, meta-amphetamines, diet pills., (iii) Caffeine—coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, chocolate, cocoa., (iv) Cannabis—marijuana or ‘bhang’, hashish, sensimilla., (v) Cocaine., (vi) Hallucinogens—LSD, mescaline., (vii) Inhalants—gasoline, glue, paint, thinners, spray paints, typewriter correction fluids,, sprays., (viii) Nicotine—tobacco, cigarettes., (ix) Opioid—morphine, heroin, cough syrup, painkillers (analgesics, anaesthetics)., (x) Phencyclidine., (xi) Sedatives., Q5. Differentiate between substance abuse and substance dependence disorder., Ans. Substance abuse disorder: There are recurrent and significant adverse consequences, related to the use of substances., , Substance dependence disorder: there is intense craving for the substance to which, the person is addicted, and the person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and, compulsive drug taking., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. Discuss Historical background to explain mental disorders., Ans. , 1. Supernatural Approach—refers to removing the evil from the individual through, counter magic and prayer known as Exorcism. It is based on a belief that supernatural, and magical forces such as evil spirits cause mental disorders., 2. Biological or Organic Approach—According to this approach, body and brain, processes are related and cause many types of maladaptive behaviour., 3. Psychological Approach—According to this approach, psychological problems are, caused by inadequacies related to thinking, feeling or perceiving the world., 4. Organismic Approach—This approach was developed in ancient Greece by, Hippocrates, Socrates and in particular Plato. They believed that disorders arise due, to conflicts between emotion and reason., 5. Galen emphasized on the role of the four humours in personal character in, temperament. According to him problem in body fluids such as blood, black by, yellow, by, cause disorders. This approach is very similar to Indian theory of Tri-doshas of, vata, pitta and kapha., 6. Interactional or Bio-psycho-social Approach—According to this perspective on, three factors i.e., biological, psychological and social, in combination play important, role in development of mental disorders., , 144, , Psychology—XII
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Q2. How biological factors cause abnormal behaviour., Ans. Psychologists have used various determinant and perspectives to explain abnormal, behaviour. Some of the major factor to explain cause of abnormality are as following:, A. Biological factors such as faulty genes, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition,, injuries and other conditions may interfere with normal development and, functioning of the human body. These factors may be potential causes of abnormal, behaviour., According to this biological model, abnormal behaviour has a biochemical or physiological, basis., Biological researchers have found that psychological disorders are often related to, problems in the transmission of messages from one neuron to another., (A tiny space called synapse separates one neuron from the next, and the message must, move across that space. When an electrical impulse reaches a neuron’s ending, the nerve, ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a neurotransmitter., Studies indicate that abnormal activity by certain neurotransmitters can lead to, specific psychological disorders. Anxiety disorders have been linked to low activity of, the neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), schizophrenia to excess, activity of dopamine whereas depression is caused due to low rate of serotonin., , Genetic Factors:, Genetic factors have been linked to mood disorders, schizophrenia, mental retardation, and other psychological disorders., • Researches indicate that no single gene is responsible for a particular behaviour or a, psychological disorder., • In fact, many genes combine to bring about various behaviours and emotional, reactions, both functional and dysfunctional., • There is evidence to believe that genetic and biochemical factors are involved in, mental disorders such as schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, etc. but biology alone, cannot account for most mental disorders., Q3. Describe psychological models explaining abnormal behaviour., (CBSE 2014), Ans. Psychological models maintain that psychological and interpersonal factors have a, significant role to play in abnormal behaviour. These factors include:, • Maternal deprivation (separation from the mother, or lack of warmth and, stimulation during early year of life)., • Faulty parent-child relationships (rejection, overprotection, over-permissiveness,, faulty discipline, etc., • Maladaptive family structures (inadequate or disturbed family) arid severe, stress., The psychological models include the psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, and, humanistic-existential models., (a) The Psychodynamic Model: This model is the oldest and most famous of the, modern psychological-models., Abnormal behaviour is viewed as the result of intrapsychic conflicts., • This model was first formulated by Freud., • Abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious mental conflicts that, can be generally traced to early childhood or infancy., (b) The Behavioural Model: This model states that both normal and abnormal, behaviours are learned and psychological disorders are the result of learning, maladaptive ways of behaving., , Psychological Disorders, , 145
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The model concentrates on behaviours that are learned through conditioning and, propose that what has been learned can be unlearned. Learning can take place by, classical conditioning (temporal association in which two events repeatedly occur, close together in time), operant conditioning (behaviour is followed by a reward), and, social learning (learning by imitating others’ behaviour)., These three types of conditioning account for behaviour, whether adaptive or, maladaptive., (c) The Cognitive Model:, • This model states that abnormal functioning can result from cognitive problems like, negative thinking and irrational believes., • People may hold assumptions and attitudes about themselves that are irrational, and inaccurate., • People may also repeatedly think illogical ways and make overgeneralizations. They, may draw broad, negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event., (d) The Humanistic-Existential Model:, • Humanists believe that human being born with a natural tendency to be friendly,, co-operative and constructive, and are driven to self-actualize, i.e., to fulfil this, potential for goodness and growth., • Existentialists believe that from birth we have total freedom to give meaning to, our existence or to avoid that responsibility. Those who shirk from this responsibility, would live empty, inauthentic and dysfunctional lives., • According to humanists, obstacles in self-actualization cause mental disorder., Q4. Discuss socio cultural model of abnormal behaviour., Or, Explain mental disorders from Socio-cultural perspective., (CBSE 2013), Ans. According to socio-cultural model:, • Behaviour is shaped by societal forces, factors such as family structure and, communication, social networks, societal conditions, and societal labels., • Poor schooling, crime, inadequate housing, prejudices, deprivation, discrimination, and by and large poverty causes mental disorders., • It has been found that certain faulty family systems are likely to produce abnormal, functioning in individual members due to over-protection and over-indulgence. In, some families the members are too interfering in each other’s activities, thoughts,, and feelings which cause problems., Studies have shown that people who are isolated and lack social support, i.e.,, strong and fulfilling interpersonal relationships in their lives are likely to become, more depressed and remain depressed longer than those who have good friendships., Socio-cultural theorists also believe that abnormal functioning is influenced by the, societal labels and roles assigned to troubled people., • When people break the norms of their society they are called ‘deviant’ and ‘mentally, ill’. Such labels tend to stick so that the person may be viewed as ‘crazy’ and, encouraged to act sick. The person gradually learns to accept and play the sick role,, and functions in a disturbed manner., Q5. Discuss somatoform disorders., (CBSE 2014, CBSE 2011 Outside Delhi), Ans. In somatoform disorders, the patient suffers from psychological difficulties and, complaints of physical symptoms for which there is no biological cause., , 146, , Psychology—XII
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These disorders include pain disorders, somatization disorders, hypochondriasis and, conversion disorders., (a) Pain Disorders: Main symptoms of pain disorders are:, • Extreme and incapacitating pain greatly in excess of what might be expected., • No identifiable biological symptoms., • Habit of consuming pain killers., • Difficult to diagnose because how people interpret pain influences their overall, adjustment. Some pain sufferers can learn to use active coping, i.e., remain active, and ignore the pain. Others engage in passive coping, which leads to reduce the, activity and social withdrawal. Therefore diagnosis of pain disorder is difficult., • Mostly manifested to avoid distress or used as attention seeking device., (b) Somatization Disorders:, • Monitors insignificant symptoms and visits frequently to physician., • Multiple and recurrent or chronic bodily complaints., • Complaints presented in a dramatic and exaggerated way., • Common complaints—headaches, fatigue, heart palpitations, fainting spells,, vomiting and allergies., • Patients believe that they are sick, provide long and detailed histories of their, illness, and take large quantities of medicine., (c) Hypochondriasis:, • It is diagnosed if a person has a persistent belief that he/she has a serious, illness, despite medical reassurance, lack of physical findings and failure to, develop the disease., • Interprets insignificant symptoms as signs of a serious illness despite repeated, medical evaluation that points to no pathology/disease., • Hypochondriacs have an obsessive preoccupation and concern with the condition of, their bodily organs, and they—continually worried about their health., (d) The Conversion Disorders:, • There is reported loss of part or all of some basic body functions., • Paralysis, blindness, deafness and difficulty in walking are generally among the, symptoms reported., • These symptoms often occur after a stressful experience and may be quite sudden., Q6. Briefly describe various forms of delusions., (CBSE 2011 outside Delhi) (CBSE 2014), Ans. Many people with schizophrenia develop delusions. A ‘delusion’ is false belief that is, firmly held on inadequate grounds. The types of delusions are following:, (i) Delusions of Persecution: These are false belief that one is being mistreated. or, belief that everyone is conspiring against him., (ii) Delusions of Grandeur: False belief that one is a noted or famous person such as, Prime Minister or a film star or God like Lord Ganesha., (iii) Delusion of Reference: In this people attach special and personal meaning to the, actions of other or to objects and events., (iv) Delusions of Control: They believe that their feeling, thoughts and actions are, controlled by others or some supernatural power or machine., Q7. Discuss the hallucinations as a symptom of schizophrenia., Ans. Schizophrenics may have hallucinations, i.e., perceptions that occur in the absence of, external stimuli., , Psychological Disorders, , 147
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(a) Auditory Hallucination: is most common in schizophrenia. Patients hear sounds, or voices that speak words, phrases and sentences directly to the patient., (b) Tactile Hallucinations: That is form of tingling, burning sensation., (c) Visual Hallucinations: That is form of vague perception of colour or disturbed, vision of people or objects)., (d) Gustatory Hallucination: That is form of taste sensation., (e) Olfactory Hallucination: That is form of smell of poison or smoke., (f) Somatic Hallucination: That is something happening inside the body, e.g., snake, crawling inside ones stomach., Q8. Describe the various effects of alcohol., Ans. Effects of alcohol are following:, • All alcohol beverages contain ethyl alcohol., • This chemical is absorbed into the blood and carried into the central nervous system, (brain and spinal cord) where it depresses or slows down functioning., • Ethyl alcohol depresses those areas in the brain that control judgment and, inhibition—people become more talkative and friendly, and they feel more confident, and happy., • As alcohol is absorbed, it affects other areas of the brain. e.g., drinkers are unable, to make sound judgement, speech becomes less careful and less clear and memory, falters—many people become emotional, loud and aggressive., • Motor difficulties increase. e.g., people become unsteady when they walk and clumsy, in performing simple activities; vision becomes blurred and they have trouble in, hearing; they have difficulty in driving or in solving simple problems., , V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA : 6 Marks ), , Q1. Mention risk factors which may predict the likelihood of suicide. How it can be, prevented?, Ans., , • Age: Teenagers and young adults are as much at high risk for suicide, as those who, are over 70 years., , • Gender is also an influencing factor, i.e., men have a higher rate of contemplated, suicide than women., • Occurrence of serious life events., • Cultural attitudes toward suicide., (In Japan, for instance, suicide is the culturally appropriate way to deal with feeling, of shame and disgrace.), • Negative expectations., • Hopelessness., • Setting unrealistically high standards., • Being over-critical in self-evaluation are important themes for those who have, suicidal preoccupations., Suicide can be prevented by being alert to some of the symptoms which include:, • Changes in eating and sleeping habits., • Withdrawal from friends, family and regular activities., • Violent actions, rebellious behaviour running away, , 148, , Psychology—XII
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Q2., Ans., , Q3., Ans., , Q4., Ans., , • Drug and alcohol abuse, • Marked personality change, • Persistent boredom, • Complaints about physical symptoms, and, • Loss of interest in pleasurable activities., However, seeking timely help from a professional counsellor/psychologist can help to, prevent the likelihood of suicide., Discuss Sub-types of Schizophrenia?, According to DSM-IV the sub-types of schizophrenia and their characteristics are:, Paranoid type: Preoccupation with delusions or auditory hallucinations; no, disorganized speech or behaviour or inappropriate affect., Disorganized type: Disorganized speech and behaviour; inappropriate or flat affect;, no catatonic symptoms., Catatonic type: Extreme motor immobility; excessive motor inactivity; extreme, negativism i.e. resistance to instructions) or mutism (i.e. refusing to speak)., Undifferentiated type: Does not fit any of the sub-types but meets symptom criteria., Residual type: Has experienced at least one episode of schizophrenia; no positive, symptoms but shows negative symptoms., Why children are predisposed to developed behavioural disorders?, There are certain disorders that are specific to children and if neglected can lead to, serious consequences later in life., Among Children these disorders are prevalent because :, • Children have less self-understanding., • They have not yet developed a stable sense of identity., • Do not have an adequate frame of reference regarding reality, possibility, and value., • They are unable to cope with stressful events, which might be reflected in behavioural, and emotional problems., Discuss Pervasive Developmental Disorders among children., These disorders are characterized by Severe and widespread impairments in, • Social interaction, • Communication skills, • Stereotyped patterns of behaviours, • Interests and activities., (a) Autistic disorder or autism is one of the most common of these disorder., Children with autistic disorder have marked difficulties in:, • Social interaction, • Communication, • Restricted range of interests, • Strong desire for routine eg. using same Mug for taking milk or tea., • About 70 percent of children with autism are also mentally retarded., • Children with autism experience profound difficulties in relating to other people., • They are unable to initiate social behaviour and seem unresponsive to other people’s, feelings., • They are unable to share experiences or emotions with other., • They also show serious abnormalities in communication and language that persist, over time., • Many autistic children never develop speech and those, who do, have repetitive and, deviant speech pattern., , Psychological Disorders, , 149
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• Children with autism often show narrow patterns of interests and repetitive, behaviours such as lining up objects or stereotyped body movements such as rocking., • These motor movements may be self-stimulatory such as hand flapping or selfinjurious such as banging their head against the wall., (b) Mental Retardation: Mental retardation refers to below average intellectual, functioning (with an IQ of approximately 70 or below), and deficits or impairments, in adaptive behaviour particularly in the areas of:, • Communication,, • Self-care,, • Home living,, • Social/interpersonal skills,, • Functional academic skills,, • Work, etc., These are manifested before the age of 18 years., , TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Children who have marked difficulties in social interaction and communication, desire, for routine and restricted interests are suffering from:, (Delhi Board 2014), (a) Alogia, (b) Impulsively, (c) Hyperactivity, (d) Autism, 2. Extreme pain without any identifiable biological symptom is an example of __________., (Delhi Board 2013 Outside Delhi), 3. Fear of unfamiliar situation is known as _________ . (Delhi Board 2013, Outside Delhi), 4. An individual reporting loss of part or some bodily functions is showing signs of, (a) Dissociative disorders, (b) Panic disorder, (c) Mood disorder, (d) Conversion disorder., (CBSE Outside Delhi 2011), 5. An individual having sudden and temporary fluctuation of consciousness that blots out, painful experiences is showing signs of:, (Delhi Board 2010), (a) Panic disorder, (b) Mood disorder, (c) Conversion disorder, (d) Delusion of Grandure, (Delhi Board 2010), 6. People who believe themselves to be specially empowered persons suffer from:, (a) Delusion of reference, (b) Delusion of control, (c) Delusion of Persecution, (d) Delusion of Grandure, (Delhi Board 2009), 7. Developing a fear of entering unfamiliar situations is known as:, (a) Panic disorder, (b) Compulsive disorder, (c) Agoraphobia, (d) Conversion disorder, (Delhi Board 2010), 8. Extreme pain without identifiable biological symptom is an example of __________, disorder., 9. Psychologists consider hallucinations, disorganized behaviour and inappropriate effect, as some of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. (True/ False), 12. What is ‘anorexia nervosa’?, 11. An individual reporting loss of part or some bodily functions is showing signs of, (a) Dissociative disorder, (b) Panic disorder, (c) Mood disorder, (d) Conversion disorder, , 150, , Psychology—XII
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12., 13., 14., 15., 16., 17., 18., 19., 20., , Part-B, , Explain Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD)., Explain the term phobias., What is substance dependence?, Define abnormal behaviour., , (CBSE 2013), (CBSE 2012), , Part-C, , Explain post traumatic stress disorder giving examples., (CBSE 2012), Explain dissociative amnesia., (CBSE 2012), What is bipolar mood disorder?, (CBSE 2011), What is obsessive compulsive disorder? Explain, (CBSE 2011), What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Explain any two types of dissociative, disorders., (CBSE 2008), 21. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions., (CBSE 2010), 22., 23., 24., 25., 26., 27., , Part-D, , Describe substance use disorders., (CBSE 2009, 2014), Describe obsessive compulsive disorder., (CBSE 2014), Explain the concept of abnormality giving examples from daily life., Explain mental disorder from a socio-cultural perspective., (CBSE 2013), Explain any two types of hallucinations., (CBSE 2012), What do you mean by Dissociation? Explain any two Dissociative disorders., (CBSE 2010), 28. What are mood disorders? Discuss the main types of mood disorders., 29. State the three components of diathesis stress model of abnormal behaviour., (CBSE 2009, 2011), 30. Explain the forms of Eating disorders Associated with distorted body image.], (CBSE 2013), , Part-E, , 31. While speaking in public a patient changes topics frequently. Is this a positive or a, negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe its other symptoms and sub-types., 32. Discuss behavioural and developmental disorders among children., 33. Discuss the different approaches used by psychologists to understand psychological, disorders., 34. Explain Mental disorders from the perspective of any two Psychological models., (CBSE 2014), 35. Explain somatoform disorders. Describe any two somatoform disorders with examples., , (CBSE 2014, 2011), 36. What are mood disorders? Discuss the main types of mood disorders., (Delhi Board 2010), , , Psychological Disorders, , 151
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5, , Therapeutic approaches, and counselling, , FACTS THAT MATTER, Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between the one seeking treatment or the, client and the one who treats or the therapist and is given under therapeutic conditions., 1. Purpose: To help the client to solve the psychological problems being faced by her or, him., 2. Aim: To change the maladaptive behaviours, decrease the sense of personal distress,, and help the client to adapt better to his/her environment., 3. The relationship is conducive for building the trust of the client so that problems, may be freely discussed., , Characteristics:, 1. All psychotherapies are systematic application of some theory or principle., 2. The therapist must be a trained professional., 3. Psychotherapy is an interactive process in which two people are involved—the client, and the therapist., 4. Psychotherapy functions, under therapeutic relationship which is trusting, accepting;, confiding, dynamic, professional relationship., Goals:, (i) Reinforcing client’s resolve for betterment., (ii) Lessening emotional pressure., (iii) Unfolding the potential for positive growth., (iv) Modifying habits., (v) Changing thinking patterns., (vi) Increasing self-awareness., (vii) Improving interpersonal relations and communication., (viii) Facilitating decision-making., (ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in life., (x) Relating to one’s social environment in a more creative and self-aware manner., Therapeutic Relationship:, The special relationship between the client and the therapist is known as the therapeutic, relationship or alliance., Components:, 1. Contractual Nature of the Relationship: Two willing individuals, the client and, the therapist, enter into a partnership which aims at helping the client overcome his/, her problems., 2. Limited Duration of the Therapy: This alliance lasts until the client becomes, able to deal with his/her problems and take control of his/her life., , 152, , Psychology—XII, , 152
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Properties:, (i) It is a trusting and confiding relationship., (ii) The high level of trust enables the client to unburden herself/himself to the, therapist and confide her/his psychological and personal problems to the latter., Classification of Psychotherapies, Parameter, Cause, , Psychodynamic, Undersolved Intrapsychic, conflicts: conflicts within the, psyche of the person (dynamics, between different components of, psyche)., , Behavioural, Faulty learning, of behaviours and, cognitions., , Existential, Questions about the, meaning of one’s life and, existence. “ Who am I” ?, , Unfulfilled desires of childhood., Cause, comes into Unresolved childhood fears., Existence, , Faulty conditioning Importance on presentpatterns, learning,, current feelings of, thinking and beliefs. loneliness, alienation,, sense of futility of one’s, existence., , Treatment, , Free association and reporting of, dreams—elicit the thoughts and, feelings of the client., Interpreted to the client to help, him/her to confront and resolve, the conflicts., , Alternate behavioural contingencies., Cognitive methods, which challenge, faulty thinking, patterns., Different techniques, to treat different, disorders., , Positive, accepting,, and non-judgmental, environment., Client is able to talk, about the problems., Therapist acts as a, facilitator., , Nature of, Relationship, , Therapist understands conflicts, better than the client—, interprets the unconcious, thoughts and feelings of the, client., , Therapist discerns, faulty behaviour, and thought, patterns—capable, of finding out, correct and adaptive, patterns., , Therapist provides, a warm, empathic, relationship—client, feels secure to explore, the nature and causes, of his/her problems by, himself/herself., , Chief, Benefit to, Client, , Emotional insight: Client, understands conflicts, intellectually; accepts the same, emotionally; changes his/her, emotions towards the conflicts., , Instituting, adaptive or healthy, behaviour and, thought patterns., , Personal growth:, The process of, gaining increasing, understanding, of oneself, ones, aspirations, emotions, and motives., , Duration, , Several years (classical, psychoanalysis); 10-15 sessions, (recent versions)., , Few months., , Few months, , A. PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPY (Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Neo-Freudians), , Methods of Eliciting the Nature of Intrapsychic Conflict:, 1. Free Association: Ist window to peep in the unconscious., (i) Therapeutic relationship is established, client feels comfortable—therapist, makes client lie down on the couch, close their eyes and asks them to speak, , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 153
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whatever comes to mind without censoring it. Client provides verbal, narration., (ii) Client is encouraged to freely associate one thought with another (free, association)., (iii) Censoring supere go and the watchful ego are kept in abeyance—client speaks, whatever comes to mind in a relaxed and trusting atmosphere., (iv) Therapist does not interrupt; the free flow of idea, desires and conflicts of the, unconscious, which had been suppressed by the ego, emerge into the conscious, mind., 2. Dream Analysis:, (i) Client is asked to write down his/her dreams upon waking up., (ii) Drams are symbols of the unfulfilled desires of the unconscious., (iii) Dreams use symbols which signify intrapsychic forces because they are indirect, expressions and hence would not alert the ego., (iv) If unfulfilled desires are expressed directly, the ever-vigilant ego would suppress, them, leading to anxiety., (v) Symbols are interpreted according to an accepted convention of translation as, the indicators of unfulfilled desires and conflicts., Modality of Treatment:, (a) Transference: The client starts identifying the therapist with the authority, figures of the past, usually childhood., (i) The therapist maintains a non-judgmental and permissive attitude and allows, the client to continue with this process of emotional identification., (ii) Transference Neurosis: The therapist becomes a substitute for that person, in the present—the client acts out the frustrations, anger, fear, that he/she, harboured towards that person in the past, but could not express at the time., • Positive Transference: The client idolizes, or falls in love with the, therapist, and seeks the therapist’s approval., • Negative Transference: The client has feelings of hostility, anger and, resentment towards the therapist., (b) Resistance: The client opposes the progress of therapy in order to protect, himself/herself from the recall of painful unconscious memories., (i) Conscious Resistance: The client deliberately hides some information, (ii) Unconscious Resistance: The client becomes silent during the therapy, session, recalls trivial details without recalling the emotional ones, misses, appointments, and comes late for therapy sessions., (iii) The therapist overcomes the resistance by repeatedly confronting the, patient about it and by uncovering emotions such as anxiety, fear or, shame, which are causing the resistance., (c) Interpretation: The therapist uses the unconscious material that has been, uncovered to make the client aware of the psychic contents and conflicts which, have led to the occurrence of certain events, symptoms and conflicts., (i) Subtle process, the pinnacle of psychoanalysis., (ii) Two analytical techniques:, • Confrontation: The therapist points out to the client an aspect of, his/her psyche that must be faced by the client., • Clarification: The therapist brings a vague or confusing event into, , 154, , Psychology—XII
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sharp focus by separating and highlighting important details about, the event from unimportant ones., (d) Working Through: The repeated process of using confrontation, clarification, and interpretation., (i) Helps the patient understand the source of the problem and to integrate, the uncovered material into his/her ego., (e) Insight: A gradual process wherein the unconscious memories are repeatedly, integrated into conscious awareness; these unconscious events and memories, are re-experienced in transference and are worked through., (i) End-point of psychoanalysis, client gains a new understanding on him/, herself- conflicts of the past, defence mechanisms and physical symptoms, are no longer present., (ii) Intellectual Insight: The client starts understand herself/himself better, at an intellectual level., (iii) Emotional Insight: The emotional understanding, acceptance of one’s, irrational reaction to the unpleasant events o the past, and the willingness, to change emotionally as well as making the change., , Duration of Treatment, • Lasts of several years with a one hour session for 4-5 days per week., • Intense treatment, three phases., (i) Initial Phase: Client becomes familiar with the routines, establishes, a therapeutic relationship, and recollects the superficial material, from the consciousness about the past and present., (ii) Middle Phase: Characterised by transference, resistance on the part, of the client, and confrontation, clarification and working through on, the therapist’s part; all these processes finally lead to insight., (iii) Third Phase: Termination; the relationship with the analyst is, dissolved and the client prepares to leave the therapy., B. BEHAVIOUR THERAPY, • Focused on the behaviour and thoughts of the client in the present., • The past is relevant only to the extent of understanding the origins of the faulty, behaviour and thought patterns, not relieved., • Behaviour therapies are clinical application of learning theories., • Consists of a large set of specific techniques and interventions—symptoms of the, client and the clinical diagnosis are the guiding factors in the selection of the specific, techniques or interventions to be applied., • Open therapy, i.e., the therapist shares his/her method with the client., , Method of Treatment:, (i) The client is interviewed with a view to analyse his/her behaviour patterns., (ii) Behavioural analysis is conducted to find:, (a) Malfunctioning Behaviours: Behaviours which cause distress to the, client., (b) Antecedent Factors: Those causes which predispose the person to, indulge in that behaviour, (c) Maintaining Factors: Those factors which lead to the persistence of the, faulty behaviour., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 155
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(iii) Aim: To eliminate the faulty behaviours and substitute them with adaptive, behaviour patterns., (a) Antecedent Operations: Control behaviour by changing something that, precedes such a behaviour., (b) Establishing Operations: Induce a change in behaviour by increasing or, decreasing the reinforcing value of a particular consequence., (c) Consequent Operation: i.e., Giving reinforcement eg. Praise., Behavioural Techniques:, 1. Negative Reinforcement: Following an undesired response with an outcome that, is painful or not liked., 2. Aversive Conditioning: Repeated association of undesired response with an, aversive consequence present reality., 3. Positive Reinforcement: Given to increase the deficit if an adaptive behaviour, occurs rarely., 4. Token Economy: Give a token as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs,, which can be collected and exchanged for a reward., 5. Differential Reinforcement: Unwanted behaviour can be reduced (negative, reinforcement) and wanted behaviour (positive reinforcement) can be increased, simultaneously., The other method is to positively reinforce the wanted behaviour and ignore the, unwanted behaviour—less painful and equally effective., 6. Systematic Desensitization: A technique introduced by Wolpe for treating, phobias or irrational fears., (i) The client is interviewed to elicit fear provoking situations., (ii) With the client, the therapist prepares a hierarchy of anxiety—provoking, stimuli with the least anxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom., (iii) The therapist relaxes the client and asks the client to think about the least, anxiety-provoking situation., (iv) The client is asked to stop thinking of the situation if tension is felt., (v) Over sessions, the client is able to imagine more severe fear provoking situations, while maintaining the relaxation., (vi) The client gets systematically desensitized to the fear., Operates on the principle of reciprocal inhibition—the presence of two mutually, opposing forces (relaxation response vs. anxiety-provoking scene) at the same time,, inhibits the weaker force., The client is able to tolerate progressively greater levels of anxiety because of his/her, relaxed state., 7. Modelling: The procedure wherein the client learns to behave in a certain way by, observing the behaviour of a role model or the therapist who initially acts as the role, model. Vicarious learning, learning by observing others, is used and through a, process of rewarding small changes in the behaviour, the client gradually learns to, acquire the behaviour of the model., C. COGNITIVE THERAPY, 1. Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) (Albert Ellis):, • Irrational beliefs mediate between the antecedent events and their consequences., • The first step in RET is the antecedent-belief-consequence (ABC) analysis., , 156, , Psychology—XII
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(i) Antecedent events, which caused the psychological distress, are noted., Client is interviewed to find out., (ii) irrational beliefs, which distorting the reality., The therapist encourages this by being accepting, empathic, genuine and, warm to the client., The therapist conveys by his/her words and behaviours that he/she is not, judging the client and will continue to show the same positive feelings, towards the client even if the client is rude or confides all the ‘wrong’ things, that he/she may have done or thought about. This is the unconditional, positive regard which the therapist has for the client., The clinical formulation is an ongoing process. Formulations may require, reformulations as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy., Distorted perception of the antecedent event due to the irrational belief leads to, the consequence, i.e., negative emotions and behaviours., • Antecedent analysis: Client is interviewed and the cause of distress is noted., • Belief analysis: Therapist identifies that irrational beliefs developed by the, client which are distorting the reality., Therapist provides an accepting, empathic, genuine and warm environment to, the client. He/She is non judgemental and provides unconditional position with, regard to the client and develops understanding of client is irrational beliefs., • Consequence analysis: Distorted perceptions of the antecedent event due, to the irrational beliefs lead to the consequences, i.e. negative emotions and, behaviours., • Non-directive questioning: Process by which irrational beliefs are refuted by, the therapist., (i) Nature of questioning is gentle, without probing or being directive., (ii) Make the client think deeper into his/her assumptions about life and, problems., • Client changes the irrational beliefs by making a change in his/her philosophy, about life—rational belief system replaces the irrational belief system., 2. Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Therapy:, (i) Childhood experiences provided by the family and society develop core schemes, or systems, which include beliefs and action patterns in the individual., (ii) Critical events in the individual’s life trigger the core, leading to the development, of negative automatic thoughts., (iii) Negative thoughts are persistent irrational thoughts characterised by, cognitive distortions., (iv) Dysfunctional Cognitive Structures: Patterns of thought which are general, in nature but which distort the reality in a negative manner., (v) Repeated occurrence of these thoughts leads to the development of feelings of, anxiety and depression., • The therapist uses questioning, which is gentle, nonthreatening, disputation of the client’s beliefs and thoughts., • The questions make the client think in a direction opposite to that of the, negative automatic thoughts whereby she/he gains insight into the nature, , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 157
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of her/his dysfunctional schemas, and is able to alter her/his cognitive, structures, 3. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT):, • Short, comprehensive, effective treatment for a wide range of psychological, disorders such as anxiety, depression, panic attacks and borderline personality., • Adopts a biopsychosocial approach to the delineation of psychopathology., • Combines cognitive therapy with behavioural techniques., • Rationate—distress has its origins in the biological, psychological, and social, realms., • Addresses the biological (relaxation procedures), psychological (behaviour and, cognitive therapy) and social (environmental manipulations) aspects., D. Humanistic-Existential Therapy:, • Therapy emphasises that psychological distress arises from feeling of loneliness,, alienation, incongruence between real and ideal self, curbing of natural, emotional expression and usability to find measuring and genuine fulfilment, of life. Human beings are motivated by the desire for personal growth and self, actualization., Self-actualisation is defined as an innate force that moves the person to become more, complex, balanced, and integrated; integrated means a sense of whole, being a complete, person., 1. Self-actualization requires free emotional expression:, (a) The family and society curb emotional expression, as it is feared that a free, expression of emotions can harm society by unleashing destructive forces., (b) When emotionally expression is curbed, destructive behaviour and negative, emotions by thwarting the process of emotional integration., 2. Healing occurs when the client is able to perceive the obstacles to self-actualization, in his/her life and is able to remove them., 3. Therapy creates a permissive, non-judgmental and accepting atmosphere in which, the client’s emotions can be freely expressed., 4. The client has the freedom and responsibility to control his/her own behaviour; the, therapist is merely a facilitator and guide. The chief aim of the therapy is to expand, the client’s awareness., 1. Existential Therapy, [Logotherapy (Victor Frankl):], • Treatment for the soul., • Meaning making: Process of finding meaning even in life-threatening, circumstances, the basis of which is a person’s quest for finding the spiritual, truth of one’s existence., • Spiritual Unconscious: The storehouse of love, aesthetic awareness and, values of life., • Existential Anxiety: Neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin (spiritual anxieties, leading to meaninglessness)., • Goal: To help the patients find meaning and responsibility in their life, irrespective of their life circumstances., • The therapist emphasizes the unique nature of the patient’s life and is open, (shares his/her feelings, values and own existence)., • Emphasis is on here and now, the therapist reminds the client about the, immediacy of the present., , 158, , Psychology—XII
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2. Client-centered Therapy (Carl Rogers):, • Introduced the concept of self and freedom and choice as the core of one’s being., • Provides a warm relationship in which the client can reconnect with his/her, disintegrated feelings., • The therapist:, (i) Shows empathy—understands the client’s experience as if it were his/her, own—sets up an emotional resonance between client and therapist., (ii) Warmth—the client feels secure and can trust the therapist., (iii) Has unconditional positive regard, i.e., total acceptance of the client, as he/she is, indicates that the positive warmth of the therapist is not, dependent on what the client reveals or does in the therapy sessions., • Client feels secure enough to explore his/her feelings; therapist reflects the, feelings of the client in a non-judgmental manner the reflection is achieved, by rephrasing the statements of the client, i.e., seeking simple clarifications to, enhance the meaning of the client’s statements., 3. Gestalt Therapy (Frederick and Laura Pearl):, • Goal: To increase an individual’s self-awareness and self -acceptance., • Client is taught to recognize the bodily processes and the emotions that are, being blocked out from awareness., • Therapist encourages the client to act out fantasies about feelings and conflicts, can also be used in group settings., E. BIOMEDICAL THERAPY, • Prescription of medicines is done by psychiatrists (qualified medical doctors who, have specialized in the understanding, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders)., • The nature of medicines used depends on the nature of the disorder:, (i) Anti-psychotic drugs—severe mental disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar, disorder)., (ii) Milder drugs—common mental disorders (generalized anxiety, reactive, depression)., • Cause side-effects which need to be understood and monitored—essential that, medication is given under proper medical supervision., F. ELECTRO-CONVULSIVE THERAPY (ECT), (i) Mild electric shock given via electrodes to the brain of the patient to induce, convulsions., (ii) The shock is given by the psychiatrist only when necessary for the improvement of, the patient., (iii) Not a routine treatment and is given only when drugs are not effective, , Factors Contributing to Healing:, 1. Techniques adopted by the therapist and the implementation of the same with, the client, e.g., CBT for an anxious client—relaxation procedures and cognitive, restructuring contribute to the healing., 2. The therapeutic alliance, which is formed between the therapist and the patient/, client, has healing properties, because of the regular availability of the therapist,, and the warmth and empathy provided by the therapist., 3. Catharsis: A process of emotional unburdening by a client when he/she is being, interviewed in the initial sessions of therapy to understand the nature of the problem., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 159
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4. Non-specific Factors: These factors occur across different systems of psychotherapy, and across different clients/patients and different therapists., (i) Patient Variables (motivation for change, expectation of improvement)., (ii) Therapist Variables (positive nature, good mental health, absence of, unresolved emotional conflicts)., , Ethics in Psychotherapy:, 1. Informed consent needs to be taken., 2. Confidentiality of the client should be maintained., 3. Alleviating personal distress should be the goal of all attempts of the therapist., 4. Integrity of the practitioner-client relationship is important., 5. Respect for human rights and dignity., 6. Professional competence and skills are essential., F. ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES, Yoga:, • An ancient Indian technique detailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s Yoga, Sutras., • Refers to only the asanas (body posture component) or to pranayama (breathing, practices)., • Techniques enhance well-being, mood, attention, mental focus, and stress, tolerance., • Reduces the time to go to sleep and improves the quality of sleep., • Proper training by a skilled teacher and 30-minute practice everyday maximizes, the benefits., , Meditation refers to the practice of focusing attention on breath or on an object or thought, of a mantra., A. Sudarshana Kriya Yoga (SKY), (i) Rapid breathing techniques induce hyperventilation., (ii) Beneficial, low risk, low cost., (iii) Used as a public health intervention technique to alleviate PTSD in survivors, of mass disasters., (iv) Reduces depression (research conducted at the National Institute of Mental, Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS)., (v) Reduces stress levels in substance abuse patients. e.g., alcoholics., B. Kundalini Yoga, (i) Effective in treatment of mental disorders and OCD., (ii) Combines pranayama (breathing techniques) with chanting of mantras., C. Vipasana Meditation, (i) Mindfulness-based meditation; no fixed object or thought to hold to attention., (ii) Person passively observes the various bodily sensations and thoughts that are, passing through in his or her awareness., (iii) Helps prevent repeated episodes of depression., (vi) Helps patients process emotional stimuli better and prevents biases in the, processing of these stimuli., , 160, , Psychology—XII
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Rehabilitation of the Mentally Ill:, , • Aim: to empower the patient to become a productive member of society to the, maximum extent possible., • Many patients suffer from negative symptoms such as disinterest and lack of, motivation to do work or to interact with people—rehabilitation is required to help, such patients become self-sufficient., • In rehabilitation, the patients are given:, (i) Occupational Therapy: teaches skills such as candle making, paper bag, making and weaving to help them to form a work discipline, (ii) Vocational Therapy: Once the patient improves sufficiently, gains skills, necessary to undertake productive employment., (iii) Social Skills Training: Develops interpersonal skills through role play,, imitation and instruction; objective is to teach the patient to function in a social, group., (iv) Cognitive Retraining: Improves the basic cognitive functions of attention,, memory and executive function., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Alternative Therapy: Alternative treatment possibilities to the conventional during, treatment or Psychotherapy. e.g. yoga, Meditation etc., • Behaviour Therapy: Therapy based on the principles of behaviouristic learning theories, in order to change the maladaptive behaviour., • Biomedical Therapy: Refer to medicines which are prescribed to treat Psychological, disorders., • Client-centered (Rogerian) Therapy: The therapeutic approach developed by Carl, Rogers in which therapist helps clients to clarify their true feeling and come to value who, they are., • Cognitive Therapies: Forms of therapy focused on changing distorted and maladaptive, patterns of thought., • Counselling: A board name for a wide variety of procedures for helping individuals achieve, adjustment, such as the giving of advice, therapeutic discussion, the administration and, interpretation of tests, and vocational assistance., • Counselling Interview: An interview whose purpose is counselling or providing, guidance in the area of personality, vocational choice, etc., • Electro Convulsive Therapy (ECT): Commonly called ‘shock treatment’. A biological, treatment for unipolar depression in which electrodes attached to a patient’s head send, an electric current through the brain, causing a convulsion. It is effective in the treatment, of cases of several depression that fail to respond to drug therapy., • Empathy: Reacting to another’s feelings with an emotion response that is similar to the, other’s feeling., • Free Association: A psychodynamic technique in which the patient describes verbally, any thought, feeling or image that comes to mind, even if it seems unimportant., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 161
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• Gestalt Therapy: An approach to therapy that attempts to integrate a clients thoughts,, feelings and behaviour into a unified whole., • Humanistic Therapy: A therapy in which the underlying assumption is that people, have control over their behaviour, can make choices about their lives, and are essentially, responsible for solving their own problems., • Modelling: A process of learning in which an individual acquires responses by observing, and imitating others., • Psychodynamic Therapy: First suggested by Frend. Therapy based on the premise, that the primary sources of abnormal behaviour are unresolved past conflicts and the, possibility that unacceptable unconscious impulses will enter consciousness., • Psychotherapy: The use of any psychological technique in the treatment of mental/, psychological disorder or maladjustment., • Rational Emotive Therapy (RET): A therapeutic system developed by Albert Ellis. It, seeks to replace irrational problem-provoking outlooks with more realistic ones., • Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual to normal or a satisfactory a state as possible,, following an illness, criminal episode, etc., • Resistance: In psychoanalysis, attempts by the patient to block treatment., • Self actualisation: A state of self fulfilment in which people realise their highest, potential in their own unique way., • Systematic Desensitization: A form of behavioural therapy in which phobic client, learns to induce a relaxed state and then exposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia., • Therapeutic Alliance: The special relationship between the client and the therapist;, contractual nature of the relationship and limited duration of the therapy are its two, major components., • Transference: Strong positive or negative feelings toward the therapist on the part of, individual undergoing psychoanalysis., • Unconditional Positive Regard: An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of, an observer, no matter what the other person says or does., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. Describe the nature and scope of psychotherapy. Highlight the importance of therapeutic, relationship in psychotherapy., (CBSE 2013, 2014), Ans. Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship between two people, one who seeks help, and the other who is ready to provide the help, i.e., the therapist. It is given under, therapeutic conditions., Various psychotherapeutic approaches have the following characteristics:, 1. All psychotherapies are systematic application of some theory or principle of, different therapies., 2. Only trained professionals can practise psychotherapy., 3. Therapeutic situation is a two-way process in which therapist as well as client, actively interact., 4. Psychotherapy functions under formation of therapeutic relationship which is, confidential, interpersonal and dynamic in nature., Psychotherapy has very broad scope to deal with disorders which are as follows:, • Reinforcing client’s resolve for betterment., • Lessening emotional pressure., , 162, , Psychology—XII
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• Unfolding the potential for positive growth., • Modifying habits., • Changing thinking patterns., • Increasing self-awareness., • Improved interpersonal relations and communication., • Facilitating decision-making., • Becoming aware of ones preferences in life., • Development of adaptive behaviour., Therapeutic Relationship:, The special professional relationship between the client and the therapist is known as, therapeutic relationship or alliance., There are two major components of this relationship:, 1. The Contractual Nature of the Relationship in which two willing individuals,, the client and the therapist, enter into a partnership which aims at helping the, client overcome his problems., 2. Limited Duration of the Therapy: This alliance lasts until the client becomes, able to deal with his problems and take control of his life., Through therapeutic relationship the therapist wins the trust of the client. The quality, of this relationship/alliance determines early healing in psychotherapy., Q2. What are the different types of psychotherapy? On what basis are they classified?, Ans. Following are the main psychotherapies:, • Psychodynamic Therapy, • Behaviour Therapy, • Humanistic Therapy or Existential Therapy, Parameters of classification are as follows :, 1. What is the cause of the problem?, (a) Psychodynamic therapy–Intrapsychic conflicts (id, ego and super ego) causes, problems., (b) Behaviour therapy–Faulty learning of behaviours and unrealistic cognition, (thinking process) cause problems., (c) Existential therapy–Answer about the meaning of one’s life and existence is not, available., 2. How did the cause come into existence?, (a) Psychodynamic therapy–Intrapsychic conflicts are caused due to unfulfilled, desires of childhood or unresolved fears which cause fixation and repression, during psycho-sexual stages of life., (b) Behaviour therapy–Faulty conditioning patterns, faulty learning through, improper rewards, faulty thinking and beliefs., (c) Existential therapy–Current feelings of loneliness, aimless life or meaningless, existence., 3. What is the chief method of treatment?, (a) Psychodynamic therapy–Free association and reporting of dream to make the, person confront and resolve the conflict., (b) Behaviour therapy–To identify faulty conditioning patterns and faulty learning, and to challenge the faulty thinking patterns., (c) Existential therapy–Providing positive, non-judgmental and accepting, therapeutic environment. Therapist acts as a facilitator helping client solve, his own problems and arrive at solution through personal growth., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 163
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4. What is the nature of the therapeutic relationship?, (a) Psychodynamic therapy–Therapist understands the client and is more capable, in interpreting his thoughts and feelings., (b) Behaviour therapy–Therapist is able to identify faulty behaviour and thought, patterns and is capable of finding out correct behaviour and realistic thought, patterns., (c) Existential therapy–Therapist provides warm and emphatic relationship, helping the client feel secured to explore the causes of his problems himself, and herself., 5. What is the chief benefit to the client?, (a) Psychodynamic therapy–Emotional insight to resolve problems., (b) Behaviour therapy–Adaptive and healthy behaviour and thought pattern to, reduce stress., (c) Existential therapy–Personal growth by increasing understanding of one’s, aspirations, emotions and motives., 6. What is the duration of treatment?, (a) Psychodynamic therapy–Classical psychoanalysis lasts for several years. New, versions 10-15 sessions., (b) Behaviour therapy–Short and completed within few months., (c) Existential therapy–Short and completed within few months., Q3. A therapist asks the client to reveal all his/her thoughts including early childhood, experiences. Describe the technique and type of therapy being used., Ans. Psychoanalysis is a method of treatment of neurotic patients which emphasized the, thoughts and experiences of childhood. It was developed by Dr. Sigmund Freud., The whole modality of treatment occurs in three phases:, 1. Initial Phase: The client becomes making client familial with the routines., • Establishment of a therapeutic relationship with the analyst., • Relief with the process of recollecting the superficial materials from the, unconscious about the past and present troublesome events., 2. Middle Phase: Transference and interpretation are the means of treating the, patient., • Transference: The client starts identifying positively or negatively to the, therapist with other significant people often with father and mother, in his, childhood., • Parent-child relationships are often replayed in this way., • The therapist may be seen as the punitive father or as negligent mother or, vice-versa., • The therapist maintains a non-judgmental yet permissive attitude towards the, client and overcomes the resistance showed by the client., • This whole process is known as transference and when the therapist becomes, a substitute for the client in the present is known as transference neurosis., , Stage of Transference Neurosis:, In the process of transference the client acts out his/her frustrations, anger, fear and, depression that he/she carried toward that person in the past, but could not express at, that time., • The therapist becomes a substitute for that person in the present., This substitution which is known as transference neurosis is helpful in making, , 164, , Psychology—XII
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the therapist aware of the nature of intrapsychic conflicts suffered by the client., The transference neurosis may develop in two forms:, (i) Positive Transference: Here the client may fall in love with the therapist and, seeks the therapist’s approval., (ii) Negative Transference: When the client develops feeling of hostility, anger and, resentment towards the therapist., • Stage of Resistance: During the process of transference an individual may, develop resistance. Since process of transference exposes the unconscious wishes, and conflicts, client’s distress level increases and so the client resists transference., (i) Conscious Resistance: It is present when the client intentionally hides some, information., (ii) Unconscious Resistance: It is present when the client becomes silent during, the therapy session or starts coming late for the sessions, flight into sickness or, show unwillingness to talk about certain things, sudden blocks forgetting and, so on., • According to Freud, resistance is patient’s unconscious struggle to prevent painful, material from being brought to the surface and faced directly., • Interpretation: Interpretation is the fundamental mechanism to bring change in, the client. Interpretation is done through two analytical techniques:, (i) Confrontation: The therapist points out to the client an aspect of his psyche, that must be faced by the client. It is a subtle process and considered to be the, pinnacle of psychoanalysis., (ii) Clarification: It is the process by which the therapist brings a vague or, confusing event into clarity., Both the process are done by sharpening and pruning of the material which is brought, from unconscious to conscious level., • The therapist highlights certain important aspects and deletes the unimportant, ones., Working Through: The repeated process of using confrontation, clarification and, interpretation is known as working through., • This process helps the patient to understand himself and the source of the problem., • It integrates the uncovered material into his ego., • Insight: The end product of working through is insight., It is a gradual process wherein the unconscious memories are again and again, integrated into conscious awareness., As this process continues, the client starts to understand himself better at an, intellectual and emotional level and gains insight into his/her conflicts and problems., The insight is of two types:, (i) Intellectual Insight: It is intellectual understanding of the event., (ii) Emotional Insight: The emotional understanding, acceptance of one’s, irritations due to unpleasant events of the past and the willingness to change, emotionally is known as emotional insight., 3. Third Phase:, • Termination: Insight is the end part of therapy. Now the client is supposed, to gain new understanding of himself. Conflicts of the past, excessive usage of, defence mechanism and physical symptoms are no longer present and he/she, becomes a healthy person., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 165
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Q4. Discuss the various techniques used in behaviour therapy., (CBSE 2012), Ans. The techniques used in behaviour therapy are not based on any unified theory. These, are developed on the basis of various principles particularly on classical conditioning,, operant conditioning and modelling. The main objective of the techniques are to modify, maladaptive behaviour. Negative reinforcement and aversive conditioning are the two, major techniques of behaviour modification., 1. Reinforcement Techniques:, (a) Negative Reinforcement: It refers to following an undesired response with, an outcome that is painful or not liked. For example, a mother may cover her, son’s thumb with a bitter NEEM paste so that he should not develop habit of, thumb sucking. Due to the bitterness, the child tries to avoid or withdraw the, bitterness of thumb and will leave the habit of thumb-sucking., , Aversive Conditioning:, • It is establishing relationship between undesirable behaviour and aversive, consequences., • Aversive therapy is a therapeutic technique which uses an unpleasant, stimulus to change a deviant behaviour., • It works by pairing together the stimulus that normally invites the deviant, behaviour (such as an alcoholic drink or sexual image) with an unpleasant, (aversive) stimulus such as an electric shock or a nausea-inducing drug,, with repeated presentations., • The two stimuli become associated and the person develops an aversion, toward the stimulus that formerly gave rise to the deviant behaviour., (b) Positive Reinforcement: If an adaptive behaviour occurs, positive, reinforcement may be used by the therapist. For example, the child’s mother, may prepare child’s favourite dish on the day when most of the time child was, being observed not keeping his thumb in the mouth., , Token Economy: A behaviour therapy is based on positive reinforcement., • A package or deal is being established between the therapist and the client., • Persons with behavioural problems can be given a token as a reward every, time a wanted behaviour occurs., • The tokens are collected and exchanged with for a predetermined reward, such as outing for the patient or a treat for the child., • The technique is widely used in hospitals, schools and reformatory., (c) Differential Reinforcement: In differential reinforcement, both positive, and negative reinforcements are used together. By using this method,, unwanted behaviour can be reduced and wanted behaviour can be increased, simultaneously., (d) Method of ignoring Unwanted Behaviour: In this method, the therapist, positively reinforces the wanted behaviour and ignores the unwanted, behaviour. For example, the parents are instructed to praise the child or give, chocolate to him or to take him to cinema if the child does not suck the thumb,, but ignore the unwanted behaviour that is sucking the thumb. This method is, less painful and equally effective for modifying the unwanted behaviour., 2. Systematic Desensitisation: It is a technique introduced by Wolpe, for treating, phobias or irrational fears. This technique is based on the principle of reciprocal, inhibition. This principle states that the presence of two mutually opposing, , 166, , Psychology—XII
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forces at the same time, inhibits the weaker force. e.g., distress, at the same time,, relaxation, can not occur., The technique follows four steps:, (i) Initial interview., (ii) Training in relaxation exercises., (iii) Preparation of hierarchy of anxiety-provoking situation. This is a subjective, process and changes from problem to problem., (iv) Desensitization: When the client becomes relaxed, he/she is exposed to least, anxiety-provoking situation. Over sessions, the client is able to deal with more, severe fear-provoking situations while maintaining with relaxation., 3. Modelling: It is the procedure wherein the client learns to behave in a certain way, by observing the behaviour of a role model or the therapist., • It is role playing., • Vicarious learning (learning by observing others) is used and through a process, of rewarding small changes in the behaviour, the client gradually learns to, acquire the behaviour of the model., Q5. Explain with the help of an example how cognitive distortions take place., (CBSE 2011), Ans. Aaron Beck devised cognitive therapy., • It is also known as cognitive restructuring therapy., • Basic Assumption: Negative thinking, irrational beliefs and faulty generalization, caused disorder., • This therapy believes that repeated cognitive distortions play significant role in, causing disorder. Cognitive distortion means way of thinking which are general in, nature but which distorts the reality in a negative manner. e.g., persistent negative, and irrational thoughts such as: “Nobody loves me”, “I am ugly”, “ I am stupid” etc., Step I – Analysis of Core Schemata: Childhood experiences provided by the family, and society develop core schemata or systems, which include beliefs and action patterns, of the individual., • A client, who was neglected by the parents as a child, develops the core schema of “I, am not wanted.” This may be validated by the teachers in the school., • Such negative automatic thoughts cause cognitive distortions., • Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are general in nature but which, distort the reality in a negative manner. Their patterns are called Dysfunctional, cognitive structure., • Repeated occurrence of these distorted thoughts leads to the development of feelings, of anxiety and depression., , Treatment Method:, • The therapist uses questioning, which is gentle, non-threatening and nonjudgmental, non probing but thought proviking questions., • The questions make the client to think deeper into her/his assumptions about his, life and problems., • These questions make the client to think in a direction opposite to his negative, thoughts and gains insight of his dysfunctional schemas and able to restructure his, thoughts in positive direction., • Beck’s cognitive approach does not attempt to disprove the ideas held by depressed, persons, rather the therapist and client work together to identify the individual’s, assumptions, beliefs and expectations and to formulate ways of testing them., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 167
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Aim of the Therapy:, • Cognitive restructuring by helping people to recognize and reject the false, assumptions that are central to their difficulties., Q6. Which therapy encourages the client to seek personal growth and actualise their, potential? Write about the therapies which are based on this principle., (2009, 2010), Ans. • The humanistic-existential therapies encourage personal growth and actualize the, potential., , Fundamental Assumption:, • The client has the freedom and responsibility to control his/her own behaviour., • Psychological distress arises from feeling of loneliness, alienation and an inability to, find meaning and genuine fulfilment in life., • All individuals have desire for personal growth and self-actualization and an innate, need to grow emotionally., , Causes of Distress:, 1. Obstacles created by the society and family to achieve personal growth., 2. Obstacles in attainment of self-actualization, because it requires free emotional, expression., Treatment Modalities:, • The therapist is merely facilitator and guide. It is the client who is responsible for, the success of the therapy., • The client initiates the process of self-growth through which healing takes place., , Therapies based on Humanistic-existential Approach:, Logo therapy is a form of existential therapy., , Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist and neurologist propounded logo therapy., Basic Assumption: ‘Logo’ is the Greek word for ‘soul’ and ‘logo’ therapy ‘means, treatment of the soul’., • Person’s desire of finding the spiritual truth of ones existence is the source of, motivation., • Finding meaning of self even in life-threatening circumstances is process of meaning, making., • There is a spiritual unconscious, which is the store house of love, aesthetic awareness, and values of life., Aim of Therapy: To help the client to find meaning and responsibility in their life, irrespective of their life circumstances., , Treatment Modality:, • The therapist emphasizes the unique nature of the patients life and encourages, them to find meaning in their life., • The therapist is open and shares his/her feelings, values and his/her own existence, with the client., • The emphasis is on here and now., • In the therapy, transference is actively discouraged., • The goal is to facilitate the client to find meaning of his/her being., , Gestalt Therapy:, • It is humanistic therapy developed by Fritz Pearl and his wife Laura Pearl., • It helps the client to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance., • The client is taught to bring his disowned thoughts, conflicts and anxieties to his, awareness., , 168, , Psychology—XII
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• The therapist does this by encouraging the client to act out or speak out his/her, fantasies about feelings and conflicts., • This therapy can also be used in group setting., , Client-Centered Therapy:, This kind of therapy is developed by Carl Rogers., • It is based on non-directive approach., • To understand individual, we must look at the way they experience events rather, than at the events themselves., • The therapy provides a warm relationship in which the client can reconnect with, his/her disintegrated feeling., • The therapist shows empathy, i.e., understanding the client’s experience as if it were, his/her own, is warm and has unconditionally positive regard, i.e., total acceptance., • The therapist reflects the feelings of the clients in a non-judgmental manner. The, reflection is achieved by rephrasing the statements of the client, i.e., seeking simple, clarifications to enhance the meaning of the clients statements., • According to this therapy personal relationships improve with an increase in, adjustment. In essence, this therapy helps the client to become his/her real self with, the therapist working as a facilitator., Q7. What are the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy? Enumerate some of, the alternative therapies., (CBSE 2012), Ans. There are several factors which contribute to the healing process. Some of these factors, are as follows:, • The techniques adopted by the therapist and the implementation of the same with, the client., • The quality of therapeutic alliance—the regular availability of the therapist, and, the warmth and empathy provided by the therapist has its importance., • The quality of emotional unburdening (catharsis) has significant impact on healing., • Non-specific factors are associated with psychotherapy. These are patient variable, and therapist variable., • Patient variable refers to attributed to the client. e.g., clients motivation for change, and expectation of improvement due to the treatment etc. Therapist variable refers, to his/her good mental health, absence of his/her unresolved emotional conflicts and, expertise., , Alternative therapies are so called, because they are alternative treatment possibilities, to the conventional drug treatment or psychotherapy. There are many alternative, therapies such as yoga, meditation, herbal remedies and so on., 1. Yoga is an ancient Indian technique detailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s, Yoga Sutra. Yoga, as it is commonly called today either refers to only the asanas or, body positive component or to breathing practices or pranayama or to a combination, of the two., 2. Meditation refers to the practice of focusing attention on breath or an object or, thought or a mantra., 3. Vipasana Meditation, also known as mindfulness-based meditation, has, no fixed object or thought to hold the attention. The person possibly observes the, various bodily sensation and thoughts that are passing through his awareness., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 169
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4. The rapid breathing techniques to induce hyperventilation as in Sudarshana Kriya, Yoga (SKY) is found to be a beneficial, low-risk, low-cost, adjunct to the treatment, of stress, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) depression, stress-related, medical illness, substance abuse, and rehabilitations of criminal offenders., 5. Kundalini Yoga taught in USA has found to be effective in treating mental, disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder. It combines pranayama or breathing with, chanting of mantras., Q8. What are the techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill?, Ans. Rehabilitation of the mentally ill is necessary to improve their quality of life once their, active symptoms are reduced., • In the case of milder disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder, reduction, of symptoms improves their quality of life and such patients need not to help, rehabilitation., • However in severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenic disorders, reduction, of symptoms does not mean that patient is cured. Such patients develop negative, symptoms like apathy or lack of motivation and their cognitive social and occupational, skills get impaired. So they need rehabilitation., • Rehabilitation provides:, 1. Social Skill Training: It helps the patients to develop interpersonal skills, through role play, imitation and instruction., 2. Cognitive Retraining: It helps the patients to improve the basic cognitive, functions of attention, memory and executive functions., 3. Occupational Therapy: The patients are taught skills such as candlemaking, paper bag making and weaving to develop work discipline., 4. Vocational Training: When the patient becomes self-sufficient, vocational, training is given wherein the patient is helped to gain skills necessary to, undertake productive employment., Q9. How would a social learning theorist account for a phobic fear of lizards/cockroaches?, How would a psychoanalyst account for the same phobia?, (CBSE 2013), Ans. Social learning theories work on the principle that our experience—be it positive or, negative—such as phobia of lizards/cockroaches are the result of learning process which, start early in life. Small children can play with snakes, they are not aware of the danger, involved. For them it is just another play object, as they grow up the fear of these things, are instilled by their parents and society which is reinforced and accounts for reactions, like phobia., A psychoanalytical account for the same could involve attribution to some unconscious, or/and repressed experiences. For example, suppose in your childhood you watched, a group of roudy boys brutally torturing a cockroach/snake, which eventually died,, although you going about the incidence after some days, but it might remain in back of, your mind forever, which might explain your phobia to cockroaches which might remind, you of the incidence and disturbs you emotionally., Q10. Should Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) be used in the treatment of mental disorders?, Ans. Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT):, • It is used to alleviate sudden and severe depression., • In this method one electrode is placed on each side of the person’s temples and a, mild current is turned on for a very short period., • In the beginning, it was done by injecting metrazol and other drugs in mental, patients. These shocks are continued until the patient has a seizure, a muscle, , 170, , Psychology—XII
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contraction of the entire body, lasting at least twenty to twenty-five seconds. ECT, seems to work at least for some disorders., • Unfortunately, there are hazardous risk connected with it. There is amnesia for, the whole treatment and after several treatments. There is memory impairment,, which may last for several weeks. However, no permanent loss of memory occurs., ECT use has declined since 1950., • ECT is still used in various hospitals in India because it is economical and, effective. In my opinion as a last resort this therapy should continue to be used, in India., , Drug Therapy:, • It has been used mainly with four types of disorders—schizophrenia, mania,, depression and anxiety., • These drugs are referred as ‘psychotropic drugs’ because their main effect is on, psychological behaviour., • They are also called as ‘antipsychotic drugs’., • They are used for the treatment of schizophrenia. ‘Antimanic drugs’ are used, to treat patients who are highly agitated, excited and at times unmanageable., ‘Antidepressant drugs’ are used for patients having depression and suicidal risk., ‘Antianxiety drugs’ are known to be minor tranquillisers., Q11. What kind of problems is cognitive behaviour therapy best suited for?, Ans. CBT is a short and effective treatment for a wide range of psychological disorders, such as anxiety, depression, panic attacks and borderline personality, etc., • It combines cognitive therapy and behavioural technique., • According to CBT, the cause of client’s distress is biological, psychological and, social relations in combination., • CBT focuses on the biological aspects through relaxation procedures and the, psychological ones through behaviour therapy. Social aspects are dealt with, environmental manipulations., • This multi-axial approach makes CBT a comprehensive technique, which is easy, to use, applicable to a variety of disorders and has full potential to deal effectively, with psychological disorders., , MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. ___________ is a technique to treat Phobia., (a) Sublimation, (b) Rationalization, (c) Systematic desensitization, (d) None of the above, , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 171
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Q2. Systematic desensitization begins with some form of—, (a) Instrumental conditioning, (b) Relaxation training, (c) Instrumental training, (d) None of the above, Q3. In ___________, the aim is establishing relationship between undesirable behaviour, with painful consequences., (a) Bio feedback, (b) Aversion therapy, (c) Creative visualization, (d) None of the above, Q4. Cognitive therapy for the treatment of depression is given by—, (a) Albert Ellis, (b) Sigmund Freud, (c) Aaronoeck, (d) None of the above, Q5. In ___________ approach, the therapist uses ‘pointed but friendly questioning’ to root, out depressed people’s faulty ‘depressogenic cognitions’., (a) Psychodynamic, (b) Cognitive, (c) Behaviourist, (d) None of the above, Q6. Trusting and Accepting Relationship between the therapist and the client is called, Therapeutic relationships.(T/F), Q7. Total acceptance of client despite of him being rude is called Unconditional positive, regard.(T/F), Q8. Empathy is showing compassion and pity towards the clients., , (T/F), , Q9. When the therapist reciprocates the transference shown by client, it is called, Transference neurosis.(T/F), Q10. Learning by observing others, is used through a process of rewarding small changes, in the behaviour—, (token economy/vicarious learning), Q11. “I should be loved by everybody.” This irrational thought can be treated by—, (a) Psychodynamic Therapy, (b) Behaviour Therapy, (c) RET, (d) Existential Therapy, , 172, , Psychology—XII
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Q12. Logotherapy is given by—, (a) Victor Frankl, (b) Sigmund Freud, (c) Ivan Pavlov, (d) Care Rogers, , Answers, 1. (c), , 2. (b), , 3. (b), , 4. (c), , 5. (b), , 6. (T), , 7. (T), , 8. (F), , 10. (vicarious learning) 11. (c), , 12. (a), , 9. (T), , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. What is therapeutic alliance?, Ans. Therapeutic alliance is the typical relationship between the therapist and the client, in which the client has trust in the therapist and the therapist has empathy for the, client., Q2. How can a therapist maintain the trust of his client?, Ans. The therapist encourages the client to discharge his/her emotions and feel free, from the conflicts and anxiety by providing unconditional positive regard and, empathy., The therapist provides an accepting, empathic, genuine, non-judgmental and warm, relationship so that the client may confide in him., Q3. Explain the principle of reciprocal inhibition., Ans. The Wolpe’s theory of systematic desensitization is based on this principle., This principle states that “the presence of two mutually opposing forces at the same, time, inhibit the weaker force.” In other words, one cannot be both relaxed and anxious, at the same time. Thus, the relaxation response dominates on the imagination of, mild anxiety provoking stimulus., The client becomes able to tolerate progressively greater levels of anxiety because of, his/her relaxed state., Q4. What is Vicarious learning?, , (CBSE 2011), , Ans. Vicarious learning is a part of modelling technique propounded by Bandura in which, the client learns by observing others and even smallest changes in behaviour are, rewarded by the therapist., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 173
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Q5. What is integration in humanistic existential therapy?, Ans. Integration is an aspect of self-actualisation. The concept was given by Abraham, Maslow., ‘Integrated’ means a sense of whole, being a complete person, maintaining the traits, of personality despite of the variety of experiences that one is subjected to., Q6. What is existential anxiety?, , (Delhi Board 2014), , Ans. • Neurotic anxieties arise when the problems of life are attached to physical,, psychological or spiritual aspects of one’s existence., • The role of spiritual anxiety leads to meaninglessness., • It is called an existential anxiety, i.e., neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin which, causes problems/disorders., Q7. Explain Zen as a form of Psychotherapy., Ans. Zen is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that asserts that enlightenment can be, attained through meditation, self-contemplation and intuition rather than through, fait and devotion., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. How would the therapist formulate the problem of a client?, Ans. Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem:, Understanding of the Problem: The therapist tries to understand the full, implications of the distress being experienced by the client. It is done during the, first few sessions of establishing therapeutic relationship., Identification of the Areas to be targeted for Treatment in Psychotherapy:, The theoretical formulation clearly identifies the problem areas to be targeted for, therapy. Thus, if a client seeks help for inability to hold a job and reports inability, to face superiors, the clinical formulation in behaviour therapy would state it as lack, of assertiveness skills and anxiety. The target areas have thus been identified as, inability to assert oneself and heightened anxiety., Choice of Techniques for Treatment: The choice of techniques of treatment, depends on the therapeutic system in which the therapist has been trained., However, even within this broad domain, the choice of techniques, timing of the, techniques, and expectations of outcome of the therapy depend upon the clinical, formulation., The clinical formulation is an ongoing process, formulations may require reformations, as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy. Usually the first one or two, sessions yield enough clinical material for the initial clinical formulation. It is not, advisable to start psychotherapy without a clinical formulation., , 174, , Psychology—XII
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Q2. What is unconditional positive regard in the process of psychotherapy?, Ans. The concept unconditional positive regard was given by Carl Rogers., • It is an attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter, what the other person says or does., • The therapist provides acceptance and warmth to the client., • Therapist is non-judgmental., • The therapist continues to show positive feelings towards the client even if he is, rude or confides all the ‘wrong’ things that he may have done or thought about., Q3. What is ‘Empathy’? How it is different from sympathy?, Ans. • Empathy means understanding things from the other person’s perspective, i.e.,, putting oneself in the other person’s shoes., , • Empathy is present when one is able to understand the plight of another person, and feel like other person., • Empathy enriches the therapeutic relationship and develops a healing relationship., • It is a cognitive process., Sympathy is different from empathy., • It is compassion and pity towards the suffering of another but not being able to, feel like the other person., • It is an affective process., Q4. Explain main features of therapeutic relationship., , (CBSE 2009, 2014), , Ans. Therapeutic relationship or alliance is a special relationship between the therapist, and the client., It has following features:, • It is trusting and confiding relationship., • The therapist provides unconditional positive regard to the client., • This relationship develops in a permissive environment., • The relationship is based on empathy., • The relationship maintains strict confidentiality of the disclosures, feelings and, thoughts of the client., • The relationship maintains warmth, trust and confidence towards each other., • It is purely a professional relationship., Q5. Explain the nature of the therapeutic relationship between the client and the therapist, in different Psychotherapies., Ans. Psychodynamic therapy assumes that the therapist understands the intrapsychic, conflicts of the client better because of his training and maturity. He interprets, , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 175
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the thoughts and feelings of the client and provides insight of the same to the, client., , Behaviour therapy assumes that the therapist is capable of finding out the correct, behaviour and thought patterns, which would be adaptive for the client., , Existential and humanistic therapy assumes that therapist simply listens and, develops a relationship with the client in which the client himself resolves his, problems., Q6. How Psychodynamic therapies are different from Logo therapy?, Ans. Psychodynamic therapy:, • According to Psychodynamic therapies cause of problem is intrapsychic conflicts., • Belief in unconscious which is reservoir of instinctive and animal drives., • Past, i.e., psychosexual development is important in personality development/, disorder., • Transference is actively encouraged., , Logo Therapy:, • Cause of problems is not getting meaning of ones life and existence., • Belief in spiritual unconscious which is full of positive emotions and aesthetic values., • Present is important for personality development/disorder., • Transference is actively discouraged., Q7. How dream interpretation is used in psycho-analysis to elicit the nature of intrapsychic, conflict?, Ans. According to Freud, dreams are the royal road to the unconscious., The client is asked to write down his/her dreams. Psycho-analysts believe that dreams, satisfy the repressed libidinal desires which get many in the dreams in disguised and, symbolic form., The images of dreams are symbols which signify intra-psychic forces., These symbols are interpreted and the client develops awareness with his/her, unfulfilled desires and conflicts at conscious level., Q8. How Yoga is useful for good mental health?, Ans. Yoga is a form of alternative therapy., • Yoga techniques enhance well-being, happy mood and increased power of attention, and consideration., • It reduces depression and stress level., • Insomnia (Sleep Disorder) can be retreated through yoga. It reduces time to go, to sleep and improves quality of sleep., , 176, , Psychology—XII
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IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. Describe main features of RET., , (CBSE 2011), , Ans. Albert Ellis formulated Rational Emotive therapy (RET)., Basic Assumption: Irrational beliefs, negative thinking and faulty generalization, are the cause of disorders. These negative thoughts intervene between the antecedent, events and their consequences., • RET is a form of cognitive therapy that focuses on persuading individuals to, recognize and change irrational assumptions that underlie their thinking., [Here is an example. suppose that one day, your current romantic partner dumps, you (break up). This is certainly an unpleasant event, but it thrashes your selfesteem and causes you to become deeply depressed?, , Ellis argues that this depends on how you think about it if you develop, irrational beliefs such as ‘everyone must love me’ or I can’t control my, emotions. I must feel totally crushed by this reflection!” you may well become, depressed.], • The first step in RET is the ABC analysis (antecedent–belief–consequence, analysis)., , Antecedent analysis refers to identify cause of the psychological distress (i.e.,, break up in relationship in the given example)., , Analysis of belief refers to understanding of ones own thinking which is not, based on facts. e.g., No body loves me., , Consequence analysis refers to negative emotions and behaviour, i.e., depression., , Treatment Method:, • Antecedent events are identified., • Irrational beliefs are assessed through questionnaires and interviews., • Therapist persuades and sometimes challenges the irrationality of clients belief, through gentle, nondirective, non probing questioning, non judgemental, but though provoking questions., • The questions make the client to think deeper into his/her assumptions about life, and problems., • Gradually the client is able to change the irrational beliefs by making change in, his/her outlook towards life., • The rational belief system replaces the irrational belief system and there is a, reduction in psychological distress., Q2. How RET is different from Aaron Beck’s Cognitive therapy?, Ans. • Ellis in RET probes the client’s behaviour and belief system by gentle questioning, and sometimes challenging the irrational beliefs and negative thinking of the, client., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 177
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• Aaron Beck in his Cognitive therapy does not attempt to disprove the ideas held, by depressed person rather the therapist and client work together to identify the, individual’s faulty assumptions. Beck uses ‘pointed, but friendly questioning’ to, root out depressed people’s faulty cognitions., • Ellis focuses on the client’s present circumstances to search the cause of irrational, beliefs., • Aaron Beck emphasises client’s core schemata formed during childhood as, dysfunctional cognitive structure causing depressive behavioural pattern., Q3. Discuss main features of Humanistic-existential therapies., Ans. • The humanistic-existential therapy postulates that psychological distress arises, from feeling of loneliness, alienation and an inability to find meaning and genuine, fulfilment of life., • Human beings are motivated by the desire for personal growth and self actualisation, and an innate need to grow emotionally., • Society believes that free emotional expression can harm the social network. So, emotional control is to be developed in the individual for once owned growth and, for the healthy social network which leads to distinctive behaviour and negative, emotions., • The therapy creates a permissive, non-judgmental and accepting atmosphere in, which the clients emotions can be freely expressed and the complexity, balance and, integration in personality could be achieved., • The fundamental assumption of this therapy is that the client has the freedom and, responsibility to control his/her own behaviour. The therapist is merely a facilitator, and guide. It is the client who is responsible for the success of therapy., • The chief aim of the therapy is to expend the clients awareness., Q4. What is self-actualisation?, Ans. • Self-actualisation is defined as an innate or inborn force that moves the person to, become more complex, balanced and integrated, i.e., achieving the complexity and, balance without being fragmented., • ‘Integrated’ means a sense of whole, being a complete person, being the same, person inspite of the variety of experiences that one is subjected to., • In short ‘self-actualisation’ refers to individual’s innate tendency to make best use, of his potential, for one’s own growth and well-being., • The concept of self-actualisation was given by Abraham Maslow., Q5. Discuss the ethics of Psychotherapy?, Or, State the ethical standards in Psychotherapy., , 178, , Psychology—XII, , (CBSE 2013)
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Ans , • Some of the ethical standards that need to be practised by professional, psychotherapist are:, • Informed consent needs to be taken., • Confidentiality of the client should be maintained resolving personal distress and, suffering should be the goal of all attempts of the therapist., • Integrity of the therapist-client relationship is important., • Respect for human rights and dignity., • Professional competence and skills are essential., Q6. Discuss modelling as a form of behaviour therapy., Ans. , • Bandura has worked extensively on developing the modelling technique. It is, a procedure in which the client learns to behave in a certain way by observing, the behaviour of a role model or the therapist who mutually acts as a role, model. Modelling can influence behaviour as it serves as a basis for learning, new skills., • To eliminate fears and inhibitions., • It facilitates socially existing behaviour patterns., • Learning through observing others and through a process of rewarding small, changes in the behaviour, the client gradually learns to acquire the behaviour of, the model., Q7. How existential and humanistic therapies are different from psychodynamic and, behaviour therapies?, Ans. The existential therapies emphasise that the therapist merely provides:, 1. A warm, empathic relationship., 2. In such relationship client feels secure to explore the nature and causes of his, problems himself because the client requires a facilitator not a problem-solver., The psychodynamic and behavioural therapies assume that the therapist being a, trained professional is capable of arriving at solutions to the client’s problems., Q8. What are ‘dysfunctional cognitive structures’?, Ans., , • Some negative thoughts develop in the mind due to core schemata established, in the childhood. Such negative thoughts are characterised by cognitive, distortions., • Cognitive distortions are ways of thinking which are general in nature but which, distort the reality in a negative manner., • These patterns of thoughts are called dysfunctional cognitive structures., • They lead to errors of cognition about the social reality., , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 179
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V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA : 6 Marks ), , Q1. What are the basic assumptions of behaviour therapy?, Ans. The basic assumptions of behaviour therapies are the following:, • Psychological distress arises because of faulty behaviour patterns or thought, patterns., • The past is relevant only to the extent of understanding of origin of the faulty, behaviour and thought pattern., • Only the faulty patterns are corrected in the present., • The clinical application of learning theory principles constitute behaviour therapy., • All behaviour therapies use specific techniques and interventions for modification, in behaviour., • It is not a unified theory which is applied irrespective of the diagnosis and the, symptoms present., • The symptoms of the client and the clinical diagnosis are the guiding factors in, selection of the specific technique. e.g., treatment of phobias would require the, use of one set of technique while that of anger outburst would require another., • The foundation of behaviour therapy is dysfunctional or faulty behaviour, the, factors which reinforce and maintain these behaviours, and devising methods by, which they can be changed., Q2. Discuss method of treatment used in behaviour therapies., Ans. In behavioural therapies, behavioural analysis is conducted to find the following, aspects:, • Malfunctioning behaviour refers to those behaviours which cause distress to, the client., • Antecedent factors refers to the causes which predispose the person to indulge, in that behaviour., • Maintaining factors refer to those factors which lead to the persistence of the, faulty behaviour., , Example: An example would be a young person who has acquired the malfunctioning, behaviour of smoking and seeks help to get rid of smoking., Behavioural analysis conducted by interviewing the client and the family members, reveals that the person started smoking when he was preparing for the annual, examination., He had reported relief from anxiety upon smoking. Thus, anxiety-provoking situation, becomes the causative or antecedent factor. The feeling of relief becomes the, maintaining factor for him to continue smoking., , 180, , Psychology—XII
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Once the faulty behaviours, which cause distress, have been identified a treatment, package is chosen., The aim of treatment is to eliminate the faulty behaviours and substitute them with, adaptive behaviour patterns., Behaviour therapist does this through the following operations:, • Antecedent Operations: This controls behaviour by changing something that, causes distress., • Establishing Operations: This refers to the change which can be achieved by, increasing or decreasing the reinforcing value of a particular consequence., • Consequent Operation: It is praising the student by the teacher in the, classroom when he performed better in academics and otherwise., , Example: The young man was provided professional help to prepare his examination., This help was not always available. He was counselled to make best use of his, potential to attain the required goal. At the time of frustration, the help was again, provided., Gradually the student started using adaptive ways of goal management. Now the, therapist, teacher and parents admired him. Everybody around was praising him for, his positive efforts., In this case antecedent operation is the professional help to cope up the scholastic, demands, establishing co-operation is encouraging to confront with the problem, himself and providing help at the time of frustration and consequent of operation is, praising him for his positive efforts for goal attainment., , TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Read the matches below and identify the correct match., , List A List B, RET, , — Existential therapy, , Transference, , — Psychodynamic therapy, , Token economy, , — Cognitive therapy, , Logo therapy, , — Behaviour therapy, , 2. Client-centered therapy focuses on creating in conditional positive regard in the, client. (T/F), 3. Aversive conditioning is repeated association of desired response with aversive, consequences. (T/F), , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 181
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4. __________ reinforcement is following undesirable response with an outcome that is, painful or not liked., 5. The technique used for treating phobias or irrational fears is ________., , In Psycho analysis, the important methods are free Association and _______., , , (CBSE 2014), , Part-B, 6. Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) is another form of bio-medical therapy. (T/F) , 7. What is Logo therapy?, 8. Describe the technique of free association., 9. What is ‘Unconditional positive regard’?, 10. Explain vicarious learning., , (CBSE 2011), , Part-C, 11. Explain the technique of token economy., 12. Explain electroconvulsive therapy., 13. Explain with the help of an example how cognitive distortions taken place., 14. Analyze the importance of working through in psychodynamic therapy., 15. How do Token Economy and Modelling Technique help in psychotherapy?, 16. Explain Arersive conditioning, , (CBSE 2009), , Part-D, 17. Discuss therapeutic relationship between the client and the theraphist.(CBSE 2011), 18. Identify the facilities used for the rehabilitation of released patient., 19. Explain Token Economy technique for changing behaviour., , (CBSE 2009), , 20. How does meditation help us in reducing stress?, 21. Explain negative reinforcement and Aversive conditioning techniques of behaviour, modification., (CBSE 2011), 22. Differentiate between Beck’s cognitive therapy and Ellis’s Rational Emotive therapy., 23. How can we formulate a client’s problems?, 24. How does RET used in treating Psychological disorders?, , (CBSE 2011), , Part-E, 25. Write a brief note about any two therapies that encourage the client to seek personal, growth and actualise their potential., (CBSE 2011), 26. State the techniques used in Behaviour therapy. Explain the technique used in, treatment of Phobia., (CBSE 2010), , 182, , Psychology—XII
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27. Explain how would a social learning theorist and a Psychoanalyst account for Phobia, of Lizards. Support you answer with examples., 28. What are the different types of Psychotherapy? Explain the principles on which, humanistic–Existential therapy is based., (CBSE 2013), 29. Discuss in brief the techniques used in Behaviour therapy., , (CBSE 2012), , 30. Discuss the factors which contribute to healing in Psychotherapy., , (CBSE 2012), , 31. Discuss cognitive therapies., 32. Discuss modality of psychoanalysis as a therapy., 33. Discuss methodology used in behaviour therapy., 34. Match the order:, (a) Client-centered Therapy, (b) Behaviour Therapies, , (i) Reinforcement for maladaptive behaviour, (ii) Experience of conditional positive regard, , (c) Cognitive Therapies, , (iii) Unconscious conflicts repressed problems of, childhood, , (d) Psychoanalysis, , (iv) Misconceptions; negative, self-defeating thinking, , , Therapeutic Approaches and Counselling, , 183
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6, , Attitude and, Social Cognition, , FACTS THAT MATTER, Social Psychology is a branch of Psychology which investigates how the behaviour of, individuals is affected by others and the social environment., We form attitudes or develop ways of thinking about specific topics and people. We form, impressions about persons we meet. We are also interested in why people behave in the ways, they do-attribution., The combination of social processes like attitude, impression formation, attribution and, pro social behaviour is called social cognition., Social cognition refers to the mental activities related to the gathering and interpretation, of information about the social world., Social cognition of all the individuals is affected by the social environment (Societal, conditions in the society peace, harmony, trust or aggression, frustration, disharmony and, distrust towards individuals, groups, peoples, relationship and social issues.), Because of social influences, people form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics, and people. Impression formation is when we make inferences about personal qualities of, people we meet. Attribution is when we assign causes to the behaviour shown in specific social, situation., Attitude:, • Attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views or thoughts, regarding some topic (called the, ‘attitude object’), which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality)., • The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect, the emotional component, is known as the affective aspect, and the tendency to act is called the behavioural, (or conative) aspect. A-B-C components (Affective-Behavioural-Cognitive components) of, attitude., Beliefs refer to the cognitive component of attitudes, and form the ground on which, attitudes stand, such as belief in God, or belief in democracy as a political ideology., Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or, ethical values. One example of a value is hard work or honesty. Values are formed when a, particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person’s outlook on life., Features of Attitude:, (i) Valence (positivity or negativity)., (ii) Extremeness indicates how positive or negative an attitude is., (iii) Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) refers to how many attitudes there are within, a broader attitude. An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it contains only one or a few, attitudes and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes., (iv) Centrality: This refers to the role of a particular attitudes in the system much more than, non-central (or peripheral) attitudes would., Attitude Formation:, In general, attitudes are learned through one’s own experiences, and through interaction, 0with others., , 184, , Psychology—XII, , 184
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Process of Attitude Formation:, • Association, e.g., a positive attitude towards a subject is learned through the positive, association between a teacher and a student., • Reward or punishment increases/decreases the further development of that attitude., • Modelling observing others being rewarded or punished for expressing thoughts, or, showing behaviour of a particular kind towards the attitude object., • Group or Cultural norms through the norms of our group or culture which may become, part of our social cognition, in the form of attitude., • Exposure to information, e.g., positive and negative attitudes are formed through the, media., Factors that Influence Attitude Formation, (i) Family and School Environment particularly in the early years of life., (ii) Reference Groups indicate the norms regarding acceptable behaviour/ways of thinking,, reflect learning of attitudes through cultural norms, noticeable during beginning of, adolescence., (iii) Personal Experiences (direct)., (iv) Media-related Influences. Technological advances have made audio-visual media,, school level textbook and the Internet very powerful sources of information, Attitude Change:, Attitudes that are still in the formative stage, and are more like opinions, are much more, likely to change compared to attitude that have become firmly established, and have become, a part of the individual’s values., 1. Balance or P-O-X triangle (Fritz Heider) represents the relationships between three, aspects or components of attitude., • P is the person whose attitude is being studied,, • O is another person, • X is the topic towards which the attitude is being studied (attitude object). It is also, possible that all three are persons., The basic idea is that an attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance between the, P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and P-X attitude. This is because imbalance is logically, uncomfortable., , Imbalance is found when all three sides are negative, or two sides are positive, and, one side is negative. Balance is found when all three sides are positive or two sides are, negative, and one side is positive., 2. Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger) emphasizes on the cognitive component., Cognitive components of an attitude must be ‘constant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e., they, should be logically in line with each other. If an individual finds that two cognitions in an, attitude dissonant, then one of them will be changed in the direction of consonance., Both balance and cognitive dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency which, means that two components or elements of the attitude, or attitude system, must be in the same, direction. If this does not happen, then the person experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e., the sense that ‘something is not quite right’ in the attitude system., 3. The Two-Step Concept (S.M. Mohsin): According to him, attitude change takes place, in the form of two steps:, (i) The target of change (person whose attitude is to be changed) identifies with the, source (person through whose influence the attitude is to be changed). Identification, means that the target and the source have a mutual regard and attraction., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 185
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(ii) The source himself/herself shows an attitude change, by actually changing him/her, behaviour towards the attitude object. Observing the source’s changed attitude and, behaviour, the target also shows an attitude change through behaviour. This is a, kind of imitation or observational learning., Factors that Influence Attitude Change:, • Characteristics of the Existing Attitude: All four properties of attitudes mentioned, earlier, namely, valence (positively or negatively), extremeness, simplicity or complexity, (multiplexity), and centrality or significance of the attitude, determine attitude, determine, attitude change. Positive, less extreme, peripheral (less significant) and simpler attitudes, are easier to change., In addition, one must also consider the direction and extent of attitude change. Congruent, (same direction of the existing attitude) or incongruent (direction opposite). Moreover, an, attitude may change in the direction of the information that is presented, or in a direction, opposite to that of the information presented., • Source Characteristics: Source credibility and attractiveness. Attitudes are more likely, to change when the message comes from a highly credible source rather than from a lowcredible source., • Message Characteristics: Attitudes will change when the amount of information that is, given about the topic is just enough, neither too much nor too little. Whether the message, contains a rational or an emotional appeal, also makes a difference. The motives activated, by the message and the mode of spreading the message (face-to-face transmission is more, effective than indirect transmission)., • Target Characteristics: Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility (open and flexible, personality), strong prejudices, self-esteem, more willing because they base their attitude, on more information and thinking., Attitude-Behaviour Relationship:, Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitudes and behaviour, when—, (i) the attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system., (ii) the person is aware of his/her attitude., (iii) there is very little or no external pressure for the person to behave in a particular way., Prejudice and Discrimination:, Prejudices are usually negative attitudes against a particular group, and in many cases,, may be based on stereotypes (the cognitive component) about the specific group. A stereotype is, a cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group. The cognitive component of, prejudice is frequently accompanied by dislike or hatred, the affective components of prejudice, are more difficult to change., Sources of Prejudice:, • Learning: Prejudice can also be learned through association, reward and punishment,, observing others, group or cultural norms and exposure to information that encourages, prejudice. The family, reference groups, personal experiences and the media may play a, role in the learning of prejudices. People who learn prejudiced attitudes may develop a, ‘prejudiced personality’., • A strong Social Identity and in Group Bias: Individual who have a strong sense, of social identity and have a very positive attitudes towards their own group boost this, attitude by holding negative attitudes towards other groups., , 186, , Psychology—XII
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• Scapegoating: This is a phenomenon by which the majority group places the blame on, minority group for its own social, economic or political problems. The minority is too weak, or too small in number to defend itself against such accusation., • Kernel of Truth Concept: Sometimes people may continue to hold stereotypes because, they think that there must be some truth, or ‘Kernel of truth’ in which everyone says, about the other group., • Self-fulfilling Prophecy: The group that is the target of prejudice is itself responsible, for continuing the prejudice by behaving in ways that justify the prejudice or confirm the, negative expectation., Strategies for Handling Prejudice, The strategies for handling prejudice would be effective if they aim at:, (a) minimizing opportunities for learning prejudices,, (b) changing such attitudes,, (c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the in group, and, (d) discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among the victims of prejudice., These goals can be accomplished through:, • Education and information dissemination, for correcting stereotypes related to specific, target groups, and tackling the problem of a strong in group bias., • Increasing intergroup contact that allows for direct communication, removal of mistrust, between the groups, and discovery context, there is close interaction and they are not, different in power or status., • Highlighting individual identity rather than group identity, thus weakening the, importance of group (both in-group and out-group) as a basis of evaluating the other, person., Social Cognition refers to all those psychological processes that deal with the gathering, and processing of information related to social objects (processes that help in understanding,, explaining and interpreting social behaviour). Social cognition is guided by mental units called, schemata., SCHEMAS and Stereotypes, A schema is defined as a mental structure that provides a framework, set of rules or, guidelines for processing information about any object. Schemata (or ‘schemas’) are the basic, units stored in our memory, and function as shorthand ways of processing information, thus, reducing the time and mental effort required in cognition., Schemata that function in the form of categories are called prototypes, which are the, entire set of schemata or qualities that help us to define an object completely. In social cognition,, category-based schemata, that are related to groups of people, are called stereotypes (over, generalized, are not directly verified). The inferences you have drawn are not the result of your, logical thinking or direct experience, but are based on pre-conceived ideas about a particular, group., Impression Formation and Attribution:, The process of coming to know a person can be broadly divided into two parts—, (a) Impression formation, and (b) Attribution. The person who forms the impression is, called perceiver. (Response to information about the qualities of the target, organizes this, information, and draws inferences about the target). The individual about whom the impression, is formed is called the target., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 187
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Impression Formation and attribution are influenced by:, • the nature of information available to the perceiver,, • social schemats in the perceiver (including stereotypes),, • personality characteristics of the perceiver, and, • situational factors., Impression Formation, The process of impression formation consists of the following three sub-processes:, (a) Selection: we take into account only some bits of information about the target person, (b) Organisation: the selected information is combined in a systematic way, (c) Inference: we draw a conclusion about what kind of person the target is, • The order or sequence in which information is presented affects the kind of impression, formed., • Primacy effect, the information presented first has a stronger effect than the, information presented at the end. In Recency effect, the perceiver may be asked to, pay attention to all the information whatever information comes at the end may have, a stronger influence., • Halo effect, a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive, qualities must also be having other specific positive qualities that are associated, with the first set., Attribution of Causality:, • When we assign a cause to a person’s behaviour, we can broadly classify the cause as being, internal (something within the person) or external (something outside the person)., Bernard Weiner suggested classification using stable and unstable factors. Stable factors, are those causes that do not change with the time, while unstable factors are those, that do., • Fundamental Attribution Error: There is an overall tendency for people to give greater, weightage to internal or dispositional factors, than to external or situational factors., Indians tend to make more external (situational) attributions than Americans do., • There is a difference between the attribution made for success, and the attribution made, for failure. In general, people attribute success to internal factors, such as their ability, or hard work. They attribute failure to external factors, such as bad luck, the difficulty of, the task, and so on., • Actor-Observer Effect–A distinction is also found between the attribution that a person, makes for his/her own positive and negative experiences (actor-role), and the attribution, made for another person’s positive and negative experiences (observer-role, external)., Behaviour in the Presence of Others:, In 1897, Norman Triplett observed that individuals sow better performance in the, presence of others, than when they are performing the same task alone because of the, eagerness to get praise or reward is stronger., Social Facilitation:, (i) Zajone performance on specific tasks is influenced by the mere presence of others, because the person experience arousal, which makes the person react in a more, intense manner., (ii) Evaluation apprehension (Cottrell): The person will be praised if the performance, is good (reward), or criticized if it is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and, avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid mistakes., (iii) Nature of the task in the case a simple or familiar task, the person is sure of, performing well and the eagerness to get praise or reward is stronger. In case of, , 188, , Psychology—XII
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complex or new task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. The fear of, criticism or punishment is stronger. So the individual performs worse in the presence, of others than he/she does when alone., (iv) If the others are also performing the same task, this is called a situation of co-action., In this situation, there is social comparison and competition., Social Loafing: The larger the group, the less effort each member puts in. This, phenomenon is based on diffusion of responsibility., Pro-social Behaviour: Pro-social behaviour is very similar to ‘altruism’, which means, doing something for or thinking about the welfare of others without any self-interest., Characteristics:, • Aim to benefit or do good to another person or other person,, • Be done without expecting anything in return,, • Be done willingly by the person, and not because of any kind of pressure, and, • Involve some difficulty or ‘cost’ to the person giving help., Factors influencing Pro-social Behaviour:, • Based on an inborn, natural tendency in human beings to help other members of their, own species., • Influenced by Learning: Individual who are brought up in a family environment that, sets examples of helping others, praises helpfulness., • Cultural Factors: Some cultures actively encourage people to help the needy and, distressed. In cultures that encourage independence, individual will show less pro-social, behaviour, because people are expected to take care of themselves., • When the situation activates certain social norms that require helping others., (a) Social responsibility: We should help anyone who needs help, without considering, other factors.(b) Reciprocity: We should help those who have helped us in the past., (c) Equity: We should help others whenever we find that it is fair to do so., • Expected reactions of the person who is being helped. For example, people might be, unwilling to give money to a needy person because they feel that the person might feel, insulted., • Individuals who have a high level of empathy, that is, the capacity to feel the distress of, the person who is to be helped, such as Baba Saheb Amte and Mother Teresa. Pro-social, behaviour is also more likely in situations that arouse empathy, such as the picture of, starving children in a famine., • Factors such as a bad mood, being busy with one’s own problems, or feeling that the, person to be helped is responsible for his/her own situation (that is, when an internal, attribution is made for the need state of the other person)., • When the number of bystanders is more than one. This phenomenon is called diffusion, of responsibility. On the other hand, if there is only bystander, this person is more, likely to take the responsibility and actually help the victim., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Actor-observer Effect: The tendency to make different attributions for one’s own, experience or behaviour in case of another person (observer)., • Arbitration: Explaining our own or others behaviour by pointing out the causes., • Arousal: The tension experienced at the thought of others being present and/or, performance being evaluated., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 189
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• Attitudes: States of the mind, thoughts or ideas regarding a topic, containing a cognitive,, affective and behavioural components., • Attitude Object: The target of an attitude., • Attribution: Explaining our own or others’ behaviour by pointing out the cause(s)., • Balance: The state of an attitude system in which the attitudes between a person (P) and, another individual (O), the person (P) and the attitude object (X), and between the other, individual (O) and the attitude object (X) are in the same direction, or logically consistent, with each other., • Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas regarding a topic., • Centrality of Attitude: The extent to which a specific attitude affects the entire attitude, system., • Cooperation: Groups work together to achieve shared goals, we refer to it as cooperations., • Conflict: A state of disturbance or tension resulting from opposing motives, drives, needs, or goals., • Co-action: A situation in which many people are performing the same task individually, in the presence of others., • Cognitive Consistency: A state in which thoughts or ideas are logically in line with, each other., • Cognitive Dissonance: The state of an attitude system in which two cognitive elements, are logically contradictory, or inconsistent., • Congruent Attitude Change: Attitude change in the same direction as that of the, existing attitude., • Congruent altitude change: Altitude change in the same direction as that of the, existing attitude., • Discrimination: Behaviour that shows a distinction between two or more persons, often, on the basis of person’s or persons membership of a particular group., • Diffusion of Responsibility: The thought that when others are present, one person, alone will not be held responsible for doing or not doing something; other members are, also responsible and will therefore do the task., • Empathy: Reacting to another’s feeling with an emotional response that is similar to the, others feelings., • Extremeness of attitude: It refers to how far an attitude is form the neutral point., • Evaluation Apprehension: The fear of being evaluated negatively by others who are, present., • Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to attribute internal causes more than, external cause for behaviour., • Halo Effect: The tendency to link positive qualities with other positive qualities about, which information is not available., • Identity: The distinguishing character of the individual, who each of us is; what our roles, are, and what we are capable of., • Identification: The process of feeling one with another person, usually resulting from, liking or extreme regard for the other person., • Intergroup conflict: A process in which either an individual or a group perceives that, others have opposing interest and both try to contradict each other., • Kernel of Truth: The small element of truth that may be perceived in over-generalised, clusters of beliefs about groups (stereotypes)., , 190, , Psychology—XII
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• Negotiation: Reciprocal communications so as to reach an agreement in situation in, which there is a conflict., • Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score, on the test to the scores of others who have taken the same test., • Persuasibility: The degree to which people can be made to change their attitudes., • Prejudice: A prejudgment, usually a negative attitude that is unverified, and is often, towards a group., • Primary Effect: The stronger role of information that comes first., • Pro-social Behaviour: Behaviour that does good to another person, is done without any, pressure from outside, and without any exception of a reward or return., • Prototype: A schema in the form of a category representing all the possible qualities of, an object or a person., • Recency Effect: The stronger role of information that comes last., • Scapegoating: Placing the blame on a group for something that has gone wrong, because, the blamed group cannot defend itself., • Schema: A mental structure that guides social (and other) cognition., • Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Behaving in a way that confirms the prediction others make., • Simplicity or Complexity (Multiplexity) of Attitude: Whether the whole attitude, consists of a single or very few sub-attitudes (simple), or contains many sub-attitudes, (multiplex)., • Social Loafing: In a group, each additional individual puts in less effort, thinking that, others will be putting in their effort., • Social Cognition: The process through which we notice, interpret, remember, and later, use social information. It helps in making sense of other people and ourselves., • Social Facilitation: The tendency for people’s performance to improve in the presence of, others, or an audience., • Social facilitations: The tendency for peoples performance to improve in the presence of, others, or an audience., • Super ordinate goals: A mutually beneficial to both parties, hence both groups worl, cooperatively., • Stereotype: An over-generalised and unverified prototype about a particular group., • Valence of Attitude: Whether an attitude is positive or negative., • Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes of behaviour or end-state of existence., Altitudes that have a strong evaluative and ought aspect., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude., Ans. Attitudes are state of the mind, set of views or thoughts or ideas regarding some topic, which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral). These are relatively, stable predispositions., Various components of an attitude are as follows:, (i) The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect of attitude., (ii) The emotional component is known as the affective aspect., (iii) The tendency to act is called the behavioural (conative) aspect., These three aspects have been referred to as the A-B-C (affective-behavioural-cognitive), components of attitude. Attitudes are themselves not a tendency to behave or act in, , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 191
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certain ways. They are part of cognition, along with an emotional component which, cannot be observed from outside., Q2. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how?, Ans. By enlarge attitudes are learnt. They are formed on the basis of learning., , Formation of Attitudes: The term ‘attitude formation’ refers to the movement we, make from having no attitude toward an object to having a positive or negative attitude., There are some factors which contribute to the formation of attitudes:, 1. Learning: The attitudes are acquired through learning. Many of our views, are acquired in situations in which we interact with others or merely observe their, behaviour., – Classical Conditioning/Learning by Association:, • A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the, capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus., • Player often develop a strong liking for the bat by which they made good runs., Many students start liking a subject if they like the teacher., – Instrumental Conditioning/Learning Altitude by Reward and, Punishment: A basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive, outcomes or that permit avoidance of negative outcomes are strengthened., • It applies to the situations when people learn attitudes which are systematically, rewarded by significant others, such as parents, teachers or friends., – Observational Learning: A basic form of learning in which individuals, acquire new forms of behaviour or through observing others., • Children are keen observers and learn a whole lot of things from their parents, and other family members., • They learn many attitudes about other ethnic groups, neighbours and idealize, simply by observing the behaviours of adults., 2. Learning through Exposure to Information:, • Many attitudes are learnt in a social context without physical presence of, others. Print media, electronic media, biographies of self-actualized people, facilitate attitude formations., 3. Learning Attitudes through Group or Cultural Norms:, • Norms are unwritten rules of behaviour. Gradually these norms may become, part of our social cognition, in the form of attitudes. e.g., offering money, sweets,, fruits and flowers in a place of worship is a normative behaviour in various, religions. People imitate such behaviour shown by others as socially approved, and develop positive attitude towards it., Q3. What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude?, Ans. The following factors provide the context for the learning of attitude through various, processes:, (i) Family and School Environment: parents and other family-members play a, significant role in attitude formation. Learning of attitudes within the family and, school usually takes place by association, through rewards and punishment and, through modelling., (ii) Reference Groups: Attitudes towards political, religious and social groups,, occupations, national and other issues are often developed through reference groups., Reference groups indicate to an individual the norms regarding acceptable behaviour, and ways of thinking. Various institutions, religion, culture and communities are, form of reference groups., , 192, , Psychology—XII
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(iii) Personal Experiences: Many attitudes are formed, not in the family environment, or through reference groups, but through direct personal experiences which bring, about a drastic change in our attitude towards people and our own life., (iv) Media Related Influences: Technological advances have made audio-visual media, and internet as very powerful sources for attitude formation. School textbooks also, influence attitude formation. The media can be used to create consumerist attitude., The media can exert both good and bad influences on attitudes., Q4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example., Ans. An individual’s attitude may not always be exhibited through behaviour. Likewise, one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to one’s attitude towards a particular topic., Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitude and behaviour, when:, (i) The attitude is strong and occupies a central place in the attitude system., (ii) The person is aware of his/her attitudes., (iii) Person’s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others., (iv) Person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequences., , Richard La Piere, an American social psychologist, conducted the following study. He, asked a Chinese couple to travel across the United States, and stay in different hotels., Only once during these occasions they were refused service by one of the hotels. La, Piere sent out questionnaires to managers of hotels and tourist homes in the same areas, where the Chinese couple had travelled asking them if they would give accommodation, to Chinese guest. A very large percentage said that they would not do so. This response, showed a negative attitude towards the Chinese, which was inconsistent with the positive, behaviour that was actually shown towards the travelling Chinese couple. Attitudes, may not always predict actual pattern of one’s behaviour., Q5. Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition., Ans. • Social schemas (schemata) are mental structure., • They function as a framework to process social information. These schemas lead to, emergence of prototypes., • Prototypes are concepts which have most of the defining features of a concept, class, or family., • These are best representatives of the population., • Various stereotypes emerge from these schemas. In other words stereotypes are, category-based schemas., Q6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype., Ans. Prejudices are negative attitude., • These are bias about others., • Prejudices are baseless and false., • It refers to biased attitude formed about an individual or a group of people., • These are usually negative., • It has three components, i.e., A-B-C(a) Affective (Emotional i.e dislike or hatred)., (b) Behavioural (i.e., discrimination)., (c) Cognitive (Believes, i.e., stereotypes)., Stereotypes are cognitive component of prejudice. It is strongly influenced by the, processing of incoming social information., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 193
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• These are over-generalized beliefs. e.g., girls are talkative., • Stereotypes are category based schemas., • These may be positive or negative or neutral., • Stereotype has no emotional blending., • From stereotypes, prejudices may emerge very easily., • Stereotypes are usually formed for the groups., • Stereotypes are pre conceived notions., Q7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice-versa. Comment., Ans. Prejudices can exist without being shown in the form of discrimination. Similarly,, discrimination can be shown without prejudice., • Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts are very likely to arise, between groups within the same society., • We all witnessed many instances of discrimination, with and without prejudice,, based on gender, religion, community, caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such, as AIDS., • Moreover, in many cases, discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by law. But, the, cognitive and emotional components of prejudice are more difficult to change., Q8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation., Ans. Impression formation is a process by which impression about others is converting into, more or less induring cognitions or thoughts about them., In short, impression formation is a process through which we draw quick conclusion/, inferences regarding others., Factors facilitating Impression Formation:, • Nature of the phenomena (familiar or unfamiliar)., • Personality traits of the perceiver., • Social schemas stored in the mind of perceiver., • Situational factors., The process of impression formation consists of the following three sub-processes:, • Selection: We take into account only some bits of information about the target, person., • Organization: the selected information is combined in a systematic way., • Inference: We draw a conclusion about what kind of person the target is., Some specific qualities, that influence impression formation, are:, • The information presented first has a stronger effect than the information presented, at the end. This is called the primacy effect., • We have a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities, must also be having other specific positives that are associated with first set. This, is known as halo effect. e.g., if we think that a person is ‘tidy’ then we are likely to, think that this person must also be hard/working., • Whatever information comes at the end may have a stronger influence on impression, formation. This is known as the recency effect., Q9. Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an, ‘observer’., Ans. Actor observer phenomena refers to the tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly, to situational causes but the behaviour of others mainly to internal (dispositional) cause., A distinction is found between the attribution that a person makes for actorrole and, observer-role., , 194, , Psychology—XII
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Person makes attribution for his/her own positive and negative experiences, it is actor, role and the attribution made for another person’s positive and negative experience is, observer-role., For example, if we get good marks, we will attribute it to our own ability and hard work, (actor-role, internal attribution for a positive experience). If we get bad marks, we will, say we were unlucky or test was difficult (actor–role, external attribution for negative, experience)., On the other hand, if our classmate gets good marks, we will attribute his/her success, to good luck or easy test (observer-role, external attribution for positive experience). If, same classmate gets bad marks, we are likely to feel that his/her failure was because, of low ability or due to lack of effort (observer-role, internal attribution for a negative, experience)., The reason for the difference between the actor and observer roles is that people want to, have a nice image of themselves, as compared to others., Q10. How does social facilitation take place?, Ans., , • It is form of group influence., • Social facilitation refers to a concept that performance on specific task is influenced, by the mere presence of others., • Norman Triplett observed that individuals show better performance in presence of, others, than when they are performing the same task alone., Better performance in presence of others is because the person experiences arousal,, which makes the person react in a more intense manner., The arousal is because the person feels he or she is being evaluated. Cottrell called, this idea evaluation apprehension. The person will be praised if performance is good, (reward); is criticised if performance is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and, avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid criticism., As in case of complex task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. And the fear of, criticism or punishment is stronger., If the others present are also performing same task, this is called a situation of co-action., When task is simple or a familiar one, performance is better under co-action than when, the person is alone., Task performing can be facilitated and improved or inhibited and worsened by the presence, of others. If we are working together in a larger group, the less effort each member puts, in. This phenomena is called social loafing, based on diffusion of responsibility., Diffusion of responsibility can also be frequently seen in situations where people are, expected to help., Q11. Explain the concept of pro-social behaviour., Or, Describe the factors influencing Pro-social behaviour., (CBSE 2013), Ans. Pro-social behaviour is any positively valued behaviour that does good to another, person, is done without any pressure from outside and without any expectation of a, reward or a return., Humans are social beings. Most of their activities are organized with the help of others., We cannot live and grow unless there is support from others. We often engage in helping, others. Such efforts are considered as pro-social behaviour. For any behaviour to be prosocial, it should fulfil the following conditions:, , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 195
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• There has to be an intention to benefit the other person. Any pro-social act, which, one accomplishes by compulsion or as a requirement of a job, does not merit to be, called ‘pro-social’., • The behaviour should be considered socially desirable by the other members of the, society. Obviously, helping a thief in stealing is not a pro-social behaviour., • If an act intended to benefit others is also expect to benefit the helper, it cannot be, termed as ‘pro-social’., The intentions and the consequent positive behaviour are more important considerations, of pro-social behaviour than the actual benefits., The other term which are used interchangeably with pro-social behaviour is altruism., The literal meaning of altruism is “doing things or acting for the interest of others, without any ulterior motive.” It is a behaviour that reflects an unselfish concern for the, welfare of others. All charitable, humanitarian, philanthropic activities, which people do, without any self-interest, come under the category of altruism behaviour., , Determinants of Pro-social Behaviour: The pro-social behaviour depends on many, factors., (i) Pro-social behaviour is based on an inborn, natural tendency in human beings to, help other members of their own species., (ii) Pro-social behaviour is influenced by learning through modelling and positive, reinforcement in the family., (iii) Cultural factors influence pro-social behaviour. Some cultures actively encourage, people to help the needy and distressed. Individuals in cultures suffering from a, shortage of resources may not show a high level of pro-social behaviour., (iv) Pro-social behaviour is expressed when the situation activates certain ‘social, norms’ that require helping others. Three norms have been mentioned in context of, pro-social behaviour:, (a) The norms of social responsibility. We should help anyone who needs help, without considering any other factors., (b) The norms of reciprocity. We should help persons who have helped us in the, past., (c) The norms of equity. We should help others whenever we find that it is fair to, do so., (v) Pro-social behaviour is affected by the expected reactions of the person who is being, helped. For example, people might be unwilling to give money to a needy person, because they feel that the person might feel insulted, or may become dependent., (vi) Pro-social behaviour is more likely to be shown individuals who have a high level of, empathy, that is, the capacity to feel the distress of the person who is to be helped., e.g., Mother Teresa., Factors inhibiting Pro-social Behaviour:, (a) Diffusion of Responsibility: Pro-social behaviour may be reduced when the, number of bystanders is more than one. On the other hand, if there is only one, bystander, this person is more likely to take responsibility and actually help the, victim. It happens because each person thinks that others will take the responsibility., (b) Feeling State of the Individual: Person in a bad mood, being busy with one’s own, problems or feeling that the person to be helped is responsible for his/her problem,, may not help others., , 196, , Psychology—XII
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Q12. Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change in, his/her attitude towards food?, Ans. Since my friend eats junk food, it will have some reinforcing value to him/her. In order, to bring about a change in his/her attitude towards food, following techniques could be, used:, First of all what needs to be targeted is ‘the way he/she thinks about junk food, i.e., the, cognitive aspect of his/her positive attitude towards junk food. The modification in his/, her attitude can be achieved through using rational as well as emotional appeal and, if, required, help of a dietician whose credibility in this area is very high will be of great use., Attitude changes may be brought about by:, 1. Encouraging him/her to read about what is required for a healthy development. e.g.,, minerals etc. which are not found in junk food., 2. Showing him/her the negative consequences of eating junk food like obesity, other, health-related problems by exposing him/her to real life examples., 3. Request people around him/her like family-members, elders and teachers whom he/, she likes. If they provide a role model, i.e., not to consume junk food then he/she will, imitate their behaviour., 4. Giving his/her choice and space to decide what is right for him/her considering, both the aspects of the food and asking him/her to focus and think about the future, problems associated with his/her liking., All these things can bring about cognitive dissonance which might ultimately bring, about the attitude change., , MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. The defining characteristic of _____________ is that they express an evaluation of some, object., (a) Beliefs, (b) Attitudes, (c) Interaction, (d) Perception, Q2. You like your mother. Your mother does not like pets. You like pets. The tried is—, (a) Balanced, (b) Imbalanced, (c) Balanced for your mother but imbalanced for you, (d) None of these, Q3. In 1957, Leon Festinger published his theory of—, (a) Balance , (b) Cognitive Dissonance, (c) Learning , (d) Attitude, Q4. Making inferences about personal qualities of others is Impression formation., Q5. Attribution is assigning cause to the behaviours. (True/False), Q6. Helping behaviour is also called Pro social behaviour., Q7. The emotional component of attitude is also called _______________ component., (a) Cognitive, (b) Affective, (c) Psycho-motor (d) None of the above, Q8. Positivity or negativity of attitude is also called Valence. (True/False), Q9. P-O-X triangle representing relationship between different aspects of attitude was, proposed by Fritz Herder., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 197
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Q10. The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon festinger., Q11. Credibility and attractiveness are two features of source that affect attitude change., (True/False), Q12. Schemas that function in the form of categories are called Steriotypes., Q13. Fundamental attribution error means explaining the action of other on the basis of, internal cause. (True/False), , Answer, 1. (b), , 2. (b), , 3. (b), , 7. (b), , 8. (True) , 11. (True), , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , 13. (True), , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. What is attitude?, Ans. Attitude is a set of mind, a set of views, or thoughts regarding some topics which have an, evaluative feature., Q2. What is attitude system?, Ans. Attitude system refers to combination of ‘simple’ if it contains only one or a few attitudes, and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes, i.e., several ‘member’ attitudes., Each member attitude that belongs to attitude system has A-B-C components., Q3. Why values are difficult to change?, Ans. Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or, ethical values e.g., one should be honest because honesty is the best policy., Values are formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of, the person’s outlook on life. Consequently, values are difficult to change., Q4. What is the purpose served by attitude?, Ans. • Attitude provides a situation context that makes easier for the person to decide how, to respond or act in a new situation or problem., • Attitudes strongly influence our social thoughts., • They affect our behaviour., Q5. What are opinions?, Ans. Opinions are simply ways of thinking, and it does not matter much to the person that, others agree or disagree with their views., Q6. Explain the concept of beliefs?, Ans. Beliefs refer to the cognitive component of attitude and form the ground on which, attitudes stand, such as belief in God, or belief in democracy as a political ideology., Q7. What do you mean by values?, Ans. Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect such as moral and, ethical values., Q8. How values are based on belief or attitude?, Ans. Values are formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of, the person’s outlook on life., Q9. How attitudes are formed?, Ans. Attitudes are learnt through one’s own experience, and, through interaction with other, people. There are specific conditions that lead to the formation of specific attitudes., , 198, , Psychology—XII
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Q10. What is cognitive dissonance?, Ans. The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger., Cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant internal state that results when individuals notice, inconsistency between two or more of their attitudes or between their behaviour., Q11. What is cognitive consistency?, Ans. Cognitive consistency means that two components, aspects or elements of the attitude, system must be in the same direction., Q12. Differentiate between target and source., Ans. The ‘target’ is the person whose attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is the person, through whose influence the change is to take place., Q13. Differentiate between congruent and incongruent changes in attitude., Ans. Congruent change means change in the same direction as the existing attitude. i.e., a, positive attitude may become more positive or a negative attitude may become more, negative., , Incongruent change means attitude may change in a direction opposite to the existing, attitude. i.e., a positive attitude become less positive or a negative attitude becomes less, negative., Q14. What is discrimination?, Ans. Discrimination is negative behaviour directed toward members of social groups who are, the object of prejudice., Q15. Explain the concept of schemas., Ans. Schemas (schemata) are cognitive frameworks developed through experience that affect, the processing of new social information., Q16. What are prototypes?, Ans. Schemas that function in the form of categories are called prototypes. These are the, entire set of features or qualities that help us to define an object completely. Prototypes, are the best representative of the population., Q17. Define impression formation., Ans. When we meet people, we make inferences about their personal qualities. This is called, impression formation., Q18. Name the factors by which impression formation and attribution get influenced., Ans. Impression formation and attribution are influenced by the following:, (i) The nature of information available to the perceiver., (ii) Social schemas in the perceiver (including stereotypes)., (iii) Personality characteristics of the perceiver., (iv) Situational factors., Q19. Differentiate between primacy and recency effect., Ans. When the information presented first has a stronger effect than the information presented, at the end, it is called the primacy effect. On the other hand, when information which, comes at the end has a stronger influence, it is called recency effect., Q20. What do you mean by halo effect?, Ans. People have a tendency to think that a target person who has one set of positive qualities, must also be having specific positive qualities that are associated with the first set. This, is known as halo effect., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 199
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Q21. What is attribution?, Ans. Attribution is the process through which we seek to identify the causes of other’s, behaviour and so gain knowledge of their stable traits and dispositions., Q22. What is pro-social behaviour?, Ans. Pro-social behaviour involves a helpful action that benefits other people without, necessarily providing any direct benefits to the person performing the act, and may even, involve a risk for the person who helps., Q23. What do you mean by fundamental attribution error?, Ans. Fundamental attribution error is the overall tendency for people to give greater weightage, to internal factors than to external factors., Q24. Explain the concept of diffusion of responsibility., Ans. • The thought that when others are present, one person alone will not be held, responsible for doing, or not doing something; other members are also responsible, and will therefore do the task., • Each person thinks that it is not his/her responsibility alone to give help, and, someone else may take the responsibility. This phenomenon is called diffusion of, responsibility., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. What is Social Cognition?, Ans. • Social cognition is the manner in which we gather, interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about the social world., • The study of social cognition deals with the mental processes by which we make, sense of the world., • Attitudes, impression formation and attributions are the three processes collectively, called social cognition., • It is activated by cognitive units called schemas (schemata)., Q2. What are the causes/sources of emergence of prejudice? Give example., Ans. Prejudice are learnt. Following are the probable causes for the development of prejudices:, 1. Learning: Prejudices are learnt through associations, reward and punishment,, modelling, child-rearing practices and social and cultural norms., 2. High Social Identity: Social identity refers to persons definitions of who he or she, is. If the individual starts identifying with his community and develops proud for, that gradually, he starts perceiving others as inferior which causes prejudices., 3. Scapegoating: It is aggression displaced toward a person or group that is the object, of prejudice particularly the individual or the group belongs to weaker section., 4. Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Self-fulfilling prophecy refers to behaving in a way that, confirms the prediction others make., It is behaving according to once own expectation in such a way that this behaviour, influences a situation and brings about what is expected., 5. Kernel of Truth: It is individual beliefs that if a particular opinion developed by so, many people then there must be truth behind it because majority can’t be wrong., Q3. What strategies can be used for handling prejudice and discrimination?, , (CBSE 2010, 2014), Ans. Prejudices may not be eliminated but can be reduced. The strategies for handling, prejudices would be effective if they aim at:, • Minimising opportunities for learning prejudices., , 200, , Psychology—XII
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• Changing negative attitudes., • De-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the in-group., • Discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among the victims of, prejudice., These goals can be accomplished through:, • Education and exposure for correcting stereotypes relative to specific target groups., • Reducing strong in-group bias., • Increasing intergroup contact through—, — direct communication., — removal of mistrust between the group., — discovery of positive qualities in the out group., These strategies are successful only if:, • The two groups meet in a co-operative rather than competitive context., • Close interactions between the groups help them to know each other better., • Both the groups should not be different in power or status., • Highlighting individual identity rather than group identity. It is promoting, individual differences and giving more credit to the individuals achievement rather, than his/her group identity., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. What are the different features of attitude?, Ans. The Four Features of attitude are:, (i) Valence (Positivity or Negativity): Valence of an attitude tells us whether the, attitude is positive or negative toward the attitude object. It means attitudes are, directional., (ii) Extremeness: This indicates how positive or negative an individual is toward, object., (iii) Simplicity or Complexity: It refers to how many attitudes are there in the broader, attitude., Attitude is simple if it contains few attitudes and complex, if it is made up of many, attitudes., e.g. attitude towards student’s tutor is simple and attitude towards his father is, complex., (iv) Centrality: It refers to the role of particular attitude that influences the other, attitudes in the system. e.g., attitude towards education. Positive attitude towards, education influences various other attitudes. e.g., attitude towards knowledge or, attitude towards work., Q2. Explain Balance Theory of attitude change., Ans. Balance Theory of Attitude Change, Balance theory of attitude change was proposed by Fritz Heider. It is a part of cognitive, consistency theory. Cognitive consistency means that components, aspects or, elements of the attitude or attitude system must be in the same direction to experience, psychological comfort. If this does not happen, the person experiences psychological, discomfort. This leads to some change in the attitude system to attain logical consistency., The Balance Theory of attitude change is based on the same principle. Balance theory, can be explained with the help of relationship between three aspects or components of, the attitude represented in a form of triangle., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 201
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For example , let s consider two people having a relationship and their attitude towards, smoking., Smoking, , Vishal, , Suresh, , , According to Balance theory imbalance ( leading to psychological discomfort) is found, , when:, 1. All three sides of triangle are negative., In the above example if Suresh and Vishal dislike each other (negative), and have, negative attitude towards smoking (two other sides are also negative) then the very, fact that they dislike each other will lead to negativity in the situation., Smoking, , negative, , Suresh, , negative, , negative, , Vishal, , 2. Two sides are positive and one side is negative:, In the above example, if Vishal and Suresh are very good friends. Suresh loves to, smoke and Vishal hates to smoke. This implies two sides of the triangle are positive, and one is negative. This will lead to an imbalance situation, i.e., two friends will, have a conflict because they have opposite attitude towards smoking., Smoking, , positive, , Suresh, , negative, , positive, , Vishal, , , Imbalance state will lead to psychological discomfort. An attitude change will have to, , take place so as to attain balance state having psychological comfort., , Balance is found when:, 1. All three sides are positive., In the above example, Suresh and Vishal are very good friends and both of them love, smoking., , 202, , Psychology—XII
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Smoking, , positive, , Suresh, , positive, , positive, , Vishal, , 2. Two sides are negative and one side is positive., In the above example, Suresh and Vishal are very good friends and both of them, hold a negative attitude towards smoking., Smoking, , negative, , Suresh, , negative, , positive, , Vishal, , Q3. Explain the concept of cognitive dissonance., (Delhi Board 2014), Ans. The concept of cognitive dissonance was introduced by Leon Festinger and Carlsmith., This theory is based on cognitive inconsistency., , Cognitive dissonance: An unpleasant feeling which arise when two or more of our, cognitions are inconsistent. The main causes of cognitive dissonance are as follows:, (a) When two attitudes are inconsistent in some way such as—‘I like this person’ and ‘I, don’t like this person’s political views’., (b) When people say or do things they do not mean, or behave in ways that are inconsistent, with their underlying attitudes. e.g., arguing the merits of vegetarianism then, ordering a non-vegetarian burger at the local burger bar create inconsistency., As an explanation of attitude change, cognitive dissonance theory argues that, doing things that are inconsistent with our attitudes may cause us to change, those attitudes to overcome the negative feelings of dissonance., According to cognitive dissonance theory attitudinal changes occur in two stages, i.e.,, stage-I and stage-II. e.g.,, , e.g., Cognition I : Smoking is injurious for health because it causes cancer., Cognition II : I smoke tobacco., To attain consonance one of these ideas will have to be changed., Q4. What is the ‘Two Step Concept’ in the process of Attitude change?, Ans. The theory was proposed by S.M. Mohsin., • According to him, attitude change takes place in two steps. In the first step, the, target of change identifies with the source. It involves two people, i.e., target and the, source., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 203
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• Target is the person whose attitude is to be changed., • Source is the person who assists the target for attitudinal change., , Step-1: Identification: Source must have +ve attitude and love towards the target and, target must have trust and respect for the source., Step-2: Source first of all himself/herself shows an attitudinal change by changing his/, her own attitude towards the issue., Q5. Write the factors that influence attitude change?, Ans. Most of the psychologists agree upon the following major factors that influence attitudinal, change:, (i) Characteristics of the Existing Attitude:, • Positive attitudes are easier to changes than negative attitudes., • Extreme attitudes and central attitudes are more difficult to change than the, less, extreme and peripheral attitudes. Simple attitudes are easier to change, than multiple attitudes are., • An attitude change may be congruent if the change is taking place in the same, direction as the existing attitude. On the other hand, an attitude change may, be incongruent and it may changing in the opposite direction to the existing, attitude. It has been found that, in general, congruent changes are easier to, bring about modification than presented the incongruent change in attitudes., • Researches have found that sometimes fear works well in convincing people, but if a massage generates too much fear, it turns off the receiver and has little, persuasive effect., (ii) Source Characteristics: Source credibility and attractiveness are two features, that affect attitudes change. Attitudes are more likely to change when the message, comes from highly credible source rather than from a low credible source. e.g., car, sales may increase if they are publicized by automobile experts., (iii) Message Characteristics: The message is the information that is presented in, order to bring about an attitude change. Whether the message contains a rational, or an emotional appeal for example makes a difference. The motive of message, also determines possibility of change. e.g., drinking milk may be said to make person, healthy., Finally, the mode of spreading the message plays a significant role. Face-to-face, transmission of the message is usually more effective than indirect transmission as, for instance, through letters and pamphlets or even through mass media. These days, transmission through visual media such as television and the internet are similar to, face-to-face interaction, but not a substitute for the later., (iv) Target Characteristics:, • Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility, strong prejudices, selfesteem and intelligence influence the likelihood of attitude change., • Open and flexible personality change more easily., • People with strong prejudices are less prone to any attitude change., • Persons having low self-esteem do not have sufficient confidence in themselves,, change their attitudes more easily than those who are high on self-esteem., • Highly intelligent people may change their attitudes less easily than those with, low intelligence. However, sometimes more intelligent persons change their, attitudes more willingly, because they base their attitudes on more information, and thinking., , 204, , Psychology—XII
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V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA : 6 Marks ), , Q1. Give the meaning of ‘causal attribution’. Explain fundamental attribution error and, actor-observer effect with the help of an example., Ans. Causal Attribution:, • Attribution is a systematic process of assigning cause to a person’s behaviour., • It is the process of thinking and perceiving the causes of your own or others success, and failure is an example of causal attribution., • We normally tend to believe that nothing happens in this world without a cause., There is always a cause of everything in the world., , Fritz Heider, who is credited as the ‘founder of attribution theory‘, suggested that, human beings function as naive scientists. Heider categorized all causes into two, categories—internal and external., • Internal Causes: It includes something within the person. e.g., intelligence,, aptitude or hot temper., • External Causes: These causes include anything outside the person. e.g., fate,, resources., Research work has shown that people attribute their success more to internal factors, and failure more to external factors than vice-versa. Weiner added another dimension, to causal attribution., • Stability: It refers to whether the cause is stable—it does not change over a long, period (memory, family), or is instability—it may change over a short period of time, (interest, luck)., , Ability is both internal and stable; effort is internal and unstable; chance is both, external and unstable. Weiner suggested that when you attribute your success to internal, factors, you have a sense of pride. Also attributing success to stable factors gives you, high expectations of success in future., , Fundamental Attribution Error:, In making attributions, there is an overall tendency to attribute internal causes, more than external causes or situational factors for behaviours. This is called, fundamental attribution error. This tendency varies from culture to culture. For, examples, Indians tend to give more credit to external factors., • Actor-Observer Effect: A distinction is also found between the attribution that a, person makes for ones own positive or negative experiences (Actor Role) or for the, positive or negative experiences of others (Observer Role)., For instance one of your classmates fell and got injured. You must have thought that, he might be walking carelessly and attribute the responsibility for injury to him. Now, the same thing happens to you. You would put the blame on the condition of the road or, other factor. The tendency to blame external factors for our own behaviour and internal, factors for others behaviour is known as fundamental attributional error., When you hear that one of your relatives met an accident, a general tendency is to blame, the injured person. People blame the person because it is assuring for them. If they are, more vigilant, they will not meet such an accident. The blame is often placed on the, people who are the sufferer. Even in the case of natural disasters, such as earthquakes,, cyclones, floods, there is a pervasive belief that it is because of the sins, which people, have committed. This phenomenon is known the blaming the victim., , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 205
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TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Cognitive units called ____________., (Delhi Board 2013), 2. Process of assigning causes to the behaviour shown in specific situations is known as, ____________., (Delhi Board 2013), 3. Cluster of Ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group is known as, ____________., (Delhi Board 2012), (a) Progressive, (b) Steriotype, (c) Belief, (d) altitude, 4. Pro-social behaviour is more likely to be shown by individuals who are empathetic. (True/, False), (Delhi Board 2011), 5. When an individual changes in a direction opposite to the existing altitude, it is called, incongruent change. (True/False), (Delhi Board 2010 Outside), 6. Responding to others who are in need or distress is called social cognition. (True/False), (Delhi Board 2010), 7. Performance on specific tasks when influenced by the presence of others is called, ____________., (Delhi Board 2009), 8. Making inferences about personal qualities of people on meeting them is called, _________., (Delhi Board 2008), 9. Cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group is known as _______., 10. State in which a person feels he has lost something valuable and is not getting what he, deserves in known as—, (i) Discrimination (ii) Deprivation, (iii) Poverty, (iv) Disadvantage, , Part-B, 11., 12., 13., 14., 15., , Explain the process of impression formation., (Delhi Board 2008, 2012) [4 marks], Define attitude. State its three components., (Delhi Board 2010), Distinguish between beliefs and values., (Delhi Board 2010), State any three sources of prejudice., How and when does the P-O-X triangle remain in state of balance?, , Part-C, 16. What is actor-observer effect of attribution?, (Delhi Board 2010) [3 marks], 17. Discuss the strategies to resolve conflicts., 18. What is attribution? Explain fundamental attribution error giving examples., 19. Explain group polarization., 20. Describe the characteristics of prejudice?, 21. Differentiate between prejudices and stereotypes., 22. Discuss the sources of prejudice., 23. Discuss the cognitive dissonance component in altitude change process., , (Delhi Board 2014), , 206, , Psychology—XII
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Part-D, 24. How are prejudices acquired? Suggest any one strategy to handle caste related prejudices, in a village., 25. What are the important processes in attitude change?, 26. What are the factors that influence attitude formation?, 27. How does social facilitation take place?, (Delhi Board 2010), 28. What are the strategies for handling prejudices?, (Delhi Board 2011, 2014), 29. Discuss the concept of impression formation with the help of example., , (Delhi Board 2011, 2009), 30. Discuss characteristic of prejudice., (Delhi Board 2012), 31. Describe the factors influencing Pro-social behaviour., (Delhi Board 2013), , , Attitude and Social Cognition, , 207
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7, , Social Influence and, Group Processes, , FACTS THAT MATTER, NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS, Group: Organised system of two or more people who interact and are interdependent,, have common motives, have a set of role relationships among members and have norms that, regulate the behaviour of its members., Features:, 1. Collection of people with common goals and motives., 2. Two or more people: perceive themselves as belonging to the group—each group is unique., 3. Members are interdependent., 4. Members interact with each other directly or indirectly., 5. Members satisfy needs through joint association—influence each other., 6. Set of norms and roles—specific functions for each member, adhere to norms on how one, must behave, expected behaviour, etc., Crowd, , Collection of people present at a, place/situation by chance., , No structure, no sense of belongingness,, no interdependence, people show, irrational behaviour., , Teams, , Members have complementary, skills and are committed to a, common goal/purpose., , Members are mutually accountable, and, derive positive synergy from co-ordinate, efforts., , Audience, , Collection of people assembled for a, specific purpose., , This is passive and could turn into a, mob., , Mob, , (i) Collection of people with a, definite sense of purpose., (ii) Polarisation in attention and, actions in common direction., , Homogeneity of thought and behaviour,, impulsive., , Groups, Performance dependent, individual members., , on, , Teams, contribution, , of, , Leader/Head holds responsibility., , Both individual contributions and teamwork, matter., Members hold themselves responsible., , Advantages:, We are simultaneously members of different groups; different groups satisfy different needs, but could create pressures due to competing demands and expectations., , 208, , Psychology—XII, , 208
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1. Security: Groups reduce insecurity—, • being with people—sense of comfort/protection., • people feel stronger—less vulnerable to threats., 2. Status: Recognised group gives feeling of power and importance., 3. Self-esteem: Feeling of self worth and positive social identity., • member of prestigious group enhances self-concept., 4. Goal Achievement: Group helps to attain some goals which can’t be attained alone, (power in the majority)., 5. Provides Knowledge and Information: Broadens views, helps supplement information., 6. Satisfaction of Psychological and Social Needs: Like sense of belongingness—giving, and receiving attention, love and power., Group Formation:, Some form of contact and interaction between people is needed., 1. Proximity: Closeness and repeated interactions with the same people (get to know their, interests, attitudes and background)., 2. Similarity: People prefer consistency—consistent relationship (reinforces and validates, opinions and values; feel we’re right)., 3. Common Motives and Goals: Groups facilitate goal attainment., Stages of group formation (Tuckman):, 1. Forming: Member’s first meet—there is uncertainty about group and goal and how it will, be achieved., — they try to get to know each other—there is excitement and apprehension., 2. Storming: Intragroup conflict—about how the goal is to be achieved, who’s the leader and, who will perform what task (hierarchy of leadership and how to achieve goal is developed., 3. Norming: Develop norms related to group behaviour (development of a positive group, identity)., 4. Performing: Structure of the group has evolved and is accepted (towards goal, achievement); at this is the last stage of group development., 5. Adjourning: Once the function is over the group may be disbanded., Notes:, — Groups do not always proceed in a systematic manner., — Stages could even take place simultaneously., — Groups can go back and forth between stages or skip a few stages., Group Structure: Over time there are regularities in distribution of tasks, responsibilities, assigned to members and status of members., Elements:, 1. Roles: Socially defined expectation that individuals in given situations are expected to, fulfil, i.e., typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context., (i) Role Expectations: Behaviour expected of someone in a particular role., 2. Norms (unspoken rules): Expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established,, agreed upon and enforced by group-members., 3. Status: Relative social position given to group-members by others., (i) Ascribed (given due to one’s seniority) or achieved (because of expertise or hard, work)., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 209
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(ii) Members of a group—enjoy status, and want to be members of prestigious groups., (iii) Within groups, different members have different prestige and status., 4. Cohesiveness: Togetherness, binding or mutual attraction among members, (i) More Cohesiveness: Members start thinking, feeling and acting as a social unit, (no isolated individuals); there is an increased desire to remain in group (we feelingsense of belongingness)., (iii) Extreme cohesiveness leads to group think and is negative., Types of Groups:, Primary Group, , Secondary Group, , Pre-existing formation that are usually given, to a person. People usually remain a part of it, through their lifetime., , Groups which individuals join by, choice., , Includes face-to-face interaction and close, physical proximity. Member share warm,, emotional bonds., , Relationships among members are, more impersonal, indirect and less, frequent., , Central to person’s functioning; major role in, developing values and ideals., , These may or may not be short-lived., , Boundaries are less permeable—can’t choose, membership, join or leave easily., , It is easy to leave and join another, group., , Example: Family, religion, caste., , Example: Political party., , Formal Group, Functions, based, explicitly stated., , to, , be, , performed, , Informal Group, are, , Roles of each member not so definite, and specified. Close relationship among, members exist., , Formation based on specific rules or laws and, members have defined roles. Set of norms, help establish order., , Formation not based on rules and laws., , Example: Office, university., , Example: peer group., , Ingroup, , Outgroup, , One’s own group—‘we’ (e.g., India)., , Another group—‘they’ (e.g., Pakistan)., , Members in the group—similar, viewed, favourably, have desired traits., , Member, of, out-group—viewed, differently, negatively in comparison to, in group., , Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour:, 1. Social Loafing: This is the reduction in individual effort when working on a collective, task., — Individual performing an activity with the others as part of a larger group., , 210, , Psychology—XII
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— Individuals work less hard in a group than alone., — Don’t know much effort each one is putting in., — Presence of others leads to arousal; motivates individuals to enhance their, performance (only when a person’s efforts are individually evaluated)., Causes of Social Loafing:, (a) Members feel less responsible for the overall task and thus exert less effort., (b) Performance of the group isn’t compared with other groups., (c) Motivation decreases as contributions are not individually evaluated., (d) No/improper co-ordination between members., (e) Belonging to the same group is not important for members (it is only aggregate of, individuals)., Can be reduced by:, (a) Making effort of each person identifiable., (b) Increasing pressure to work hard—make members committed, motivated., (c) Increase apparent importance and value of task., (d) Make them feel their individual contribution is important., (e) Strengthen group cohesiveness—increase motivation for successful group outcome., 2. Group Polarisation: Groups are likely to take more extreme decisions than individuals, would take alone—, • strengthening of group’s initial position because of groups interaction., • dangerous repercussions—groups may take extreme position (very weak to very, strong decisions)., Causes of group Polirization:, (a) In the company of like-minded people, you’re likely to hear newer arguments favouring, your view-points., (b) Bandwagon effect—when you find others sharing your view-point, you feel your view is, validated by the public., (c) When people have similar views as you, you’re likely to perceive them as in-group (start, identifying with them, show conformity—views become strengthened)., , Social Influences: Those processes whereby our attitudes and behaviours are influences, by the real or imagined presence of other people., , Kelman., , Identification: Influence process based on agreement or identity seeking., , Internalisation: Process based on information seeking., 1. Conformity:, — Most indirect form of social influence., — Tendency to follow norms is natural and spontaneous (norms are unwritten informal, rules: provide information about what is expected from people in a situation; allows, the group of function smoothly)., — People feel uncomfortable if they’re ‘different’ (could lead to dislike/disapproval or, some form of social punishment) (deviants/non-conformists)., — Following norms is the easiest way to avoid disapproval., — Norms reflect the views and beliefs of the majority (feel majority is likely to be right)., — Experiments on conformity by Sherif (Autokinetic effect) and Asch (Asch technique), , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 211
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(condition determining the extent of conformity—degrees of conformity determined, by situation specific factors)., , Determinants of Conformity:, (a) Size of Group: More conformity when group is small., (b) Size of Minority: Larger the minority, lesser the conformity (more is the deviance)., (c) Nature of the Task: more conformity when there are objective questions., (d) Public/Private Expression of Behaviour: More conformity in public and less, conformity in private expression., (e) Personality: Conforming personality—tendency to change behaviour according to, what others do (others are independent, don’t look for norms to decide how to behave, in a situation—highly intelligent people are confident)., , Conformity occurs because of:, (a) Informational influence (that results from accepting evidence, not reality. Rational, conformity- learn through observing other’s actions), (b) Normative influence (based on desire to be accepted and admired—conform because, deviation could lead to rejection/non-acceptance. Majority determines final decision, but at times if minority is firm and uncompromising it doubts on the majority’s, minds)., 2. Compliance: Extreme condition forcing the person to accept influence (of a significant, other) and behave in a particular way in response to a request from another person/group, even in the absence of a norm. Why do we comply—easier way out of the situation more, polite., Factors used to make others comply:, (i) ‘Foot in the Door’ Technique: Being by making small request that one can’t refuse, move on to bigger ones-once you comply with the first request, feel uncomfortable, refusing the second one., (ii) ‘Deadline‘ Technique: A ‘last date’ is announced until an offer is available—make, people hurry so they can’t miss the opportunity. More (the one actually required),, usually granted., (iii) ‘Door in the Face Technique: Being with a large request and when this is refused, move onto making a smaller request (the one actually required), usually granted., 3. Obedience, — Response to a person in authority., — Direct and explicit form of social influence (someone has requested and you comply)., — If disobeyed, one is likely to get punished from people in authority; thus, one to obey, as people in authority have effective means for enforcing order., — Milgram’s experiment: Even ordinary people are willing to harm innocent people, if ordered by someone in authority., Why do people obey (after knowing the effects)?, (a) Feel they are not responsible for their own action and that they are simply carrying out, orders from an authority., (b) Authority is powerful and possesses symbol of status, and thus difficult to resist., (c) Authority increases commands from lesser to greater levels (initial obedience binds, followers for commitment and once you obey small orders you start obeying bigger orders, as you feel committed to the authority)., (d) Events move at such a fast speed that there is no time to think, one just obeys orders, e.g.,, riots, , 212, , Psychology—XII
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Co-operation and Competition:, Co-operation, , Competition, , When groups work together to achieve, shared goals., , When group-members try to maximize, their own benefits., , No individual rewards. Only group, rewards exist., , They work for self-interest, individual reward., , Co-operative goals—each attains his/, her goal only if other members attain, their., , Competitive goals—each gets his/her, goal only if others don’t attain their., , There is respect for one another’s ideas, and members are more friendly. There, is more co-ordination., , Leads to conflict and disharmony. More, group cohesion and solidarity within, ones group., , and, , Determinants of Co-operation and Competition:, (a) Reward Structure:, , Co-operative reward structure promotes interdependence; reward possible only, if all contribute., , Competitive reward structure—only one gets the award., (b) Interpersonal Communication: Good interpersonal communication increases, co-operation (facilitates interaction, discussion, convinces each other and increases, learning about each other)., (c) Reciprocity: People feel obligated to return the behaviour they get (initial cooperation leads to increased co-operation and initial competitiveness leads to, competition)., , Social Identity: Aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group-membership, (tells us about one’s position in the larger social contact and helps us located ourselves in, society), — derives from groups we are a part of., — includes personal attributes and attributes we share with others., — acquires certain attributes from interaction with others in society., — identification with social groups is important for self-concept., — provides members with a shared set of values, beliefs and goal about ourselves and, others, — in-group—group with which you identify yourself (start showing favouritism towards, it. Rate it above out-group and devaluate outgroup—basis of intergroup conflicts)., Intergroup Conflicts:, , Conflict: This is process in which either an individual or a group perceives others as, having opposing interest and both try to contradict each other (‘we’ and ‘they’ feeling are, strong), — belief that ‘others’ will protect only its own interests., — both try to exert power on one another., — when groups are more aggressive than individuals, it leads to escalation of conflict., — costly human price in conflicts., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 213
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Causes:, (a) Lack of communication or Faulty Communication: It leads to suspicion and lack of, trust., (b) Relative Deprivation: Compare oneself to members of the other group:, — don’t have what you desire: others have it., — not doing well in comparison to others: deprivation depression., (c) Belief that one is better than the other: What one partly believes should be done (if it, does not happen—then members accuse one another and small differences are magnified., This leads to increased conflict)., (d) Desire for Retaliation: For harm done in the past., (e) No Respect for Others Norms: Feeling that other group does not respect norms of my, group and violates them because of malevolent intent., (f) Biased Perception: Feeling of ‘they’ and ‘we’., (g) People are more aggressive and competitive in groups than on their own (due to, competition over scarce resources)., (h) Perceived Inequity: Equity—distribution of rewards in proportion to individual’s, contributions (you feel irritated and exploited if you contribute more and are rewarded, less)., , Notes:, — Conflicts between groups leads to series of social and cognitive processes—hardens, the stand of each side (ingroup polarization)., — Coalition of like-minded parties increases apprehension., — Misperceptions and biased interpretations increase conflicts., , Murphy—Conflicts begin in the minds of men., , Structural Level: Increase in poverty rates, inequality, limited political and social, opportunity, economic and social stratification., , Group Level: Social identity, unequal power relations, resources., , Individual Level: Beliefs, biased attitudes, personality characteristics (there is, progression along a continuum of violence—butterfly effect)., Consequences (Deutsch):, (a) Communication becomes poor between groups (lack of trust—breakdown in, communication leads to suspicion)., (b) Groups start magnifying their differences and perceive their behaviour as fair and, others as unfair., (c) Each side tries to increase its own power and legitimacy, thus the conflict shifts from, smaller to larger ones., (d) Once conflict starts, other factors lead to escalation of conflict (in-group opinion is, hardened, out-group is threatened and when other parties choose sides, the conflict, is further escalated)., Conflict Resolution Strategies:, 1. Introduction of Superordinate Goals: Superordinate goals reduce conflict and are, mutually beneficial to both sides, thus sides work co-operatively., 2. Altering Perceptions: Through persuasion, educational and media appeal portrayal of, groups differently. Also promoting empathy for others should be taught., 3. Increasing Intergroup Contact: By involving groups on neutral grounds through, community projects and events they become more appreciative of each other’s stand., Contacts need to be maintained, supported over a period of time to be successful., , 214, , Psychology—XII
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4. Redrawing Group Boundaries: Group boundaries create condition where boundaries, are redefined; perceive themselves as belonging to a common group., 5. Negotiations: Reciprocal communication so as to reach an agreement in situation where, there is a conflict., (i) Conflict can be resolved through negotiations and third party interventions., (ii) Groups try finding mutually acceptable solutions., (iii) When negotiation doesn’t work then mediation (both parties reach a voluntary, agreement and focus discussions on relevant issues) or arbitration (third party has, the authority to give a decision after hearing both parties) by a is used., 6. Structural Solutions: Redistributing societal resources according to principles based on, justice., Principles of justice—equality (allocating equally to everyone), need (allocating on the, basis of one’s need) and equity (allocating on the basis of contribution)., 7. Respect for other Group’s Norms: To respect and be sensitive to the strong norms of, various social and ethnic groups, especially in India where many communal riots have, occurred due to insensitivity of one religious group towards another., Groupthink (Irving Janis), (i) Cohesion can lead to a tendency to make irrational and uncritical decision—group allows, its concerns for unanimity., (ii) Appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement—each member believes that all, members agree upon a particular decision, no one expresses dissenting opinion (undermine, cohesion of group, makes him/her unpopular)., (iii) Exaggerated sense of its own power, ignores real world cues, out of touch with reality—, occurs in socially homogenous, cohesive, isolated, do not consider alternatives, decision, have high cost., (iv) Prevention-encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and disagreement,, encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, inviting outside experts to, evaluate group decision, encouraging seeking feedback from trusted others., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Authority: The right inherent in a position (e.g., managerial) to give orders and to except, the orders to be obeyed., • Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause group-members to remain in the group., • Competition: Mutual striving between two individuals or groups for the same objective., • Compliance: A form of social influence in which one or more persons, not holding, authority, accept direct requests from one or more others., • Conformity: A type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or, behaviours in order to adhere to existing social norms., • Group: Two or more persons who interact with one another, have shared goals, are, interdependent, and consider themselves as members of group., • Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the group-members desire to reach unanimous, agreement overrides the wish to adopt proper, rational, decision-making procedures; an, example of group polarization., • In-group: The social group to which an individual perceives himself or herself as belonging, (‘us’). The group with which one identifies. The other groups are out-groups., • Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction to the commands of others., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 215
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• Out-group: Any group of which an individual is not a member., • Primary Group: Group in which each member is personally known to each of the other, members, and in which the members, at least on occasion, meet face-to-face., • Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology that stimuli close together tend to be, perceived as a group., • Roles: An important concept in social psychology which refers to the behaviour expected, of an individual in accordance with the position he/she holds in a particular society., • Social Influence: The process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the, behaviours of others., • Social Inhibition: Social restraint on conduct., • Social Loafing: In a group, each additional individual puts in less effort, thinking that, others will be putting in their effort., • Social Support: Information from other people that one is loved and cared for, esteemed, and valued, and part of a network of communication and mutual obligation., • Status: Social rank within a group., • Structure: The enduring form and composition of a complex system or phenomenon., Contrast with function, which is a process of a relatively brief duration, arising out of, structure., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and in groups and out groups., Ans. Formal Groups:, (i) The functions of a formal group are explicitly stated, as in an office organization, or, social work club., (ii) They have rigidly stated functions and the roles of the members are well-defined or, imposed., (iii) Formal groups have a chain of command for decision-making. e.g., military or, bureaucracy., , Informal Groups:, (i) Informal decision-making process may exist as parallel mechanisms., (ii) Members of informal groups usually feel more comfortable to take decision in, informal settings. e.g., tea time group or lunch group., (iii) There are no elicit rules and regulations for informal group., In-group:, (i) It is generally considered as ‘me, my, we, or our’ group., (ii) People in in-group are viewed as having desirable behaviour and admirable traits., (iii) It is always good, strong, cohesive, kind-hearted, open, relaxing and cool., , Out-group:, (i) It is considered as ‘they’ group., (ii) Members are often perceived negatively., (iii) It is always bad, dirty, damaging, dangerous and has people with negative emotions., Q2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated are you to join that, groups., Ans. Definitely I am member of various groups. In other words, I will say that there is no, dimension of life where I am not related to a group because we all are social beings and, , 216, , Psychology—XII
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for everything, we are dependent on this or that group. There are various reasons which, motivate me and everybody to join a group. Some of them are as follows:, (i) Security: Groups reduce the feeling of insecurity. Being with people gives a sense, of comfort and protection., (ii) Status: When the group is perceived as important high profile and well known,, then the members also feel recognized and ‘experience a sense of power’. e.g., being, a student of high profile school., (iii) Self-esteem: Being a member of a prestigious group enhances the individual’s selfconcept., (iv) Satisfaction of one’s Psychological and Social Needs: Groups satisfy one’s, social and psychological needs such as sense of belongingness, giving and receiving, attention, love and power., (v) Group Achievement: Groups help in achieving the goals which cannot be attained, individually., (vi) Provide Knowledge and Information: Group membership provides us, knowledge and information and broadens our views., Q3. How does Tuckman’s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups?, Ans. According to Tuckman, group formation takes place in following stages:, (i) Forming Stage: When group-members first meet, there is a great deal of, uncertainty about the group, the goal, and how it is to be achieved., (ii) Storming: There is a stage of intergroup conflict. There is conflict among members, about how the target of the group is to be achieved, who is to control the group and, its resources, and who is to perform what task., (iii) Norming: Group-members by this time develop norms related to group behaviour., This leads to development of a positive group identity., (iv) Performing: At this stage, the structure of the group has evolved and is accepted, by group-members. The group moves towards achieving the group goal., (v) Adjourning Stage: In this stage, once the function is over or goal is achieved, the, group may be disbanded., These stages help in group formation. Which occurs on the basis of following factors:, (i) Proximity: Individuals with similar background, living in the same complex (e.g.,, going to the same school) may form groups on the basis of proximity., (ii) Similarity: It has been observed that more the similarity in the attitudes, interest,, beliefs and value system of two persons, greater the likelihood that they would, form a group., (iii) Common Motives and Goals: When a number of people have common objectives, or goals, they tend to get together and form a group., Q4. How do groups influence our behaviour?, (CBSE 2008, 2014), Ans. I. Group influence our behaviour in following three forms:, • ‘Social facilitation’ is a form of group influence. , • ‘Social facilitation’ refers to a concept that performance on specific task is influenced, by the mere presence of others., • Norman Triplett observed that individuals show better performance in presence of, others, than when they are performing the same task alone., Better performance in presence of others is because the person experiences According to, arousal, which makes the person react in a more intense manner., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 217
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The arousal is because the person feels he or she is being evaluated. Cottrell called this, idea evaluation apprehension. The person will be praised if performance is good, (reward), he/she will be criticised if it is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and, avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid criticism., As in case of complex task, the person may be afraid of making mistakes. And the fear, of criticism or punishment is stronger., If the others present are also performing same task, this is called a situation of coaction. When task is simple or a familiar one, performance is better under co-action, than when the person is alone., Task performing can be facilitated and improved or inhibited and worsened by the, presence of others. If we are working together in a larger group, the less effort each, member puts in. This phenomena is called social loafing, based on diffusion of, responsibility., Diffusion of responsibility can also be frequently seen in situations where people are, expected to help., II. ‘Social loafing’ refers to reduction in motivation when people are functioning, collectively., • It is a form of group influence., (i) Group members feel less responsible for the overall tasks being performed and, therefore exert less effort., (ii) Motivation of members may decrease because they realize that their, contributions cannot be evaluated on the individual basis, so to why to work, hard., (iii) The performance of the group is not to be compared with that of the other, groups., (iv) There is improper co-ordination (or no co-ordination) among members., III. Group polarization is a group influence which refers to the strengthening of, groups initial position as a result interaction and discussion., As a result of group discussion opinion shifts towards more extreme positions than those, which they initially held., In group polarization, it has been found that groups are more likely to take extreme, decisions than individuals alone. Group polarization occurs due to the following factors:, (i) In the company of like-minded people, people are likely to hear newer arguments, favouring their view-points., (ii) When people find others also favouring their view-point, they feel that their view is, validated by the public. This is a sort of bandwagon effect., (iii) When people find others having similar views, they are likely to perceive them as, in-group., Q5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social loafing, in school. How did you overcome it?, Ans. Social loading is a negative group influence. Which occurs due to defusion of, responsibility. For the quality performance of the group, it should be reduced. It can be, reduced through the following methods:, (i) By making the efforts of each person identifiable., (ii) increasing the pressure to work hard (making group-members committed to, successful tasks performance)., (iii) increasing the apparent importance or value of a task., , 218, , Psychology—XII
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(iv) making people feel that their individual contribution is important., (v) strengthening group cohesiveness which increases the motivation for successful, group outcome., Q6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of, conformity?, Ans. Conformity: It is a most indirect form of social influence in which individuals change, their behaviour or beliefs to correspond more closely to the behaviour of others in the, group. It essentially involves yielding to group pressure., • People conform because it is comfortable., • Non-conformity is socially undesirable and many a times punishable offence., • Most people believe that majority is always right, so it is better to conform., • Whenever individual gets confused and not confident he/she conforms., • Conformity provides assurance that individual is right., People conform because of two types of influences:, 1. Informational Influence, i.e., influence that results from accepting evidence, rather than reality., • It is social influence based on individuals desire to be correct—to possess, accurate perceptions of the social world., We conform because we have a strong desire to hold the right views. We want, to be correct about various matters so we turn to other persons for guidance, as to what is appropriate. e.g., if children see that, in the colony, no body is, playing in the park then they get information from the actions of others that, park should not be used as playground. This is behaving according to evidence, then from reality., 2. Normative influence, i.e., influence based on a person’s desire to be accepted or, admired by others. Individual follows the reality and conforms., We conform in order to meet other’s expectations and so to gain their approval. e.g., if, we see rules written on the board outside the park that playing in the park is prohibited, then children avoid playing there., , Sheriff’s experiment known as auto-kinetic effect and Asch’s experiment prove that, people do get carried away by the social influence whenever taking decisions., , Determinants of Conformity:, The degree of conformity among the group-members is determined by many factors, which are as follows:, 1. Size of the Group:, (i) Conformity is greater when the group is small. It happens because it is easier, for a deviant member to be noticed in a small group., (ii) In a large group, if there is strong agreement among most of the members,, conformity makes the majority and its norms stronger. In such a case, the, minority would be more likely to conform because the group pressure would be, stronger., 2. Size of the Minority: When the deviating minority size increases, the likelihood, of conformity decreases., 3. Nature of the Task:, • Where there is something like a correct or an incorrect answer, conformity is, more., • Where answers can vary widely without any answer being correct or incorrect,, conformity would be less., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 219
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4. Public or Private Expression of Behaviour:, • If the group-members are asked to give their answers publicly, conformity is, more., • Less conformity is found under private expression., 5. Personality Characteristics:, • Some individuals have a conforming personality that is tendency to change, their behaviour according to what others say or do in most situations and viceversa., Q7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming others?, Explain., (Delhi Board 2014), Ans. Obedience: It is most direct form of social influence. Obedience refers to accepting, commands/orders from the authority. Authority refers to a person who has inherent, power to give reward or punishment., If a person has power over another, obedience can be demanded; such a person usually, has the means to enforce orders., • Milligram’s studies seem to suggest that the ordinary people are willing, may, be with some reluctance, to harm an innocent person if ordered by someone in, authority., It has been observed that obedience to authority relieves the individual from the, responsibility of their actions., • Individual believes that if he/she will not obey then it will attract penalty., • Authority commands for destructive obedience are gradually increased from lesser, to greater levels of violence., Sometimes events involved in destructive obedience move so quickly, that the, people obeying orders have little time for thinking logically., Q8. What are the benefits of co-operation?, Ans. Groups may be co-operative or competitive. Technically, the behaviour that yields, maximal joint profit for all the parties involved is called co-operation. The behaviour, that yields maximal relative gain is labelled competition., • Co-operative goals are those, which are defined in such a way that each individual, can attain the goal if other members are also attaining their goals. There is, interdependence in goal attainment., , Effects of co-operation:, • Goal achievement becomes easy., • Interpersonal relations get strengthened., • Cohesiveness rises in the group., • Group-members become ready to work for others., • Willingness to accept other’s divergent view-point., Q9. How is one’s identify formed?, Ans. • Identity refers to the aspect of one’s self-concept that is based on group-membership., • Our identity tells us what we are in a larger context., • After one develops an identity, he/she internalises the norms emphasized in a group, and adopts them., • Identity provides a member of a group with a shared set of values, beliefs and goals, about the social world., • Identity helps to co-ordinate attitude and behaviour., • The development of identity leads to the devaluation of the out group. , , 220, , Psychology—XII
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Q10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict., Reflect on the human price of this conflict., Ans. • Conflict is a process in which either an individual or a group perceives that the others, have opposite interest, and both try to contradict each other., • In such conflicts intense feeling of ‘We’ and ‘They’ dominate., • Both the groups believe that only their group (in group) will protect their interest., Individual group conflict occurs when the individuals, needs are different from the, group’s needs, goals or norms. Intergroup conflict refers to the situation of conflict, between groups. It often occurs to maintain the identity of the group different and, stronger than the other groups., , Some Major Reasons for Group Conflicts:, 1. One major reason is lack of communication and faulty communication between, both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e., there is a lack of, trust, and hence, conflict results., 2. Another reason for intergroup conflict is relative deprivation. It arises when, members of a group compare themselves with the members of another group, and, perceive that they do not have what they desire to have, which the other group has., In other words, they feel that they are not doing well in comparison to other groups., This may lead to feelings of deprivation and discontentment, which may trigger, conflict., 3. Another cause of conflict arises when one party believes that it is better than, the other, and what it is saying should be done. When this does not happen, both, parties start accusing each other., 4. A feeling that the other group does not respect the norms of my group, and, actually violates those norms, can cause conflict, 5. Desire for retaliation for some harm done in the past could be another reason for, conflict., 6. Biased perceptions are at the root of most conflicts., 7. Research has shown that when acting in groups, people are more competitive as, well as more aggressive than when they are on their own. Groups compete over, scarce resource, both material resources (e.g., territory) and money as well as social, resources (e.g., respect and esteem)., 8. Perceived inequality is another reason for conflict., 9. According to Gardener Murphy most conflicts begin in the minds of men and, then go to the field., , Gardener Murphy, in his book ‘In the Minds of Men’, explains intergroup conflicts, at three levels:, (a) Structural Level: It includes high rates of poverty, economic and sound, stratification, inequality, limited political and social opportunity. e.g., Tribal areas, of Jharkhand and West Bengal becoming fertile ground for Naxal movement., (b) Group Level: Social identity, realistic conflict between groups over resources and, unequal power relations between groups lead to conflicts. e.g., Dalits in India or, Women Empowerment Movement., (c) Individual Level: It includes beliefs, biased attitudes and personality, characteristics. These are important determinants., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 221
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MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. ___________ occurs most readily for strong responses in situations where the presence of, others is motivating., (a) Social Relationship , (b) Social facilitation, (c) Socialization , (d) None of the above, Q2. ___________ is the term used to refer to the situation in which individuals change their, beliefs or behaviours so that they become more similar to those of other group-members., (a) Attribution, (b) Conformity, (c) Dissonance, (d) None of the above, Q3. ___________ is a process by which information about others is converted into more or, less enduring cognitions or thoughts about them., (a) Attribution , (b) Stereotypes, (c) Impression formation, (d) None of the above, Q4. An augmentation in behaviour due to the presence of other individuals is known as—, (a) Imitation , (b) Social facilitation, (c) Interaction , (d) None of the above, Q5. ___________ is the process by which an individual comes to define himself in terms of his, nation, social class, religious group etc., (a) Identification , (b) Internalization, (c) Imitation , (d) Social identity, Q6. Identification can result in ___________ or conforming to the expectations of admired, persons., (a) Internalization (b) Imitation, (c) Modelling, (d) None of the above, Q7. Group can form as a result of repeated interaction between the group members. T/F, Q8. Feeling of togetherness, that keeps a group intact, is called—, (a) Norms, (b) Roles, (c) Status, (d) Cohesiveness, Q9. When our behaviour and attitudes are influenced by the real or imagined presence of, other people is Social influence/group influence., Q10. Social influence in the form of compliance, identification and internationalization was, given by—(Sherrif/Kelman), Q11. The pioneering experiment on conformity was carried by— (Sherrif/Tuckman), Q12. A collection of people around a roadside performer is an example of—, (a) Group, (b) Crowed, (c) Mob, (d) Audience, , Answer, 1. (b), 2. (b), 3. (b), 4. (b), 5. (d) 6. (c), 7. (T) 8. (d), 9. (Social influence) , 10. (Kelman) , 11. (Sherrif) , 12. (b), , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. What is a group?, Ans. A group is an organized system of two or more persons who are inter-related to perform, a function, has a structured set of role relationships among its members, and has a set, of norms that regulate their behaviours. e.g., family, class and playgroup., , 222, , Psychology—XII
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Q2. What is a crowd?, Ans. Crowd is a collection of people who may be present at a place or situation by chance., There is neither any structure nor feeling of belongingness in a crowd., , For example, suppose you are going on the road and an accident takes place. Soon a, large number of people tend to collect; this is an example of crowd., Q3. What is a team?, Ans. Teams are special kinds of groups. Members of teams often have complementary skills, and are committed to a common goal or purpose. Members are mutually accountable for, there is a positive synergy attained through the co-ordinated efforts of the members., , e.g., sports like cricket and football are examples of teams., Q4. What is an audience?, Ans. An audience is a collection of people who have assembled for a special purpose., e.g., people gathered to watch a cricket match or a movie., Q5. What is a mob?, Ans. In mobs, there is a definite sense of purpose. There is a polarization in attention, and, actions of persons are in a common direction. Behaviour of mob is characterized by, homogeneity of thought and behaviour as well as impulsivity., Q6. What is cohesiveness?, Ans. Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among groupmembers. As the group becomes more cohesive, group-members start to think, feel and, act as a social unit and less like isolated individuals., Q7. What is social influence?, Ans. Social influence is an effort by one or more individuals to change the attitudes, beliefs,, perceptions or behaviours of one or more others. For example, radio and television, commercials, magazines, teachers, parents and friends; frequently create one or the, other kind of social influence., Q8. What is social loafing?, (CBSE 2008, 2014), Ans. Social loafing can be defined as reductions in motivation and effort when individuals, work collectively in a group, compared to when they work individually., Q9. What is bandwagon effect?, Ans. When people find that others are favouring their view-point, they feel that their view is, validated by the public also. This is a sort of Bandwagon effect., Q10. What is social facilitation?, Ans. Social facilitation refers to positive influence due to presence of other. In general, social, facilitation stems from – concerns over being judged by others (which is often arousing), and self-presentation – looking good in front of others, and not only due to the mere, presence of others., Q11. What are the main differences between groups and teams?, Ans. (i) In groups, performance is dependent on contributions of individual members. In, teams, both individual contributions and teamwork matter., (ii) In groups, the leader or whoever is heading the group holds responsibility for the, work. However, in teams, although there is a leader, members hold themselves, responsible., Q12. What is super-ordinate goal?, Ans. Super-ordinate goal refers to a higher and more important goal that is normally, pursued by individuals within a group and such goals are beneficial for both the, , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 223
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parties. Research often shows that prejudice between groups can be reduced, at least, temporarily, if both groups are involved in pursuing such a common goal. For example,, in times of war, many social prejudices would be put aside as people join forces against, a common enemy., Q13. How group influences are different from social influences?, Ans. In group influences, real presence of people is essential. These are social facilitation,, social loafing and group polarization; whereas, in social influences, presence of people, may be real or may be imaginary. These are conformity, compliance and obedience., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. What is social identity?, Ans. Social identity refers to a person’s definition of who he or she is, including personal, attributes such as self-concept, and attributes shared with others, such as gender and, race., Some aspects of identity are determined by physical characteristics. Other aspects may, develop as a consequence of interaction with others in the society., Social identity is that aspect of our self-concept which is based on in-group membership., It tells us our position, status and behaviour towards the group., Strong social identity leads to in-group—out-group categorization and we start showing, favouritism towards in-group by rating it more favourably and by devaluating outgroup. It means strong social identity leads to prejudices and intergroup conflicts., Q2. Differentiate between primary and secondary groups., Ans. Primary Groups:, (i) Primary groups are pre-existing formations which are usually given to the, individual. e.g., family, caste and religion., (ii) Face-to-face interaction, members have close physical proximity, and they share, warm emotional bonds., (iii) They are central to individual’s functioning and have a very major role in developing, values and ideals of the individual during the early stages of development., , Secondary Group:, (i) Secondary groups are those which the individual joins by choice. e.g., a hobby, group, political party or one’s nation., (ii) In secondary groups, relationships among its members are more impersonal,, indirect and less frequent., (iii) The members usually come together for a common goal and work according to the, agreed rules., Q3. What is co-operation?, Ans. (i) While shared goals are usually adopted by the members of a group, not all members, may be committed to the same extent. The way shared goals are defined is important, for the structure of the group., (ii) Technically, the behaviour that yields maximal joint profit for all the parties involved, is called co-operation., , 224, , Psychology—XII
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(iii) In a co-operative situation, individuals are more willing to accept each other’s views, and ideas since each individual is considered as a helper to the other. Co-operative, goals, therefore, contribute directly to the emergence of mutually inter-related roles., Q4. What are the determinants of co-operation and competition?, Ans. Co-operation or competition depends on the reward structure., 1. Co-operative reward structure is one in which there is interdependence in, the group functioning. Each one in the group is beneficiary of the reward. For, example, nowadays co-operative reward structure is common in corporate world., Competitive reward structure is one in which one can get a reward only if, others do not get it., 2. Interpersonal Communications: Good interpersonal communication leads to, co-operation. Communication leads to interaction and discussion. It leads to cooperation and cohesiveness., 3. Reciprocity: People feel obliged to return what they get, i.e., co-operation leads to, co-operation. Competition provokes competition. If someone is trying to attain the, goal to reward himself by depriving others, then others will do the same., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. What are the characteristics of a group?, Ans. (a) Group is a social unit consisting of two or more individuals who perceive themselves, as members of the group., (b) Individuals must interact with each other either directly or indirectly., (c) Individuals must be interdependent—what one is doing must have some, consequence on the other., (d) The members of a group have common motives and goals. Group functions as a, unitary system. All members work towards the same goal., (e) Members should follow group structure, i.e., status, role, norms and cohesiveness., (f) Group has a leader who is responsible to attain the goal., Q2. What are the important elements of group structure?, Ans. (i) Status: It refers to the position or rank within a group. Different roles or positions in, a group are associated with different levels of status. Members of groups which are, high in status are viewed favourably by others. For example– the captain of a cricket, team has a higher status compared to the other members, although all are equally, important for the team’s success., (ii) Role is set of behaviours which the individuals occupying specific position within a, group are expected to perform. e.g., father as a bread-earner., (iii) Norms: Norms are expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed, upon and enforced by group-members. e.g., in family, there are norms which guide, the behaviour of family-members., (iv) Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause group-members to remain in the group,, such as liking for the other members and the desire to maintain or increase one’s, status by belonging to the ‘right groups’., Q3. What are the factors influencing cohesiveness?, Ans. The factors influencing cohesiveness are:, • Attractiveness: It includes dimensions like:, (a) attraction of the members to each other;, , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 225
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(b) attraction of the individual members towards the activities and functions of, the group; and, (c) the extent to which the individual is attracted to the group as a means of, satisfying his/her own needs., • Amount of Effort: The amount of effort required to gain entry into the group,, influences group cohesiveness. More the effort made for joining the group, higher, would be attraction of members towards the group., • External Threats and Severe Competition: Group cohesiveness increases in, face of threats from outside the group such as loss of privileges, violence, etc. It, helps in providing togetherness at the times of danger., • Group Belongingness: It implies the emotional attachment among the groupmembers. The interpersonal ties between group members lead to cohesiveness., Q4. Differentiate between conformity, compliance and obedience., Ans. Conformity, compliance and obedience—all three have a common factor; they indicate, the influence of others on an individual’s behaviour, but all the three are significantly, different., , Obedience is the most direct form of social influence in which one person simply, orders one or more others to perform some action., , Compliance is less direct than obedience. It is a form of social influence involving, direct request from one person to another., , Conformity is the most indirect form because the individuals change their behaviours, or attitude in order to adhere to existing social norms., Q5. How Kelman has classified social influences?, Ans. According to Kelmans following are the social influences:, , Compliance: A form of social influence in which one person attempts to influence, another in order to get them comply with a request., 1. Identification:, • A type of social influence which is brought about by a person’s desire to be like, another person or to be a part of a particular group., • It may not give us rewards but it is satisfying to be like those with whom we, are identifying., • This is identity seeking or agreement seeking social influence., 2. Internalization:, • It is a type of social influence which is born out of desire to be right in our, values and opinions., • If we consider another person as trustworthy and also of good judgment, then, we are more likely to accept their opinion and values and to integrate them, into our own., • It is information-seeking social influence., Q6. What is group think?, (CBSE 2008), Ans., • Group think is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness. So the members never, criticise the leader and try to defend him., • Group think is the name given to the tendency for certain types of group to reach, decisions that are extreme and which tend to be unwise or unrealistic., • Group-members may ignore or discount information that is inconsistent with their, chosen decision and express strong disapproval against any group-member who, might disagree., , 226, , Psychology—XII
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• The eventual decisions are taken without criticism. The social and political, consequences of group think may be far-reaching, and history has many examples, of major blunders that have been the results of decisions reached in this way., Following steps can be taken to reduce it:, • Encouraging and rewarding critical thinking. e.g., ‘Best criticism award’., • Encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action., • Making outside expert to evaluate group decisions., Q7. What is compliance? What techniques can be used for gaining compliance?, Ans. Compliance: It is a form of social influence which refers to accepting request made by, some one. Following techniques are used for gaining compliance:, (i) The Foot-in-the-Door Technique: The person begins by making a small request, that the other person is not likely to refuse. Once the other person carries out the, request, a bigger request is made. Simply because of the other person has already, complied with the smaller request, he or she may feel uncomfortable refusing the, second request. e.g., someone may come to us on behalf of a group and give us a gift, (something free), saying that it is for promotion. Soon afterwards, another member, of the same group may come to us again, and ask us to buy a product made by the, group., (ii) The ‘Deadline’ Technique: In this technique, a ‘last date’ is announced till which, a particular product or ‘an offer’ will be available., (iii) The ‘Door-in-the-Face’ Technique: In this technique, you begin with a large, request and when this is refused a later request for something smaller than the one, that was actually desired, is made, which is usually granted by the person. e.g., a, child may ask for permission to attend a night party with friends and coming back, at 3 a.m. in the morning knowing very well that this request will not be granted by, the parents. After a lot of efforts and persuasion, he may request to get permission, for attending the party and coming back home by 11 p.m. which now may be very, happily accepted by the parents., Q8. What is prisoner’s dilemma? Explain., Ans. Prisoner’s dilemma is a hypothetical game scenario that is meant to demonstrate the, dilemma of reconciling individual interests and well-being with collective interests and, well-being., It focuses on situations in which each person can increase his/her individual gain by, acting in one way, but if all (or most) persons do the same thing, the outcomes experienced, by all are reduced., The game shows how well-meaning people can become trapped in mutually destructive, behaviour, when all would benefit from co-operation. The game examines the story of, two police suspects who are thought to be guilty of some major offence. However, the, police had only enough evidence to convict each of them for some minor offence. The, police need one or both of the suspects to confess and offer each an incentive to confess, in private. If one confesses and the other does not, the police will grant the confessor, immunity and convict the other of the major offence. If both confess, they will be charged, with a lesser offence and both will receive moderate jail sentences. If, however, neither, confesses, the police will only be able to charge with the minor offence. The possible, outcomes of each decision are shown in the matrix below:, , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 227
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Prisoner, A, , Prisoner A, , Confesses, , Doesn’t confess, , Prisoner B: Confesses, , A: 5 years, , A: 10 year, , Prisoner B: Doesn’t, Confess, , A: 0 years, , A: 1 year, , B: 10 years, , B: 1 years, , B: 5 years, , B: 0 years, , The prisoner’s dilemma has been used in the explanation of social dilemmas, and of, altruistic behaviour, particularly that involving reciprocity. It demonstrates how, the collective well-being of a group can be threatened if individuals only take into, consideration the individual benefits of their actions., , V. Long Answer Type Questions, , ( LA : 6 Marks ), , Q1. What are co-operation and competition? Discuss the effects of co-operation and, competition., Ans. Groups may be co-operative or competitive. Technically, the behaviour that yields, maximal joint profit for all the parties involved is called co-operation. The behaviour, that yields maximal relative gain is labelled competition., • Co-operative goals are those, which are defined in such a way that each individual, can attain the goal if other members are also attaining their goals. There is, interdependence in goal attainment., It is working together to attain the shared goals., • Co-operative goals increase interpersonal relations among the members as they, progress towards the goal., • In co-operative groups, victory belongs to each member because of group affiliation., • Co-operation leads to harmony, sacrifice and positive emotions., • In co-operative groups, people communicate and develop cohesiveness., • Competitive goals involve situations where all goals are defined in such a manner, that there is only one winner and others are looser., • Competition among individual members tend to produce disharmony and conflict, that threatens the organization of group., • Competition leads to distinct and poor interpersonal relations which cause hostility, and rivalry., • In competition, individual works to attain the goal for himself., • Competitive group leads to lack of communication or miscommunication towards, out-group., , Effects of Co-orperation:, • Goal achievement becomes easy., • Interpersonal relations get strengthened., • Cohesiveness rises in the group., • Group-members become ready to work for others., • Willingness to accept other’s divergent view-point., , 228, , Psychology—XII
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Effects of Competition:, • Distance and disharmony increase in the group because of lack of communication., • Cohesiveness within a group develops but rivalry increases with the out-group., • Healthy competition in a conducive environment increases efficiency and sharpens, the rate of growth and development., , Determinants of Co-operation and Competition:, 1. Reward Structure: In co-operation, reward structure is such that there is, promotive interdependence, i.e., each member is beneficiary and reward is possible, only if all contribute., In competition reward structure is one in which one can get a reward only if others, do not get it., 2. Interpersonal Communication: Co-operation leads to communication which, facilitate interaction and discussion., 3. Reciprocity: It means people feeling obliged to return what they get. Initial, cooperation leads to more co-operation whereas competition provokes more, competition., Q2. Discuss conflict resolution strategies., (CBSE 2013), Ans. (i) Introduction of Super-ordinate Goals: By introducing super-ordinate goals,, intergroup conflicts can be reduced. A super-ordinate goal is mutually beneficial to, both parties, hence both groups work co-operatively., (ii) Altering Perception: Conflicts can also be reduced by altering perceptions and, reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals and portrayal of groups, differently in society. Promoting empathy for others should be taught to everyone, from very beginning., (iii) Increasing Inter-group Contact: Conflict also be reduced by increasing contacts, between the groups. This can be done by involving groups in conflict on neutral, grounds through community projects and events., (iv) Redrawing Group Boundaries: This can be done by creating conditions where, group boundaries are redefined and groups come to perceive themselves as belonging, to a common group., (v) Negotiations: Conflict can also be resolved through negotiations, which involves, arbitration, mediation and third party intervention. Warring groups can resolve, conflict by trying to find mutually acceptable solutions. This requires understanding, and trust., (vi) Structural Solutions: Conflicts can also be reduced by redistributing the societal, resources according to principles based on justice. e.g., equality (allocating equally to, every one) need, allocating on the basis of needs and equity (allocating on the basis of, contributions of members)., (vii) Respect for Other Group’s Norms: In a pluralist society like India, it is necessary, to respect and be sensitive to the strong norms of various social and ethnic groups., It has been noticed that a number of communal riots between different groups have, taken place because of such insensitivity., Q3. Discuss consequences of intergroup conflict?, Ans. Deutsch identified the following consequences of intergroup confect:, • Poor Communication: The groups do not trust each other and develop suspicion, towards an other group., , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 229
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• Tendency to Magnify their Differences: Each group starts perceiving their, behaviour as fair and the others behaviour as unfair., • Tendency of Each Side to Increase its Own Power and Legitimacy: This, leads to intense conflict shifting from few specific issues to much larger issues., • Increased Ingroup-Outgroup Rivalry: It leads to intense desire to retaliate and, take revenge., , TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Match the two lists and choose the correct match from the given options:, List A, , List B, , 1., , Experiment on super-ordinate goals, , A., , Latane, , 2., , Experiments on obedience, , B., , Sheriff, , 3., , Group pressure and conformity, , C., , Milgram, , 4., , Experiment on Social Loafing, , D., , Asch, , Options:, (a) 1 – D, , (b) 1 – C, , (c) 1 – B, , (d) 1 – B, , , 2 – A, , 2 – D, , 2 – C, , 2 – C, , , 3 – C, , 3 – B, , 3 – D, , 3 – A, , , 4–B, 4–A, 4–A, 4 –D, , 2. Membership of a club is an example of—, (a) Primary group (b) Secondary group (c) Out group, 3. State the factors facilitating group formation., , (d) Large group, , 4. ____________ is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness., , (Delhi Board 2013), , 5. Teams are a special kind of group. (T/F), , (Delhi Board 2013), , 6. Working together to achieve shared goals is called:, , (Delhi Board 2011), , (a) Cooperation, (b) Compliance, (c) Conformity, 7. Behaving according to group norms is called:, , (d) Obedience, (Delhi Board 2010), , (a) Primary group (b) Secondary group (c) Out group, (d) Large group, 8. Group think is a tendency of groups to take extreme decision when in group then as, individuals. (True/False), (Delhi Board 2009), 9. The term which refers to ones own group is called ________ ., , (Delhi Board 2008), , Part-B, 10. Give two characteristics of groups., 11. What are functions of a group?, , 230, , Psychology—XII, , (Delhi Board 2013)
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12. Give two determinants of co-operation and competition., , (2013), , 13. What is social facilitation? Explain with the help of an example., , (2010), , 14. Explain the term ‘social loafing’., , (2008, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013, 2014), , 15. Explain the characteristics of a formal group., 16. Differentiate between ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ groups., 17. Differentiate between ‘in-group’ and ‘out-group’., 18. Explain the techniques used for gaining compliance., 19. What is the difference between group and team?, , (Delhi Board 2010), , Part-C, 20. Why do people join groups?, 21. With the help of everyday life examples, explain the two influences that lead to, conformity., 22. Define groups and discuss factors facilitating group formation., 23. How does social facilitation take place?, , (2010), , 24. What are the stages of group formation? Explain with examples., , (2010, 2011), , 25. What is obedience? Why do people obey?, , (2014), , Part-D, 26. Discuss any two determinants of conformity., , (Delhi Board 2012), , 27. Give an incident of social loading in school. Why does it happen? Give any two ways of, reducing social loading., (Delhi Board, 2009), 28. State the functions of a group. Differentiate between in-group and out-group., 29. What is group polarisation?, , (Delhi Board 2010), , Part-E, 30. Define group. What are the factors that facilitate group formation?, 31. Why do people conform? Explain how is conformity different from compliance., , (2011), , 32. What is a group? Explain giving examples the stages of group formation., , (2011), , 33. State any four reasons of intergroup conflicts. Explain any one strategy for resolving, conflicts., (Delhi Board 2008, 2013), , , , , Social Influence and Group Processes, , 231
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8, , Psychology, and Life, , FACTS THAT MATTER, The environment influences individuals Physical health, Psychological processes and, behaviour, and some of these effects are demonstrated in stress producing environmental, conditions such as noise pollution and crowding., Social problems like aggression, violence health and poverty are also major concern for, present day Psychologists., The Psychological understanding of these issues can be applied practically to aspects such, as pro-environment behaviour, reduction of violence and discrimination and promotion of, positive, health, positive attitudes and well being of people., Human-Environment Relationship:, 1. There is a growing awareness that environmental problems such as sound, air, water, and soil pollution, and unsatisfactory ways of garbage disposal have damaging effects on, physical health., 2. Less known is the fact that these forms of pollution influence psychological health, and functioning as well., 3. A branch of psychology called environmental psychology deals with various, psychological issues pertaining to the human-environment interaction in a very broad, sense of the term., 4. The word ‘environment’ refers to all that is around us, including the physical, social, work,, and cultural environment., 5. ‘Ecology’ is the study of the relationship between living beings and their environment., 6. In psychology, the focus is on the interdependence between the environment and, people, as the environment becomes meaningful with reference to the human beings who, live in it., (a) Natural environment: That part of nature which remains untouched by human, hand is the ‘natural environment’., (b) On the other hand, whatever has been created by human beings within the natural, environment is the built environment. Cities, houses, offices, factories, bridges,, shopping malls, railway tracks, road, dams, and even artificial created parks and, ponds are some examples of the built environment which show how human beings, have made changes in the environment given by nature., The built environment usually involves the concept of environment design. The idea, of ‘design’ contains some psychological features, such as:, • The creativity of the human mind, as expressed in the work of architects,, town planners and civil engineers., • The sense of human control over the natural environment, as shown in the, building of dams to regulate the natural flows of rivers., • The influence on the kind of social interaction that takes place in the, designed environment., , 232, , Psychology—XII, , 232
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Different Views of the Human-Environment Relationship:, 1. A psychologist named Stokols (1990) describes three approaches that may be adopted to, describe the human-environment relationship., (a) The minimalist perspective assumes that the physical environment has minimal, or negligible influence on human behaviour, health and well-being. The physical, environment and human being exist as parallel components., (b) The instrumental perspective suggests that the physical environment exists, mainly for use by human beings for their comfort and well-being. Most of the human, influences on the environment reflect the instrumental perspective., (c) The spiritual perspective refers to the view of the environment as something to be, respected and valued rather than exploited. It implies that human beings will exist, and will be happy only as long as the environment is kept healthy and natural., 2. Traditional Indian view about the environment supports the spiritual perspective. e.g.;, the customs of the Bishnoi community of Rajasthan, and the Chipko movement in the, Uttarakhand region. By contrast, we also find examples of people damaging or destroying, the environment, which is a negative instance of the instrumental, which is a negative, instance of the instrumental perspective., Environmental Effects of Human Behaviour:, Some of the effects pointed out by psychologists are described below:, 1. Perception: For example, a tribal society of Africa lives in circular huts, that is, in houses, without angular walls. They show less error in a geometric illusion (the Muller-Lyer, illusion) than people from cities, who lives in houses with angular walls., 2. Emotions: The environment affects our emotional reactions as well. Watching nature, in any form provides a kind of joy that cannot be matched by any other experience. In, natural disasters, They experience deep depression and sorrow, a sense of complete, helplessness and lack of control over their lives. They can lead to post-traumatic stress, disorder (PTSD)., 3. Ecological Influences in Occupation, Living Style and Attitudes: The occupation, determines the life-style and attitudes of the residents of a co-operativeness. They are, also closer to nature, more Dependent on natural events and limited supply. On the, other hand, highly industrialized societies feel less close to and less dependent on nature., Members of industrialized societies may value independent thinking, develop an attitude, of competitiveness, and cultivate a valued personal control over what happens to them., Human Influence on the Environment:, • Human beings also exert their influence on the natural environment for fulfilling their, physical needs and other purposes., • Some of these human actions harm and damage the environment, and ultimately harm, themselves, in numerous ways., Examples:, → Refrigerators and air-conditioners that generate CFS that pollute the air., → Smoking is known to pollute the air around us, and the carbon-cycle and the watercycle., → Industries that discharge effluents, and pump this untreated sewage into rivers, seem, to be unconcerned about the dangerous physical and psychological consequences of, this kind of pollution., , Psychology and Life, , 233
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• Noise, pollution, crowding and natural disasters are some examples of environmental, stressors, which are stimuli or conditions in the environment that create a stress for, human beings., Noise:, (a) Any sound that is annoying or irritating, and felt to be unpleasant is said to be noise., (b) Noise, especially for long periods of time, is uncomfortable, and puts people in an, unpleasant mood., (c) It may lead to hearing loss., (d) It reduces concentration., Three characteristics of noise have been found to determine its effect on task performance,, namely, intensity, predictability, and controllability of noise., Effects of Noise: Systematic research on the effects of noise on human beings shows the, following:, • When the task being performed is a simple mental task, such as addition to numbers,, noise does not affect overall performance, whatever it is loud or soft., • If the task being performed is very interesting, then, too, the presence of noise does not, affect performance., • When the noise comes at intervals, and in an unpredictable way, it is experienced as, more disturbing than if the noise is continuously present., • When the task being performed is difficult, or requires full concentration, then intense,, unpredictable, and uncontrollable noise reduces the level of task performance., • When tolerating or switching off the noise is within the control of the person, the, number of errors in task performance decreases., • In terms of emotional effects, noise above a certain level causes annoyance, and can, also lead to sleep disturbance., Pollution:, 1. In the form of air, water and soil pollution., 2. Waste or garbage that comes from household or from industries are a big source of air,, water and soil pollution., There are some researches or studies that have shown direct or indirect psychological effects, of these forms of pollution as well., Effects of Air-pollution: Specific psychological effects of air-pollution have been reported by, some researchers. For example,, (i) In one part of Kolkata, the psychological reactions to air-pollution. Those living in the, industrial area reported greater tension and anxiety than those living in a nonindustrial residential area., (ii) In study conducted in Germany, the presence of pollution such as sulphur dioxide in, the air was found to decrease the ability to concentrate on a task, and lowering, performance efficiency., (iii) Pollution caused by leaks of dangerous chemical substances can cause other kinds of, harm. For example, Bhopal gas tragedy of December 1984, also left behind psychological, effects because of the gas—disturbances in memory, attention and alertness., (iv) Tobacco smoke pollution, that is, pollution through cigarette, cigar or beedi-smoking, can, also cause psychological effects e.g., increase the aggression level of individuals., (v) The presence of specific chemicals such as lead can cause mental retardation by affecting, brain development., , 234, , Psychology—XII
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(vi) Waste are plastics, tin or any metal container. This kind of waste material should be, destroyed or burned through special techniques, and the smoke should not be allowed to, escape into the air that people breathe., Crowding:, 1. Crowding refers to a feeling of discomfort because there are too many people or things, around us, giving us the experiences of physical restriction, and something the lack of, privacy., 2. Crowding is the person’s reaction to the presence of a large number of persons within a, particular area or space. When this number goes beyond a certain level, it causes stress, to individuals caught in that situation., Features of crowding: The experience of crowding has the following features:, • Feeling of discomfort,, • Loss or decrease in privacy,, • Negative view of the space around the person, and, • Feeling of loss of control over social interaction., It should be understood that the experience of crowding is brought about not merely because, of the large number of persons as such, nor merely because of the shortage of space. It is, related to density, that is, the number of persons within the available space., • Crowding and high density may lead to abnormal behaviour and aggression. e.g.,, study of rats. These animals were placed in an enclosure, initially in small numbers. As, their population increased within this enclosed space, they started showing aggressive, and unusual behaviour, such as biting the tails of other rats. This aggressive behaviour, increased to such an extent that ultimately the animals died in large numbers, thus, decreasing the population in the enclosure., • Crowding leads to lowered performance on difficult tasks that involve cognitive, processes, and has adverse effects on memory and the emotional state., • Children growing up in very crowded household show lower academic performance., They also show weaker tendency to continue working on a task if they are, unsuccessful at it, compared to children growing up in non-crowded households. They, experience greater conflict with their parents, and get less support from their familymembers., • The nature of social interaction determines the degree to which an individual will react to, crowding., Crowding tolerance refers to the ability to mentally deal with a high density or crowded, environment, such as a crowded residence (a large numbers of persons within a small room)., Competition tolerance is the ability to put up with a situation in which individuals would, have to compete with many others for even basic resources, including physical space., Cultural characteristics may determine the extent to which a particular environment is, judged to be subjectively more crowded or less crowded., Personal space, or the comfortable physical space one generally likes to maintain around, oneself is affected by a high density environment. In a crowded context, there is a restriction, on a personal space, and this can also be a cause of negative reactions to crowding., We find many examples of people responding to the physical environment in terms of space. In, social situations, human beings like to maintain a certain physical distance from the person, with whom they are interacting., This is called interpersonal physical distance, and is a part of a broader concept called, , Psychology and Life, , 235
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personal space, i.e., the physical space we like to have all around us. One reason for the, negative reactions to crowding, as described earlier, is the decrease in personal space., 1. Intimate Distance (up to 18 inches): The distance you maintain when you are talking, privately to someone, or interacting with a very close friend relative., 2. Personal Distance (18 inches to 4 feet): The distance you maintain when you are, interacting one-to-one with a close friend, relative, or even with someone not very close to, you in a work setting or other social situation., 3. Social Distance (4 to 10 feet): The distance you maintain when the interaction is, formal, and not close., 4. Public Distance (10 feet to infinity): The distance you maintain in a formal setting,, where there is a large number of persons. For example, the distance of an audience from, a public speaker, or a teacher in a classroom., It may be noted that these distances are maintained voluntarily, keeping in mind the comfort, experienced by the persons involved in the interaction., The concept of personal space is important for the following reasons:, • First, it explains many of the negative effects of crowding as an environmental stressor., • Second, it tells us about social relationships., • Third, it gives us some idea about how physical space can be modified in order to reduce, stress or discomfort in social situations, or to make social interaction more enjoyable and, fruitful., Natural Disasters:, • Environmental stressors such as noise, various forms of pollution and crowding are the, result of human behaviour., • By contrast, natural disasters are stressful experiences that are the result of disturbances, in the natural environment. e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones and volcanic, eruptions., • These events are called ‘disasters’ because they cannot be prevented, usually come without, any warning, and result in immense damage to human lives and property., • Sadly, they also lead to a psychological disorder, called post-traumatic stress disorder, (PTSD)., • Science and technology have now progressed sufficiency to make it possible for human, beings to predict these events, to some extent. Yet the psychological effects of natural, disasters need to be understood and remedied., What are the effects of natural disasters?, First, they leave people poverty-stricken, homeless, without any resources, usually along with, a loss of everything they owned., Second, the sudden loss of all their belongings as well as their dear ones leaves people shocked, and stunned., This is sufficient to create a deep-seated psychological disorder. Post-traumatic stress disorder, (PTSD) is a severe psychological problem that results from traumatic events such as natural, disasters., Features of Natural Disasters: This disorder has the following features:, The immediate reaction to a disaster is commonly one of disorientation. People take some, time to understand the full meaning of what the disaster has done to them. They may actually, deny to themselves that something terrible has happened. Following the immediate reaction, are the physical reactions., , 236, , Psychology—XII
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Physical reactions, such as bodily exhaustion even without physical activity, difficult in, sleeping, change in the eating pattern, increased heart-beat and blood-pressure., Emotional reactions, such as grief and fear, irritability, anger, helplessness, hopelessness,, depression, something absolute lack of emotion., Cognitive reactions, such as worry, difficulty in concentration, reduced span of attention,, confusion, loss of memory, or vivid memories, that are unwanted (or nightmares of the event)., Social reactions, such as withdrawal from others, getting into conflict with others, having, frequent arguments with even loved ones, and feeling rejected or left out., These reactions may last for a long time, in some cases throughout life, with proper counselling, and psychiatric treatment, PTSD can be remedied at least up to level where the victims can be, motivated, and helped to start life afresh., In general, the intensity, if reaction, is affected by:, • The severity of the disaster, and the loss incurred (both in terms of property and life),, • The individual’s general coping ability, and, • Other stressful experiences before the disaster., Although we are aware that most natural disasters can be predicted only in a limited way,, there are ways of being prepared to minimize their devastating consequences in the form of., Warnings: If you have been listening to the radio in the recent past, you might have heard, advertisements that mention what people should do when it is announced that some natural, disaster, such as a flood, is likely. When cyclones of high tides are predicted, fishermen are, asked not to venture into the sea., Safety measures that can be taken immediately after the event. Even if prediction is possible,, the events come to suddenly for people to be warned or to be mentally prepared. Therefore, tips, are given beforehand about what to do when there is an earthquake., Treatment of psychological disorders: This includes self-help approaches as well as, professional treatment. Counselling at the individual and group level is the next step., Pro-environmental behaviour:, (i) Includes both actions that are meant to protect the environment from problems, and to, promote a healthy environment., Some promotive actions to protect the environment from pollution are:, Reducing air-pollution by keeping vehicles in good condition, or changing to non-fuel driven, vehicles, stopping the practice of smoking., Reducing noise-pollution (noise) by ensuring that noise levels are now. For example,, discouraging needless honking on the road, or making rules regarding noisy music at certain, hours., Managing disposal of garbage sensible. For example, by encouraging separation of, biodegradable garbage from non-biodegradable waste, or composting of kitchen waste., Planting trees and ensuring their care, keeping in mind that those plants and trees should, not be planted that have adverse health effects., Saying ‘no’ to plastic in any form, thus reducing toxic wastes that pollute water, air and the, soil., Reducing the non-biodegradable packaging of consumer goods., Laws related to construction (especially in urban areas) that violates optimal environment, design., , Psychology and Life, , 237
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Poverty and violence are two main problems in our society. Both of these phenomena have, noticeable effects on the physical as well psychological health of people., Poverty is not nearly an economic problem. It has social, emotional, Psychological perspectives, also., Violence is also not simply a question of breaking the law. It is related to societal conditions, Psychological perspective and economic conditions also., Psychologists have actively exploring these issue to explain causes, consequences and strategies, to deal with these phenomena effectively., Poverty and Discrimination:, Some experts define poverty mainly in economic terms, and measure it in terms of incomes,, nutrition (the daily caloric intake per person), and the amount spent on basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing and shelter., From the socio-psychological point of view, the most commonly accepted definition of poverty, is that it is a condition in which there is a lack of necessities of life in the context of, unequal distribution of wealth in society., A distinction between deprivation and poverty is that deprivation refers to the state in which a, person feels that he/she has lost something valuable, and is not getting something what, he/she deserves. In deprivation, it is more a question of perceiving or thinking that one has, less than what one should have got., Poverty refers to an actual shortage of the resources necessary for living, and thus can, be somewhat objectively defined., Thus, a poor person may experience deprivation, but poverty is not a necessary condition, for experiencing deprivation., Both poverty and deprivation are linked to social disadvantage. In our society, the caste, system has been largely the source of social disadvantages, but poverty, irrespective of cast,, has also played a role in creating social disadvantage., In the context of poverty, discrimination refers to the behaviour that makes a distinction, between the rich and the poor, favouring the rich and the advantaged over the poor and the, disadvantaged. e.g., matters of social interaction, education and employment., Thus, even if the poor or disadvantaged have the capability, they are kept away from, opportunities that are enjoyed by the rest of society., The children of the poor do not get a chance to study in good school, or get good health facilities,, and employment., Disadvantage and discrimination prevent the poor from improving their socio-economic, condition through their own efforts, and this makes the poor even poorer., Psychological Characteristics and Effects of Poverty and Deprivation., In terms of motivation, the poor have law aspirations and low achievement motivation,, and high need for dependence. Eth explain their successes in terms of luck or fate rather than, ability of hard work. In general, they believe that events in their lives are controlled by factors, outside them, rather than within them., With regard to personality, the poor and deprived have low self-esteem, high anxiety and, introversion, and dwell on the immediate present rather than being future-oriented. They, prefer smaller immediate rewards to larger rewards in the long run, because in their perception,, the future is too uncertain. They live with a sense of hopelessness, powerlessness, felt, injustice, and experience a loss of identity., , 238, , Psychology—XII
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With respect to social behaviour, the poor and deprived sections exhibit and attitude of, resentment towards the rest of society., Among the effects of prolonged deprivation on cognitive functioning, it has been found that, intellectual functioning and performance on tasks (such as classification, verbal, reasoning, time perception, and pictorial depth perception) is lower among the, highly deprived compared to those who are less deprived. It has also been certified that the, effect of deprivation is because the nature of the environment is cognitive task performance., With regard to mental health, there is an unquestionable relationship between mental, disorders and poverty or deprivation. The poor are more likely to suffer from specific mental, illness compared to the rich, possible due to constant worry about basic necessities, feelings of, insecurity, or inability to get medical facilities, especially for mental illness. In fact, it has been, suggested that depression may be a mental disorder largely of the poor., Major Causes of Poverty:, Poverty is sometimes caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and cyclones,, or man-made disasters such as poisonous gas leaks. When such events take place, people, suddenly lose all their possessions and have to face poverty., Similarly, one generation of the poor may be unable to eradicate their poverty, and the next, generation continues to remain in poverty., Apart from these causes, other factors responsible for poverty have been mentioned below:, 1. The poor themselves are responsible for their poverty. According to this view, the poor, lack the ability and motivation to put in effort, and make use of available opportunities., In general, such a view about the poor is rather negative, and does not help at all in, making them better., 2. It is not the individual, but a belief system, a way of life, and values, in which he/, she is brought up, that is the cause of poverty. This belief system, called the ‘culture of, poverty’, convinces the person that he/she will continue to remain poor, and the belief is, carried over from one generation of the poor to the next., 3. Economic, social and political factors together account for poverty. Because of, discrimination, certain sections of society are denied the opportunities needed for getting, even the basic necessities of life., 4. The geographic region in which one lives is said to be a significant cause of poverty., This factor cannot be controlled by human beings., 5. The poverty cycle is another important cause of poverty that explains why poverty tends, to continue among the same sections of society. Poverty begets poverty., The only way to tackle the problems associated with poverty and deprivation is to work, actively as well as earnestly towards the removal or reduction of poverty., Measures for Poverty Alleviation, Several steps are being taken by the government and other groups to work towards alleviation, or reduction of poverty and its negative consequences., 1. Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping the poor to attain self-sufficiency—initially,, financial relief, medical and other facilities may have to be provided to the poor., 2. Creating a context for making the poor take responsibility instead of blame for their, poverty., 3. Providing educational and employment opportunities, following the principles of, social justice—this step may help the poor to discover their own abilities and skills, thus, enabling them to come up to the level of other sections of society., , Psychology and Life, , 239
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4. Measures for improved mental health—many of the poverty-reduction measures help, to improve the physical health of the poor, but their mental health still remains a problem, to be tackled effectively., 5. Steps for empowering the poor—through the measures mentioned above, the poor, should be made more powerful, capable of living independently and with dignity, without, depending on the help given by the government or by other groups., 6. The concept of ‘Antyodaya’, or the rise of the ‘last person’ in society, i.e., the poorest or, the most disadvantaged, has helped a large section of the poor to get uplifted to a better, economic condition than they have experienced earlier. Under Antyodaya programmes,, there is provision for health facilities, nutrition., Another way is through small loans or micro-credit facilities. The facility is similar to the idea, of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh., Following the 73rd amendment of the Constitution, the aim is to give more power to people for, their development through decentralized planning, and through people’s participation., Action Aid, an international group. Has goals of making the poor more sensitive to their, rights, to equality and justice, and ensuring for them adequate nutrition, health, and facilities, for education and employment., Aggression, Violence and Peace:, Aggression and violence are among the major problems in today’s society, and they cover a, wide range of behaviours—from ragging of newcomers in educational institutes, through child, abuse ect., Psychologists use the term ‘aggression’ to refer to any behaviour by one person/persons, that intend to cause harm to another person/persons. It can be demonstrated in actual, action or through the use of harsh words or criticism, or even hostile feelings against others., Forceful destructive behaviour towards another person or object is described as, ‘violence’., Some psychologists distinguish aggression from violence by pointing out that the aggressive, behaviour involves the intention to harm or injure another person, whereas violence, may or may not involve such an intention., A distinction is also made between instrumental aggression and hostile aggression., In instrumental aggression, the act of aggression is meant to obtain a certain goal or, object., Hostile aggression is that which is shown as an expression of ranger towards the target,, with the intention of harming him/her, even if the aggressor does not wish to obtain, anything from the victim., Causes of Aggression:, Inborn Tendency: Aggressiveness is an tendency among human being (as it is in animals)., Biologically, this inborn tendency may be meant for self-defense., Physiological Mechanism: Aggression could also be indirectly triggered by physiological, mechanisms, especially by the activation of certain parts of the brain that play a role in, emotional experience. A general physiological state of arousal, or feeling activated, might often, be expressed in the form of aggression., Child-rearing: The way an individual is brought up often influences him/her aggressiveness., It could also be because physical punishment makes the child angry and resentful; as the child, grows up he/she expresses this anger through aggressive behaviour., , 240, , Psychology—XII
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Frustration: Aggression is an expression, and consequence of frustration, i.e., an emotional, state that arises when a person is prevented from reaching a goal, or attaining an object that, he/she wants. The person may be very close to the goal, and yet does not attain it., An American psychologist, John Dollard, along with his collaborators, conducted research, specially to examine the frustration-aggression theory. Theory proposes that it is, frustration that leads to aggression. As expected, frustrated persons did demonstrate, more aggression than non-frustrated persons., Moreover, such aggression was often shown towards a weaker person who was unlikely,, or unable to react to aggression. This phenomenon has been called displacement., Observations showed that:, Being frustrated does not necessarily make a person aggressive., Many other situational factors may lead to aggression., Learning: Among human beings, aggression is largely the result of learning than an, expression of an inborn tendency., Learning of aggression can take place in more than one mode. Individuals may exhibit, aggression because they have found it rewarding (for example, hostile aggression allows, the aggressive person to get what he/she wants). This would be case of learning through, direct reinforcement. Individuals also learn to be aggressive by observing others showing, aggression. This is case of learning through modelling., Observing an Aggressive Model: Many research studies conducted by psychologists such as, Albert Bandura and his collaborators shows the role of modelling in learning aggression. In, studies that tested the frustration-aggression theory, provoking the person and making him/, her angry was one way of including frustration., Anger provoking action by others: Insults, threats, physical aggression, sarcasm,, derogatory remarks or dishonesty by a person or persons may provoke an individual to react, aggressively., Frustration aggression theory by Dollard and Miller also confirm this phenomena., Availability of Weapons of Aggression: Some researchers have found that observing, violence leads to a greater likelihood of aggression on the part of the observation only if, weapons of aggression are easily available., Personality Factors: We may conclude that aggressiveness is thus a personal quality. It has, been observed that the people, who have very low self-esteem and feel insecure, may behave, aggressively in order to ‘boost their ego’., Cultural Factors: The culture in which one grows up can teach its members to be aggressive, or not by encouraging and praising aggressive behaviour, or discouraging and criticizing such, behaviour., Reducing Aggression and Violence., Parents and teachers should especially be careful not to encourage or reward aggression, in any form., The use of punishment to bring about discipline also needs to be changed., Opportunities to observe and imitate the behaviour of aggressive models should be, reduced drastically., Poverty and social injustice may be a prominent cause of aggression, because they, can cause frustration in certain section of society. Implementing social justice and equality in, society may help in reducing frustration levels and thereby curb aggressive tendencies at least, to some extent., , Psychology and Life, , 241
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Apart from these strategies, at the level of the community or society, it is important to, inculcate a positive attitude towards peace., Health:, It is now conceded that various health outcomes are not only a function of disease but, the way we think and behave., This definition of ‘health’ is provided by the World Health Organization (WHO). Which, includes biological, psychological and social aspects of health., One may be suffering from a physical disabling disease but may be quite healthy otherwise., e.g., Baba Amte or Stephen Hawkins., We also find that people differ across cultures in their thinking about when and how people, fall ill and, therefore, in the models which they use in prevention of diseases and promotion of, health., There are traditional cultures like Chines, Indian, and Latin American which hold that good, health results from the harmonious balance of various elements in the body, and illhealth results when such a balance is lost., On the contrary, the western cultures view health as a result of fully functioning machine, which has no blockage., Diseases:, The World Health Reports by the WHO shows that in developing countries such as Asia, Africa,, and Latin America, more die due to communicable diseases including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, (TB) malaria, respiratory infections and nutritional deficiencies. In the developed, countries, the leading causes of death are various cardiovascular diseases, cancers and, psychiatric disorders. Such differences may be explained in terms of how these societies are, economically and socially structured and their psychological underpinnings., Factors associated with Well-being and Fitness:, 1. Cognitions:, (a) The variations in seeking help are due to differences in mental representations, people make relating to disease, its severity and the causes of disease., (b) The level of awareness or information about disease; and belief about how it is, caused; and about possible ways of relieving the distress or improving health affect, help seeking behaviour as well as sticking to a doctor’s regimen., (c) Another factor which influences our help-seeking from a doctor is the perception of, pain, which is a function of personality, anxiety and social norms., 2. Behaviours:, (a) Psychologists have found strong evidence which shows that behaviours we engage in, our life, styles greatly influence health., (b) People differ greatly in terms of such behavioural risk factors as smoking or tobacco, use, alcohol and drug abuse, and unsafe sexual behaviour, diet and physical exercise., (c) A new discipline called Behaviour Medicine has emerged, which seeks to alleviate, stress due to diseases through modification in behaviour., 3. Social and Cultural Factors:, (a) There is now a growing body of research which shows that social and cultural, differences may influence our psychological responses, and may not be the same, across all cultures., (b) While interaction between culture and psychological responses requires more, , 242, , Psychology—XII
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evidence, social and cultural norms associated with roles and gender, etc. greatly, influence our health behaviour., (c) In Indian society, medical advice by or for a female is often delayed because of various, reasons—they are less valued, or because of the belief that they are hardy, or the, shame associated with the disease., Impact of Television on Behaviour., 1. From the point of its psychological impact on human beings, both positive and negative, effects have been observed., 2. Most of the research studies have been carried out on children because they are seen as, being more vulnerable to the impact of television than adults., , First, television provides a large amount of information in an attractive form, and in, the visual mode, for which it becomes a powerful medium of instruction and children, spend huge amounts of time watching them. This reduces their habit of reading and, writing, and also their outdoor activities such as playing., , Second, television watching may have an effect on children’s ability to concentrate on, one target, their creativity and ability to understand, and also their social instructions., On one hand, there are excellent programmes that emphasize positive interpersonal, attitudes and provide useful factual information, teaching children how to design and, construct certain objects., , Third, results of research showed that watching violence on television was, indeed,, linked to greater aggressiveness in the viewers., 3. Other research finding shows that watching violence may actually reduce the natural, aggressive tendency of the viewers: what is ‘bottled up’ gets an outlet, and thus cleans the, system, like a choked drainpipe being cleaned. This process is called catharsis., 4. In the case of adults as well as children, it is said that a consumerist attitude has, developed, and this is due to television watching. Numerous products are advertised,, and it is very natural for the viewer to get carried away., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Aggression: An overt behaviour intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally., • Air-pollution: Degraded quality of air is air-pollution., • Communicable Disease: An illness due to specific infection agent capable of being, directly or indirectly transmitted from man to man, animal to animal, or from the, environment to man or animal., • Competition Tolerance: The ability to put up with a situation in which individuals, would have to compete with many others for even basic resources, including physical, space., • Crowding: A psychological feeling of too little space; perception of crampedness., • Crowding Tolerance: The ability to mentally deal with a high density or crowded, environment, such as a crowded residence., • Disaster: A disaster is an unforeseen and often sudden event that disrupt the normal, condition within a society and cause widespread damage, destruction, and human, suffering., • Discrimination: Behaviour that shows a distinction being made between two or more, persons, often on the basis of the person’s (or persons’) membership of a particular group., • Displacement: Redirecting an impulse towards a less threatening or safer target; a key, concept in psychoanalytic theory; a defence mechanism., , Psychology and Life, , 243
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• Ecology: That branch of biology which deals with the relations of organism to their, environment., • Environment: Totality, or any aspect of physical and social set-up that surround and, affect an individual organism., • Environmental Psychology: The branch of psychology that concentrates on the, interaction between the physical world and human behaviour., • Instrumental Perspective: The approach that suggests that the physical environment, exists mainly for use by human beings for their comfort and well-being., • Modelling: A process of learning in which an individual acquires responses by observing, and unitating others., • Noise: An unwanted sound, one that brings about a negative affective response., • Peace: It is the absence of hostility and as expression of harmony with fellow human, beings and the environment., • Personal Space: The small area around an individual considered belonging to him/her, whose invasion is experienced as threatening or unpleasant., • Physical Environment: It is the nature that includes climate, air, water, temperature,, flora and fauna., • Poverty: Poverty is an economic deprivation. It is association with low income, hunger,, low caste and class status, illiteracy, poor housing, overcrowding, lack of public amenities,, mal- and under-nutrition, and increased susceptibility to diseases., • Poverty Alleviation: Measures/programmes taken up to reduce poverty., • Pro-environmental Behaviour: Willingness and activities of human beings to protect, the environment are pro-environmental behaviour., • Self efficacy: Bandura’s term for the individual’s beliefs about her or his own effectiveness, the expectation that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes., • Spiritual Perspective: The perspective that specifies to do activities what are desirable, in accordance with the scriptures. It pleads for a harmony between man and nature., • Post-traumatic stress disorder: A form of Anxiety disorder in which patterns of, symptoms involving anxiety reactions, tensions, nightmares and depression following a, disaster such as an earthquake or a flood., • Social environment: Societal conditions–Positive or negative like peace–violence,, Justice–discrimination, Warmth–hostility etc., • Transactional Approach: It includes interaction between people and environment., Human beings affect the environment and in turn are affected by the environment., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. What do you understand by the term ‘environment’? Explain the different perspectives, to understand the human-environment relationship., Ans. Word ‘environment’ refers to all that is around us. Literally, it means everything that, surrounds us including the physical, Social world and cultural environment. In general,, it includes all the forces outside the human beings to which they respond in some way., A psychologist named Stokols proposed three approaches to describe human-environment, relationship:, (i) The Minimalist Perspective: This view assumes that physical environment has, negligible influence on human behaviour. Both run parallel to each other., , 244, , Psychology—XII
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(ii) The Instrumental Perspective: According to this approach, environment is, simply provider. It is for the comfort of us. Human beings can use the environment, as per their needs., (iii) The Spiritual Perspective: It refers to the view of the environment as something, to be respected and valued rather than exploited. Physical environment and human, relationship are interdependent. The traditional Indian view about the environment, supports spiritual perspective, worshipping Pipal, respect for rivers and mountains., Chipko Aandolan and movement by Bisnoi Community are examples of Indian, perspective., Q2. “Human beings affect and are affected by the environment.” Explain this statement with, the help of example., Ans. Environment significantly influences various physical and psychological aspects of, human behaviour. Some are as follows:, (a) Environmental Influence on Perception: According to researches, our, perception is influenced by the environment in which we live. For example. Tribal, societies of Africa living in Circular huts show less error in a geometric illusion (the, Muller Lyer illusion) than people from cities, living in houses with angular walls., (b) Environmental Influence on Emotions: For example, watching quietly flowing, river, a smiling flowers or a tranquil mountain top provides joy and happiness., • Natural disasters, landslides can provide deep depression and sorrow, lack of, control over their lives., • Such an influence is traumatic, changes people’s lives forever, and can last for, a long time after the actual event in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder., (c) Ecological Influence on Occupation, Living style and Attitudes:, (i) The natural environment of a particular region determines the people living in, that region will develop what type of societies—may be agricultural or may be, industrial., (ii) In turn, the occupation determines the life-style and attitudes of the residents, of a particular geographical region., Human behaviour particularly influencing on the environment in negative manner., Following are the environmental stressors which effect human beings, although many, are created by human beings themselves., 1. Pollution:, (a) Air-pollution: Emission of toxic gases due to automobile and industrial, emissions cause adverse effect on the health., – Air-pollution reduces visibility and leads to eye irritation, headache,, fatigue, occurrence of cancer of respiratory system., (b) Noise or sound pollution: Any sound which an individual finds unpleasant, in a particular situation is considered noise or sound-pollution. Noise (sound, pollution) leads to adverse psychological effects. It may leads to high level of, stress, narrowing of attention, decrease in concentration, etc., (c) Water-pollution: Various problems related to digestive system and, gastrointestinal issues occur due to water-pollution., 2. Noise, Any unpleasant, irritating or interfering sound is called as Noise., – Noise is an environmental stressor which may affect adversely depending on—, , Psychology and Life, , 245
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(a) Predictability, (b) Controllability, (c) Intensity, 3. Crowding and Density:, • Crowding is the subjective feeling of crampedness or being too close to each, other. It has negative effects on task performance, personality, interpersonal, relationship, general physical and mental health., • Density is an objective geographical term which refers to number of persons, living within the available space, or per square meter area., 4. Natural and Man-made Disasters:, Natural disasters are earthquake, volcanic eruption, windstorm, tornado, cyclone,, famine etc., — There are man-made disasters also; like Bhopal gas tragedy and nuclear bomb, explosion in Japan, which not only caused extensive damage to property and, physical environment but also had long-term effects on the lives of people., — Man is largely responsible for regarding the quality of environment that, surrounds us. Almost everything humans do has small but cumulative effects, on the environment in which we live. e.g., driving a car, using a hair spray, use, of refrigerator, etc., Q3. What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour., Ans. Noise is defined as an unwanted sound or sounds that create an effective response., Some may not be disturbed by even a loud-speaker sound, on the other hand, some might, even find whistle, tinkling of wind as noise. Thus, any sound “which an individual finds, unwanted is noise.”, Noise (sound pollution) leads to adverse psychological effects. How the noise affect the, individual depends on:, (a) its intensity (loudness), loud sound is often unpleasant and irritating., (b) predictability, we can adapt more easily to a regular, predictable sound such as, chirping of birds in the morning., (c) Perceived Control: The negative effects of noise are reduced when individuals, perceive that they have control over it., Effects of noise (sound-pollution) on task performance:, (i) When the task being performed is a simple mental task, such as addition of numbers,, noise does not affect overall performance whether it is loud or soft., (ii) If the task being performed is very interesting, then, too, the presence of noise does, not affect performance., (iii) When the noise comes at intervals and in an unpredictable way, it is experienced as, more disturbing than the noise being continuously present., (iv) Difficult task performance requires full concentration, then intense, unpredictable, and uncontrollable noise reduces the level of task performance., (v) When switching off the noise is within the control of the person, the numbers of, errors in task performance decrease., Q4. What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences, of crowding., Ans. Crowding: It is psychological crampedness. It manifests following features:, (a) Feeling of discomfort because of too many people or things around us the, experience of physical restriction and sometimes the lack of privacy., , 246, , Psychology—XII
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(b) Crowding is the person’s reaction to the presence of a large number of persons, within a particular area or space., , Features of Crowding: Crowding has the following features:, — Crowding gives feeling of discomfort., — It gives a feeling that individual privacy is being threatened., — It gives feeling that individual’s personal space is being invaded., — It gives negative view of a space around the person., — Crowding develops feelings of loss of control over social interaction., Crowding is studied by various psychologists in India and abroad., Crowding is not always experienced in high density setting nor all people experience its, negative effects. For example, Mela has high density but still people enjoy it., , Effects of Crowding and High Density:, (a) Crowding and High density may lead to abnormal behaviour and aggression., e.g., an increase in population has sometimes been found to be accompanied by an, increase in violent crime., (b) Crowding leads to lowered performance on difficult tasks that involve cognitive, processes and has adverse effects on memory and the emotional state., (c) Children growing up in very crowded households show lower academic, performance. They also show a weaker tendency to continue working on a task, if they are unsuccessful at it, compared to children growing up in non-crowded, households. They experience greater conflicts with parents and get less support, from their family members., (d) The nature of social interaction determines the degree to which an individual, will react to crowding. For example, in parties, large number of persons may not, cause stress rather it may lead to positive emotional reactions., (e) Individuals differ in the degree to which they show negative effects of crowding, and also in the nature of these reactions., Two kinds of tolerance can be mentioned that may explain these individual differences:, (i) Crowding Tolerance, (ii) Competition Tolerance, (i) Crowding Tolerance: It refers to the ability of a person to mentally deal with the, high density or crowding environment. e.g., crowded residence., • It is developed because people can use to manage people around them., • It is modifying ones perception one holds regarding high density/crowded, situations., • Indians in general have more crowding tolerance., (ii) Competition Tolerance: It is the ability to put up with a situation in which, individuals would have to compete with many others for even basic resources, including physical space., Since there is a greater possibility of competition for resources in a crowded setting,, the reaction to that setting would be influenced by the extent of tolerance for, competition for resources., (f) Cultural Characteristics: It may determine the extent to which a particular, environment is judged to be subjectively more crowded or less crowded., , Psychology and Life, , 247
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Q5. Why is the concept of ‘personal space’ important for human beings? Justify your answer, with the help of an example., Ans. The concept of personal space refers to the personal physical distance that we maintain, in our social interaction., It is important for following reasons:, (i) It explains many of the negative effect of crowding as an environment stressor., (ii) It tells us about social relations. For examples, two people sitting or standing close, tighter are seen to be friends., (iii) It gives us idea about how physical space can be modified in order to reduce stress, or discomfort in real life situations., Everyone has desire of personal space. Males generally have a larger personal space, than females. Degree of personal space differ from culture to culture., Personal space can vary between people, between situations and settings and between, cultures. Edward Hall, an anthropologist, mentioned four kinds of interpersonal physical, distance—intimate distance, personal distance, social distance and public distance., Q6. What do you understand by the term ‘disaster’? List the symptoms of post-traumatic, stress disorder. How can it be remedied?, Ans. Natural disaster is an environmental hazard. It is known as disaster because—, • it is mostly unpredictable., • it causes enormous loss of life and property., In general, the intensity of reaction is affected by the following:, (i) The severity of the disaster, and the loss incurred both in terms of property and life., (ii) The individual’s general coping ability., (iii) Other stressful experiences before the disaster. For e.g., people, who have, experienced stress before, may find it more difficult to deal with another difficult, and stressful situation. But, there are ways to be prepared to minimize their, decussating consequence in the form of:, 1. Warning: when cyclones or high tides are predicted, fishermen are asked not, to venture into the sea., 2. Safety Measure: Unfortunately, in the case of some natural disasters such as, earthquakes, even if prediction is possible, the events came too suddenly for, people to be mentally prepared. Therefore tips are given beforehand about to do, when there is an earthquake., 3. Treatment of Psychological Disorder: This includes self-help approach as, well as professional treatment. According to some experts who deal with PTSD,, one of the key attitude to be developed in the survivors is that of ‘self-efficacy’, i.e. that the belief that “I can do it” or “I came out of this phase successfully”., (a) Immediate Reaction: The immediate reaction after a disaster is commonly, manifest in the form of disorientation. People take some time to understand the, full meaning of what the disaster has done to them. They may deny to themselves, that something terrible has happened., (b) Physical Reaction:, There is bodily exhaustion even without physical activity such as—, , 248, , Psychology—XII
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• Sleep disturbances., • Change in eating pattern., • Increased heart-beat and blood-pressure., (c) Emotional Reaction:, • Fear, • Grief, • Irritability, • Anger (why should this happen to me), • Helplessness, • Hopelessness, • Depression, • Numbness (absolute lack of emotion), • Guilt feelings for having survived while someone else died, • Lack of interest in routine jobs, (d) Cognitive Reaction:, • Worry, • Difficulty in concentration, • Reduced span of attention, • Confusion, • Loss of memory, • Nightmare of the event, (e) Social Reactions:, • Withdrawal from others, • Getting into conflict with others, • Having frequent arguments with even, • Feeling rejected or left out, Very often in the midst of severe emotional reaction to stress, some survivors may, develop positive outlook on life with empathy., Q7. What is pro-environmental behaviour? How can the environment be protected from, pollution? Suggest some strategies., Ans. Pro-environmental behaviour is the friendly and caring attitude of people who help, to prevent environmental degradation and conserve natural resources., For instance, change in life-style and attitude of the people like conserving energy, resources, planting trees, reduction in noise (sound-pollution) and air-pollution., , Some Strategies to Protect Environment are:, (i) Reducing air-pollution by keeping vehicle in good condition or changing to non-fuel, driven vehicle, stopping the practice of smoking., (ii) Reducing noise (sound pollution) by ensuring that noise levels are low. e.g.,, discouraging needless honking on the road, or making rule regarding noisy music, at certain hours., (iii) Planting trees and ensuring their care., (iv) Reducing the non-biodegradable packing of consumer goods., (v) Laws related to construction (especially in urban areas) that violate optimal, environment design., (vi) Saying ‘no’ to plastic use in any form, thus reducing toxic wastes that pollute water,, air and the soil., , Psychology and Life, , 249
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Q8. How is ‘poverty’ related to ‘discrimination’? Explain the major psychological effects of, poverty and deprivation., Ans. Poverty is the economic deprivation, associated with low income, hunger, low caste and, status., • Illiteracy, poor housing, over-crowding, lack of public amenities, mal-and undernutrition, and increased susceptibility to diseases are main features., • Poverty is an actual shortage of resources so it is objectively defined term., • Deprivation is subjectively defined. It is more a question of perceiving or thinking, that one has got less than what one should have got., • Poverty is not a necessary condition for experiencing deprivation but a poor person, may experience deprivation., • Social disadvantage is a condition because of which some sections of society are not, allowed the same privileges as the east society e.g. caste system., , Effects of Poverty and Deprivation:, (i) Low aspirations and low achievements, low motivation, and high need for dependence, is the major effect of poverty and deprivation. They believe that events in their lives, are controlled by factor outside them, rather within them., (ii) With respect to social behaviour, the poor and deprived sections exhibit on attitude, of resentment towards the rest of society., (iii) With regard to personality:, • The poor and deprived low self-esteem, high anxiety, introversion, and live only, in the immediate present rather than being future-oriented., • The poor and deprived live with a sense of hopelessness, powerlessness, feelings, of injustice and experience a loss of identity., (iv) Researches have proved that prolonged deprivation significantly impair the, cognitive functioning of the individual., (v) With regard to mental health, there is an unquestionable relationship between, mental disorder and poverty or deprivation., (vi) The poor are more likely to suffer from specific mental illness compared to the rich,, possibly due to constant worries about basic necessities, feeling of insecurity or, inability to get medical faculties especially for mental illness., Q9. Distinguish between ‘instrumental aggression’ and ‘hostile aggression’. Suggest some, strategies to reduce aggression and violence., Ans. • Aggression: According to psychologists, aggression refers to any behaviour by a, person that is intended to cause harm to another person or persons to take revenge., , For example, aggression It can be demonstrated in actual action or through the use of, harsh words or criticism or even hostile feelings against others., • Violence: Forceful destructive behaviour towards another person or persons to, attain some material gain is violence., , Instrumental Aggression:, The act of aggression is meant to obtain a certain goal or get others, possessions forcefully., For example, A bully slaps a new student in school so that he can snatch the new comer’s, chocolate. In violence, individual may or may not have the intention to harm others in, terms of revenge. It is forceful destructive behaviour. e.g., hitting a person just to loot his, money., , 250, , Psychology—XII
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Hostile Aggression:, An expression of anger towards the target, with the intention of harming him/her even if, the aggressor does not wish to obtain anything from the victim. For example, A criminal, may beat up a person in the community for mentioning his name to the police., Aggression can be reduced by creating the appropriate attitude towards the general, problem of growing aggression., (a) Parenting:, • Parents and teacher should be specially careful not to encourage aggression, in any form. The use of punishment to bring about discipline also needs to be, changed., (b) Modelling:, • Opportunities to observe and imitate the behaviour of aggressive models should, be reduced drastically., Portraying aggression as heroic behaviour should be particularly avoided because, this may set the stage for learning through observation., (c) Implementing social justice and equality in society:, • It will help in reducing frustration levels and thereby curb aggressive tendencies, at least to some extent., (d) Inculcating positive attitude towards peace at the level of community or society., The father of our nation, Mahatma Gandhi, gave the world a new view to peace, that was not simply the absence of aggression. This was non-violence. It should be, taught to the younger generation., Q10. Discuss the psychological impact of television viewing on human behaviour. How can its, adverse consequences be reduced? Explain., Ans. Television is one of the useful products of technological progress. It has both positive and, negative effects. It has effects on cognitive processes and social behaviour., 1. T.V. provides large amount of information in an attractive form and in visual, mode, for which it became a powerful medium of instructions., 2. Excellent programmes emphasise positive interpersonal attitudes and provide, useful factual information, teaching children how to design and construct certain, objects., 3. T.V. watching may have an adverse effect on children’s ability to concentrate on, one target. Their creativity and ability to understand each other through social, interaction is also significantly impaired., 4. Reduction in habit of reading and writing skills and also their outdoor activities, such as playing is also reduced., 5. Watching violence on T.V. has been linked to greater aggressiveness in the viewers., As children are not mature enough to think of consequences, they simply imitate., • Some studies pointed out that merely watching violence on the television does, not make children more aggressive. Other factors need to be present., • Other research findings show that watching violence may actually reduce the, natural aggressive tendency of the viewers: what is ‘bottled up’ gets an outlet,, thus cleans the system. This process is called catharsis., 6. Due to T.V. watching, consumerist attitude has developed. Numerous products are, advertised and it is very natural for the viewer to get carried away., , Psychology and Life, , 251
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MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC: 1 Mark ), , Q1. ____________ environment denotes the person’s physical environment, climate conditions, and regional area which play significant role in determining social habits, behavioural, tendencies and general outlook towards life., (a) Ecological , (b) Social, (c) Psycho-social , (d) None of the above, Q2. Relationship between human environmental issues is called Ecology., Q3. The ‘minimalist’ perspective assumes little or no influence of environment on human, behaviour. (True/False), Q4. Which perspective emphasizes that environment is something to be respected and, valued?, (a) Ecology , (b) Instrumental perspective, (c) Spiritual perspective, (d) Minimalist perspective, Q5. When a person feels that he or she is not getting something which he/she values, he/she, may be experiencing—, (a) Deprivation , (b) Social disadvantage, (c) Poverty , (d) Destitution, Q6. Crowding and high density may lead to be aggression. (True or False), Q7. Ability to deal with high density or crowded environment is called crowding tolerance., Q8. The concept of physical distance is given by Edward Hall., Q9. Frustration-Aggression hypotheses is give by Dollard and Miller., , Answer, 1. (c), , 3. (True) , 4. (c) , 5. (a) 6. (True), , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. What does environmental psychology deal with? Illustrate with an example., Ans. A branch of psychology, called Environmental Psychology, deals with various, psychological issues pertaining to the human—environment interaction in a very, broad sense of the term. For example, many environmental problems such as sound/, noise, air, water, and soil pollution and unsatisfactory ways of garbage disposal have, damaging effects on physical health and environmental psychology is to deal with the, above problems., Q2. What is Ecology? What does it focus in reference to psychology?, Ans. Ecology is the study of the relationships between living beings and their environment., In psychology, the focus is on the interdependence between the environment and, people. Whatever has been created by human beings within the natural environment is, the built environment. The part of nature which remains untouched by human hand is, the natural environment., Q3. Differentiate between natural and built environment with examples., Ans. Natural Environment: That part of nature which remains untouched by human hand, is the natural environment. e.g., plants, air, river, animals, etc., , 252, , Psychology—XII
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Built Environment: On the other hand, whatever has been created by human beings, within the natural environment is the built environment. e.g., – cities, houses, bridges,, malls, dam, roads, railways, tracks, etc., Q4. How is crowding related to density?, Ans. Density: Density is the actual number of people living in per square feet area., Density is a physical situation, reflecting the number of persons within the available, space., , Crowding: Crowding is the subjective feeling of being too close to each other. It is, subjective crampedness., Crowding is a psychological state, a subjective and experiential process., Q5. What do we mean by the term ‘personal space’? Illustrate with an example., Ans. Personal space refers to the comfortable physical distance that we maintain in our, social interaction. Studies indicate on the average, for strangers our physical space is, roughly two feet around us., If a stranger comes closer, we feel uncomfortable and move away to maintain space., Males generally have a larger personal space than females. Also personal space differ in, different cultures., Q6. Explain the concept of ‘Antyodaya’., Ans. The concept of ‘Antyodaya’ or the ‘rise of the last person in society’ i.e., the poorest or the, most disadvantaged, has helped to a large section of the poor to get uplifted to a better, economic conditions than they have experienced earlier., In Antyodaya programmes, there is provision for health facilities, nutrition, education, and training for employment—all the areas in which the poor need help., Q7. Explain the term ‘behavioural medicine’., Ans. (i) People differ greatly in terms of behavioural risk factors such as smoking or tobacco, use, alcohol and drug abuse, and unsafe sexual behaviour, diet and physical exercise., (ii) A new discipline called ‘Behavioural Medicine” has emerged which seeks to alleviate, stress due to disease through modification in behaviour by changing outlook and lifestyles., Q8. What is culture of poverty?, Ans. Culture of poverty is a belief of poor people that they were poor, they are poor and they, will be poor. Nothing can be done. This belief develops from the environment in which, they live and positively reinforced by neighbours and relatives., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. Explain the concept of ‘Environmental design’., Ans. The built environment usually involves the concept of ‘environment design’. The idea of, ‘design’ contains some psychological features, such as., • The creativity of the human mind as expressed in the work of architects, town, planners and civil engineers., • The sense of human control over the natural environment as shown in the building, of dams to regulate the natural flow of rivers., • The influence on the kind of social interaction that takes place in the designed, environment. This feature is reflected, for instant, in the distance between houses, in a colony, the location of rooms within a home or in the arrangement of work desks, and seats in an official setting for formal or informal gathering., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II: 4 Marks), , Q1. Define ‘interpersonal physical distance’. Explain its various types mentioned by Edward, Hall., (Delhi Board 2014), , Psychology and Life, , 253
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Ans. In social situations, human beings like to maintain a certain physical distance from, the person with whom they are interacting. This is called interpersonal physical, distance., There are four types of interpersonal physical distance., (a) Intimate Distance (up to 18 inches): The distance we maintain when we are, talking privately to someone, or interacting with a very close friend or relative., (b) Personal Distance (18 inches –4 feet): The distance we maintain when we are, interacting one-to-one with a close friend, relative or even with someone not very, close to us in a work setting or other social situation., (c) Social Distance (4 to 10 feet), (d) Public distance (10feet to infinity): The distance we maintain when the, interaction is formal and not close, The distance we maintain in a formal setting, where there is a large number of persons., e.g., the distance of an audience from a public speaker or a teacher in a classroom., Q2. “Discrimination is both a cause and a consequence of poverty.” Explain., Ans. No doubt discrimination is both cause and a consequence of poverty. Discrimination is, often linked to prejudice. It refers to the behaviours that makes a distinction between, the rich and the poor, favouring the rich and the advantaged over the poor and the, disadvantaged., This distinction can be seen in matters of social interaction, education and employment., Thus, even if the poor or disadvantaged have the capability, they are kept away from the, opportunities that are enjoyed by the rest of society. The children of the poor do not get, a chance to study in good schools or get good health facilities and employment., Social disadvantage and discrimination prevent the poor from improving their socioeconomic condition through their own efforts and this makes the poor even more poor., In short, poverty and discrimination are related in such a way that the discrimination, becomes both a cause and a consequence of poverty., Q3. What is Environment Pollution? Highlight some of its impacts on psychological, functioning of human beings., Ans. Environmental pollution is in the form of air, water and soil pollutions., The various affects are:, (a) It affects our Nervous system of the presence of toxic substance, (b) Its influence can be seen in the emotional reactions which create:, – Discomfort – Decreased work efficiency, – Lowered interest in the job – Increase in anxiety level, (c) Presence of dust-particles may give feeling of suffocation and respiratory disorders,, attention problems., (d) People living in industrial area report greater tension and anxiety than those living, in non-industrial area., (e) Presence of sulphur dioxide in the air decreases the ability to concentrate on a task, and lowering performance efficiency., (f) Pollution caused by leaker of dangerous chemical substances can cause other kinds, of harm. For example, Bhopal gas tragedy of 1984 showed disturbances in memory,, attention and alterness., (g) Tobacco smoke pollution. For example, cigar, cigarette cause psychological effects, even the passive smokers can show increase in aggression level of individuals., , 254, , Psychology—XII
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(h) Polluting substances in water and soil are hazardous for physical health and, psychological effects. For example, Fact can cause mental retardation by affecting, brain development which can come from water, soil or negotiable grown in polluted soil., (i) Non-biodegradable garbage or industrial waste such as tin, plastics affects in a, negative manner. It should be burned by special techniques and smoke should not, be allowed to escape into air., Q4. Highlight some major causes of poverty., Ans.(a)Poverty may be due to natural disasters as people suddenly lose all their possessions, and have to face poverty., (b) According to one group of psychologists, sociologists and economists, the poor, themselves are responsible for their poverty. The causes are:, – Lack of ability and skills., – Lack motivation to put in effort., – Not able to make use of available opportunities., – Negative approach towards life., • According to them, it is the individual’s belief system in which individual is, brought up and that is the cause of poverty., • The culture of poverty convinces the person that he was poor, is poor and will, continue to remain poor and the belief is carried over from one generation to, another., (c) Other group of professionals believe that:, • Economic, social and political factors together account for poverty., • Because of discrimination, certain sections of society are denied the, opportunities needed for getting even the basic necessities of life., • The economic system is made to grow in a disproportionate way through, social and political exploitation., (d) The geographic region in which one lives is said to be significant cause of poverty., , For example, desert region that have shortage of natural resources and harsh, climate and up being poor., Q5. Discuss Poverty-cycle., Ans. The poverty-cycle explains why poverty tends to continue among the same sections of, society. Poverty begets poverty., Poor (Low income and lack of resources), Go through low health and nutrition, Lack of education, Lack of skills, Leading to, • Low employment opportunities, • Low income condition, • Low health, • Low nutrition status, • Lowered motivational level, hope, sense of control, The resulting lowered motivational level only makes the situation worse and cycles, starts and continues again., Q6. What are the measures of poverty alleviation?, Ans. (a) Breaking the poverty-cycle providing financial relief, medical and other facilities, to the poor in such a way that they should not develop habit of dependence., , Psychology and Life, , 255
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(b) Creating the context for making the poor take responsibility instead of, blame for their poverty. This will give them the sense of hope, control and identity., (c) Providing educational and employment opportunities following the principles, of social justice. Encouraging them to earn livelihood by legal means., (i) It will help poor to discover their own abilities and skills:, (ii) Enabling them to come up to the level of other sections of society., (iii) It will help in reducing crime and violence by reducing frustration., (d) Measures for Improved Mental Health: Focus should be on improving their selfesteem, self-efficacy and motivational levels., (e) Steps for empowering the poor: Poor’s should be made more powerful. Capable, of living independently and with dignity without depending on the help given by the, government or other groups., (f) Implication of Antyodaya programmes (the rise of the last person) which provide, provisions for health facilities, nutrition, education and training for employment in, all the areas in which the poor need help., (g) Poor are encouraged to start their own small scale businesses. Initial capital for, these ventures is provided through small loans or micro-credited facilities., (h) Making the poor more sensitive to their rights to equality and justice, and ensuring, for them adequate nutrition, health and facilities for education and employment., Q7. What are the causes of aggression?, Ans. 1. Inborn Tendency: Aggressiveness is an inborn tendency among human beings., Biologically, this inborn tendency may be meant for self-defence/survival., 2. Physiological Mechanisms: Aggression could also be indirectly functions due to, physiological mechanism, especially by the activation of certain parts of the brain, that play a role in emotional experience., A general physiological state of arousal, or feeling activated might often be expressed, in the form of aggression., 3. Child-rearing: The way an individual is brought up often influences his, aggressiveness. e.g., parents using physical punishment., 4. Frustration: It is an emotional state that arises when a person is prevented from, reaching a goal, or attaining an object he wants., Aggression is an expression and consequence of frustration. People in frustrated, situations show more aggression than those who are not frustrated., , Experimental Evidence:, Children were prevented from getting some attractive toys that was visible through a, screen., They were found to be more destructive in play. An American psychologist, John, Dollard, gave Frustration-Aggression theory. According to this theory, it is, frustration that leads to aggression., 5. Displacement: It refers to aggression shown towards the weaker person who, is unlikely to react to aggression. Usually members of the majority group show, aggressive behaviour towards minority group using abusive language or even, physically assaulting the minority group., 6. Observing the Aggressive Model: Albert Bandura shows the role of modelling in, learning aggression. For example, child observes aggression and violence on television, and may start imitating that behaviour., 7. Provocation: Anger provoking action by others. For example, insults or threats,, physical aggression or dishonesty may provoke aggression., , 256, , Psychology—XII
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8. Availability of Weapons of Aggression: Observing violence leads to a greater, likelihood of aggression on the part of the observer only if weapons of aggression like, a stick, pistol or knife are easily available., 9. Personality Factors: Aggressiveness is a personal quality. For example, there are, people who are naturally more hot tempered. It has been observed that people, who, have very low self-esteem, suffer from insecurity, may behave more aggressively, in, order to ‘boost their ego’., 10. Cultural Factors: The culture in which one grows can teach its members to be, aggressive or not to be aggressive by encouraging or praising aggressive behaviour, or discouraging aggressive behaviour. eg. Some tribes are peace loving and some are, very aggressive., Q8. What is Health?, Ans. WHO (World Health Organisation) focuses on Biological, Psychological and Social, aspects of health. It covers Physical, Mental, Spiritual aspects., • Health and illness are a matter of degree., • One may be suffering from a physically disabling disease but may be quiet healthy, otherwise. e.g., Baba Amte and Stephan Hawkins who suffer from crippling diseases, but have made great contributions in their field., • People differ across cultures in their thinking about when and how people fall ill, and therefore in the models which they use in prevention of diseases and promotion, of health. e.g., Chinese, Indian, Latin hold good health results from the harmonious, balance of various elements in the body., Western Cultures view health as a result of fully functioning machine which has no, blockage., The different systems of medicine developed in different cultures are based on various, models., WHO report says Asia, Africa, Latin America and other developing countries people die, due to communicable diseases. e.g., HIV/AIDS and TB; whereas the people belonging to, developed countries like US and UK people suffer more from cardiovascular diseases,, cancer and psychiatric disorders., Q9. How concept of health varies at various cultural levels?, Ans. At the individual level, there are various factors which are associated with physical wellbeing or illness in different cultures., 1. Cognition:, (i) The variations in seeking help of doctors whether doctor is required or not is, due to differences in beliefs people have relating to diseases., (ii) The level of awareness of or information about disease, and beliefs about how it, is caused also differ in cultures. e.g., small-pox is anger of MATA which needs, not to be treated., 2. Behaviour:, (i) Evidence shows that behaviour we engage in and our life-style greatly influence, health but different cultures perceive it differently. e.g., drug abuse, smoking, and tobacco use, lack of physical exercise, etc. are associated with incidence of, coronary heart disease, cancer, etc. but in villages even children are allowed to, smoke., (ii) A new discipline called behavioural medicine has emerged which seeks to, alleviate stress through modification in behaviour, outlook and life-style. It is, basically behavioural modification to attain good health., , Psychology and Life, , 257
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3. Social and Cultural Factors:, (i) The relationship between hostility, anger and CHD is not found to be the same, in all cultures. e.g., India and China., (ii) Social and cultural norms associated with roles and gender etc. greatly influence, our health behaviour. e.g., medical treatment for female is delayed because, they are less valued, belief that they are hardy or the shame associated with, the disease., Q10. “Sustaining peace in the society is the biggest challenge for the modern world.” Discuss., Ans. • Peace is a state in which various elements function in harmonious relationship and, grow without interference in each other’s activities., • At a societal level, peace is necessary for growth and development. Bringing in and, sustaining peace in society demands many things in which the following are more, important., 1. Education of Peace:, • Just as man learns to fight and go to war, he can also learn to live peacefully., • It is necessary to educate the public and particularly the young men and women, to live in peace so that they may learn to look upon themselves as citizens to the, world., • The teaching of Gandhi ji’s truth and non-violence are very much relevant, nowadays to teach peace., 2. Development of International Relations: The promoting conducive international, relations, eliminating prejudices, stereotypes and discrimination will enhance, international co-operation and people will get the opportunity of coming into contact, with each other. Consequently, international objectives will be pursued and unity, would improve., 3. Social and Economic Welfare: Social and economic inequalities constitute the, greatest single enemy of permanent peace. In most of the places, where war and, conflict are taking places, poverty is very common. Therefore it is important that, steps be taken up to bridge the gap between the ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’., , TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, 1. Define environmental psychology., 2. What is ‘culture of poverty’?, 3. What is ‘catharsis?, 4. Ability to mentally deal with high density or crowded environment refers to—, (a) Crowding tolerance, (b) Personal space, (c) Social disadvantage, (d) Mob-behaviour, 5. Dominating and bullying others without provocation is known as ________., 6. Aggression meant to obtain a certain goal or object is known as _________ Aggression. , (CBSE Delhi 2014), 7. Physical environment exists mainly for use by human beings for their comfort is, suggested by _________ perspective., (CBSE Delhi 2013), , 258, , Psychology—XII
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8. State in which a person feels she/he has lost something valuable and is not getting what, she/he deserve in known as _____________., (CBSE Delhi 2012), (a) Discrimination (b) Deprivation, (c) Poverty, (d) Disadvantages, 9. __________ is study of the relationship between living things and their environment. , (CBSE Delhi 2010, 2011), 10. Forceful destructive behaviour towards another person or object is described as: , (CBSE Delhi 2008, 2010), (a) Aggression, (b) Violence, (c) Frustration, (d) Irritation, 11. Ability to deal mentally with high density or crowded environment refers to:, , (a) Crowded tolerance, (c) Social disadvantage, , (CBSE Delhi 2009), (b) Personal space, (d) Mob behaviours, , 12. What is personal space?, , (CBSE Delhi 2010), , Part-B, 13. What is ‘Antyodaya’?, 14. Enumerate any two consequences of crowding., 15. Explain the term ‘crowding’., 16. What is ‘crowding tolerance’?, 17. Give two psychological characteristics of poverty., , Part-C, 18. Discriminate between instrumental and hostile aggressions., 19. Suggest strategies to protect the environment from pollution., 20. Describe any three factors/situational factors that lead to aggression., 21. “Discrimination is both a cause and consequence of poverty.” Comment., 22. How are poverty, deprivation and social disadvantage related to discrimination?, 23. Explain the situational factors that can cause aggression., 24. Discuss the psychological impact of television on behaviour., , Part-D, 25. What can be done to reduce aggression and violence in society?, 26. Discuss the impact of poverty on the individual function of poor people., 27. Discuss various views of the human environmental relationship., 28. Discuss environmental effects on human behaviour., , , Psychology and Life, , 259
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9, , Developing, Psychological Skills, , FACTS THAT MATTER, • Psychology is based on certain basic assumptions. It is generally assumed that psychologists, have interest in:, • People • Abilities • Temperament, • A professional psychologist exhibit a willingness to provide help by using his/her, knowledge., He/she is actively involved in obtaining:, Client’s History, , Assessment of his/her personality, , Socio-cultural environment, , • A client refers to an individual/group/organisation who on his/her own seeks help, guidance, or intervention from a psychologist with respect to any problem faced by him/her., Skill is proficiency, facility or dexterity that is acquired or developed through training and, experience., The Webster Dictionary defines it as “possession of the qualities required to do something, done., • American Psychological Association (1973) identifzed skills essential for professional, psychologists, and recommended at least 3 sets of skills:, • Assessment of individual differences, • Behaviour modification skills, • Counselling and guidance skills, • Recognization and application of these skills and competencies have strengthened the, foundation and practices of applied psychology in a positive way., Basic skills or competencies which psychologists have identified for becoming an effective, psychologists are:, • General skills • Observational skills • Specific skills, • General skills include personal as well as intellectual skills., Psychologists as researchers and practitioners do in the field is to pay attention, watch, and listen carefully., A psychologist is like an instrument that absorbs all sources of information from the, environment., • Observational skills:, A psychologist engages in observing various facets of surroundings including people and, varying events., In addition to physical surrounding, a psychologist actively engages in observing people, , 260
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and their actions. This may include the demographic features (age, gender, stature, race,, etc.), ways of dealing and relating with others, pattern of behaviours in the presence of, others, etc., • Major Approaches to Observation:, (i) Naturalistic Observation: Primary way of learning about the way people behave in, a given setting., (ii) Participant Observation: The observer is actively involved in the process of, observing by becoming an active member of the setting where the observation takes, place., , Specific Skills:, — Core/Basic to the field of psychological service, e.g.,, — Psychologists working in clinical settings need to be trained in various techniques, of therapeutic interventions, psychological assessment and counselling., — Specific skills of competencies are required for a very specialized professional, functioning nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quite a bit., — Not exclusive to an area., Specific Skills and Competencies, (a) Communication Skills, (b) Psychological Testing Skills, (c) Interviewing Skills Counselling, (d) Counselling Skill., 1. It is generally assumed that psychologists have interest in people, their abilities and, temperaments., 2. A psychologist from any field is required to have interest in other people and exhibits a, willingness to provide help by using his/her knowledge of the discipline., 3. Client is a special term, may refer to an individual/group/organization who on his/her, own seeks help, guidance or intervention from a psychologist with respect to any problem, faced by him/her., 4. The term ‘skill’ may be defined as proficiency, facility or dexterity that is acquired or, developed through training and experience., 5. Assessment of individual differences, behaviour modification skills, and counselling and, guidance skills., 6. How to differentiate between a pseudo-psychologist from a real psychologist:, (a) Professional training, (b) Educational background, (c) Institutional affiliation, (d) Experience in providing service, (e) Training as a researcher, (f) International of certain professional values, (g) Knowledge of tools used by psychologists, , Developing Psychological Skills, , 261
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7. Research psychologists and applied psychologists. Some psychologists carry out research, to propound or investigate theoretical formulations while others are concerned with our, daily life activities and behaviour., 8. The basic skills or competencies which psychologist fall into three broad sections, namely,, (a) General Skills, (b) Observational Skills, (c) Specific Skills., 9. Genetic in nature., 10. Specific Skills., 1. Specific skills and competencies are required for a very specialized professional, functioning., 2. They are not exclusive to an area., 3. Relevant specific skills and competencies can be classified as follows:, (a) Communication Skills, , , , , (i) Speaking, (ii) Active listening, (iii) Body language or non-verbal skills, , (b) Psychological Testing Skills, (c) Interviewing Skills, (d) Counselling Skills, (i) Empathy, (ii) Positive, (iii) Authenticity, • The general and specific skills form the core competencies essential for a psychologist, to act in a more responsive and ethical manner. Before entering any professional arena,, it, therefore, becomes pertinent for a psychologist to equip himself/herself with these, indispensable competencies., • General skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. These skills are essential, for all professional psychologists, whether they are working in the field of clinical and, health psychology, industrial/organizational, social, educational, or in environmental, settings or are acting as consultants., • Specific skills are core/basic to the field of psychological service. For example, psychologist, working in clinical setting needs to be trained in various techniques of therapeutic, interventions, psychological assessment, and counselling., • In order to become an effective psychologist, one needs to have certain characteristics such, as competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for people’s, rights and dignity, etc., • Observation skills are basic skills and are used by psychologists as a starting point for, providing insight into behaviour. The two major approaches to observation are naturalistic, observation and participant observation., • Interviewing is a process of face-to-face conversation between two or more people that, follows a basic guest ion and answer firm at. It proceeds through three stages which, include the warm-up (opening stage), the question and answer (the body), and the closing, stage., , 262, , Psychology—XII
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• Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are important tools, used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training is required, for administration, scoring and interpretation of tests., • Counselling, , Specific skills are core/basic to the psychological service. Psychologists working in, clinical settings need to be trained is various techniques of therapeutic interventions,, psychological assessment and counselling., Counselling involves helping relationship, that includes some are seeking help and some, one willing to give help., Counsellor understand the elements about counselling like responding to all aspects of, personality, acceptance of the client’s perception, confidentiality, voluntary nature and, verbal and bon-verbal communication., Counsellors follow the process of counselling. The qualities that are associated with, effective counsellors are (i) Authenticity (ii) Positive regard for others (iii) Ability to, empathise and paraphrasing., Prevention seeks to reduce the incidence or new cases of social and emotional problems in, the population., Community Psychology and related community mental health movement try to prevent, mental disorders from developing, to seek out, troubled people, to find the social conditions, that may be causing human problems and to make available affordable mental health services., , WORDS THAT MATTER, • Applied Psychology: The practical application of what is known about the mind, brain, and behaviour as a result of theoretical and experimental psychology., • Assessment skill: Specific skill of a psychologist to follow systematic testing procedure, with an attitude of objectivity, scientific orientation and standardised interpretation., • Client refers to an individual/group/organisation who on his/her own seeks help, guidance, or intervention from a psychologist with respect to any problem faced by him/her., • Cognitive skill: Ability to understand and process mental faculties., • Competence: Capability of developing skills., • Counselling: Counselling is a therapeutic process through which individuals are, helped to define goals, make decisions and solve problems related to the personal-socialeducational and career concerns., • The term ‘skill’ may be defined as proficiency, facility or dexterity that is acquired or, developed through training and experience., • General skills are generic in nature and are needed by all psychologists irrespective of, their field of specialization., • Ethical observation: Awareness of the ethical (Values) standards and codes during, observation i.e. respecting privacy of people., • Naturalistic observation is one of the primary ways of- learning about the way people, behave in a given setting., • Participant observation is the variation of the method of naturalistc observations., Here the observer is actively involved in the process of observing by becoming an active, member of the setting where the observation takes place., • Communication is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in, which feelings and ideas are expressed as verbal and/or non-verbal message that are sent,, received and comprehended., • Interpersonal awareness: Ability to examine and considering ones own motives,, attitudes behaviours and ability to be sensitive to ones own behaviour and others., • Intervention and consultation skills: Skill of helper to deal with the client establishing, therapeutic relationship, providing positive regard and choosing right technique to treat, the problem., • Intrapersonal communication involves communication with yourself. It encompasses, such activities as thought processes, personal decision of making and focusing oneself., , Developing Psychological Skills, , 263
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• Interpersonal communication refers to the communication that takes place between, two or more persons who establish a communication relationship., • Public communication is characterised by a speaker sending a message to an audience., • Speech only a biological act; the utterance of sound, possibly the use of language., • Paraphrasing allows you to understand how much he/she understood of what was, communicated., • The consistency between current and past patterns of behaviour, as well as harmony between, verbal and non-verbal communication, is termed as congruency in communication., • Psychological assessment is a basic competency required by psychologists. It is systematic, testing procedures involving objectivity, standardization and systematic procedures., • An interview refers purposeful conversation between two or more people that follows a, basic ‘question and answer‘ format., , NCERT TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED, Q1. What competencies are required for becoming an effective psychologist?, Ans. For becoming an effective psychologists, following competences are essential :, (a) General Skills (b) Observational Skills (c) Specific Skills, (a) General Skills:, • General skills are essential for all professional psychologists., • These skills include personal as well as intellectual skills., • Once ensuring that a student has these skills subsequent training in his/her, area of specializations to him/her intellectual and personal skill are as follows:, Interpersonal Skills: Ability to listen and be empathic. It may be verbal or non-verbal., • Cognitive:, — Ability to solve problems — Having curiosity and flexibility, • Affective Skills:, — Openness to ideas, — Agreeableness, — Honesty, • Expressive skills: Ability to communicate in verbal and non-verbal form., • Reflective Skills:, — Intrapersonal intelligence — Ability to examine own motives, attitude and behaviour., • Personal skills:, — Personal hygiene, — Time management, (b) Observational Skills:, Psychologists should have training in objectives and systematic observation., • They should have skill to observe various aspects of surrounding including, people and varying events., • Psychologists should engage in observing people and their actions with, following precautions:, — Patience., — Optimistic curiosity., — Respecting clients privacy., — Awareness of people reactions, emotions and motivation., — Training good questions which could be answered during observation., (c) If the psychologist wants to work in a specialized field then professional training in, specific skill development is essential., The main specific skills are as follows:, (a) communication skills, (b) Psychological testing skill, (c) Interviewing skill, (d) Counselling skill, Q2. What are the generic skills needed by all psychologists?, Ans. General/Generic Skills:, • These are essential for all professional psychologists., • These skills include personal as well as intellectual skills., Generic (intellectual and personal skills) are as follows:, Interpersonal Skills: Ability to listen and be empathic. It may be verbal or non-verbal., , 264, , Psychology—XII
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Q3., Ans., , Q4., Ans., , • Cognitive:, — Ability to solve problems, — Having curiosity and flexibility, • Affective Skills:, — Openness to ideas, — Agreeableness, — Honesty, • Expressive Skills: Ability to communicate in verbal and non-verbal form., • Reflective Skills:, — Intrapersonal intelligence, — Ability to examine own motives, attitude and behaviour., • Personal skills:, — Personal hygiene, — Time management, Define communication. Which component of the communication process is most, important? Justify your answer with relevant examples., Communication is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in, which feelings and ideas are expressed as verbal and/or non-verbal messages that are, sent, received and comprehended., Component of the Communication:, The mort important component of communication is speaking with the use of language., • Language involves use of vocabulary which includes words by symbols., • Communicator must know how to use words appropriately in organized, and understandable form., • It is necessary to be clear and precise., • Communication takes place within a context and needs to consider the other’s, frame of reference., • It is important for the speaker to adjust his vocabulary level and choice of words to, fit the level of the listener., • Slang expressions, words unique to a culture, euphemism can become obstacles in, good communication., • Listening may appear as a passive behaviour, as it involves silence. But this is far, from true., • Listening requires a person to be attentive, patient, non-judgmental and have the, capacity to analyze and respond., • It is an active process., • Hearing and listening are not the same, hearing is biological mechanism. It involves, reception of a message through sensory channels., Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a, psychological test., • Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are important, tools used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training is, required for administration, scoring and interpretation of tests., • Psychologists study individuals, differences based on factors such as occupation, age,, gender, education, culture, etc., • While using psychological test, following factors must be kept in mind:, 1. An attitude of objectivity, 2. Scientific orientation, 3. Standardised Interpretation must be kept in mind. For example, in, organizational and personnel work, in business and industry, where specialized, tests are used to select individuals for specific jobs, it is essential to use actual, performance records or ratings as a criterion for establishing validity of a test., • Suppose the personnel department wants to know whether a certain psychological, test can help it to identify potentiality of best stenographers., • It must be established that the test differentiates among employees of several, performance levels., • It should be found the performance on the job of a newly employed worker selected on, the basis of test indeed matches with his/her test scores. , , Developing Psychological Skills, , 265
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Q5. What is the typical format of a counselling interview?, Ans. Interview refers to purposeful conversation through face-to-face interactions., • It follows a basic question-answer format., • First, the objectives of the interview are set., • The interviewer then prepares on interview format., • There is a basic format which is followed, regardless of the interview’s purpose; i.e.,, an interview has three stages:, — Opening, — The body, — The closing, A. Opening of the Interview:, 1. In involves establishing report between the two communicators, so that the, interview becomes comfortable., 2. Generally, the interviewer starts the conversation and does most of the talking, at the outset. This serves two functions:, (a) It establishes the goal of the interview, (b) It gives the interviewee time to become comfortable with the situation, and the interviewer., B. Body of the Interview:, 1. This is the heart of the process., 2. In this stage, the interviewer asks questions in an attempt to generate, information and data that are required to fulfil/required for the purpose., Sequence of Questions:, To accomplish the purpose of an interview, the interviewer prepares set of questions, called a schedule for different domains or categories he/she wants to cover., 1. To form the schedule, the interviewer must first decide on the domain/categories, under which information is to be generated. For example for questions used in job, interview (box 9.5), the interviewer selected various categories such as not use of the, organization last worked for, satisfaction with the past job, views on product etc., 2. These domains/categories and the questions within them are formed ranging, from easy to answer to difficult to answer., C. Closing of the Interview:, While closing the interview, the interviewer should:, 1. Summarise what she/he has been able to gather., 2. Give a chance to the interviewee to ask questions or offer comments. One, should end with a discussion of the next step to be taken., , MORE QUESTIONS SOLVED, I. Learning Checks, , ( LC : 1 Mark ), , Q1. The skills which are core to the field of psychological service are known as:, (a) specific skills, (b) general skills, (c) communication skills, (d) observational skills, Q2. Mindfulness is related to—, (a) Hinduism, (b) Buddhism, (c) Jainism, (d) None of these, Q3. Which of the following characteristics is related to effective counsellors?, (a) Authenticity, (b) Empathy, (c) Paraphrasing, (d) All of them, Q4. Which of the following are the example of specific skills?, (a) Communication skills, (b) Counselling skills, (c) Interviewing skills, (d) All of them, Q5. Psychologists study many differences based on factor such as—, (a) occupation, (b) age, (c) gender, (d) all of them, Q6. Which of the following are not the section of basic skills?, (a) General skills, (b) Natural skills, (c) Specific skills, (d) Observational skills, , 266, , Psychology—XII
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Q7. Which of the following is not the interpersonal skill?, (a) Ability to listen and empathic, (b) Interest in other’s cultures, (c) Respect for other’s values, (d) Ability to solve problems, Q8. Which of the following is not the example of general skills?, (a) Cognitive skills (b) Expressive skills (c) Assessment skills (d) Reflective skills, Q9. Empathy is a part of ……………………skills., (a) communication (b) interviewing, (c) counselling, (d) psychological testing, Q10. Intrapersonal communication refers to the communication that takes place between two, or more persons. (True or False?), Q11. The initial step in the listening process is:, (a) attention to stimulus, (b) reception of stimulus, (c) paraphrasing of sentences, (d) assignment of meaning., , Answer, 1. (b), , 2. (b), , 3. (b), , 4. (d), , 5. (d), , II. Very Short Answer Type Questions, , 6. (c), , 7. (d), , 8. (c), , 9. (c), , 10. False 11. (b), , (VSA: 2 Marks ), , Q1. Define the term skill., Ans. • The Skill is individual’s ability to perform a task with ease and precision., • It is proficiency or dexterity that is acquired through training and experience., Q2. Who is a client in Psychology?, Ans. A client refers to an individual/group/organization who on his/her own seeks help from a, psychologist with respect to any problem., Q3. How client is different from patient?, Ans. Client is active. The success of counselling depends on client as well as the counsellor., , Patient is passive. He/she simply takes drug or follows instruction given by the doctor., Q4. What are personal skills?, Ans. Personal organization, personal hygiene, time management and appropriate desires are, examples of personal skills., Q5. What skills have been recommended by APA for a professional Psychologist?, Ans. American Psychological Association (1973) identified skills essential for professional, psychologists, and recommended at least three sets of skills :, – Assessment of individual differences – Behaviour modification skills, – Counselling and guidance skills, Recognization and application of these skills & competencies have strengthened the, foundation & practices of applied psychology in a positive way., Q6. What is naturalistic observation?, Ans. Primary ways of learning about the way people behave in a given setting. Let us take an, example:, Suppose you are interested to know how people behave in response to a heavy discount., For this, you could visit the shopping mall where the discounted items are displayed and, systematically observe what people do and say before and after the purchases have been, made., Q7. What is participant-observation?, Ans. There the observer is actively involved in the process of observing by becoming an active, member of the setting where the observation takes place., For example, For the problem above, the observer may take a part-time job in a shopping, mall variations in the behaviour of customers., , Developing Psychological Skills, , 267
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This technique is widely used by anthropologists., Q8. How is communication different from speech?, Ans. Speech is a biological act. It involves the utterance of sound and possible use of language., Communication involves two people who give and receive meaningful message., Thus speech may not have any meaning in the true sense but communication is, essentially a meaningful process., Q9. How can you differentiate listening from hearing?, Ans. Hearing is a biological activity involving reception of message through sensory channels., It is a part of listening., Listening involves reception of message with giving attention to the message, and, responding to the message received., Q10. What is ‘Paraphrasing‘?, (2008), And. Paraphrasing is one of the tools of the effective communication involving careful listening., ‘Paraphrasing‘ stands for restatement of the message received in the listener’s own words, which conveys that message has been understood and ensures effective communication., , III. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-I: 3 Marks), , Q1. What are advantages and disadvantages of observation?, Ans. • Major advantage of observation is that it allows behaviour to be seen & studied in its, natural setting., • People from outside or those already working in a setting can be trained to use it., • One disadvantage of observation is that events being observed are subject of bids due, to the feelings of the people involved as well as of the observers., • Generally day-to-day activities in a given setting are fairly routine which can go, unnoticed by the observer., • Mere presence of the observer may contaminate the results/observations., Q2. What are specific skills?, Ans. • Core/basic to the field of psychological service, For example psychologists working in, clinical settings need to be trained in various techniques of therapeutic interventions,, psychological assessment and counselling., • Specific skills of competencies are required for a very specialized professional, functioning nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quite a bit., • Not exclusive to an area., Q3. What do you understand by communication skill in a professional psychologist?, Ans. Learning how to be an effective communicator is not just an academic exercise. It is one, of the most important skills you will need to succeed in life. For example to do well in, class one should be able to ask and answer questions, summarize opinions, distinguish, facts from opinions and interact fruitfully. One should also have good listening., Skill is order to comprehend the information presented in class and what others say, verbally and non-verbally. And requires good presentation skills to give briefings or to, present reports on projects etc., Q4. Discuss features of an effective speaking., Ans. Major component of communication is speaking with the use of language., • Language involves use of vocabulary which includes words by symbols., • Communicator must know how to use words appropriately in organized and, understandable form., • It is necessary to be clear and precise., • Communication takes place within a context and needs to consider the other’s, , 268, , Psychology—XII
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frame of reference., • It is important for the speaker to adjust his vocabulary level and choice of words to, fit the level of the listener., • Slang expressions, words unique to a culture, euphemism can become obstacles in, good communication., Q5. Mention some tips to improve the listening skills., Ans. Listening is most important component of communication. It can be improved through, following ways:, • Both the sender as well as the receiver are equally responsible for effective communication., • Be a patient listener., • Avoid ego speech, i.e., Allow others also to put their point of view., • Control distractions., • In a doubt paraphrase., • Appropriate posture while listening., • Good listening is an important characteristic and skill of a counsellor., , IV. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 4 Marks), , Q1. Explain types of interview questions and give examples of each., Ans. Direct Question: They are explicit and require specifying information. For example,, “Where did you last work?”, Open-ended Question: They are less direct and specify only the topic. For example,, “How happy are you with your job on the whole?”, Close-ended Question: They provide response alternatives, narrowing the response, variations. For example, “Do you think knowledge of a product or communication skill is, more important for a salesperson?”, Bipolar Question: It is a form of close-ended question. It requires a ‘yes‘ or ‘no‘ response., For example, “Would you like to work for the company?”, Leading Question: It encourages a response in favour of a specific answer. For example,, “Wouldn’t you say you are in favour of having officer’s union in the company?”, Mirror Question: They are intended to get a person to reflect on what he or she had, said and expand on it. For example, you said, “I work so hard but I am unable to get, success.” Please explain as to why this happens., Q2. How to differentiate between pseudo-psychologist from a real psychologist?, Ans. The answer can be found by asking questions like:, — Professional training, — Educational background, — Institutional affiliation, — His/her experience in a particular specified field., (a) Training as a research and internalization of certain professional value is critical., Knowledge of tools used by psychologists, their methods and theories are required, to develop psychological expertise., For example, a professional psychologist addresses the problem in a scientific, level. They take their problems to the laboratory or field settings to solve various, problems. He/She tries to find the answer in mathematical probability. Only then, he/she arrives to psychological principles or laws. , (b) Some psychologists carry out research to propound or investigate theoretical, formulations while others and concerned with our daily life activities and behaviour., We need scientists to develop theories and others to find solutions to human, problems. Both are real psychologists., (c) Conditions and competencies are necessary besides research skills for a psychologist., , Developing Psychological Skills, , 269
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(d) Basic skills or competencies which psychologists have identified for becoming an, effective psychologists are: (i) General skills (ii) Observational skills (iii) Specific skills, Q3. What are observational skills essential for a professional psychologist?, Ans. Psychologists as researchers and practitioners pay attention, watch and listen carefully., They use all their senses, noticing what is seen, heard, smelt, touched, tasted., A psychologist, thus, is like an instrument that absorbs all sources of information from, the environment., Psychologists should have training in objectives and systematic observation., • They should have skill to observe various aspects of surrounding including people, and varying events., • Psychologists should engage in observing people and their actions with following, precautions:, — Patience, — Optimistic curiosity, — Respecting clients privacy., — Awareness of peoples reactions, emotions and motivation., — Training good questions which could be answered during observation., Q4. Define communication. Mention its main characteristics., Ans. Communication is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in, which feelings and ideas are expressed as verbal and/or non-verbal messages that are, sen, received and Comprehended., , Characteristics of communication:, • Dynamic process, because it is constantly in a state of change., • Continuous process, because it never stops., • Irreversible because, once we send a message, we cannot take it back., • Interactive because, we are constantly in contact with other people and with ourselves., Q5. Explain the components in the process of communication., Ans. The process of communication may occur in three forms:, • Accidental—communication without intention., • Expressive—resulting from emotional state of the person to express his/her feelings, or ideas., • Rhetorical—resulting from the specific goal., The process of human communication occurs at following levels:, (a) Intrapersonal—communicating with oneself e.g., thought processes or decision-making., (b) Interpersonal—occurs between two or more persons., (c) Public—characterized by a speaker sending a message to an audience. It may be, direct or indirect. e.g., messages through radio or TV., The process of communication involves two or more than two people. i.e.,, (a) Sender, (b) Receiver, • The sender encodes the message. Encoding is a component of communication., • Encoding refers to taking ideas, giving meaning to it and putting them in message form., • Receiver does decoding. Decoding is another component of communication., • Decoding refers to translating the message into understandable forms using his, primary signal system., Between encoding and decoding, various factors like non-verbal cues, aspects of, paralanguage, communication channel, actual words used, artifacts, amount of, information and noise influence the communication., , V. Short Answer Type Questions, , (SA-II : 6 Marks), , Q1. Discuss listening as an effective component of communication., (CBSE 2011, 2014), Ans. • Listening may appear as a passive behaviour, as it involves silence. But this is far from true., , 270, , Psychology—XII
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• Listening requires a person to be attentive, patient, non-judgmental and have the, capacity to analyze and respond., • It is an active process., • Hearing and listening are not the same. Hearing is biological mechanism. It involves, reception of a message through sensory channels., , Listening involves following components:, 1. Reception: (i) Reception is initial step in the listening process., (ii) A message could be auditory or/and visual., (iii) Reception refers to an overall effect of various sense organs. People also listen, through their visual system. They observe person’s facial expressions, posture, and appearance which provide important cues that may not be obvious merely, by listening to the verbal part of the message., 2. Attention: (i) Once the stimulus/message is received, it reaches the attention stage., (ii) In this stage, the other stimuli recede so that we can concentrate on specific, words or visual symbols., (iii) Normally attention is divided between what you are attempting to listen to, and, what is happening around you, and what is going on in your mind. For example,, you are watching a movie. The person in front of you is constantly whispering to his/, her friend. There is a buzz in the sound system. So your attention is being pulled in, different directions. This makes it difficult for you to receive signals/messages., 3. Paraphrasing: (i) Paraphrasing is summarizing the content in ones own words., (ii) It allows you to understand how much he/she understood of what was communicated., (iii) If someone cannot write or repeat a summary of what was communicated, he/she, probably didn’t get the whole message., 4. Assignment of Meaning: The process of putting the stimulus we have received into, some predetermined category develops as we acquire language. e.g., categorising, the word ‘cheese‘ may include factors as the taste, dairy product, colour, etc., 5. Role of Culture in Listening: Culture influences our listening and learning, abilities. For example, Asian cultur like Indians are silent communicators when, receiving messages from seniors., Some cultures focus on controlling attention. For example, Buddhism have a notion, called ‘Mindfulness‘. It means devoting your complete attention to what you are doing., Q2. What do you understand by the term ‘counselling’? Explain the characteristics of an, effective counsellor., Ans. • Counselling is “a therapeutic and growth process through which individuals are, helped to define goals, make decisions and solve problems related to the personal–, social–educational and career concerns.”, • Counselling involves helping relationship, that includes someone seeking help and, someone willing to give help who is capable of or trained to help in a setting that, permits help to be given and received., The effectiveness of the counsellor is assessed by:, 1. The ability to successfully resolve the client’s problems., 2. Certain skills and characteristics which help in the process of counselling., 3. Following are the characteristics of an effective counsellor., 1. Authenticity: Authenticity means ‘Being yourself’. It stands for accepting and, knowing oneself and one’s positive as well as negative aspects of personality, i.e.,, accepting weaknesses as well as the strength of oneself., • Authenticity is acting without mask, without disguising oneself, without, , Developing Psychological Skills, , 271
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playing any role. (It is like you are not an actor in some play.), • It means that ones behaviour is consistence with his image and self-concept., • It refers to congruence between how individual describe himself that is his ‘I’, and what is collective judgment of others regarding him that is his ‘Me’., , For example, When a friend tells you that he had spent all of his money on a useless, venture and seeks your advise whether he should tell this honestly to his parents?, If you feel that being honest to the parents is important and you give the same, advice to him, then you are being authentic., 2. Positive Regard: Positive regard is accepting the person as he/she is, with nonjudgmental and unbiased attitude with all his strengths and weaknesses and gray, areas of his personality., It can be done by:, (a) using the word ‘I’ rather than ‘You’., (b) giving him freedom to say anything he wishes to say., (c) expressing yourself, your feelings and opinions., (d) responding carefully., (e) not engaging in labelling. Being non-judgmental., , For example—If your friend tells you that last night he behaved very rudely with, his parents and now he does not know what to do, instead of lecturing him on the, mannerism and labelling him as ill mannered, you should try to understand him,, go deep into the problem and situation and then give any advice, if needed., 3. Empathy: It is the ability to understand the problem of the client ‘as if’ it was your, own, without loosing the ‘as if’ quality—it means that you should be scientific enough, to feel the pain of the other person on the same level as he is, but it does not imply that, you loose control over yourself, in that case you won’t be able to help the person., , For example, Suppose your best friends’ grandmother died recently, you should be able to, feel the same emotion with the same intensity but it does not mean you go into depression., 4. Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing involves putting the message into your own words., Example: Client—I can not cope with the pressure of studies. I feel as if I am being, deprived of the joys of life., Counsellor—You are frustrated with studying all the time, which means no time for play., Q3. To be an effective counsellor, it is mandatory that he/she undergoes professional training., Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your arguments., Ans. Psychologist must be a trained professional. If he/she is not trained then he/she can do, more harm than any good., Training is a prerequisite for developing a competent counsellor. To develop competencies,, psychologists must undergo proper training and education under guided supervision., The consequences of getting into a wrong vocation are pretty serious. If a person enters, a job, for which he/she does not have requisite aptitude, he can develop serious problems, of adjustments, develop negative emotions, etc., Social workers, marriage counsellors, family therapists, psychologists, student, counsellors all have their ethical codes and ascribe minimum educational and professional, qualifications. Awareness of ethical standards, codes and proper training is extremely, important because counselling is a part of the service sector. Not following the ethical, and professional standards may have legal implications., Q4. What are the ethical considerations in client-counsellor relationships?, Ans. The practical knowledge of ethical domains can guide the practice of counselling in, achieving its desired purpose. Some of the APA practice guidelines are :, , 272, , Psychology—XII
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Q5., Ans., , Q6., Ans., , Q7., Ans., , • Knowledge of ethical/professional codes, standards, and guidelines; knowledge of, statutes, rules, regulations, and case law relevant to the practice of psychology., • Recognize and analyse ethical setting., • Recognize and understand the ethical dimensions/features of his/her own attitudes, and practice in the clinical setting., • Seek appropriate information and consultation when faced with ethical issue., • Practice appropriate professional assertiveness related to ethical issues. , Identify an aspect of your friend’s personal life that he/she wants to change. As a student, of psychology, think of specific ways in which you can devise a programme to help your, friend modify or solve his/her problem ., I will suggest my friend to develop wellness cycle, i.e., a process of coping with stress, effectively by focusing on behavioural, physical and emotional responses. e.g., a friend of, mine has moved to a new city with a new job but is extremely afraid of being all on her, own as she is extremely shy and does not make friends easily., • She may either attempt to deal with this situation by remaining indoors after work,, staying to herself and thus wallowing in her misery., • She may choose affective methods of coping with this stressor. Following the, wellness cycle, she may select any number of health promoting lifestyle responses., For instance, she may force herself to take initiative at work so that people will get, to know her. This will help build her self-esteem. She may use adaptive physical, responses, for instance, she may start aerobic classes or run every morning. This, will make her feel more energetic as well as it may give her the opportunity to meet, more people with similar interests. Finally, she may engage in adaptive emotional, responses like restructuring her thoughts in such a way that she reminds herself, everyday that she is happy, she is friendly, and people do like her., Discuss main elements of counselling., The following elements about counselling are common to the major theoretical approaches, to counselling:, 1. Counselling involves responding to the feeling, thoughts and actions of the clients., 2. Counselling involves a basic acceptance of the client’s perception, unconditional of positive regard and feelings without using any evaluative standards., 3. Confidentiality and privacy constitute essential ingredients—in the, counselling setting., 4. Counselling is voluntary. It takes place when the client approaches a counsellor., A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information., 5. Counselling is an interactive process. Counsellor and clients both transmit and, receive verbal and non-verbal messages during the process. Therefore awareness, and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important prerequisite for the, counsellor’s effectiveness., Mention some myths attached to counselling., • Counselling is not merely giving information., • Counselling is not giving advice although information and advice may be sought., • Counselling is not selection and placement of individuals onto jobs or course, although, career counselling may be provided to help the person choose among varied career options., • Counselling is not interviewing but it may be used as a tool in counselling., • Counselling does not involve changing or influencing attitude, belief and behaviour by, persuasion, threat, compulsion, or admonition., , Developing Psychological Skills, , 273
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TEST ASSIGNMENT, Part-A, , 1. Ability to solve problems is–, (a) Interpersonal skill, (b) Cognitive skill, 2. Ability to examine and consider one’s own motives is–, (a) Personal skill, (b) Reflective skill., 3. Naturalistic observation is one of the primary ways of learning about the way people, behave is a given situation. (T/F), 4. While using psychological tests, an attitude of ________________ and _____________, interpretation must be kept in mind., 5. “Wouldn’t you say you are in favour of having officer’s union in the company?” is a, ______________ question in an interview., 6. The basic format regardless of the interview in purpose is divided in three stages namely, the ______________, the ______________ and the ________________., 7. Summerizing the content in ones own words is called _____________________., 8. Non-verbal communication is known as __________________., 9. Translating the message in understandable form is known as ________________., 10. Getting an idea, giving it meaning and framing it in message form is named as _________., 11. Noise refers to _____________________., 12. Paraphrasing is a process in which feelings and ideas are expressed. (T/F) (CBSE Delhi 2014), 13. Decoding is taking ideas and goring them meaning. (T/F), (CBSE Delhi 2014), 14. Interpersonal communication involves communicating with two persons. (T/F), (CBSE Delhi 2013), 15. Non verbal communication is known as body language. (T/F), (CBSE Delhi 2014), 16. Body language is composed of all those messages that people exchange besides words. (T/F), (CBSE Delhi 2011), 17. The initial step in listening process is:, (CBSE Delhi 2010), (a) Attention to stimulus, (b) Reception of stimulus, (c) Paraphrasing of sentences, (d) Assignment of meaning, 18. ________ involves making summary of the ideas just received and is restatement of what, is understood., (CBSE Delhi 2010), 19. Interpersonal communication involves communicating with yourself. (T/F) (CBSE Delhi 2009), , Part-B, , 20., 21., 22., 23., 24., 25., , Define skill., What are personal and intellectual skills?, Explain Authenticity as a quality of effective counsellor., (CBSE Delhi 2010), State the specific skills., What skills are essential for a psychologist to administer psychological tests?, Explain “Paraphrasing” in human communication., (CBSE Delhi 2009), , 26., 27., 28., 29., 30., 31., , Describe intra-personal communication., Explain interpersonal communication., What is communication/interpersonal communication?, Explain briefly the process of communication., What is encoding in human communication?, Explain the skills of listening., , 274, , Part-C, , Psychology—XII, , (CBSE Delhi 2011)
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32. What is non-verbal communication?, 33. Describe three stages of interview., 34. Describe components of human communication., 35., 36., 37., 38., 39., 40., 41., 42., 43., 44., 45., , (CBSE Delhi 2010), (CBSE Delhi 2009, 2013-14), , Part-D, , How body language facilitates communication., Discuss importance of communication in life., Discuss importance of psychological testing., What are observational skills required to be an effective Psychologist. (CBSE Delhi 2010), Discus the competencies that must be kept in mind while psychological testing., (CBSE Delhi 2014), Explain ‘positive regard for others’ in the context of counselling., (CBSE Delhi 2009), Describe the process of counselling., (CBSE Delhi 2008), Who is an effective counseller? Discuss characteristics., (CBSE Delhi 2014), Discuss stages of counselling process., Discuss the elements of counselling., Explain ethics of counsellr-counselle relationship., , , Developing Psychological Skills, , 275
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Section B, Practical, , RAVEN'S STANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES (RSFM), OBJECTIVE:, To measure eductive component of “g” as defined in Spearman’s Two Factor theory using, Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices., BASIC CONCEPT, Intelligence, Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and knowing., Binet defined intelligence as the ability to understand well, reason well and judge well., According to Weschler, intelligence can be defined as the global and aggregate capacity of, an individual to think rationally, act purposefully and to deal effectively with his environment., Gardner and Sternberg have suggested that an intelligent individual not only adapts to, the environment but also actively shapes it., According to Robert Sternberg, Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape and to select, environment to accomplish one's goals and those of one’s society and culture. The psychometric, approaches express the individual’s performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities., On the other hand imformation processing approach describes the processes people use in, intellectual reasoning and problem solving., SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE, In 1927, a British psychologist, Charles Spearman proposed a two factor theory of, intelligence. According to him, intelligence consisted of a general factor ( g-factor) and specific, factors(s factor). The g factor includes mental operations which are primary and common to, all performances. S factor refers to specific abilities that help an individual to excel in specific, fields, for example—singers, scientists and athletes., TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS, I. On the basis of administration, Individual, , 276, , Group, , It can be administered to one person at a time, , It can be administered to several,, people simultaneously, , It requires the test administrator to establish a, rapport with the subject and be sensitive to his/, her feelings, moods and expressions during the, testing session., , Group tests do not allow such, opportunity to be familiar with, subjects feelings., , It allows people to answer orally or in written, form or manipulate objects as per the tester's, instructions., , Group tests generally seek, written answers usually in a, multiple choice format, , Eg. Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale, , Eg. Ravens Standard Progressive, Matrices, , Psychology—XII, , 276
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II. On the basis of nature of items used, Verbal, , Non Verbal, , Performance, , It requires subjects to give, verbal responses either, orally or in a written form., , The nonverbal teste use, pictures or illustrations as, test items., , It requires subjects to, manipulate objects and, other materials to perform, a task., , It can be administered only It can be administered to, to literate people., both literate and non, literate., , It can be administered to, both literate and illiterate., , Cultural bias, , Culture fair, , Culture fair, , Eg. Group test of, intelligence by Prayag, Mehata, , Eg. Army Beta P, , Koh’s Block Design, , Culture Bias Test, , Culture Fair Test, , Show bias to the culture in which they, are developed., , The test which does not discriminate, against individuals belonging to different, cultures., , Norms are developed for a particular, culture., , It can be applied equally meaningfully in, in all cultures., , It mostly uses language in constructing, test items., , It does not require language in item, construction., , Eg. Tests developed in America and, Europe represent urban and middle class, cultural ethos, , Eg. Koh’s Block Design, , METHOD, Preliminary Information, Name, Date of Birth, Age, Sex, Class, Date of conduction, Place of conduction, Testing Material, RSPM Test Booklet, RSPM Answer Sheet, RSPM Manual, RSPM Scoring key, Pencil,, Eraser,, DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST, The Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test was developed by J Raven, J.C. Raven, and H. C. Court. It consists of 60 non verbal items divided into 5 sets A, B, C, D, E each, comprising of 12 problems. The test was constructed to measure the eductive component of g,, as defined in Spearman's theory of intelligence. The problems are simple in the beginning and, become more and more difficult as one proceeds towards the last item., , Practical Skills, , 277
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Procedure, Rapport formation, The subject was called to the psychology and was made to sit comfortably. A friendly, conversation was held by asking her about her schooling, her parents, friends and her interests, in general. When the subject felt at ease, she was asked if she was ready for the test to begin., After an affirmative answer from her, she was given the following instructions., Instructions, (i) Here is a test booklet and a separate answer sheet on which you will record your, answers., (ii) Please ensure that you do not write anything on the test booklet., (iii) Please enter the required information i.e. Name, Age etc. in the answer sheet., (iv) Now open the first page of the test booklet to find problem A1. Now locate the column, of the numbers 1 to 12 under the heading Set A on your answer sheet., (v) Now look at problem A1. The upper portion of the page has a pattern with a piece, cut out of it. Select the one piece from the six options given below the pattern that, you think is right as it fits into the pattern. What would be the answer? (wait for the, subject to respond) Number 4 as you said is the right piece, so the answer is number, 4. You will now write 4 next to the number 1 under the heading set A on the answer, sheet., (vi) Similarly on every page of the booklet, there is a pattern with a portion missing. You, have to choose the right piece out of the options given below the pattern. Immediately, after deciding on the right option, you must write the option number next to the item, number on the answer sheet., (vii) The problems are simple in the beginning and get harder as you progress. Attempt, all problems. If you are not sure about a particular answer you may make a guess but, don’t leave any item unanswered., (viii) Make sure that you record the answers in the right column of the answer sheet., (ix) There is no time limit but try to finish as soon as possible., Precautions, 1. The room should be well lit and well ventilated., 2. There should not be any noise in the room., 3. The seating arrangement should be comfortable., 4. There is no time limit., 5. Instructions should be made clear to the subject., 6. No item should be left unanswered., 7. Proper rapport should be established before starting the practical., Test Administration, The subject was called to the psychology lab. After the rapport was established, instructions, were given and the test material was provided to her. After she completed the test, her answer, sheet was taken for scoring., Verbal Report, As given by the subject, Behavioural observation, Your observation of the subject, , 278, , Psychology—XII
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Scoring, Scoring is done by hand, with the help of a scoring key. Right answers are given 1 mark, and wrong answers are given zero. Then all the marks for each column are added. Thereafter,, a single score is obtained by adding the total scores of the five columns. The percentile score, ami grade corresponding to this are noted down from the manual for analysis., Discrepancy score, The difference between the score a person obtains on each set and that normally expected, for his total score is called the discrepancy score shown numerically as 0, –1, +2, –2, +1. If a, person's score on one of the sets deviates by more than 2, his total score on the scale cannot, be expected at its face value as a consistent estimate of his general capacity for intellectual, activity. However for general purposes the total score appears to be relatively valid even when, discrepancies of more than 2 points occur in the break up., RESULTS, Discrepancy scores, Sets, , A, , B, , C, , D, , E, , Total Score, , Actual, Expected, Discrepancy, Raw Score, , Percentile, , Grade, , Interpretation, , ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION, The raw score obtained by the subject was ______ and her score on five sets A, B, C, D, and E was______, ______, _______ and _______ respectively. The discrepancies corresponding, to raw scores came out to be _____, _____, _____, _____ and ______ respectively. Since the, discrepancies are not deviating from +2, -2, the scores are accepted to be valid measures of a, person’s general intellectual capacity. (Even if discrepancies of more than 2 points occur in, the break up, for general purposes the total score can be taken as relatively valid), The subject obtained a percentile score of _______, corresponding to grade _____. This, implies that she has _______ capacity to forge new insights and to discern meaning in confusion., She has _______ ability to perceive and identify relationships. Her ability to generate new,, largely non-verbal concepts, which make it possible to think, clearly is also ______. This shows, her______ capacity to think clearly., CONCLUSIONS, My subject has obtained a percentile score of ______, corresponding to grade______, which, implies that she is intellectually., , DAVID’S BATTERY OF DIFFERENTIAL ABILITIES, PROBLEM, To assess the aptitude of the subject in different areas using David’s Battery of differential, abilities, , Practical Skills, , 279
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BASIC CONCEPTS, Define Aptitude, Differentiate between aptitude, intelligence and achievement., Refer to manual to write the different areas of aptitude., METHODOLOGY, Description of the test (including description of mental abilities, reliability and validity), PROCEDURE, Materials required, Subject details, Rapport formation, Instructions (first person), Precautions, Conduction of the test, Behavioural note, Introspective report, Data (includes the answer-sheet for all the tests, psychomotor ability and the profile sheet), RESULT TABLE, Dimension, , Raw, Score, , Sten Score, , Interpretation, , 1., , VA, , 13, , 7, , Average, , 2., , RA, , 8, , 8, , High, , 3., , NA, , 14, , 9, , High, , 4., , PM, , 36, , 8, , High, , Data analysis and Interpretation (based on 8 mental abilities), 1. Verbal Ability, :, Raw Score = 13, , Sten Score = 7, The subject has average verbal ability. It means her teachability in vocabulary, development, new language and verbal instructions is functioning of average level., 2. Numerical Ability, :, Raw Score = 14, , Sten Score = 9, Subject has high ability on numerical operations. These is accuracy in performance and, well in processing data., 3. Reasoning Ability, :, Raw Score = 8, , Sten Score = 8, Subject’s potential is extremely high in understanding relationships and has high ability, to apply induction and reasoning. Subject can do well in table involving reasoning, logical, thinking, programming and engineering., 4. Psychomotor Ability, :, Raw Score = 36, , Sten Score = 8, , 280, , Psychology—XII
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Subject can perform accurately under speed the psychomotor functioning. Subject is, excellent in doing manual tasks and can be successful in assembling work., CONCLUSION, Conclusion: Subject has average verbal ability but high numerical, reasoning and, extremely high psychomotor ability., , MAUDSLEY PERSONALITY INVENTORY, PROBLEM: To assess the personality of the subject using Eysenck’s Maudsley Personality, Inventory., BASIC CONCEPTS, Define Personality, Explain all the trait theories, Techniques of personality assessment, METHODOLOGY, Description of the test (including description of dimensions, reliability and validity), PROCEDURE, Materials required, Subject details, Rapport formation, Instructions (first person), Precautions, Conduction of the test, Behavioural note, Introspective report, Data (includes the response sheet and the profile sheet), (Neuroticism), RAW SCORE = 39, Converted Score = 9, (Extraversion), RAW SCORE = 39, Converted Score = 9, Data Analysis and Interpretation (based on 2 dimensions and profile sheet), (i) Introversion vs. Extraversion, The subject has a raw score of 39 in extraversion, which corresponds to sten score of 9., This means that the subject is high on the scale and is an extrovert., (ii) Stability vs. Neuroticism, The subject has a raw score of 39 in neuroticism which corresponds to a sten score of 9., This means that the subject is high on the scale and has neurotic tendencies., CONCLUSION, The subject is highly extrovert having high neurotic tendencies., , TITLE: ADJUSTMENT INVENTORY FOR SCHOOL STUDENTS (AISS), PROBLEM/OBJECTIVE: To measure the adjustment pattern of an individual using a, standardized test of adjustment for school students by A.K.P. Sinha and R.P. Singh., BASIC CONCEPT, The concept of adjustment has originated from the term ‘Adaptation’. Adjustment is a, psychological process where an individual copes and responds to his environment operational, , Practical Skills, , 281
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definition of the world adjustment signifies that if the individual masters or deals with the, demand made upon him by his inner or outer environment, the person is said to be adjusted., An individual makes efforts to deal with environmental biological, physical, social, internal, and external demands. Adjustment is the outcome of such efforts., CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJUSTMENT, Adjustment is subjective:, Values, prejudices, attitudes, social norms etc. make adjustments—A subjective process, which is known only to the person who is adjusting., Adjustment is a continuous process:, This is a process that continues throughout the various stresses and strains of life., Adjustment varies from culture to culture., A person, who is considered to be well-adjusted in a particular society with a particular, cultural background, may not be considered the same in another culture., In the present test, adjustment is being measured in three different areas:, (a) Social:, Man lives in a society and needs to be accepted by it. He has to follow norms and rules of, the society to be well-adjusted. He has to seek approval of the society for any activity, social, adjustment in school could involve coping with pressure exerted by the peer group, accepted by, the group, good inter-personal relationship with members of the opposite sex, etc., (b) Emotional:, An individual is emotionally adjusted if he is happy with himself who realizes his own, potential, stress and is happy with what he has achieved can be said to be emotionally welladjusted., (c) Educational:, An educationally well-adjusted person is one who has ability to think and to innovate. An, individual who is contented with what he achieves academically can be called educationally, well adjusted., METHODOLOGY, HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION, Adjustment inventory for school students (AISS) seeks to segregate well-adjusted secondary, students (age 13-18) in three areas of adjustment., — Social, — Emotional, — Educational, The test consists of sixty items where subject is required to answer in terms of ‘yes’ or ‘no’., Each item in the test is scored as per instructions given in the manual. High score on any area, is treated as a sign of maladjustment., Reliability:, Split Half Method—95, Test-Retest Method—93, Procedure materials Required, AISS inventory, AISS response sheet, scoring sheet and pencil., Preliminaries ———————————, Rapport Formation, Instructions:, Following are some questions covering your problems, which have two response alternatives, ‘yes’ and ‘no’. Read every question carefully and decide whether you want to answer it with, , 282, , Psychology—XII
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‘Yes’ or ‘No.’ If your answer is in ‘Yes’, then mark (Y) under ‘yes’ and if ‘No’ mark (N) in the cell, ( ) under ‘No’. Remember your answer will not be total to any person, so please give the correct, answer without hesitation you may take your own time, but try to finish as soon as possible., Administration and Scoring/Conduction:, The AISS inventory was given to the subject and was completed within 20 minutes by, marking. The total score was interpreted according to the categories against the range of, scores., Behavioural Report, Introspective Report ———————————, Data, Total Score, :, 15, Social , :, 4 Good, Emotional , :, 6 Average, Educational, :, 5 Average, Interpretation:, The AISS manual was used to assess the adjustment of the subject on the following three, areas:, • Social, • Emotional, • Educational, The subject has attained a total score of 15 in the following 3 areas:, Social:, The subject got a raw score of 4 indicating category B. Thus the adjustment of the subject, in this area is good., This can be ascertained by the subject’s response to the following questions:, — Do you avoid meeting your classmates?, — Are you a shy nature?, — Are you able to get friendly with everyone easily?, Emotional:, The subject got a raw score of 6 indicating category C. Thus the adjustment of the subject, in this area is average. This can be ascertained by the subject’s response to the following, question:, — Are you always afraid of something in your school?, — Do you angry classmates who you think better than you?, — Are your often dissatisfied with your school?, Educational:, The subject got a raw score of 5 indicating category C. Thus, the adjustment of the subject, in this area is average. This can be ascertained by the subject’s response to the following, questions:, — Are you afraid of examination?, — Do you forget soon what you have read?, CONCLUSION, The subject’s adjustment is good in social area, average in emotional area and average in, educational area., Or, the whole adjustment level of the subject is functioning at average level., , Practical Skills, , 283
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ANXIETY TEST, SCAT, Objective: To assess the anxiety level of the subject using Sinha’s Comprehensive Anxiety, Test (SCAT)., Basic Concept: Anxiety is increased arousal accompanied by feeling of fear and apprehension., If such feelings persist for a long period of time, they can produce harmful effect. It is, a general uneasiness of ominous feeling that may get associated with anything specific and, persist for a month or longer. In Freudian theory, anxiety is unpleasant feeling of tension, experienced by individuals in reaction to unacceptable wishes or impulses., According to Freud, there are three types of anxieties., Neurotic: Which is due to Id, Ego conflict., Moral: Due to conflict of Id and Super ego., Objective Anxiety: Due to real external threat., History/Description:, A.K.P. Sinha and L.N.K. Sinha found that existing anxiety test does not cover certain, facts of anxiety. There also was a good deal of agreement and confusion concerning concepts, of anxiety. This test has been designed to elicit self-rating on items descriptive of anxiety, reactions to following areas:, 1. Health apprehension and injury., 2. Area of ambition (Success or failure in work)., 3. Family anxiety., 4. Anxiety involving love and friendship., 5. Worries regarding future., 6. Worries regarding civilization, wars, virtues., 7. Guilt and share., 8. Physiological and physical manifestations., 9. Psychological aspects., The test consists of 90 Yes/No type questions. It can be administered on people of 19-24, years of age. The administration time for test is approximately 15-20 minutes., Realibility: Test-Retest Method (0.85), Validity: Between SCAT and Taylor’s Manifest Anxiety Scale is 0.62., Requirement: Questionnaire, Manual, Pen., Preliminaries, , 284, , Name, , :, , Age, , :, , Sex, , :, , Class/Education Qualification :, , Class XII, , Place of Conduction, , Psychology Lab, , Psychology—XII, , :
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RAPPORT FORMATION, The subject was made to feel at ease with the lab conditions so he/she could carry out the, experiment without hesitation., Instruction:, This is a SCAT booklet consisting of 3 pages with some statements concerned with your, behaviour and temperament. Against each question there are two options ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. You, have to read the question and put your views by making a cross (×) on either Yes or No., Administration:, The SCAT booklet was given to the subject which included questions of behaviour and, temperament with options ‘Yes’ and ‘No’. The subject was asked to put his views by making a, cross (×) on either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’., PRECAUTION, 1. Subject shouldn’t skip questions., 2. No time-limit but try not to exceed more than 15-20 minutes., Behavioural Report, I observed that the subject-participated in the experiment willingly. He/She was, concentrating while attempting the questions and finished the test in time., Introspective Report, ‘The test was really good, the questions involved good aspects, it was very interesting’, said, the subject about the experiment., Pages, , 2, , 3, , 4, , Total, , Raw Scores, , 5, , 5, , 7, , 17, , Percentile, : 30-40, Category, : BETWEEN NORMAL AND LOW ANXIETY LEVEL, Data Analysis, : On left page, Data Interpretation, The subject was found to have anxiety between normal and low anxiety level. The percentile, was between 30-40., The subject has normal anxiety level in general. He/She doesn’t get anxious in day-to-day, activities. He/She doesn’t get hassled with daily situations., But as the percentile is between low and normal anxiety level so for but in some situations, he/she may need some kind of motivation for arousal. He/She may be indifferent to some, situations that would otherwise be anxiety-provoking., CONCLUSION, The subject was found to have anxiety between normal and low anxiety level., , Practical Skills, , 285
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Case Studies, CASE STUDY METHOD, Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community., Typically data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different, methods (e.g. observations & interviews)., The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the, patient’s personal history)., The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to, or reconstructing, ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or, a specific social group), i.e. the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to, investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a, large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’., The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data, collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies such as qualitative, techniques (semi-structured interviews, participant observation, diaries), personal notes, (e.g. letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes, appraisal, reports)., The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g. grounded theory,, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation (e.g. thematic coding) etc. All, the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis and they are, ideographic in their approach, i.e. they focus on the individual case without reference to a, comparison group., Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones, carried out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives, of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses., Freud’s most famous case studies include Little Hans (1909a) and The Rat Man (1909b)., Even today case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal psychology, and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines they can give a vivid insight into what those, who suffer from mental illness often have to endure., Case studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting, descriptive information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school., In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The, information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual's past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her, everyday life., In order to produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive profile of the person, the psychologist, may use various types of accessible data, such as medical records, employer's reports, school, reports or psychological test results. The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for, obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the, person's friends, parents, employer, workmates and others who have a good knowledge of the, person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself., This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist,, therapist or psychiatrist, i.e. someone with a professional qualification. There is an ethical, , 286, , Psychology—XII
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issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a, formal case study relating to atypical (i.e. abnormal) behaviour or atypical development., The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of, the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation. The client, also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the, information from both sources above as the case study, and interprets the information., Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out., A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and, which is inference or the opinion of the researcher., Strengths of Case Studies, • Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information, • Provides insight for further research, • Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations, Case Studies give psychological researchers the possibility to investigate cases, which, could not possibly be engineered in research laboratories. For example, the Money Case Study., Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas, (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories, and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other. The method, is therefore important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e. humanistic, psychologists)., Limitations of Case Studies, • Can’t generalize the results to the wider population, • Researchers own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias), • difficult to replicate, • Time consuming, Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group we can never be sure whether, conclusions drawn from this particular case apply elsewhere. The results of the study are, not generalizable because we can never know whether the case we have investigated is, representative of the wider body of "similar" instances, Because they are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e. descriptive) data a lot depends, on the interpretation the psychologist places on the information she has acquired. This means, that there is a lot of scope for observer bias and it could be that the subjective opinions of the, psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means., , CASE PROFILE, Suggested format by CBSE, 1. Introduction:, • A brief introduction of about one or two pages presenting the nature of the problem,, its incidence, likely causes, and possible counselling outcomes., • A half page (brief) summary of the case., 2. Identification of Data:, • Name (may be fictitious), • Diagnoses Problem, • Voluntary or Referral (i.e., by whom referred—such as teacher, parent, sibling, etc.), , Case Studies, , 287
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3. Case History:, • A paragraph giving age, gender, school attended, class (grade) presently enrolled in,, etc., • Information about socio-economic status (SES) consisting of information about, mother’s/father’s education and occupation, family income, house type, number of, members in the family—brothers, sisters and their birth order, adjustment in the, family, etc., • Information about physical health, physical characteristics (e.g., height and weight),, any disability/illness (in the past and present), etc., • Any professional help taken (past and present), giving a brief history of the problem,, attitude towards counselling (indicating the motivation to seek help, etc.)., • Recording signs (i.e., what is observed in terms of facial expressions, mannerisms,, etc.) and symptoms (i.e., what the subject reports, for example, fears, worry, tension,, sleeplessness, etc.)., 4. Concluding Comments., , ABOUT THE DISORDER, INTRODUCTION, Aspeger’s syndrome is an autism spectrum disorder named after the Austrian pediatrician, Hans Asperger who, in 1944, studied and described Asperger’s syndrome as a form of autism,, which is a lifelong disability that affects how a person makes sense of the world, processes, information and relates to other people. The modern conception of Asperger’s syndrome came, into existence in 1981 and was standardized as a diagnosis in the early 1990’s., SYMPTOMS, Asperger’s syndrome is characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and, non-verbal communication, alongside restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and, interests. It differs from other autism spectrum disorders but its relative preservation of, linguistic and cognitive development. While there are similarities with autism, people with, Asperger’s syndrome also have fewer problems with speaking and one often of average, or, above average, intelligence., Although not required for diagnosis, physical clumsiness and atypical (peculiar, odd) use, of language are frequently reported. Asperger’s syndrome is mostly‘a hidden disability.’ This, means that you can’t tell that someone has the condition from their outward appearance., People with the condition have difficulties in three main areas (which varies from person to, person) referred to as ‘the triad of impairments’. They are:, 1. Social communication, 2. Social interaction, 3. Social imagination, Individuals with Aspergers syndrome appear to have normal life expectancy, but have an, increased prevalence of combined (relating to or denoting a medical condition that co-occurs, with another) psychiatric conditions, such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorder, that may significantly affect prognosis’., RESEARCH METHOD, Collecting Data, Data collection requires developing a blueprint (research design) and making decisions, about the following four aspects, , 288, , Psychology—XII
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Participants of study – Subject and special educator, Data collection Method – Case study, Research Tools – Observation Schedule: (subject), (Data collection), (i) Naturalistic observation, (ii) (a) participant observation, (b) non-participant observation interview schedule (educator), DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE-INDIVIDUAL, Case Study, In this method, emphasis is given on in-depth study of a particular case (Researchers, focus on cases which can provide critical information or new learning on less understood, phenomena). The case study was of individual with distinguishing characteristics. (Showing a, psychological disorder)., The case selected for study is unique, and therefore is rich in information. A case study, provides narrative or detailed description of the events that take place in a person’s life. It, employs multiple methods for collecting information, such as interview and observation. With, the help of case studies, psychologists have done research to understand feelings, fantasies,, napes, fears, traumatic experiences, parental upbringing and so on, that helps to understand, a person’s mind and behavior. Case studies have been conducted to understand the pattern of, socialization of children., Observation, Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of, describing behaviour during observation, a particular behavior was selected for observation, (rather than observing all encountered behavior). The selected behavior was recorded using, different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviors whenever they, occur taking notes describing each activity in greater detail, etc., Observation can be classified into naturalistic observation and controlled observation on, the basis of the setting in which observation is done. Naturalistic observation was done. Here,, observations are done in a natural or real- life setting and no effort is made to control is, manipulate the situation for making the observation., Observation can take place through participation (participant observation) or nonparticipation (non- participant observation). Both methods were used observation was done by, talking to the subject as well as by observing the pattern between the subject and the teachers, in a class., Personal Interview, The interview method is a common method for obtaining information from people. It, is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and attitudes,, and reasons for particular behaviour etc. From the respondents. A list of questions, called, interviews schedule, was prepared beforehand. The questions were asked face to face and over, the telephone., There are two types of interviews, structured (or standardized) and unstructured (or nonstandardized), based upon the type of preparation made before conducting the interview., Unstructured interview was conducted. The questions were open ended. There was a flexibility, to take decisions about the questions, the wording of the questions and the sequence in which, questions are to be asked. The respondent answers the questions in the way he/she chooses., There are many different possible options of the number of participants present in an, interview situation. The individual combination was adopted., , Case Studies, , 289
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Data Analysis, After data collection, conclusions need to be drawn. This can be done in the quantitative, method or the qualitative method. The qualitative method was used, because human, experiences are compiled. Therefore any attempt at its quantification will not enable one to, reach the principles of organising such experiences. Psychologists have developed various, qualitative methods to analyze such data one of them is narrative analysis. Also data are, not always available in the form of scores. When a researcher uses the method of participant, observation or in structured interview, the data are generally in a descriptive form- in the, participants own words, field notes taken by the researchers, photographs, interview responses, noted by the researcher or taped/ video-recorded, informal talks, etc. These types of data, cannot be converted into scores or subjected to statistical analysis. Rather the researcher uses, the technique of content analysis to find out thematic categories and build those categories, taking examples from the data. It is more descriptive in nature., Precaution, 1. Data from qualitative studies are largely subjective and therefore care should be, taken to minimize personal biases., 2. Confidentiality of the data source is a must., CASE PROFILE, 1. Name, : XYS, 2. Age, : 12 years, 3. Date of Birth, : 16th August, 2002, 4. Gender, : Male, 5. Number of siblings, : One (brother), 6. Birth order, : Eldest, 7. Disorder, : Asperger’s syndrome, 8. Family History: There is no family history in this case. No genetic symptoms or, origins of autism and related disorders have been established in this case. It has been, formed that other family members are socially well adjusted, confident and successful, in their respective areas, including a younger brother who is a smart and recognized, individual., 9. When it was first noticed: As there are no obvious symptoms, it wasn’t noticed in, the early childhood stage. It was noticed at the age of 9., 10. Causes: The exact cause in this case is unknown. It cannot solely be attributed, to genetics, environment and upbringing or social circumstances. It may be a, combination of factors- environmental and genetic- that account for changes in brain, development., 11. Characteristics, (a) Physical: The physical characteristics of the subject refer to the general, appearance and characteristics a normal teenager. One cannot tell from his, physical attributes that he was any disorder. He always has a serious look on, his face., (b) Sensory/Mother Coordination: His sensory motor ability is not fully developed, and remains a challenge., (i) Till class 6, he used to write in untidy blow handwriting. With help and guidance, from his teacher, he is in the process of developing fine motor skills and is trying, to learn how to write in cursive handwriting., , 290, , Psychology—XII
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(ii) Sometimes, when he walks, he looks a little imbalanced, and moves his hands, in a distinct manner., (iii) He finds it difficult to perform sensory-motor tasks such as creative art,, arranging, atheletic sorting, etc., (iv) His general coordination is average. In the special atheletic, Track and Field, Meet events, he successfully won 3 medals., (v) He has low muscle tone. Therefore, his muscles are loose and little disoriented., As his muscles are on the floppy side. He faces problems in coordination and, motor skills. He is not able to perform tasks like block- printing even after, demonstration and guidance., (c) Concept Formation: He is able to interact on diverse topics orally. He is able, to answer specific questions when asked. If given a situation, he can write on, both concrete and abstract topics. Therefore, his concept formation is developed, according to his age., (d) Self- Help Skills: He is self- dependent as far as performing daily tasks and, routines are concerns. He generally dislikes any adult help or intervention and is, striving to become more independent. However, his organization skills are poor, and he is not able to remember where he leaves something. This leads him to get, frustrated., (e) Academic Skills: He is intelligent and has a good memory. He has a passion for, history and is ‘like a live encyclopedia’ for his peers. He was having difficulty in, mathematics in class 5 but is how performing satisfactorily in this area., (f) Interpersonal Skills: His biggest challenge is his social skills. He prefers to sit, alone in his free time and his social interactions are limited. He exhibits leadership, qualities sometimes, but prefers to work independently on a daily basis. His, classmates avoid sharing personal chats with him because he is unable to keep, things secret. But they look up to him if they need information especially on cars, or history. However, he usually avoids eye contact while talking. He walks with, his head bent down most of the time and is almost unwire of those around him., 12. Management: The teachers attempt to manage difficult situation is crucial. It is, important to teach appropriate social, communication and vocational skills that are, not acquired naturally during his stay in school. This can be done through counseling, sessions and with interventions tailored to his needs. Although progress has been, made. Data supporting the efficacy of particular interventions are not very objective, and are limited., Suggestion, The following suggestions one subject to my observations and understanding of the child., Some of these systems may already be in place., 1. As he dislikes intervention, such attempts should be made with careful deliberations, 2. Extra effort should be put to make the child more integrated to his social settings and, environment, by his peers. He spends a lot of time on his own. Therefore, it is equally the, responsibility of his peers from the mainstream to understand his problem and learn to, make him feel comfortable and to initiate conversations with him., (i) There should be more awareness programmers above such disabilities for mainstream, children of all age groups., (ii) There should be a regular and comprehensive peer support training module., (iii) There should be many more collaborated inside classroom as well as field activities, planned for mainstream and special section students together., , Case Studies, , 291
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3. Extra effort should be put to improve the Childs own communication skills., (i) The child should be taught introductory communication tactics and appropriate, conversation ‘openers’., (ii) The child should be taught common metaphors and figures of speech as he is often, literal minded and get confused by these expressions. Furthermore, he may find, learning phrases, that seen confusing to him, such as stepping up to the plate,, interesting, (iii) There should be a training of essential like skills. For example, he should be taught:, (a) To be more organized., (b) To make eye contact while talking., 4. An objective term wise progress data sheet should be kept so that, (a) The child’s achievements and improvements can noted and the Childs short coming, can be discovered and worked upon ( changes can be made to the program he is, following if necessary), (b) If the teacher changes. She can understand where the student stands and the, transition will become easier and smoother for the new teacher as well as the student., 5. There should be regular counseling for the parents of children with special needs to, understand the strengths and weaknesses of the child, and help their child progress, further., Conclusion, It was a great learning experience to observe the patient in different situations both inside, and outside the classroom. It provided me an avenue to work and understand a specially abled, child in great depth. It was an opportunity to develop analytic and problem solving skills. It, allowed me to explore serious and complex issues and apply new knowledge and skills from a, researcher’s point of view. This interesting research study helped me to set the groundwork, for future thinking and research in greater depth. This would not have happened otherwise., , WHAT IS A CASE STUDY?, Case studies are analysis of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, institutions or, other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods. Rather than using samples, and following a rigid protocol to examine a limited number of variables; case study method, involve an in-depth longitudinal examination of a single instance or event or a case. They, provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analysing information and, reporting the results. As a result, the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why, the instance happened as it did; and what might become important to look at more extensively, in future research. Case studies lend themselves in both generating and testing hypothesis., The present case study is the analysis of a person that employs multiple methods for, collecting information such as interview, observation and psychometric tests for a variety of, respondents who in some way or other are associated with the case and can provide useful, information., What is a Case Profile?, Case profile is a simpler version of a case study. It provides an insight to a person’s mind, and behaviour. With the help of a case profile, we can try to understand fantasies, hopes, fear, and traumatic experiences or anything that helps understand a person’s behaviour and mind., Case profile gives a detailed description of a participant’s personal history, family history,, family arrangement and personality traits. The aim of present profile is to have a better, understanding of the case as an individual., , 292, , Psychology—XII
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Data Collection, While collecting data for the present case profile, following techniques of Data Collection, were used:, • Interview, • Observation, • Psychometric Tests, Objective, The objective of the present case profile is:, To give an in-depth understanding of the subjects psychological, physical, emotional and, social dimensions by choosing specific psychological tools and techniques., Introduction, My case is XYZ. He is 17 years old and a student of _________ school. A friendly and, outgoing boy, he loves to be in the company of others. He is interested in basketball and dance., I chose him as my case for various reasons:, • I know him well and hence rapport information was already there., • He stays near my house and we both study in the same school, therefore, observing, him at home and in school was very convenient., Personal History, Type of Birth, :, Normal, Milestones, :, 1. Recognising sounds: 3 months, 2. Recognising familiar objects: 3 months, 3. Babbling: 5-7 months, 4. Sit over: 6 months, 5. Roll over: 3 months, 6. Explore objects with mouth: 4-6 months, 7. Crawl: 6-8 months, 8. Walk with support: 1 year, 9. Walk alone: 2 years, 10. Run: 2 years, 11. Clear speech: 3 years, •, , Mother, i. Name, ii. Age, iii. Educational Qualification, iv. Profession, , •, , v. Monthly Income, Father, i. Name, ii. Age, , 48 years, B.Ed, Teacher, ` 32,000, , 50 years, , iii. Educational Qualification, , M.B.A., , iv. Profession, , Business Man, , v. Monthly Income, , ` 2 Lakhs, , Case Studies, , 293
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•, , Brother, i. Name, ii., iii., iv., v., , Age, Educational Qualification, Profession, Monthly Income, , 21 years, B.A. Student, , —, —, , Family Arrangement, • The case stays in a Nuclear Family with his parents and elder brother., • There are 4 members in the house., • The case is very close to his family and enjoys spending time with them., Name, :, Age, : 17 years, Sex, : Male, D.O.B., : 8th July 1997, Education, 1. Class 10 CGPA, : 9.5, 2. Class 11 marks, : 75%, Religious views, : Hindu, Family Arrangement : Nuclear, Analysis, Subject’s best friend says, XYZ is among the toppers of his class and is able to perform well, in many co-curricular activities as well. His best friend finds him very helpful and co-operative., She rates him as a lively individual who has the charm to make a dull situation exceptionally, live. She is not sure about whether XYZ is impulsive or not. Though finds him having good, interpersonal skills. He is not able to deal effectively with sudden and unfavourable situations., His friend thinks that he can improve upon it by thinking practically and avoiding his tendency, to over-burden himself with over expectations., Interview of his English and Physics teacher indicate that subject is quite creative and, enthusiastic in learning new concepts., • English teacher has been teaching him for one and a half year., • She feels that he is sincere towards this studies and there has been a big improvement, after the mid term exam., • According to her, he is always willing to listen to constructive criticism and improve, himself. He is friendly with all his classmates., • She feels that XYZ should be more honest and open about his feelings and opinions,, and should not always try to being politically correct., • His Physics teacher is very happy of his devotion in science projects on which he, devotes lot of time in Physics lab., • He contributed significantly in making Maths lab more meaningful to the students., The case was observed in 3 situations:, Participant observation was undertaken in the first two and non participant in the third, one. All observations were naturalistic., I. At Home (with family), • Parental interviews and observation indicate that he is very relaxed and happy, around the family. He is very close to his elder brother. He often helps his mother with, household activities., , 294, , Psychology—XII
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•, , He goes to basketball practice once a week and devotes lot of time on self study of his, science subjects., • During the evening hours, he likes to go outside and meet his friends in the, neighbourhood park., • He is not fond of TV programmes although he enjoys Discovery Channel., II. Social Gatherings, • He enjoys himself at social gatherings., • He likes meeting new people and makes friends easily., • He loves to play basketball, and one can easily spot him on the court., • He also likes to get pictures clicked with his friends., III. At School, • XYZ is quite while the teacher is teaching during class. He does not disturb the class, and makes a single effort to pay attention in class. His favourite subject is Maths and, Physics., • Outside of class, he is friendly with all his classmates., PSYCHOMETRIC TESTING:, SCQ, Purpose: To study the kind of self concept of the case using SCQ., Result Table:, Dimensions, , Raw Score, , Interpretation, , Social, , 31, , Above Average, , Temperamental, , 26, , Above Average, , Moral, , 31, , Above Average, , Interpersonal, , 32, , Above Average, , Educational, , 25, , Above Average, , Physical, , 32, , Above Average, , Total, , 181, , Above Average, , Interpretation: The case has above average self-concept., MPI, Purpose: To assess the subject’s personality by using MPI., Result Table:, Dimensions, Neurotics, Interpretations, Extraversion, , Interpretation, , Scale, , Raw Score, , Sten Score, , Long, , 8, , 2, , Short, , 4, , 4, , Long Scale, , Short Scale, , Average, , Below Average, , Long, , 26, , 5, , Short, , 10, , 6, , Long Scale, , Short Scale, , Average, , Above Average, , Case Studies, , 295
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Interpretation: Emotionally stable, calm, quite relaxed, likes people and their activities., By and large he is an ambivert., SCAT, Purpose: To study the level of anxiety of the case by using SCAT., Result Table:, Pages, , 2, , 3, , 4, , Raw Score, , 8, , 11, , 5, , Total Score, , 24, , Interpretation, , High Anxiety, , Interpretation: The testee has high level of anxiety which indicates subject is quite, anxious towards his studies, wants to live up to the expectations., DBDA, Purpose: To find out whether the case possesses the following abilities and at what levels:, • Psychomotor ability, • Reasoning ability, Result Table:, Dimensions, , Raw Score, , Sten Score, , Interpretation, , Numeric Ability, , 12, , 8, , High, , Psychomotor, , 46, , 10, , Very High, , Reasoning Ability, , 8, , 9, , Very High, , Verbal Ability, , 12, , 7, , Conclusion, After doing a systematic study of the responses conducted through interviews, observations, as well as the scores from different psychometric tests, I concluded that XYZ is a bright student, and is open to new ideas. He has good interpersonal skills and is able to understand and be, sensitive to the way others feel and behave. His score MPI suggests that he is an outgoing, by nature. He presents high anxiety level and feels restless when faced with uncomfortable, situations. He has a positive self-concept., His Psychometric test results indicate that the subject is emotionally stable, ambivert, and enjoys positive self concept. These results are in conformity with the interview and, observational findings., The subject has high cognitive competencies which is reflected in his thinking variables,, and indicate high scientific aptitude. These are in conformity with Physics and English teachers, remarks particularly subject’s devotion towards project work and quality time given in Physics, and Maths lab. The results indicate a successful future perspective in scientific domain., High anxiety in Psychometric test indicates the parental and teachers pressure on the, subject which is leading to his Eu stress in distress. This is alarming and should be taken care, by the significant people around him., , 296, , Psychology—XII
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VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS, ROX WITHOUT SCREEN, Q1. What is intelligence?, Ans. According to Wechsler, intelligence is an aggregate and global capacity to think, rationally, deal effectively and act purposefully., Q2. What do you mean by capacity?, Ans. It means intelligence is inborn, although by and large it is product of nature and, nurture., Q3. What do you understand by term ‘think rationally’?, Ans. Intelligence-related activities are logical, coherent, and relevant., Q4. What do you understand by the term ‘deal effectively’?, Ans. Adaptability/adjustment – a person who is intelligent has number of solutions to cope, up with the demands., Q5. What do you understand by the ‘act purposefully’?, Ans. Intellectual activities are goal-directed., Q6. Who is author of ‘Standard Progressive Matrices’?, Ans. J.C. Raven of England., Q 7. Why term ‘standard’ has been used in SPM?, Ans. It is the original test on the basis of which other tests i.e. advanced progressive matrices, & colored progressive matrices have been developed., Q8. Why the term progressive has been used?, Ans. Items are arranged in the increasing difficulty level., Q9. What does SPM measure?, Ans. It measures general intelligence (g-factor), Test particularly suitable for comparing, people with their immediate capacity of power of observation and clear thinking. The, test measures eductive component of ‘g’ factor., Q10. What do you mean by eductive component of ‘g’?, Ans. Eductive component is the ability to develop/forge new insights, ability to see meaning, and relationships., Q11. Why term ‘Matrices’ has been used?, Ans. The problems are in the form of designs and patterns., Q12. How many items are there in SPM?, Ans. Items are grouped into 5 sets. Each set has 12 items. So, total number of items are 60., Q13. What is the scoring procedure of SPM?, Ans. • Answers to all the items are checked with the help of scoring key., • Total number of correct answers are added for each part., • Scores for all the parts are added to get a total score., • Scatter of scores are checked from expected score table to find out discrepancies., • Corresponding percentiles and grades are calculated with the help of manual., Q14. What is mental age?, Ans. Mental age is a measure of intellectual functioning expressed in terms of age. The, concept was given by Alfred Binet., Q15. What is IQ?, Ans. • It is the ratio between MA and CA., • It is not intelligence. It is simply a measure of intelligence., • William Stern gave the concept of IQ., , Viva-Voce Questions, , 297
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Q16. Name two features of IQ., Ans. (i) IQ is relatively constant. It is not increasing with the age., (ii) Average IQ is always 100., Q17. What is the formula of IQ?, Ans. Mental age/chronological age × 100., Q18. Why we multiply by 100?, Ans. To get the score in %tage and to avoid decimals., Q19. What is culture fair test?, Ans. A test that does not discriminate examinees on the basis of their cultural experiences, e.g., RSPM., Q20. What is performance test of intelligence?, Ans. A test in which the role of language is minimised. The task requiring overt motor, responses other than verbal, e.g., Bhatia’s Battery of intelligence test., Q21. What are speed tests? Give example., Ans. The tests, which are scored on the basis of speed and accuracy are known as speed, tests. e.g. Stanford Binet Test or Wais., Q22. What is a power test? Give example., Ans. The tests which are scored only on the basis of accuracy, are known as power tests., Here time is not the variable. e.g., RSPM., Q23. What is a battery?, Ans. Battery is a collection of tests., Q24. Name one individual verbal intelligence test., Ans. Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale., Q25. Name an intelligence test which is verbal, non-verbal as well as performance test., Ans. Wechsler’s Adult intelligence scale (WAIS)., Q26. Name one group verbal intelligence test?, Ans. General Mental Ability Test (GMAT) by Dr. Mohsin., Q27. Name one non-verbal test of intelligence?, Ans. SPM. CFT by Cattell. Culture fare test of intelligence., Q28. How percentage is different from percentile?, Ans. Percentage refers to a score attained out of hundred. Percentile is position of the, individual among hundred., Q29. What are sten scores?, Ans. These are standard scores indicated on standard ten point scale., , MAUDSLEY PERSONALITY INVENTORY By H.J. EYSENCK, Q30. How many scales are there in M.P.I?, Ans. Two, (i) Short scales , Q31. How many items are there in MPI?, Ans. 48., , 298, , Psychology—XII, , (ii) long scales
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Q32. How Extroversion is different from Introversion?, Ans. , Extroversion, , Introversion, , Active, gregarious, , Passive, Quiet, , Thrill seeking, social, outgoing, , Conscentuous, reserved, , Q33. What is frustration?, Ans. Frustration is a feeling of failure or obstacle in attainment of goal., Q34. What is pressure?, Ans. It is coping with expectations of significant people., Q35. What is emotional catharsis?, Ans. It is discharge of pent up emotions through verbal expression., Q36. What is a questionnaire/inventory?, Ans. It is standardized set of questions. Initially developed by Woodworth in USA., Q37. Name two Inventories?, Ans. 1. Maudsley Personality Inventory by Eyesnck., 2. Mennisotta Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)., Q38. What is Maudsley?, Ans. It is a mental hospital in London., Q39. How you will define Personality?, Ans. Personality refers to a person’s unique and relatively stable quality which characterises, her/his behaviour patterns in different situations., Q40. What is trait?, Ans. It is relatively stable characteristic pattern of behaviour which make the individual, different from others., Q41. What are the Projective techniques?, Ans. Projective techniques are tools to measure personality in which the stimulus is, unstructured and provides better opportunity to get unconscious material expressed., For example, TAT, RIT, SCT, DAPT etc., Q42. What is Projection?, Ans. Projection is a defence mechanism. The process of attributing one’s own traits, attitude, or subjective process to others., Q43. Name two projective techniques?, Ans. 1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 2. Rorschach Ink Blot Test (RIT), , DAVID BATTERY OF DIFFERNTIAL APTITUDE (DBDA), Q44. What is Aptitude?, Ans. Aptitude is the potential ability of an individual to learn a skill or proficiency. It is, inborn and requires training to capitalise the ability., In short, it is teachability in an individual., , Viva-Voce Questions, , 299
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Q45. What are Aptitude tests?, Ans. Aptitude tests are measure of individual’s ability to acquire new skills. Such tests are, primarily used to predict future performance., Q46. What is Skill?, Ans. Ability to perform an act with ease and precision., Q47. Give few examples of Aptitude test., Ans. Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) by Wesmen, Seashore and Bannett; Scientific, Aptitudes Test by K.K. Aggarwal., Q48. How Scientific Aptitude is different from Mechanical Aptitude?, Ans. In Scientific Aptitude, thinking variable is high whereas in mechanical aptitude, concrete variables are tested., Q49. Mention various uses of Aptitude test., Ans. 1. Educational and vocational guidance., 2. Selection and recruitment., 3. Research purposes., Q50. How aptitude is different from Intelligence?, Ans. Intelligence is general energy whereas aptitude is special ability., , Intelligence is product of nature and nurture whereas aptitude is largely determined, by nature., Training is not required for the growth of intelligence but, for aptitude, training is, required., Q51. How generalised aptitude tests are different from specialised aptitude tests?, Ans. Under one generalized aptitude test many aptitudes can be measured whereas in, specialized ones only one aptitude can be assessed., , (SCAT) SINHA’S COMPREHENSIVE ANXIETY TEST By A.K.P. SINHA, Q52. What is anxiety?, Ans. Anxiety is state of psychic distress characterised by fear, apprehension and psychological, arousal., Q53. How anxiety is different from worry?, Ans. Anxiety is subjective because its cause is not known to the person whereas worry is, objective because the cause is known., Q54. What is existential anxiety?, Ans. Concept of existential anxiety was given by Victor Frankl. It is neurotic anxiety of, spiritual origin., Q55. When anxiety becomes a disorder?, Ans. When anxiety becomes prolonged, diffused and persistent without any apparent cause, then anxiety becomes a disorder., Q56. What is Stress?, Ans. Pattern of responses an organism makes to the stimulus event that disturbs the, equilibrium., Q57. What is Strain?, Ans. Reaction of stress., , 300, , Psychology—XII
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Q58., Ans., Q59., Ans., Q60., Ans., Q61., Ans., , What is Neurotic Anxiety?, Prolonged feeling of anxiousness and apprehension without any apparent cause., How will you interpret high Anxiety?, Neurotic tendencies like anxiousness, apprehension, feeling of discomfort, sleep, disturbances, physical symptoms etc., How you will interpret low anxiety level?, Low anxiety indicates low motivational level of the subject., Why this test is comprehensive?, The test items cover all aspects of anxiety, e.g. subjective and objective., , (AISS) ADJUSTMENT INVENTORY FOR SCHOOL STUDENTS By A.K.P. Sinha, AND GAS DEVELOPED By Sanjay Vohra, Q62., Ans., Q63., Ans., , Q64., Ans., Q65., Ans., , What is adjustment?, It is psychological process of coping with the demands of the self and the environment., How adjustment is different from adaptation?, Adaptation is structural or functional change that enhances the organism survival, value. It is a biological mechanism. Adjustment is a psychological process of coping, with the demands., Which areas AISS measures?, Emotional area Educational area and Social area., Name any other tests to assess adjustment?, • Global Adjustment scale developed by Sanjay Vohra, uses sten scores, covers six, dimensions—emotional, family, health, social environment, sex and school., • Bell’s Adjustment Inventory., , (SCQ) SELF CONCEPT QUESTIONNAIRE By R.K. SARASWAT, Q66. Which areas of self-concept, this test measures?, Ans. • Physical, • Social, • Temperamental, • Educational, • Moral, • Intellectual, Q67. What is Self?, Ans. It is totality of conscious experiences which is a cognitive structure and starts developing, at the age of two., Q68. What is Self-concept?, Ans. It is “How one views himself” positively or negatively. It varies from one area to another., Q69. What is Self-esteem?, Ans. How one values his self or worth of himself in his own eyes., Q70. What is Self-efficacy?, Ans. Ones own effectiveness in the group. People with high self-efficacy believe that their, life outcomes are under their own control. The concept was given by Bandura in his, social learning theory., , Viva-Voce Questions, , 301
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Q71. How you will score this test?, Ans. Awarding 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 according to sequence., Q72. How self is different from personality?, Ans. Self is the core whereas personality is its manifestation. Self is realted to ideas and, personality is its behavioural part., , MISCELLANEOUS, Q73. What is a Psychological test?, Ans. Psychological tests are standardised tools to measure abilities and personalities traits., It may be verbal, non-verbal or performance., Q74. How ordinary tests are different from psychological test?, Ans. Psychological tests are standardized whereas ordinary tests are not standardized., Q75. How Experiments are different from Psychological test?, Ans. In experiment we prove or disapprove a hypothesis in controlled conditions whereas in, psychological test we measure interest or psychological characteristics., Q76. What is Hypothesis?, Ans. It is an assumption or tentative answer., Q77. What is Variable?, Ans. Any measurable conditions, events characteristics or behaviour that are controlled or, observed in a study and can be varied., Q78. What is Independent variable?, Ans. The ‘cause’ or event or situation manipulated by the experimenter to see if it will have, predicted effect on some other event or situation., Q79. What is dependent variable?, Ans. The effect or the factor that is measured in an experiment. It changes because of, manifestation of independent variable., Q80. What is Intervening/Relevant variable?, Ans. Any variable other than independent variable which influences dependent variable is, known as intervening variable., Q81. How intelligence is related to adjustment?, Ans. Ability to adjust is a faculty of intelligence. High intelligence facilitates adjustment., Q82. Who established first lab of psychology?, Ans. William Wundt in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany., Q83. Who is known as ‘father of experimental psychology’?, Ans. William Wundt., Q84. Who is known as ‘father of psychology’?, Ans. Dr. Sigmund Freud., Q85. Who developed first intelligence test for children?, Ans. Alfred Binet., Q86. What are Psychometric Tests?, Ans. Psychometric tests are standardized and objective measuring instrument used to, assess an individual’s standing relative to others on some mental or behavioural, characteristics., Q87. Why psychologist use norms to assess abilities?, Ans. Psychological attributes can not be reduced to zero., , 302, , Psychology—XII
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Q88. What are the types of intelligence?, Ans. According to Thorndike Concrete—ability to deal with objects., Abstract—ability to deal with symbols and numbers., Social—ability to deal with people and their activities., Q89. What is Introspective report?, Ans. It is report of self-analysis., Q90. Why it is necessary to have behavioural introspective report?, Ans. Most of our behaviour patterns are very complex and subjectively determined which, can be revealed by the individual only., Q91. What is scale?, Ans. A set of ascending or descending values used to designate position of a trait or ability, e.g., Scale uses inches or centimetres or sten score table 4, 5, 6, 7 average, 1, 2, 3 low, and 8, 9, 10 high., Q92. What is sten scale?, Ans. Standard 10 point scale., Q93. How is percentile different from percent?, Ans. Percentile refers to relative position of an individual on 10 point scale. Percentage, means score obtained out of hundred., Q94. What is reliability?, Ans. A statement about the degree of consistency of the result. It is established through testretest or split half method., Q95. What is validity?, Ans. The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. It is accuracy of the, test., Q96. What are Norms?, Ans. Standard or value based on measurements of a large group of people. It is also be, named as typical score or criteria. There are various types of norms like age norms, sex, norms, class norms, regional norms., Q97. Why Raw scores are converted into standard scores?, Ans. Raw Scores are meaningless. To make them meaningful scores are drawn on a scale, which can be expressed on bell shaped curve., Q98. What is standardisation?, Ans. A method of establishing norms or standards and uniform procedures for a test by, administering it to a large group of representative individuals., • In short standardisation of Psychological test implies uniformity of procedure in, instructions, administration and scoring., Q99. What are Standard scores?, Ans. A raw score that is converted into a meaningful unit: specifically, the individuals, distance from the mean in terms of the standard deviation on a given test., Q100. What is speed test?, Ans. Psychological test is which individual difference depends solely on speed of performance., Q101. What is Power test?, Ans. A Psychological test that has a time limit long enough for everyone to attempt all items., Q102. What is questionnaire?, Ans. Questionnaire is a set of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set, of forms., • Is is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and, write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire it self., , Viva-Voce Questions, , 303
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• It may be structured or unstructured., • It may be close ended or open ended., • It is main tool of research survey., Q103. How questionnaires are different from Schedule/ Inventories?, Ans., Questionnaire, , Inventories, , • Generally sent through mail to • Generally filled at by the research worker., informants to be answered., • Relatively cheap and economical., , • Considerable amount of money has to be spent, in appointing some one who prepares inventory, and on his tranning., , • Not always clear as to who replies., , • Identity of respondent is known., , • Mostly personal contact not possible. • Personal contact in established., , Q104. What is case study?, Ans. In-depth study of an individual’s physical and psychological development with the help, of significant people., Q105. What is case profile?, Ans. Miniature form of case study., Q106. What is main objective to use case study?, Ans. To establish cause-effect relationship., Q107. What tools are used in case study., Ans. Experimentation, physiological test observation, interview rating score etc., Q108. What is Assessment?, Ans. Measurement and evolutions of physiological attributes., Q109. What is Psychological assessment?, Ans. It refers to systematic testing procedure to assess Psychological attributes., , 304, , Psychology—XII
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CBSE Examination Paper - 2015 (Delhi), Part–A, 1. The notion of contextual intelligence implies that intelligence is a product , of __________ ., (1), 2. Personality characterised by proneness to depression is known as __________ ., , (1), , 3. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and , the __________ ., (1), 4. Inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic is known as __________ , behaviour., (1), 5. Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) is a form of __________ therapy., , (1), , 6. Learning by observing others and rewarding small changes is a process of , __________ learning., (1), 7. Category-based schemas that are related to groups of people are called __________ . (1), 8. Obedience is the most indirect form of social influence. (True/False), , (1), , 9. The act of aggression meant to obtain a certain goal or object is _____________ , aggression., (1), 10. Listening is a biological activity that involves reception and attention. (True/False), , (1), , Part–B, 11. What is information-processing approach to intelligence?, , (2), , 12. Explain abnormal behaviour according to socio-cultural model., , (2), , 13. State the techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill., , (2), , 14. What is Gestalt therapy?, , (2), , 15. What is the instrumental perspective of human-environment relationship?, , (2), , 16. What is paraphrasing?, , (2), , Part–C, 17. Differentiate between interest and aptitude., , (3), , 18. What are the stages of group formation?, , (3), , 19. Suggest three strategies for reducing aggression and violence., , (3), , OR, , Why is the concept of personal space important for human beings?, 20. Describe naturalistic and participant observation., , (3), , Part–D, 21. Explain the PASS model of intelligence., , (4), , 22. What are self-report measures? Explain any two problems associated with , their use for personality assessment., (4), , CBSE Examination Paper - 2015 (Delhi), , 305
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23. Differentiate between trait and type approaches to personality., , (4), , 24. Explain somatoform disorders., , (4), , 25. Describe the importance of thereapeutic relationship in psychotherapy., , (4), , 26. Describe any four conflict resolution strategies., , (4), , OR, Explain conformity. State the determinants of conformity., , Part–E, 27. Describe the GAS model of stress. Explain the effects of stress on immune system., , (6), , OR, , Explain the nature of stress giving examples. Discuss avoidance-oriented strategy , of coping., 28. Explain social cognition. Discuss with examples the role of schemas in social , cognition., (6), OR, , Discuss factors influencing impression formation. Explain actor-observer effect , in attribution., , 306, , Psychology—XII
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CBSE Examination Paper - 2015 (All India), Part–A, 1. The notion of contextual intelligence implies that intelligence is a product , of __________ ., (1), 2. Personality characterised by proneness to depression is known as __________ ., , (1), , 3. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain , and the __________ ., (1), 4. Inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic is known as __________ , behaviour., (1), 5. Electro-Convulsive Therapy (ECT) is a form of __________ therapy., , (1), , 6. Learning by observing others and rewarding small changes is a process of , __________ learning., (1), 7. Category-based schemas that are related to groups of people are called __________ . (1), 8. Obedience is the most indirect form of social influence. (True/False), , (1), , 9. The act of aggression meant to obtain a certain goal or object is ____________ , aggression., (1), 10. Listening is a biological activity that involves reception and attention. (True/False), , (1), , Part–B, 11. How are IQ scores distributed in a population?., , (2), , 12. How does humanistic-existential model explain psychological disorders?, , (2), , 13. State two psychological disorders in which cognitive behaviour therapy is , used for treatment., (2), 14. State four characteristics of psychotherapeutic approaches., , (2), , 15. What is pro-environmental behaviour., , (2), , 16. State two skills of an effective psychologist., , (2), , Part–C, 17. Explain the relationship between creativity and intelligence., , (3), , 18. State three conditions which facilitate group formation., , (3), , 19. Explain the major consequences of crowding., , (3), , OR, , Suggest three strategies for reducing aggression and violence., 20. Differentiate between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication., , (3), , Part–D, 21. Explain the competencies of Indian notion of intelligence., , (4), , 22. How do Alfred Adler and Karen Horney explain personality development?, , (4), , CBSE Examination Paper - 2015 (All India), , 307
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23. Explain the techniques of behavioural analysis used in personality assessment., , (4), , 24. Which disorder is the cause of distorted body image? Explain its various forms., , (4), , OR, Explain somatoform disorders., 25. Explain with examples how cognitive distortions take place., , (4), , 26. What is social loafing? How can social loafing be reduced in group work?, , (4), , Part–E, 27. Explain the nature of stress giving examples. Discuss avoidance-oriented strategy , of coping., (6), OR, , Distinguish between eustress and distress giving suitable examples. Discuss the , different sources of psychological stress., 28. State the factors that lead to the formation of attitudes. Explain the process of , attitude change taking examples from everyday life., (6), OR, , Explain social cognition. Discuss with examples the role of schemas in social , cognition., , 308, , Psychology—XII
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CBSE Examination Paper - 2016 (Delhi), Part–A, 1. The __________ approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities., , (1), , 2. Personality characterised by proneness to depression is classified as type ________, personality. , , (1), , 3. Personality traits of hardiness are control, commitment and __________., , (1), , 4. Mood disorders in which both mania and depression are alternatively present is , known as __________ ., (1), 5. Repeated association of undesired response with an aversive consequence is called , __________ conditioning., (1), 6. Assigning causes to the behaviour shown in specific social situations is known , as ________., (1), 7. Binding or mutual attraction among group members is referred to as __________., , (1), , 8. Act of aggression meant to obtain a certain goal or object is known as __________, aggression., , (1), , 9. Non-verbal acts in any talk are referred to as __________., , (1), , 10. Ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour is known as __________.(1), , Part–B, 11. Explain information-processing approach to understand intelligence., , (2), , 12. Explain the term frustration., , (2), , 13. What is meaning of logotherapy?, , (2), , 14. What are norms?, , (2), , 15. Explain the term crowding., , (2), , 16. What do you understand by the term skill?, , (2), , Part–C, 17. State the salient feature of dissociative amnesia., , (3), , OR, Differentiate between delusions and hallucinations., 18. Explain social cognition with the help of suitable examples., , (3), , 19. State the three characteristics of an effective counsellor., , (3), , 20. Explain any three situational factors leading to aggression., , (3), , Part–D, 21. Explain the behavioural approach to study personality., , CBSE Examination Paper - 2016 (Delhi), , (4), , 309
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22. What are defence mechanisms? Explain repression, OR, Explain Erikson’s concept of identity crisis., 23. Explain stress resistant personality with the help of examples., 24. Discuss Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)., 25. Explain any two conditions which lead to learning of attitudes., 26. Describe any two elements of group structure., , (4), , (4), (4), (4), (4), , Part–E, 27. Explain the term intelligence. Describe the PASS model of intelligence., (6), OR, , Explain how intelligence is the result of heredity and environment., 28. Explain abnormal behaviour from the perspective of socio-cultural model. , (6), OR, , Explain diathesis-stress model of abnormal behaviour taking examples from , daily life., , 310, , Psychology—XII
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CBSE Examination Paper - 2016 (All India), Part–A, 1. The __________ approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities., , (1), , 2. Personality characterised by proneness to depression is classified as type ________, personality. , , (1), , 3. Personality traits of hardiness are control, commitment and __________., , (1), , 4. Mood disorders in which both mania and depression are alternatively present is , known as __________ ., (1), 5. Repeated association of undesired response with an aversive consequence is called, __________ conditioning., , (1), , 6. Assigning causes to the behaviour shown in specific social situations is known , as __________., (1), 7. Binding or mutual attraction among group members is referred to as __________., , (1), , 8. Act of aggression meant to obtain a certain goal or object is known as __________, aggression., , (1), , 9. Non-verbal acts in any talk are referred to as __________., , (1), , 10. Ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour is known as __________.(1), , Part–B, 11. Explain the term giftedness., , (2), , 12. Explain the term conflict., , (2), , 13. What is self-actualisation?, , (2), , 14. Explain the term ingroup., , (2), , 15. What is the spiritual perspective of human-environment relationship?, , (2), , 16. Explain the term empathy., , (2), , Part–C, 17. Explain bipolar mood disorder., , (3), , 18. Discuss impression formation., , (3), , 19. Explain three skills of communication., , (3), , 20. Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour., , (3), , OR, Explain any three situational factors leading to aggression., , Part–D, 21. Explain the humanistic approach to study personality., , (4), , 22. Discuss Erikson’s concept of identity crisis., , (4), , CBSE Examination Paper - 2016 (All India), , 311
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23. Describe any four techniques for managing stress., , (4), , 24. Explain the nature of therapeutic relationship between the client and the therapist. (4), 25. Explain any two strategies for handing prejudice., , (4), , 26. Describe any four strategies for resolving conflicts., , (4), , OR, , Enumerate the four elements of group structure., , Part–E, 27. Explain the term intelligence. Describe the triachic theory of intelligence., , (6), , OR, , Explain briefly the theory of multiple intelligences., 28. Explain the term dissociation. Discuss its various forms. , , (6), , OR, , Explain the diathesis-stress model of abnormal behaviour giving examples from , daily life., , 312, , Psychology—XII
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CBSE Examination Paper - 2017 (Delhi), Part–A, 1. If a person has the skill of understanding motives, feelings and behaviours of other, people, he/she is said to have, (1), (a) Interpersonal intelligence, (b) Intrapersonal intelligence, (c) Linguistic intelligence, (d) Social intelligence, 2. Value judgement of a person about himself/herself is called ______. , (1), 3. The state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as, (a) Resistance, (b) Stress, (c) Burnout, (d) Coping , (1), 4. Compulsive behaviour is inability to stop thinking about a particular idea or topic., (True/False), (1), 5. A false belief that is firmly held on inadequate grounds is known as _______., (1), 6. Empathy means understanding things from other person’s perspective. (True/False) (1), 7. Schemas that function in the form of categories are called _______., (1), 8. Collection of people assembled for a particular purpose is called an _______., (1), 9. ________ is the study of the relationships between living beings and their environment., , (1), 10. The ability of a counsellor to reflect on what the client says and feels using different, words is known as, (a) Decoding, (b) Communication, (c) Listening, (d) Paraphrasing, (1), , Part–B, 11., 12., 13., 14., 15., 16., , Explain the term ‘well-being’., Explain obsessive-compulsive disorder., What is systematic desensitisation?, Enumerate the four stages of group formation., What is meant by personal space?, Explain participant observation., , (2), (2), (2), (2), (2), (2), , Part–C, 17. What did Carl Jung mean by collective unconscious?, (3), 18. Explain factors influencing attitude formation., (3), 19. Enumerate pro-environmental actions that can help protect environment from pollution., , (3), OR, Describe strategies for reducing aggression and violence., , CBSE Examination Paper - 2017 (Delhi), , 313
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20. Explain the quality of ‘positive regard for others’ of effective counsellor., , (3), , Part–D, 21., 22., 23., 24., , State the four competencies of intelligence in the Indian tradition., Explain briefly PASS model of intelligence., Describe the different types of aggressive behaviours exhibited by children., Explain psychological distress according to humanistic-existential therapy., OR, Describe four factors which contribute to treatment of psychological distress., 25. Explain the factors influencing pro-social behaviour., 26. Explain the phenomenon of ‘social loafing’ by giving examples., , (4), (4), (4), (4), , (4), (4), , Part–E, 27. Explain the concept of personality. Describe the cultural approach to study personality., , (6), OR, , Discuss the observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems are, faced in using these methods?, 28. Differentiate between eustress and distress. Explain the different effects of stress with, examples. , (6), OR, , Explain stress according to General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model giving examples, from everyday life. Describe any one strategy for coping with stress., , 314, , Psychology—XII
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CBSE Examination Paper - 2018, Part–A, 1. Emotional competence refers to, (1), (a) Self-monitoring of emotions, (b) Self-competence to handle behavior, (c) Discrimination of behavior, (d) Persistence in behavior, 2. _________________ is a way of reducing anxiety by distorting reality., (1), 3. Frustration is one of the sources of psychological stress. (True/False), (1), 4. Extreme pain without any identifiable biological symptom is an example of______, disorder., (1), 5. A dreamlike state separating self from reality is known as_____________, (1), 6. Electro-Convulsive Therapy (ECT) is a form of bio-medical therapy(True/False), (1), 7. The process of assigning causes to behavior shown in specific social situations is known, as_________________., (1), 8. Extreme cohesiveness in group results in___________________., (1), 9. _______________perspective suggests that physical environment exists mainly for use by, human beings for their comfort., (1), 10. Interpersonal communication involves communicating with two persons(True/False) (1), , Part–B, 11., 12., 13., 14., 15., 16., , What do you understand by Type-B personality?, Explain emotion-oriented coping strategy., What is interactional approach to psychological disorders?, Explain separation anxiety disorder (SAD)., What is poverty cycle?, Explain intrapersonal communication, , (2), (2), (2), (2), (2), (2), , Part–C, 17., 18., 19., 20., , State three psychological techniques of self-control., Explain the fundamental attribution error., How does television have an impact on behavior?, Explain the role of culture in listening, OR, State the components of human communication, , (3), (3), (3), (3), (3), , Part–D, 21. Explain contextual intelligence with the help of examples., 22. Differentiate between simultaneous and successive processing, giving examples., 23. Explain the effects of stress on psychological functioning., , (4), (4), (4), , CBSE Examination Paper - 2018, , 315
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24. Explain the forms of eating disorders associated with distorted body image., 25. Explain the relationship between attitude and behavior with the help of examples., 26. Explain the humanistic approach to study of personality., OR, Discuss main propositions of behavioural approach to personality., , (4), (4), (4), (4), , Part–E, 27. Explain social loafing and group polarisation, giving suitable examples., (6), OR, State the reasons for conflicts in groups. Describe the strategies to resolve conflicts., 28. Explain the different types of psychotherapy. Describe the principles on which humanisticexistential therapy is based., (6), OR, A person has a phobia of cockroaches. Explain this phobia from a social learning, perspective and a psychoanalysis viewpoint, giving examples., , 316, , Psychology—XII
