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The coordination committee formed by G.R.No.Abhyas-2116/(pra.kra43/16)SD-4 dated 25.4.2016, has given approval to prescribe this textbook in its meeting held on 20.06.2019 and, it has been decided to implement it from academic year 2019-2020., , HISTORY, Standard Eleven, , 2019, Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and, Curriculum Research, Pune., , The digital textbook can be obtained through DIKSHA APP, on a Smartphone by using Q. R. Code given on title page, of the textbook and useful audio-visual teaching-learning, material of all lessons will be also available through the Q., R. Code given on the title page.

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NATIONAL ANTHEM

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Preface, Friends,, From this year, as students of the XIth Standard, you will be studying, ‘History’, not jointly with ‘Political Science’ but as a separate subject. Starting, from the times before ‘Common Era’ till the ‘Mediaeval Period’, the continuous, social and cultural history of India, with special reference to Maharashtra, is, unfolded in this textbook. We are glad to present this book to you., The chain of continuous actions-reactions in the history of human, progress, from the first stone tools created by Homo habilis to modern robotics, and artificial intelligence, is instrumental in shaping the social-cultural history., If we understand this chain of actions-reactions in its entirety, then studying, history leads to a bridge that connects our present to our past. With it studying, history becomes pleasant, a source of gaining knowledge and a medium of, creating knowledge., We studied history of several stages of human journey from the Stone, Age to the Modern Era. It included several events that happened in the, historical time span. We completed this study as a continuous series from, the Vth Standard to the Xth Standard. Events happening in the historical time, are just the markers of major shifts happening at various stages of human, history. It is necessary to pay attention to various social, cultural, political,, technological processes, which are responsible for creating the shifts. These, processes are vital in the shaping of history. If the students are competent to, understand the unending chain of processes, then their capability of constructing, knowledge will also be nourished. This textbook is written with this thought, in mind., The material made available with QR code, the informative boxes,, coloured illustrations, maps and various suggestions for activities in this, textbook will help you in your studies. You will be able to gather additional, information with the help of various web links provided in the lessons., This textbook will help you guide you in the right direction to reach your, future goal . We wish you the best in your journey toward higher education., , Pune, Date : 20 June 2019, Bharatiya Saur Dinank : 30 Jyeshtha 1941, , (Dr. Sunil Magar), Director, Maharashtra State Bureau of, Textbook Production and, Curriculum Research, Pune

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- For the Teachers At this stage the students of Std. XI have crossed the threshold of school life., They are now at the threshold of a new world. It’s a transitional phase for them. They, need to review all that they have already learnt and to get ready to dive deeper in, their chosen subjects, to help them in chalking out their career. What they learn in, Std. XI is their first step toward this goal., Keeping this in view, the history textbook of Std. XI has been designed to help, the students to revise and review all that they learnt about history starting from, Std. VI. This would be like revisiting the familiar lanes of history of the ancient and, medieval periods and to brace up to understand their subtleties and splendours; to get, new insights to enjoy history as an academic subject. Through this textbook it would, be achieved as a matter of natural course, as the students at this stage are already, competent to analyse and synthesise information and go deeper., At the cognitive level students of Std. XI are mature enough to peep into the, psychological processes at collective level, which form the base of socio-political, processes. Thus, this textbook will gently lead them into independent thinking and help, them in holistic comprehension of these processes. It would be useful for them in all, walks of life and in their respective fields of future specialisation., The ability to read map and to place the historical information in its geographic, context is crucial for a history student. Hence, historical maps are incorporated in, this textbook, wherever necessary. In order to enable the students to supplement the, information in these maps, appropriate weblinks have been also provided., As it will become clear from the contents of this textbook, it encompasses an, enormous time-span of about 10000 years. It opens with the beginning of cultivation, in various regions of the Indian subcontinent around 8000-7000 B.C.E. and continues, till the medieval period. Each lesson in this textbook forms a marker of a broader, step of socio-cultural progression in history. In other words, the emphasis is more, on the conceptual and processual continuation while planning the lessons, rather than, sequential arrangement of historical events., The first four lessons cover a span of more than 9000 years of proto-history, from, about 10000 B.C.E. to 700 B.C.E. Next five lessons from no. 5 to 9 take us through, the ancient period of Indian history. Lesson 10 and 11 deal with the transitional and, hence an overlapping period between the ancient and medieval period of history. Lesson, 12 and 13 highlight the adventurous history of the ancient Indians, when the Indian, culture spread far and wide in the world, over the span of more than 4500 years. The, last three lessons focus on the mediaeval times. The historical context of Maharashtra, as a geographic region is also the prime focus of this textbook., The textbook strives for a new and more objective outlook of history to emerge, as a natural outcome. In order to achieve it, additional boxes of information regarding, the latest research in the field and supplementary information is provided for making, the learning process more interesting and self-motivated. Even the teachers may find, the information helpful and interesting., We are glad to give this book in your hands with a belief that it will be appreciated, by you., , (F)

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Competency Statement, Unit, Unit 1:, India in the proto-historic, period (with special, reference to Maharashtra), , Unit 2:, India before 6th Cent., B.C.E. (with special, reference to Maharashtra), , Unit 3:, India from 6th Cent., B.C.E. to 13th Cent. C.E., (with special reference to, Maharashtra), , Unit 4:, India from 13th Cent. C.E., to 19th Cent. C.E., (with special reference to, Maharashtra), , Competency, • Explains the meaning of the term ‘Proto-history’., • Explains the transition from nomadic to settled life in proto-historic period., • Explains the processes like beginning of cultivation, stages in the development, of agricultural production and consequent changes in the life style of protohistoric people., • Explains the establishment of permanent settlements and their organisation., • Explains the process of urbanisation., • Explains the interdependence between development of trade and urban, centres., • Finds correlation between the interdependence of decline in trade and decline, of urban centres., • Explains the relationship between written sources and historical period., • Critically analyses the early political institutions and social institutions in, ancient India., • Comprehends the transitional processes in the political and social,, technological, economic, religious fields during the period of second, urbanisation., • Explains about the contacts established by the early Indians with distant, regions with the help of maps., • Explains the rise of the first Empire of India and its background., • Describes India’s relations with other countries by using a map., • Explains the characteristics of the empires that emerged in the post-Mauryan, Period and changes in various fields during the Mauryan Period., • Explains the nature of changes., • Critically reviews various dynasties in South India in detail and their extent., • Critically reviews the fact that Indians had established strong trade relations, with Rome during this period., • Develops sense of pride in the history of ancient India as within a span of few, centuries Indian trade had expanded far and wide reaching Southeast Asia, and with the expansion of trade the Indian culture also spread in the distant, regions., • Explains the political environment in mediaeval India., • Explains the advent of Arabs., • Explains political conflict between Allauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Deogiri., • Explains the progress in trade and commerce., • Traces trade routes in ancient India on Map., • Shows places of cultural impact of India on map., • Explains the process of Urbanisation in the Mediaeval Period., • Describes the information about the developments in the field of art,, architecture, literature, etc., • Analyses the causal factors that led to the establishment of Mughal rule in, India., • Explains the land revenue systems of this period., • Analyses the factors leading to establishment of ‘Swarajya’ by Chhatrapati, Shivaji Maharaj., • Understands the political and administrative systems in ‘Swarajya’., • Describes ‘Peshwa’ period.

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Contents, Sr.No., , Lesson Name, , Pg. No., , 1., , First Farmers .................................................., , 1, , 2., , First Cities of India ........................................, , 11, , 3., , Chalcolithic Villages in India ........................., , 21, , 4., , Vedic Period ..................................................., , 28, , 5., , Janapadas and Republics .............................., , 34, , 6., , Second Urbanisation in India ........................., , 38, , 7., , India and Iran (Persia) ...................................., , 48, , 8., , India during Mauryan period.........................., , 56, , 9., , Post Mauryan India ........................................, , 64, , 10., , Changing Times .............................................., , 69, , 11., , Kingdoms in South India ................................, , 77, , 12., , India, Nations in the northwest of ................., the Indian Subcontinent and China, , 84, , 13., , India, Shri Lanka and Southeast Asia ............, , 91, , 14., , Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom, , 102, , 15., , India during Mughal period ............................, , 110, , 16., , Swarajya to Empire (Maratha period) ..........., , 117, , • S.O.I. Note : The following foot notes are applicable : (1) © Government of India, Copyright : 2019. (2) The responsibility for the, correctness of internal details rests with the publisher. (3) The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve, nautical miles measured from the appropriate base line. (4) The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are, at Chandigarh. (5) The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted, from the “North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act. 1971,” but have yet to be verified. (6) The external boundaries and coastlines of, India agree with the Record/Master Copy certified by Survey of India. (7) The state boundaries between Uttarakhand & Uttar Pradesh,, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chattisgarh & Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by the Governments concerned. (8) The spellings of, names in this map, have been taken from various sources.

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1. First Farmers, , 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, , River Valley Civilisations, Beginning of Cultivation :, Agricultural Production, The First Farmers in India, Agricultural Settlements :, Organisation and Administration, Trade and Transport, Beginning of Urbanisation, , of the most ancient river valley civilisations, of the neolithic age. The river valley, civilisations grew in four regions of the, world. Those regions were Mesopotamia,, Egypt, Indian Subcontinent and China. How, did this all happen? We shall briefly review, it in this lesson., You would like to know : Scientists, , in the Bar Elan University of Israel, have found out that ancient people had, attempted cultivation, some 23000, years ago. They have recovered its, archaeological evidence from ‘Ohalo’,, a palaeolithic camp site near the Sea, of Galili. At Ohalo the evidence of, Barley and some other cereals, seeds, of fruits has been found along with, traces of human occupation. There, were also a few seeds of various, weeds. These weeds are of evolved, types and they are found only with, cultivated crops. This fact confirms, that the cereals found at Ohalo were, the remains of cultivated crops and not, of the wild variety. Additional evidence, of grinding stones also came forth, from this site. They were used to grind, the cereals before cooking them., , 1.1 River Valley Civilisations, Homo habilis made the first stone tools., These tools were useful only for simple jobs, like scraping meat from the hides of dead, animals, splitting bones to extract marrow,, breaking nuts, etc. To strike the stone with, just enough impact and to remove flakes, from a stone in order to shape a tool, was, the mankind’s first big step in the field of, technology. The later species of mankind, after Homo habilis were more advanced., They advanced human technology much, further., Through close observation of the seasonal, cycles in the nature, the Mesolithic people, could domesticate various plants and animals., It resulted into the rise of the ‘Neolithic, Age’. Cultivation and pastoralism (animal, husbandry) became a way of life for neolithic, people. It was the end of nomadic-semi, nomadic life for them. Settled villages came, into being. The archaeological evidence, shows that systematic agriculture began some, 12000-11000 years ago. Beginning of, agriculture and rise of settled villages are the, two phenomena that are inevitably associated, with each other. The progress in the techniques, of systematic cultivation resulted in the rise, , (1) The Valley of Euphrates and, Tigris - Mesopotamia : Ancient Mesopotamia, included modern Iraq, Syria as well as the, western regions of Iran and south-eastern, regions of Turkey., Mesopotamia is the Greek name of the, region between the two rivers, Tigris and, Euphrates. Mesos means the ‘middle one’., , 1

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Potamos means ‘river’. The region between, two rivers is ‘Mesopotamia’. The Mesolithic, people began to stay in this region for longer, times because of the availability of ample, water. Also both the rivers flooded annually,, making the soil on their banks very fertile., The camps of Mesolithic people developed, into the first settled neolithic villages. These, first villages are dated to 10000 years B.C.E., The farmers in these villages grew wheat and, barley., (2) The Valley of Nile - Egypt : The, country in the northern parts of the African, continent and in the valley of the Nile river, is ‘Egypt’., Napoleon Bonaparte had taken along, many scholars from various fields during his, invasion of Egypt in 1798. They studied the, , You would like to know : Egypt, , was originally known as ‘Kemet’., Egypt got this name because of the, black soil that was deposited by the, Nile floods. Later Egypt came to be, known as ‘Hwat-ka-Pta’. It means, the temple of God. The Greeks, changed it to ‘Egyptus’. In the course, of time it was changed to ‘Egypt’., The Arabic name of Egypt is ‘Misra’., ancient remains in Egypt and published it., These studies received a momentum because, of the decipherment of the Rosetta inscriptions., It became possible to read the Egyptian, hieroglyphs.*, *Hieroglyphs = pictorial script, , 2

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(4) The Valleys of Sindhu (Indus) and, Saraswati - Indian Subcontinent : The region, of the valleys of Sindhu and Saraswati is, now divided between India and Pakistan., The archaeological excavations at, Harappa on the banks of Ravi in Punjab and, Mohenjo Daro on the banks of Sindhu in, Sindh, indicate the existance of a fully, developed, civilisation, in, the, Indian, subcontinent which was dated to circa 3000, B.C.E., A number of archaeological sites of, neolithic villages have been now discovered., It proves that there were well settled villages, in the Indian subcontinent as early as 8000, B.C.E. There is a general consensus among, the scholars that the Harappan cities evolved, from these early villages., Barley was the main crop grown by the, farmers in these villages. However, wheat, was also grown on a smaller scale. The, farmers in these villages were the first, farmers of the Indian subcontinent. They, kept cattle and goat-sheep. They lived in, mud houses., The archaeological site at Mehrgarh in, Baluchistan has yielded evidence of the, continuous human occupation from the, neolithic times to the rise of Harappan, civilisation and the material culture of the, respective periods., 1.2 Beginning of Cultivation :, Agricultural Production, The transition from hunter-gatherer’s life, to the beginning of cultivation was a very, slow process drawn over thousands of years., Beginning of cultivation is also the beginning, of the neolithic age. It spans through 10000, – 8700 B.C.E. It may vary to some extent, from place to place. This period marked the, beginning of domestication of animals along, with the beginning of cultivation. Barley was, the main crop in this period. Other crops, were wheat and flaxseed., , The first neolithic villages in Egypt came, into being at about 6000 B.C.E. The beginning, of agriculture in Egypt coincides with the, same time. The first crops grown in these, villages were wheat and barley., (3) The Valley of the Huang He China : The valley of Huang He river is, considered to be the region of origin of the, Chinese culture. The Chinese culture evolved, here., Agriculture in the neolithic villages of, China began at about 7000 B.C.E. Wheat,, foxtail millet and rice were grown by the, farmers in these villages., You would like to know : ‘Yellow, , River’ is the English translation of, the Chinese name ‘Huang He’. The, yellow silt brought by her has earned, her this name. ‘River’ and ‘Mother’, are her other names. These names, indicate her extraordinary place in, the Chinese culture. The name ‘River’, indicates that she is considered to be, the only river of importance. The fact, that she is considered to be the, mother of the Chinese culture, is, obvious in the name, ‘Mother’., Huang He and Yangtse in China, are the rivers, which receive waters, from the Himalayan glaciers as do, the rivers Ganga, Sindhu and, Brahmaputra. Huang He flows so, rapidly that it continuously keeps, changing its course. The torrential, floods caused because of it used to, be very disastrous causing great loss, of life and assets. Hence, she had, earned one more name, ‘Sorrow’ or, the ‘River of Tears’. Now the terrible, river has been brought under control, by creating a number of dams and, bunds on her., , 3

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The blades used for Mesolithic tools were removed from siliceous stones by the, technique known as ‘Fluted Core technique’. These blades are as tiny as our fingernails., So they are called ‘microliths’. The Mesolithic people used wooden arrows fixed with, microlithic arrowheads., , Mesolithic Blades, (Microliths), , Microliths used, as arrowheads, , Fluted Core, , The serrated knife made by, hafting microliths, , The serrated knife made by hafting microliths, , animals and vegetation for food increased., This period had also witnessed extinction of, species of gigantic animals like mammoth., However, varied species of fish, and small, animals like goat, sheep, deer, etc. were, amply available for food. The heavy tools of, Palaeolithic times were of no use either for, fishing or for hunting small animals., The technique of removing long stone, blades had been developed in the Upper, Palaeolithic age. In the Mesolithic age the, same technique was used and blades as small, as fingernails were removed to make tools., These blades known as microliths were either, hafted* on the tips of wooden/bone shafts or, in the grooves made on those shafts. Thus,, modified composite tools like fishing harpoons,, spears and arrows could be made. Ample, cereals and fruits, grown naturally, were, available. Tools like sickle and scythe were, made by hafting microliths for harvesting, the cereals and fruits., , It is apparent that the common, prerequisites were present in Mesopotamia,, Egypt, China and Indian Subcontinent to, initiate the onset of the Neolithic age and, agriculture. The last Glacial period in the, history of our planet came to an end at, about 12000-11000 years ago. It was the, beginning of a new epoch, which is known, as ‘Holocene’., With the beginning of the Holocene,, glaciers began to melt and the water volume, in the water bodies like rivers and ocean, increased. As a result, the availability of, , *To haft - fix with the help of rope and resin/gum, , Mammoth, , 4

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Thus, the technology evolved; the, techniques of hunting and obtaining food, improved; food became available in plenty., This resulted in making the Mesolithic people, stay at one place for a longer time of the, year. Harvesting of naturally grown cereals, led them into systematic cultivation. The, technique of agricultural and pastoral, operations (animal husbandry) continued to, evolve. The nature of these operations is, such that the farmer is compelled to settle, down permanently near the cultivated land., He doesn’t need to go out in search of food., This is how the villages were settled on a, permanent basis. This prepared the ground, for the rise of the Neolithic Age. This, , transition was drawn over a prolonged period., Nevertheless, considering radical changes in, the way of life during the Neolithic Age, the, Australian archaeologist Gordon Childe, coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’., , You would like to know : The, Palestinian city of Jericho on the banks, of the river Jordan, is a historical city, with hoary past. It first settled as a, village in 9000 B.C.E. It was one of, the first neolithic permanent settlements., It started getting organised into a wellknit society at about 8000 B.C.E. The, village at this time had a protective, wall around it, complete with a watch, tower. This is undoubtedly an evidence, of an organised society., The beginning of cultivation at, Jericho and in the surrounding region, began earlier than the establishment of, the village by a few centuries. Its, evidence has been discovered at Gilgal,, a site near Jericho. A fire stricken, house at Gilgal was excavated, which, yielded burnt remains of figs. After, carrying out laboratory analysis of, these fig remains, scientists have, concluded that the neolithic people at, Gilgal had systematically planted fig, cuttings. This stands to be the first, attempt of planned cultivation., , We have already seen that the site of, Mehrgarh came into existence around 7000, B.C.E. This site is of great importance among, the neolithic villages in the Indian subcontinent, established by the first farmers. The Mehrgarh, farmers cultivated barley and wheat. There, is another site of a neolithic village that is, contemporary to Mehrgarh. The site was, found at ‘Lahuradeva’ in Sant Kabirnagar, district of Uttar Pradesh., , 1.3 First Farmers of India, Neo means ‘new’. Lithic means ‘of, stone’. Neolithic age got its name because of, the stone tools of completely new types. It, included short and long heads of axe, made, of polished stone and polished stone rings., The axe heads were hafted on wooden shafts, and used for cutting trees, scraping wood to, give it a desired shape, etc. It was essential, to clear jungles by felling trees in order to, obtain land for cultivation and settlement., The new tools came handy for this work., , In Maharashtra, the mesolithic man, existed during 10000-4000 B.C.E. He stayed, in natural caves and under rock-shelters. He, moved along the river banks. He made, microliths from silicious* stones. However,, no evidence of purely neolithic sites have, been found in Maharashtra. What we have, instead, are the Chalcolithic villages. The, Chalcolithic people were the first farmers of, Maharashtra. Inamgaon, in the Shirur taluka, of Pune district, is an important site of the, village, of, Chalocolithic, farmers, in, Maharashtra., *Siliceous stones - stones like quartz, chalcedony,, agate, etc., , 5

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1.4, Agricultural, Settlements, :, Organisation and Administration, Researchers have attempted to estimate, the population of neolithic villages with the, help of various mathematical and statistical, models. With the help of those estimates we, may gather some idea with regards to, population compositions of those villages., When Mesolithic people were witnessing the, transition from nomadic-semi nomadic life to, settled life, there could have been 25-40, people in any given group. Life dependent, on regular cultivation would need that number, to increase at least to 50. A village with at, least a population of 100 could meet the, needs of individual members who would be, completely dependent on agriculture and, animal husbandry., Neolithic villages were small in size., Permanently occupied dwellings (mostly, round huts) were characteristic of these, villages. Other than these dwellings, some, places in the central part of the village were, perhaps used as common storage places of, food-grains and other things. This internal, settlement pattern of the village indicates that, the transactions related to food production, were centrally controlled. Accordingly a, hierarchical chain of power positions must, have been established. At the same time, other social norms were also established. For, example: boundaries of individual householdsfamilies, ownership of land, food production, to meet the needs of individual householdfamily and rules of kinship. The tradition of, imparting training of unique family skills of, production to the younger members is, supposed to have begun as early as the, neolithic times. In other words, it may be, said that the hierarchical social and family, structure and the concept of inheritance have, its roots in the neolithic times., The culture known as ‘Jomon Culture’, of Japan was a mesolithic culture, which has, yielded evidence of pottery making. Except, this example, everywhere else in the world, , making of pottery seems to have begun in, the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Pottery, making, along with the polished stone tools,, is supposed to be an essential characteristic, of the neolithic cultures. The earthen pots, were used for the purpose of cooking, serving, food and for storage. In the beginning these, pots were handmade. At a later stage, wheelmade pottery was introduced. The neolithic, pottery in the beginning was in monochrome, (single colour), with a burnished* surface., Some pots had carved designs. Also the, techniques of stamping and applique work**., Gradually neolithic people began to decorate, their pots with painted designs. Thus, in the, latter half of the neolithic age, pottery making, had become an art that required special, skills., *Burnished - polished by rubbing with a wooden, or stone tool, **applique work - pasting wet clay ribbons and, making patterns on them, , To master the art of pottery-making one, needs to possess knowledge of following, things:, (1) To know the source of clay of, excellent quality. (2) To manage to obtain, clay. (3) To knead and prepare the clay for, pottery production. (4) To be able to turn the, pot to the desired shape. (5) To have artistic, skill for decorating the pottery. (6) To know, the technique of baking pottery at proper, temperatures, (approximately, 850º-900º, Celsius)., The class of skilled potters, equipped, with essential knowledge of all stages of, pottery-making, was already established in, the 2nd phase of the neolithic period. Ancient, pottery can throw light on various aspects of, ancient cultures. We get to know about the, cultural history, the material richness of the, place where it was found. With the help of, pottery we can also know about the contacts, of the residents of the place with other, cultures., , 6

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Excavations at neolithic sites yield beads,, waste material cast away during bead making, process, faulty and incomplete beads and the, tools used by the bead maker. The following, are the stages of bead making:, (1) To know the sources of siliceous, stones and chank shells. (2) To obtain the, raw material. (3) To transport the raw, material to the manufacturing site. (4) To, manufacture finished beads from the stones, of irregular shape and the core of chank, shells. The artisan has to be conversant with, every stage of the bead manufacturing., , The neolithic period also saw rise of, other skilled artisan classes based on, specialised crafts. It is apparent that the skill, of making beads of various types was, acquired by neolithic artisans from the, beginning. They made beads of various types, of siliceous stones and chank shells., For additional information :, Some important Neolithic sites in India, 1. The northwest region of the, Indian continent : Phase I (70006000 B.C.E.) No evidence of pottery, (earthen pots). Phase II (6000-4000, B.C.E.) Beginning of pottery, making, e.g. Mehrgarh., 2. Jammu and Kashmir - around, 2500 B.C.E. neolithic settlements, established at the sites of Burzhom, and Gufkral., 3. Uttar Pradesh - around 6000, B.C.E., neolithic, settlements, established at the sites of Chopani, Mando, Koldihwa and Mahagara., 4. Bihar - around 2000 B.C.E., neolithic settlements established at, sites like Chirand, Senuwar, etc., 5. Northeast India - The evidence of, neolithic settlement was first, discovered at the site of Daojali, Hading in Assam. The village was, established around 2700 B.C.E. The, neolithic tools found here show, more affinity to neolithic tools, found in China., 6. South India - The neolithic, settlements in Karnatak, Andhra, Pradesh and Tamilnadu first came, into being around 4th - 3rd century, B.C.E. Karnatak sites - Sangankallu,, Maski, Brahmagiri, Tekkalkota,, Piklihal, Hallur, etc. Andhra Pradesh, site - Nagarjunikonda. Tamilnadu, - Payyampalli, , In brief, agricultural production, as well, as production of agricultural tools, pottery,, beads etc. is a chain of various skill based, operations, which are completed step by step., It is a complex system, which calls for, systematic division of labour and training of, people for various skills. This process leads, to craft specialisation and creates various, classes of skilled artisans., 1.5 Trade and Transport, The nomadic-semi nomadic groups of, Mesolithic people had a system of barter, among themselves. The wheel was not yet, invented. It means that the means of, mechanical transport were not available to, them. In the latter half of the neolithic age, people had started using beasts of burden for, transporting goods., Tools like axe, scrapers and chisels, enabled neolithic people to cut trees and to, work on wood. Most probably round shaped, pieces of wooden logs were used as wheels., Such round pieces can easily gain momentum., The neolithic people invented wheel and, the technology they had developed so far,, underwent a revolution., The neolithic people began to produce, wheel-made pottery. The wheel technology, made it possible to produce pottery on mass, scale. The invention of wheel also made it, possible to obtain raw material from distant, places in much lesser time. It became easier, , 7

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social organisation and administration., Eventually the villages expanded. Along with, it, awareness of collective land holdings and, the village boundaries became prominent., Thus, it was felt that the village community, had a natural right over the immediate, territory around the village periphery. This, kind of awareness of natural right over a, particular region is known as ‘territoriality’., Rules and social norms were created in order, to manage the collective resources, water, sources, crafts dependent on it, trade and, community life, etc. Consequently rituals and, their details gained importance. The need of, managing and keeping records of trade,, rituals, writing systems and administrative, machineries developed. It gave rise to, administrative centres. Such administrative, centres attract large number of population, which includes officials, people from various, occupations. As a result, periphery of the, original settlement kept expanding and cities, came into being. Thus began the process of, urbanisation in the neolithic age., In the next lesson we shall learn about, the first cities of India., , to send the finished goods to distant markets, where it was in more demand. It helped to, develop trade and transport on a greater, scale., , By the Way :, The neolithic wheel, might have been, similar to the wheel, seen here. We do, not know, how old, is this wheel. It, appears here as an, illustration, only to, give some idea of a, wooden wheel, made by using a round, shaped piece cut from a wooden log., 1.6 Beginning of Urbanisation, After settling down at one place for a, long time, a feeling of ownership arose, among the neolithic people. This feeling was, focused on their individual dwellings and the, piece of land cultivated by them. This has, been already mentioned in the context of, , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) ‘Yellow River’ is the English, translation of the Chinese name, ., (a) Kemet, (b) Mother, (c) Sorrow, (d) Huang He, , (3) The neolithic people at Gilgal had, systematically planted, trees., (a) Guava (b) Sapodilla, (c) Fig, (d) Indian blackberry, (4), , (2) The, , Australian, archaeologist, coined the term ‘Neolithic, Revolution’., (a) Gorden Willey, (b) Gorden Childe, (c) Herodotus, , in the Shirur taluka of, Pune district, is an important site of, the village of Chalocolithic farmers, in Maharashtra., (a) Saradwadi, (b) Ranjangaon, (c) Pabal (d) Inamgaon, , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) The valley of Tigris and Euphrates, - Mesopotamia, , (d) Collingwood, , 8

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Q.4 State your opinion., (1) There were radical changes in, the way of human life during the, neolithic age., (2) The neolithic people invented, wheel and the technology they, had developed so far, underwent a, revolution., , (2) The valley of Nile - Iran, (3) The valley of Huang He - China, (4) The valley of Sindhu (Indus) and, Saraswati - Indian subcontinent, Q.2 (A), (1), (2), (3), (4), , Write correct chronological order., Making of microliths, Beginning of the Neolithic Age, Beginning of the ‘Holocene’ epoch, Beginning, of, agriculture, and, domestication of animals., , Q.5 Observe the map on page 2 of your, textbook and answer the following, questions based on it., (1) What is the name of the sea at the, north of the African continent?, (2) In which continent did the Harappan, civilisation originate ?, (3) What is the name of the ocean at, the south of India?, , (B) Complete the concept map., , Stage 2, , Stage 1, , Stage 3, , Bead-making, Method and Stages, of production, , Q.6 Write short notes., (1) Neolithic ‘Jericho’, (2) ‘Holocene’ epoch, , Stage 4, , Manufacturing finished, beads from the stones of, irregular shape and the, core of chank shells., , Q.7 Answer the following questions in, detail., (1) Write in detail about the ‘first, farmers’ and beginning of agriculture, in India., (2) What knowledge was essential for, the neolithic people to make pottery?, (3) Write about the trade and transport, in the neolithic age., (4) Write about the beginning of, urbanisation in the neolithic age., , (C) Find the odd man out., Countries with ancient civilisations :, Egypt, China, India, England, Q.3 Explain the following statements with, reasons., (1) The camps of Mesolithic people, developed into the first settled, villages of neolithic people in, Mesopotemia., (2) ‘Huang He’ river is considered to be, the mother of the Chinese culture., (3) In the latter half of the neolithic, age, pottery-making had become an, art that required special skills., , Activity, Write in detail about any of the ancient, civilisations., , , , 9

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Neolithic Age, 8000-3000 B.C.E., , First Farmers, , You womenfolk began, to grow food in the yards., Now there is no need to, go hunting everyday., , Yes ! There is, always some, food available., , The villagers have, chosen me as their, ‘Chief ’. It’s a, great responsibility., , Is there any, problem ?, , There should, be equal, justice to all., , Our coming, generations will, be here in this village., We are well-rooted in, this soil, now., , Yes ! Now, I need to, complete a few, chores., , Our ancestors, had to wander in, the wilderness for, food and water., , We should take, good care of, our land, water, and cattle., I took a round, in the village market., Saw some people, from neighbouring, villages., , Good !, We will have, better trade, with them., , 10, , There used to be a small village here., Now look ! We are a big city ! Let’s pray !, May our city be safe forever !, May there never be any hard times !

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2., , 2.1 Characteristics of Harappan, Civilisation, 2.2 Interrelationship between Cities, and Villages, 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation, and Administration, 2.4 Decline of the Cities, , First Cities of India, , Harayana. The total area covered by it is, about 1500000 Sq. Kms. The Harappan, civilisation belonged to ‘Bronze Age’. So far,, more than 2000 sites of the Harappan, civilisation have been recorded. The remains, found at cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro,, Kalibangan, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi,, etc. are the evidence of the past glory of this, civilisation., , 2.1 Characteristics of Harappan, Civilisation, , The history of these cities had three, stages:, (1), Early, Harappan, period, (2) Mature Harappan (urban) period (3) Late, Harappan period., , It has been mentioned earlier that the, roots of the Harappan civilisation are to be, found in the pre-Harappan culture of Neolithic, times at Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. This, culture is known as ‘Togao culture’. It shows, traces of the beginning of the Harappan, culture. Jean Francois Jarrige and Richard, Meadow conducted the excavations at, Mehrgarh. Another neolithic culture of the, pre-Harappan period is known as ‘Ravi or, Hakra culture’. Its remains have been found, during the excavations at sites like Harappa, (Punjab, Pakistan), Kunal, Bhirrana and, Farmana (Harayana)., , The question regarding the authors of the, Harappan civilisation still remains mysterious., Some of the main characteristics of the, Harappan cities are noted below., (1) Systematic Town Planning :, Houses of baked bricks complete with, bathrooms, toilets, wells, etc., existance of, granaries, Impressive public monuments,, English bond masonry (method of using two, headers and two stretchers alternatively while, building a wall – this method is specially, useful in earthquake prone regions), Excellent, drainage system, public baths, two or more, divisions of the city with each division, enclosed by independent fortification walls,, Streets crossing each other in right angles, and the resulted blocks used for building, houses (grid pattern)., , A few years ago it was strongly believed, that the Vedic Aryans arrived in India at, about 1500 B.C.E. However, no information, was available regarding the period before, that. This situation continued till the discovery, of Harappa in 1921 and Mohenjodaro in, 1922. The discovery of the Harappan, Civillisation at these two places stretched the, antiquity of Indian history to 3500-3000, B.C.E. At that time a well-developed and, rich civilisation had flourished in the Indian, subcontinent. It extended from Afghanistan to, Maharashtra and from Makaran coast to, , (2), Central, Administration, :, Administrative control over the distribution of, water and other resources, Standardisation :, For example, the size of bricks in the ratio, of 1:2:4, weights increasing in the proportion, of 8, set style of shapes and painted designs, , 11

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is important. At that time, he was the, Director General of the Archaeological, Survey of India. During the excavation he, could trace the fortification wall around the, citadel of Harappa., , of pottery, majestic and non-residential, buildings for public administrative offices., (3) Social organisation : Social hierarchy, based on position of power, classes of skilled, artisans and individuals based on craft, specialisation, belief systems and artefacts/, architecture indicative of them, evidence of, burials indicative of rituals after death., , The first settlement of the Early Harappan, period was established around 3300 B.C.E. It, evolved to the Mature Harappan (urban), phase around 2600 B.C.E. It reached its, peak during 2450-1900 B.C.E. Around 1900, B.C.E. some internal changes begin to appear, in the Harappan cities. This is the time of, the onset of the Late Harappan phase. This, phase indicates the decline of Harappan, civilisation., , (4) Economy : Mass production of goods, for trading purpose : For example, wellshaped, beautiful earthen pots, statues, metal, objects of gold, silver, copper and bronze,, various types of beautiful beads, etc.,, concentration of factories and residences of, artisans in a particular area of the city for, the sake of convenience of production,, flourishing internal and distant trade,, administrative control over trade transactions., , The evidence of the first excavations at, Harappa had indicated that the city of, Harappa was divided into two parts - the, ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However,, recent excavations show that it had four, divisions. Apart from the citadel and the, lower town there were factories and the, quarters of artisans in the Southeast part of, the city. The area toward the north of the, citadel had a granary and the quarters of the, workers working there. It is obvious that the, officials staying in the citadel supervised, over the granary and the workers working, there. A few working platforms were found, near the granary., , (5) Use of Developed Writing System :, The script on Harappan seals., Some, Cities, Civilisation, , of, , the, , Harappan, , Harappa : Harappa is situated on the, banks of the river Ravi (District Sahiwal in, Punjab, Pakistan). The ancient site of Harappa, had spread on 150 Hectares. The first, excavation at Harappa began in 1921. More, excavations were conducted at the site, from, time to time. Among them the excavations, conducted in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, , bed remains dry through the year except, during the monsoon., It is known as, Ghaggar in India and as Hakra in Pakistan., A number of Harppan settlements were, discovered along its dry beds during, exploratory surveys., 3. Many scholars are of the opinion, that the dry beds of Ghaggar-Hakra are, the traces of the vanished river ‘Saraswati’., Satellite images of are being studied in, depth by scholars to gather more, information about these dry beds., , For additional Information : 1. The, archaeological cultures are named after the, site where the characteristic pottery and, artifacts of the culture were discovered for, the first time., 2. The river known as ‘GhaggarHakra’ flows only during the monsoon. It, originates in the Siwalik hills in the, Himachal Pradesh and flows to Rajasthan, through Punjab and Haryana. From there, it enters the desert of Cholistan in Pakistan., Ultimately it enters the Rann of Kutch. Its, , 12

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of Harappa by the reports written by Masson, and Burnes. He conducted excavations at, Harappa during 1872-73 C.E. After that for, next 48 years no excavations were conducted, at the site. However, during this long interval, the curiosity for Harappan site among the, European scholars had not vanished. A, general impression prevailed among them, that the Harappan seals had some connection, with the Mesopotamian civilisation., , You would like to know : Before the, discovery of the Harappan civilisation,, Alexander’s invasion in 326 B.C.E. was the, only evidence available in the context of, ancient History of India and Pakistan. How, this situation entirely changed because of the, discovery of the Harappan cities, is a fascinating, story. It began in the year of 1829. Charles, Masson, a British traveller was the first one to, visit and write about the archaeological remains, at Harappa. He thought that these remains, could be that of the capital of King Porus who, fought with Alexander. Lieutenant Alexander, Burnes, a British officer was the next one to, visit this site., Sir Alexander Cunningham was the first, Director General of the Archaeological Survey, of India. His attention was attracted to the site, , The drawing of a, Harappan seal published, by, Sir, Alexander, Cunningham., The, Harappan seal here, appears to be rectangular., However,, Harappan, seals, in, reality are, square in shape., , 13

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Mohenjodaro : The excavations at, Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee began, in 1921-22. He concluded, because of the, similarity between the seals and other, artefacts, that, the, ancient, civilisations of, Mesopotamia, and, Harappa, had, cultural, Harappan Pots, ties with each, other. In 192324 to gather more information about, Mohenjodaro Madho Sarup Vats, Kashinath, Narayan Dikshit, Earnest Mackay and others, conducted further excavations under Sir John, Marshall’s direction. He was the Director, General of the Archaeological Survey of, India at that time. During these excavations, various artefacts, houses and public, monuments were unearthed., Mohenjodaro was built on the banks of, the river Sindhu (Indus) in Pakistan (District, Larkana, Sindh). It was not possible to reach, the bottom layer during the excavations, because of the high levels of groundwater., However, it is likely that a neolithic settlement, contemporary to the one at Mehrgarh existed, there., Areawise, Mohenjodaro is the biggest, city, among those discovered in Pakistan so, far. It was thought that the city was divided, into two fortified sections, namely the, ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’. However,, there was an additional section of the market., In this section were found various workshops,, kilns for baking pottery and beads., The remains at Mohenjodaro were, considerably intact. So the glory of the city, was revealed in way of the houses, majestic, buildings, wide streets, etc. Thus the evidence, of the impressive town planning, and public, administration, characteristic of the Harappan, civilisation came into light. The town planning, of the Harappan cities can be easily compared, with the town planning of a modern city like, , A multi-roomed house at Mohenjodaro, , Chandigarh. Considering the economic and, human resources required for the creation of, a pre-planned city like Mohenjodaro, it is, obvious that it was created to serve a, distinctive purpose., Kalibangan : The site of Kalibangan is, 205 kilometres away from Bikaner. It is, located in the Hanumangarh district of, Rajasthan. It was one of the important urban, centres of the Harappan civilisation, situated, on the banks of the river Ghaggar. L. P., Tessitore, an Italian linguist had visited, Kalibangan during his study tour of the, region. He had reported that Kalibangan is, an ancient site and it could be prehistoric. It, was confirmed to be a Harappan city only, after the excavations began there in 1960. It, was conducted under the direction of Brijabasi, Lal, the then Director General of the, Archaeological Survey of India and Balkrishna, Thapar., At Kalibangan two settlements, one of, the Mature Harappan period and the other of, the Early Harappan period, were found., Kalibangan was a small city compared to, Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The division of, the city into the ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower, Town’ was found here also. The site of, Kalibangan is important for two things. The, first is the ploughed field of the Early, Harappan period. This field is dated to about, 2800 B.C.E. The furrow marks in this ancient, field are similar to the furrows of modern, fields in the surrounding area. The other, thing is the series of six to seven fire altars, in the citadel. Evidence of fire alters inside, the houses of common people has also been, , 14

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unearthed. Apart from this there was a house, with a series of fire altars outside the, fortification wall. Some of them contained, animal, bones., According, to, some, archaeologists, this might be indicative of, fire worship., Lothal : The centre of the Harappan, civilisation at Lothal was situated near the, Gulf of Kutch, in Gujarat, 80 kilometres, away from Ahmedabad. It is known for the, remains of Harappan dock., Lothal was, excavated from 1955 to 1960 under the, supervision of S.R. Rao., The ‘Citadel’ and the ‘Lower Town’ at, Lothal do not have separate fortification, walls. Rather they are surrounded by a single, fortification wall., Lothal was established on the banks of, the river Bhogao. The presence of platforms, built for stalls, a warehouse, and the dock, confirm that Lothal was an important, Harappan port and trading centre. The, architecture of the dock at Lothal is an, example of the engineering excellence of, ancient people. At present Lothal is away, from the sea. However, in the ancient times, Lothal was in the delta region of the gulf of, Kutch. It is clear that the Harappan settlers, of Lothal had a good knowledge of the high, and low tides and accordingly the rising and, receding pattern of Bhogao waters. The dock, was built to facilitate the entry of boats, during the high tide and their exit during low, tides. Once the boats entered the dock, the, water was drained out through a sluice gate, into a canal. The sluice gate of baked bricks, was built to reduce the water level in the, dock as and when required. Then the repair, work of the boats was completed and with, the rise of water the boats could sail back., Dholavira : Dholavira was discovered, by J.P. Joshi, the Director General of, Archaeological Survey of India. The site is, in ‘Khadirbet’ in Gujarat (Dist. Kutch)., Excavations at the site were started by R.S., Bisht in 1990. Among the excavated Harappan, , The Water Tank at Dholavira, , sites, extentwise Dholavira is the fifth largest, city. Its town planning is somewhat different, compared to other Harappan cities., An Early Harappan settlement was, discovered at Dholavira. There was a, protective wall built around it by using mud, bricks (unbaked bricks) and dressed stones., The layers above this settlement had the, Harppan city of Mature Harappan phase. It, was surrounded by an outer fortification wall., The settlement within the outer fortification, was divided into four sections., (1) Citadel (2) The adjacent section, reserved for high officials (3) Lower Town, – These three sections had walls, which, separated them from each other. (4) The, fourth section inside the outer fortification, did not have any additional separating walls., This fourth section was perhaps meant for, the workers. A dam of baked bricks and, stone was built to obstruct the water of two, streams, which flowed near the closed city, and the water was diverted to canals and, lakes. This was the most ancient system of, planned water management., Rakhigarhi : In the Hissar district of, Haryana is situated the site of Rakhigarhi, a, Harappan city. It is on the distance of 150, kilometres from Delhi. It is located on the, banks of Chautang (ancient Drishdvati river)., Rakhigarhi is the largest Harappan site,, among all the sites from India and Pakistan., Its total area was more than 350 Hectares., The excavations at Rakhigarhi started in, , 15

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1963. It continued in 1997-2000. Later,, Dr.Vasant Shinde of the Deccan College,, Pune also conducted excavations at the site., At Rakhigarhi, all characteristics of the, Harappan cities were present. It was the, main centre of the Harappan civilisation in, its eastern region. At this site too, evidence, of fire altars like Kalibangan have been, found., Indeed, cemeteries were found at various, other Harappan sites, but the human skeletal, remains from there were not studied to, analyse the hereditary characteristics of the, population. However, the human bones from, Rakhigarhi were subjected to genetic analysis., Scientists believe that in due course it would, provide satisfactory answers to the question, of the origin of Harappan people., , administration. The raw material needed for, Harappan industrial production included clay,, various siliceous and semi-precious stones,, metals, etc. The interrelationship between, Harappan cities and villages was dependent, on the mechanism of making available,, things like food grains and the raw materials., Not that all the pre-Harappan settlements, were transformed into cities and towns., Some of them did not change notably. There, was a network of small towns, small and big, villages and camp sites of semi-nomadic, people, which functioned to cater to the needs, of major urban centres of the Harappan, civilisation. It included villages in remote, regions as well. The best example of it is, the Harappan settlement of ‘Shortugai’ in the, Badakshan province of Afghanistan. This, region is rich with mines of lapis lazuli., There was a great demand for this semiprecious stone in Mesopotamia. The, Mesopotamian, epics, describe Goddess Inanna’s, palace, the walls of which, were embedded with this, stone. This stone was a, very important commodity Lapis lazuli stone, in the Harappan trade, with Mesopotamia., 2.3 Production, Trade, Organisation, and Administration, In the early phase of agriculture, making, earthen pots and farming were the jobs of, women. The pots fashioned by women were, handmade. They used a digging stick for, sowing the seeds. With these methods women, could manage production, just enough to, meet the family needs or at the most those, of the extended family. Surplus production, was not possible with their methods., The use of bullocks as draft animals (for, ploughing and transport) had begun in the, Early Harappan period. The use of wheel, enabled speedy and mass production of pottery., Use of ploughs pulled by bullocks enhanced, the agricultural production. The clay replicas, , For Additional Information : (1) Many, sites of the Early Harappan and Mature, Harappan (Urban) phases have been found, in the basin of the river Ghaggar. The, latest research based on the evidence from, sites like Kunal, Bhirrana, Farmana,, Girwad and Mitathal, etc. indicate a, possibility of the rise of the Mature, Harappan more than 5000 years ago. If, this is proved in due course, then it may, be said that it first developed in the, Ghaggar basin. Evidence from Rakhigarhi, may prove to be instrumental in reaching, positive conclusion in this context., (2) The Harappan sites of Mohenjodaro,, Harappa, Ganweriwala in Pakistan and, Rakhigarhi and Dholavira in India have, been declares as World Heritage sites., , 2.2 Interrelationship between Cities, and Villages, We have seen that the Harappan cities, arose as a result of the process of the, development and expansion of the preHarappan settlements. The city people are, dependent on the natural resources and, villages in their vicinity in order to meet the, needs of urban way of life and urban, , 16

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of ploughs are recovered from the Harappan, site at Banawali in Harayana. It became, possible to obtain necessary commodities in, exchange of agricultural produce. This was, the beginning of barter system. The food grains, were exchanged, especially to obtain salt,, metals and precious objects., During the Mature (urban) Harappan, period the sphere of commodity exchange, expanded and their import-export increased, to a great extent. The internal and distant, trade received momentum. Trade with distant, places like Mesopotamia became regular., Trade with Mesopotamia had begun during, Early Harappan times. The Akkadian empire, was founded in 2334 B.C.E. by Emperor, Sargon I. During his reign the Harappan, trade with Mesopotamia flourished and the, Harappan cities reached their peak. One of, the administrative records of emperor Sargon, describes the trade with distant places. It, seems that the importance of trade by land, routes passing through Iran and Central Asia, had diminished in the Mature Harappan, period and the sea trade had become the, preferred mode. ‘Dilmun’, ‘Makan’ and, ‘Meluhha’ are mentioned as three important, centres on the sea route. Dilmun is identified, with Bahrain, Makan with the coastal region, of Oman-Iran-Baluchistan and Meluhha with, the region of Harappan civilisation. Copper, was available in large amounts in Meluhha., The name Meluhha is supposed to have its, origin in the red colour of copper. The, commodities exported from Meluhha to, Mesopotamia included copper, ivory objects,, lapis lazuli, carnelian beads, textiles, timber, as well as monkeys and peacocks. The bodies, (mummies) of dead royalties in Egypt were, wrapped in blue coloured cloth. Indigo,, necessary for dyeing this cloth was exported, by Harappan traders. Harappan traders are, likely to have received wool, gold and silver, in exchange for these commodities., The Harappan cities had a reserved, section for the industrial production. There, , were also exclusively industrial settlements., Chanudaro in Sindh was an important, industrial town. It is apparent that the, outposts in Gujarat were specially established, for the convenience of trade. It was easier, to reach the sources of copper, chank shells, and semi-precious stones from the outposts, like Kuntasi, Nageshwar, Bagasara, etc. in, Kutch-Saurashtra. It was also easier to ship, out the finished goods from these outposts, located near the coast of Saurashtra. Carrying, out all the operations like procurement of the, raw material, production of finished goods, and its export from one and the same region,, certainly proves to be beneficial for trade., Harappan people built the trading outposts, with this view in mind. These were small in, extent, but were important industrial centres., Dholavira was the city built to oversee the, trading transactions. Lothal was an important, sea port., For Additional, Information, :, Mesopotamia is known for its grand, temples. The administrative system of, Mesopotamian cities revolved around the, administration, of, these, temples., Mesopotamian temples are known as, ‘ziggurats’. The high priest of the temple, used to be the ruler of the city. The social, life, cultural events, power and hierarchy, of officials, etc. were organised in, accordance with the rituals and festivals of, the presiding deity of the temple. The, notion of a ‘Priest-King’ of the Harappan, civilisation was formulated by presuming, its close similarity with the Mesopotamian, culture. Mesopotamia was rich in, agricultural production. However, it did not, have enough sources of precious metals,, gems and timber. These things were, imported there. Many of the Mesopotamian, brick inscriptions contain the lists of, imported commodities and the place names, from where they were imported. The, exports from Mesopotamia included textiles,, pottery and leather products., , 17

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continuous internal conflicts in Mesopotemia., Along with it increasing salination of, agricultural land was the main reason of the, decline of the Mesopotamian civilisation. It, weakened the Mesopotamian market that was, available to the Harappan goods., 2. Deteriorating environment was the, main reason of the decline of Mesopotamia., Similarly, climatic changes and deteriorating, environment were the main reasons of the, decline of the Harappan civilisation too., Around 2000 B.C.E. the climate became, increasingly arid and there were frequent, famines. Degradation of cultivable land was, on the increase. It is mentioned earlier that, sites of Harappan civilisation have been, discovered in large numbers in the basin of, Saraswati, which is now known as Ghaggar/, Hakra., The, interrelationship, between, Harappan cities and villages that formed the, support system of the socio-economic life of, the cities dwindled in this period. The, devastating earthquake in the Saraswati basin, was the major reason responsible for it. The, earthquake raised the ground level of the, river bed causing a barrier causing Sutlaj, and Yamuna, the tributaries of the Saraswati, to change its course. As a result the Saraswati, dried up and the Harappans had to migrate, elsewhere. Harappan cities were abandoned., The settlements that came up on the, remains of the Harappan cities were not, developed and rich. These settlements, belonged to Late Harappan people. The, pottery, houses, funerary customs of these, people were different. The Late Harappan, people were also forced to migrate because, of natural calamities. New villages were, settled by the Mature Harappan and Late, Harappan people wherever they went. It gave, rise to new rural cultures. The spread of, these new cultures is seen in Rajasthan,, Gujarat, Malawa and Maharashtra. These, new cultures are known as ‘Chalcolithic, Cultures’. We will learn about these cultures, in the next lesson., , It is clear that a well organised, administrative system existed to manage the, industrial production, import-export, the, interrelationship between cities managing, trading operations and villages around them., The town planning, standardisation of bricks,, weights, seals, shapes and ornamentation of, various objects, etc. confirm the presence of, such administrative system. However the, nature of Harappan polity, whether it was a, single state or a federation of small states,, is not yet known. The cities like Mohenjodaro,, Harappa, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi were, perhaps regional capitals. Cities like, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal and, Rakhigarhi were important religious centres., 2.4 Decline of the Cities, 1. When Harappan civilisation was, discovered, it was presumed that its cities, were destroyed by invading tribes who came, from outside. Indra is described as ‘Purandara’, meaning the destroyer of fortified cities. The, Harappan cities were fortified, thus befitting, the definition of ‘pura’. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, on this basis concluded that Indra destroyed, the Harappan cities. In turn, he declared that, the Vedic Aryans destroyed the Harappan, cities under the leadership of Indra. This, declaration by Wheeler received a general, approval among the scholars at that time., However, more concrete evidence in the, context of Harappan civilisation is available, now, which does not agree with Wheeler’s, opinion. It is now known that the Harappan, civilisation began to decline around 20001900 B.C.E. People had to migrate elsewhere., With this, began the Late Harappan period., The Harappan civilisation deteriorated as, the cumulative effect of various factors such, as decline in trade, climatic changes,, weakening of the economy, etc., The Harappan trade with Mesopotamia, was on the decline in the Late Harappan, period because the Mesopotamian economy, had weakened. One reason of it was, , 18

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Note : Terminology, (1) Pre-Harappan Cultures - Cultures of the period preceding the Harappan civilisation, (2) Early Harappan period - Early (beginning) Harappan phase, (3) Mature (Urban) Harappan period - Fully developed phase of Harappan civilisation, (4) Late Harappan period - Period after the decline of the mature (Urban) phase, (5) Post Harappan cultures - Rural cultures that came up after the Harappan civilisation vanished., , Exercise, Q.1 Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence.., (1) In the early phase of agriculture,, making, pots and farming, were the jobs of women., (a) copper, (b) bronze, (c) earthen, (d) stone, , (3) Shortugai, (4) Meluhha, , (c) Mesopotamia, (d) Region of Harappan, civilisation, , Q.3 Explain the statements with reasons., (1) The remains found at cities like, Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan,, Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, etc., are the evidence of the past glory of, this civilisation., (2) Lapis lazuli had a very important, place in the Harappan trade., (3) Harappan civilisation declined., , (2) Lothal, , is known for its ancient, ., (a) agriculture, (b) dock, (c) textiles, (d) tools, (3) A general impression prevailed that the, Harappan seals had some connection, civilisation., with the, (a) Chinese, (b) Greek, (c) Mesopotamian (d) Egyptian, , Q.4 State your opinion., (1) The Harappan cities and villages in, the vicinity were interdependent., (2) The Harappan cities seem to have a, well-organised administrative system., , (4) The bodies (mummies) of dead, royalties in Egypt were wrapped in, coloured cloth., (a) white, (b) black, (c) red, (d) blue, , Q.5 Answer the following question with the, help of given points., Write about the characteristics of, Harappan cities with the help of given, points., (a) Town planning, (b) Social organisation, (c) Administration, (d) Economy, , Q.2 (A) Choose the correct reason and, complete the sentence., The major reason for the decline of the, Mesopotamian civilisation was (a) foreign invasion, (b) deteriorting environment, (c) loss in trade, (d) migration, , Activity, Collect information and illustrations with, the help of internet about the town, planning of the Harappan cities and, Chandigarh. Compare them., , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Dilmun, (a) Bahrain, (2) Makan, (b) Oman-IranBaluchistan coastal, region, , , 19

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3., , Chalcolithic Villages in India, , 3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India, 3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra, 3.3 Megalithic Period in India, 3.1 Chalcolithic Period in India, Design on Harappan Jar - Cemetery ‘H’, , When the Mature (urban) Harappan, civilisation collapsed completely, the people, of Late Harappan cultures who had settled, on the ruins of Mature Harappan cities had, to migrate elsewhere. The urban Harappans, and the Late Harappans dispersed. Wherever, these people reached, new rural cultures came, into being., The discipline of architecture, town, planning of the Mature Harappan period was, absent in the Late Harappan settlements,, established on the ruins of the Harappan, cities. The designs found on the burial pots, in ‘Cemetary H’ at Harappa were different., These designs include motifs like sun, moon,, fish, deer and peacock, which do not occur, , on the Mature Harappan pottery. On one of, the cemetery ‘H’ pots dead humans are seen, carried by peacocks in their stomach. In brief, the characteristics of the Late Harappan, culture were different., Some archaeologists are of the opinion, that the Late Harappans were perhaps Vedic, Aryans. However, more research is required, to know whether the Late Harappans were, the successors of the Mature Harappan people, or whether they were the Vedic Aryans., Rajasthan, (1) ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ Culture : The, chalcolthic cultures in India generally belong, , Revision in Brief : There were, Neolithic villages before the rise of the, Harappan cities. Neolithic people had, the technology of making copper objects., They were also skilled potters. Eventually,, their technology improved and the, progress led to the origin of the Harappan, cities., , these things to the local people wherever, they went. Thus, new rural cultures with, regional variations came into being., These cultures are known as Chalcolithic, culture. Chalcolithic cultures belonged to, people who used tools of copper as well, as stone. However copper was used, sparingly by chalcolithic people., , People of the Mature Harappan and, the Late Harappan culture had the, knowledge of wheel-made pottery,, cultivation of wheat and barley, making, of copper objects. They must have taught, , A number of Chalocolithic sites have, been found in Rajasthan, the Ganga, valley, Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha,, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra., , 21

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was surrounded by a fortification wall. These, characteristics confirm that Balathal people, were in close contact with the Harappans., , to the post-Harappan period. However, the, ‘Ahar’ or ‘Banas’ culture in the Mewad, region of Rajasthan was contemporary to the, Harappan civilisation. Balathal and Gilund, near Udaipur are the important sites of Ahar, culture. ‘Ahar’ culture at Balathal is dated, to 4000 B.C.E., , The Balathal people obtained copper, from the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. They, knew the technology of smelting copper. It, seems Balathal was the source, for the, Harappans to obtain copper and copper, objects., , It was first discovered at Ahar near, Udaipur, so it was named as ‘Ahar’ culture., Ahar is located on the banks of Ahar, a, tributary of the river Banas, So it is also, known as ‘Banas’ culture., , (2) Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture :, Many sites of the culture known as, ‘Ganeshwar-Jodhpura’ culture have been, found in the vicinity of the copper mines at, Khetri. The settlements there are earlier than, the Harappan civilisation. During the, excavations at Ganeshwar copper artefacts, like arrowheads, spearheads, harpoons,, bangles, chisels and also pottery was found., The people of Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture, supplied copper objects to the Harappans., , The archaeological evidence shows that, Balathal was a centre of mass production of, pottery. The pottery made at Balathal was, supplied to other settlements of Ahar culture., Along with pottery, terracotta bull figurines,, objects made of chank shell, stone blades,, chisels, arrowheads, copper tools, etc. were, found here, in large quantities. The houses at, Balathal were built of baked bricks, by, placing two headers and two stretchers, alternatingly (English bond method). Balathal, , The Ganga Valley, Ochre Coloured Pottery and Copper, Hoards : Initially the Ochre Colured Pottery, (OCP) was mostly found in river beds., Generally the potsherds of OCP are found in, worn out, rounded and brittle conditions as, they remained in flowing water for a long, time. Now, a number of sites of the OCP, culture are found in Punjab, Haryana,, Rajasthan and the Western region of Uttar, Pradesh., , By the way : An archaeological, , culture is usually named after the, site where it was discovered first., Every culture has its characteristic, pottery. The pottery is the main clue, to identify a particular culture., Among the types of pottery of, the Ahar culture Black-and-Red type, pottery is important. It is made on, wheel. The inner side and the outer, portion near the neck is red and rest, of the pot is black. If the pot is kept, in a reverted position while baking, its inner side turns black and the, outer surface turns red. Or else, the, portion, which is covered by husk or, hay becomes black and the uncovered, portion becomes red., , Copper Hoard - Harpoon,, axe head, ring etc., , 22, , House floors, of these people, were made by, ramming. On the, house floors were, found traces of, hearths, terracotta, male, figurines, and bull figurines., Remains of cattle, bones, rice and, barley were also, found., This

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troughs of various sizes., , evidence indicates that people of this culture, stayed in settled villages and practiced, agriculture., , Madhya Pradesh, (1) Kayatha Culture : Kayatha is a site, situated on the banks of the river known as, Chhoti Kali Sindh, at a distance of 25, kilometres from Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh., , The OCP culture in Rajasthan is dated, to about 3000 B.C.E. The same culture, existed in Ganga-Yamuna Doab around 2000, B.C.E., , Kayatha culture was contemporary to, the Harappan civilisation. The people of, Kayatha culture subsisted on agriculture and, animal husbandry. They mainly used, handmade pots and microliths. Artefacts like, copper axes and bangles, necklaces made of, beads of semi-precious stones and small disc, beads of steatite were found in the Kayatha, houses. People of Kayatha culture and, Harappan culture seem to have been in, contact much before the rise of the Harappan, cities., , The Copper Hoards found in India come, from various regions, such as Uttar Pradesh,, Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh., The copper objects found in these hoards, indicate that the artisans who fashioned them, were very highly skilled. The archaeological, sites of OCP and the find-spots of the copper, hoards are often seem to be situated in the, same vicinity, not very distant from each, other. Hence, OCP and copper hoards are, supposed to belong to one and the same, culture., , After the Kayatha culture people of Ahar, culture arrived in Madhya Pradesh from, Rajasthan. It is quite possible that both the, cultures co-existed in Madhya Pradesh for a, short time. Remains of Malwa culture are, found in Madhya Pradesh in the times after, Ahar culture., , Some archaeologists are of the opinion, that this culture belonged to the Harappan, people who migrated after the decline of the, Harappan civilisation. Some scholars linked, the copper hoards to the Vedic Aryans., However, some other scholars reasoning on, the basis of the proximity of OCP and copper, hoards, believe that it must have been an, independent culture., , (2) Malwa Culture : The name ‘Malwa’, obviously tells us that this culure originated, and spread first in the Malwa region. It, existed in Madhya, Pradesh during 18001200, B.C.E., ‘Navadatoli’ situated, on, the, river, Narmada, on the, opposite bank of, Maheshwar, is an, important site of, Malwa culture. The, other important sites, A chalice of Malwa, are Eran (District, culture - Navadatoli, Sagar) and Nagda, (District Ujjain). They were surrounded by, protective walls., , Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, Copper hoards have been found in Bihar,, Bengal, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh., However, OCP is not found in these regions., Chalcolithic sites have been discovered, in these regions. The excavations at sites like, Chirand, Sonpur, etc. yielded earthen pots of, black-and-red ware. Shapes of these pots are, similar to those of Harappan culture. It seems, that the Harappan people had gone as far as, Bihar and the local cultures were influenced, by them. In Bengal and Odisha also some, chalcolithic sites have yielded pottery that, shows Harappan influence as far their shapes, are concerned. They include, bowls and, , 23

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(1) Savalda Culture : Savalda is in, Dhule district. It is situated on the banks of, the river Tapi. Savalda culture is dated to, 2000-1800 B.C.E. This culture seem to have, arisen by the cultural contact between the, Mesolithic people in northern Maharashtra, and the Harappan people in Saurashtra., , Gujarat : The chalcolithic settlements in, Gujarat coincide with the following phases, of the Harappan culture :, (1) Early Harappan phase (3950-2600 B.C.E.), (2) Mature (urban) phase (2600-1900 B.C.E.), (3) Post-Harappan phase (1900-900 B.C.E.), There are ample sources of semi-precious, stones in Gujarat. Making beads of these, stones was a big industry during Harappan, times. The neolithic settlements in Gujarat, played a major role in procuring these stones., People residing in the neolithic settlements of, Gujarat were mainly pastoral, that is people, whose primary occupation was animal, husbandry. Probably, some of these pastoral, people were semi-nomadic., , People of Savalda culture at Daimabad, used wheel-made pottery. The designs on, their earthen pots included arrow heads,, harpoons and figures of various animals., People of this culture also used copper, objects, beads of siliceous stones, arrow, heads made of bones, mortar and pestle, stones, etc. Their village at Daimabad was, protected by a surrounding wall. They built, mud houses and they made the floors by, ramming mud and alluvium together., , There are regional variations in the, characteristics of chalcolithic cultures of, Gujarat. The chalcolithic pottery of KutchSaurashtra and Northern Gujarat are distinct, from each other. The chalcolithic villages in, Kutch-Saurashtra were abandoned by 1900, B.C.E., , There was a cultural contact between the, Savalda people and the Harappans in, Saurashtra. Its evidence has been found at, the site of Kaothe in Dhule district. The, artefacts made of chank shells found at, Kaothe confirm that the Savalda people and, The Harappans in Saurashtra had trade, relations., , In the post-Harappan period there were, two chalocolithic cultures in Gujarat. The, culture in south Gujarat was known as, ‘Prabhas’ culture and the one in northeastern, Gujarat was known as ‘Rangpur’ culture., The pottery of these chalcolithic cultures was, akin to Late Harappan pottery with regards, to the colour, shapes and designs. These, cultures existed till 1800-1200 B.C.E., , (2) Malwa and Jorwe Cultures : The, First Farmers of Maharashtra, The people of Malwa culture reached, Maharashtra around 1600 B.C.E. Permanent, villages of farmers were first established in, Maharashtra by the Malwa people. They, were the first farmers of Maharashtra. After, arriving in Maharashtra they came into, contact with the, neolithic people in, Karnataka., It, resulted into a few, changes in the pot, making technology, of Malwa people as, far as shapes of the, pots and designs are, Earthen Jar-Daimabad concerned. This was, , 3.2 Chalcolithic Maharashtra, The evidence for the Late Harappans in, Maharashtra is found at Daimabad. The, chalocolithic culture before the arrival of the, Late Harappans at Daimabad is known as, ‘Savalda’ culture. The cultures in the, succeeding period of the Late Harappan were, respectively known as ‘Malwa’ and ‘Jorwe’, cultures., For a video on Daimabad, visit:, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= EzHb1n954fo, , 24

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the beginning of a new culture known as, ‘Jorwe’ culture. Traces of Jorwe culture were, first found at Jorwe in Ahmednagar district., , form of round platforms made for storage, bins, four flat stones used for resting four, legged storage jars and underground silos, plastered with lime. People sometimes stayed, in pit dwellings, though its use was rare., , The chalocolithic cultures in Maharashtra, had spread in Tapi, Godavari and Bhima, basins., Daimabad,, Prakashe,, (District, Nandurbar) and Inamgaon were the large, villages and the main centres in the respective, river basins. Other smaller settlements and, farmsteads were linked to the large centre in, their vicinity. For example Nevase, Nasik, were the large centres. Songaon and Chandoli, in the Pune district, Pimpaldar in the Nasik, district were smaller settlements. Walki near, Inamgaon was a farmstead. Pimpaldar in the, Bagalan ghats was situated at a vantage, point between Tapi and Godavari basins., Hence, it held an important position in the, trade, though it was smaller in extent. Walki, was situated at the confluence of river Ghod, and Mula. It was a very small site. It was, a farmstead., , Malwa pottery is mostly of buff, (yellowish) colour. Designs on these pots are, painted in brown. Jorwe pots are well baked, giving a metallic sound. They are red in, colour, with, designs, painted, in, black. Jorwe, pottery, includes, shapes, like, spouted, pots,, Jorwe Pottery, carinated, bowls and troughs (carination is the central, ridge on the pot), lota, globular jars, etc. The, Late Jorwe people made pots of the same, shapes, but without any decoration. Potter’s, kilns were found in both Malwa and Early, Jorwe period. They were round in shape. The, kiln of Early Jorwe period was larger and of, greater capacity. In the Late Jorwe period, potters did not have a specially built kiln., They baked their pots by directly arranging, them on the ground. Inamgaon was the centre, of pottery production, which supplied pottery, to surrounding villages., , Inamgaon (Taluk Shirur, District Pune), was subjected to extensive, horizontal, excavations. Therefore, indepth cultural, information of the site is available. The, cultural chronology at Inamgaon :, (1) Malwa Culture-1600-1400 B.C.E., (2) Early Jorwe Culture-1400-1000 B.C.E., (3) Late Jorwe Culture-1000-700 B.C.E., ‘Early Jorwe’ was the flourishing phase, of the Jorwe culture that succeeded the, Malwa culture. ‘Late Jorwe’ is the phase, when the Jorwe culture declined. The, excavations at Inamgaon has unfolded the, material culture and the day-to-day life of, the Jorwe people in great details., , A house, quadrangular in shape, spacious,, having multiple rooms, or just a round shaped, pit dwelling is the indicator of the economic, condition of the family staying in it. The, number of round pit dwellings was negligible., However, the number of quadrangular, spacious houses diminished in the Late Jorwe, period and the number of round huts increased, considerably. These round huts were different, than the round pit dwellings. These were, erected by tying a number of sticks at the, upper end and then pegging the lower ends, on the ground by fanning them out. Such, , During the Malwa phase people at, Inamgaon lived in spacious, rectangular, houses. The house walls were wattle-anddaub type. Houses were partitioned into two, rooms by a half wall. The evidence of, storage facilities in the houses came in the, , 25

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huts are usually erected by nomadic people., The climate in the Late Jorwe period, increasingly became arid. The round huts is, the evidence of climatic change that forced, the Jorwe people to take up nomadic life., , There was an earlier burial of the same type, without the skeletal remains. It was a, symbolic burial. The Early Jorwe people used, globular jars for burying a dead child. In this, type of burial the dead child was placed in, two jars, joined mouth to mouth., , The Early Jorwe people at Inamgaon, dug a canal for storing flood water of the, river. It is obvious that this was done for, irrigation purpose. Distribution of this water, was controlled by the chief of the village., The chief stayed in a five roomed house built, at the central part of the chalocolithic, Inamgaon. There were many underground, silos, inside the house and in the courtyard,, built for storing food-grains., Inamgaon, farmers cultivated wheat, barley, Sorghum,, lentil, horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum),, etc. meat and fish were also part of their, diet. Like other chalocolithic sites Inamgaon, also yielded coloureful stone beads, microliths, and copper objects., , 3.3 Megalithic Period in India, At about 700 B.C.E. Inamgaon was, completely abandoned by the Jorwe people., Thereafter it was never occupied till the, historic period. This situation prevailed in, most of the Maharashtra. However, a nomadic, people of this period erected stone circles by, using huge slabs of rock. The space within, these circles was used to bury dead people., Because of the huge stone slabs used in their, erection, these circles are known as megaliths., The period of these megaliths is known as, ‘Megalithic Age’. They were used for various, purposes, but mainly they contain the remains, of the dead. They were the memorials of the, dead., , The rank of the ‘Chief’ of Inamgaon, was an inherited one. The burials found near, the chief’s house confirm this fact. These, burials were completely different from other, burials found at Inamgaon. Generally, a dead, person was buried in a pit in an extended, position. However, in one of the burials, found near the chief’s house the dead body, was seated in a four legged, bulging jar., , Megalithic Burial, , Try to complete the following, activity : With the help of clues provided, below prepare a flow-chart., Spread, , Such megalithic circles are in many, parts of the world. Its tradition was prevalent, since prehistoric times. A few tribes practice, it even today. For instance, the Bodos in, Odisha, Todas and Kurumbas in South India,, Nagas and Khasis in Northeast India. Most, of the megalithic circles in India are dated, to 1500-500 B.C.E. Some of the megalithic, circles in north India are as old as the, neolithic period. The people who erected the, megalithic circles in Maharashtra are supposed, to have come from south India. The megalithic, , Pots in use, , The chalocolithic cultures in Maharashtra, , House plans, , Burial type, , Means of livelihood, , Diet, , 26

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circles in Maharastra belong to the Iron Age., They are dated to 1000-400 B.C.E., , culture were nomadic artisans. They were, skilled in making iron objects. A furnace of, smelting iron of megalithic period was, discovered at Naikund near Nagpur., Megalithic people used horse for transport, and travel. Skeletal remains and copper, ornaments of horses were found buried in the, megalithic circles. Megalithic people used, Black-and-Red pottery., , In the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, Megalithic burials are found in large numbers,, especially in the districts of Nagpur,, Chandrapur, and Bhandara. Excavations of, megalithic burials were conducted at various, sites like Takalghat, Mahurzari, Khapa,, Naikund, etc. It is notable that most of these, sites were situated on the ancient trade routes., However, settlements of artisans of megalithic, culture are rarely found. People of Megalithic, , Megalithic, people, were, certainly, instrumental to a great extent in introducing, the ‘Iron Age’ in ancient India., , Exercise, Q.2 (A) Explain the statements with reasons., (1) Harappan people had to migrate., (2) People of ‘Malwa’ culture were the, first farmers of Maharashtra., , Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) On one of the cemetery H pots dead, humans are seen carried by ........ in, their stomach., (a) deer, (b) peacock, (c) fish, (d) bull, (2) The archaeological evidence shows, that Balathal was a centre of mass, production of ........, (a) stone pots, (b) copper pots, (c) earthen pots, (d) glassware, (3) Permanent villages of farmers were, first established in Maharashtra by, ......... people., (a) Savalda (b) Malwa (c) Harappa, (d) Kayatha, , Q.3 State your opinion., It seems that the Harappan people had, gone as far as Bihar., Q.4 Write short notes., (1) Banas Culture (2) Malwa Culture, (3) Kayatha Culture, Q.5 Write about the chalcolithic cultures in, Gujarat with the help of the given, points., (a) Period (b) Means of livelihood, (c) Geographical spread (d) Evidence of, cultural contact with other people, Activity, With the help of Internet, reference books,, field trips, newspaper articles, etc. obtain, pictures of excavated artefacts and, architectural remains and arrange an, exhibition under the guidance of your, teachers., , (B) Find the incorrect pair, write the, correct ones., (1) Savalda Culture – Daimabad, (2) Malwa Culture – Navadatoli, (3) Ahar Culture – Sonpur, (4) Jorwe Culture - Inamgaon, , , , 27

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4. Vedic Period, , the basis of astronomical events. He was, also of the opinion that the original home of, the Aryans was in the Arctic region., , 4.1 Vedic Culture : Vedic literature,, Linguistics and Archaeology, 4.2 Vedic, Literature, and, Social, organisation of Vedic Times, 4.3 The Early Vedic Culture as unfolded, through Vedic Literature, 4.4 Later Vedic Period, , This debate began in the 16th century., Till then the concept of the ‘Aryans’ was not, known. In the 16th century the European, academics became aware of the similarities, between Sanskrit and Latin-Greek languages., It resulted into the notion of the ‘IndoEuropean’ language family, which gave a, momentum to the search of a Mother, , 4.1 Vedic Culture : Vedic literature,, Linguistics and Archaeology, It is now confirmed by the research of, many years that the Harappan civilisation, was not destroyed by foreign invaders but it, declined because of various factors like, natural calamities and the deterioration of, environment. There are multiple unanswered, questions, such as, who were the Aryans, did, they arrive in India from a distant place or, were they natives of India, which are the, archaeological sites where the remains of, their culture are found, how to identify those, remains, etc. Most of the information about, their culture is derived from the Vedic, literature. This literature is fundamentally in, the form of the faith systems of the Vedic, tribes and eulogies of their deities., , By the way : The notion of a, language group with a common mother, language seems to have been toyed with, by some European scholars since the, 12th century C.E. However the awareness, of a direct link between Sanskrit and, Latin attained the status of academic, discussions on much later in the 18th, century. We can trace the beginnings of, this kind of interest to the 16th century., In the year 1583, an Italian merchant by, the name Fillippo Sassetti came to Kochi, (Cochin) the port city in Kerala. He, never returned to his motherland. He, stayed in Kerala and Goa. During his, stay he wrote detailed letters to his, family members about Indian life,, language and culture. He happens to be, the first European who wrote about his, observations of the Indian society. He, also studied Sanskrit. He was the first, one who observed the similarities between, Sanskrit and Latin. His observations, could be said to be the first, to give, impetus to the notion of a family of, Indo-European languages., , Mention of the material culture occurs in, the Vedic literature as an unintended aspect., Also, there are references to god Indra’s, victories over their enemies. It was attempted, to find answers to above questions, on the, basis of these details. There are various, opinions about the chronology of the Vedic, culture. However, there is a general agreement, that the Vedic people composed Rigveda in, India around 1500 B.C.E. However, Lokmanya, Tilak calculated this date as 6000 B.C.E. on, , 28

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language from which developed the IndoEuropean languages. It further led to the, development of a branch of linguistics known, as ‘Philology’. Philology is a discipline,, which traces the etymological history and, meanings of words., , (urban) Harappan phase was earlier. Many, scholars are inclined to accept that succeeding, Late Harappan culture was equivalent to the, Vedic culture., The Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) to the, east, Sindhu to the west and the five rivers, of Punjab – Shatdru (Sutlaj), Vipasha (Bias),, Asikni (Chinab), Parushni (Ravi) and Vitasta, (Jhelum) – together comprised the region, known as ‘Saptasindhu’. Besides these rivers, mentioned in the Vedic literature are Kubha, (Kabul), Gomati (gomal), Suvastu (Swat),, etc. Vedic people called the region enriched, by these rivers as the ‘God’s Country’, (Devnirmit Desh)., However, there is no, mention of the region of their origin, if they, had arrived in India from outside., , At about the same time European, scholars had also developed interest in the, ancient Indian literature. As a result of this, interest ‘Asiatic Society of Bengal’ was, established by Sir William Jones in 1784., This period saw the beginning of compiling, and translating Sanskrit texts in European, languages. Also, systematic research in the, field of Vedic literature and archaeological, cultures had gained academic importance., On the basis of the research in these two, fields, notions like the authors of Vedic, civilisation came form the West; they brought, the knowledge of horses and speedy chariots, having spoked wheels, as well as the science, of mounted archery, got deeply rooted among, academics. In brief, it was believed that the, techniques of Vedic warfare was superior to, that of the Harappans, who stayed in fortified, cities. Also, it was supposed that the, Harappans were the enemies of the Vedic, people, mentioned as ‘Dasyu’ in the Vedic, literature., , Some scholars believe that Vedic Aryans, had stayed in the region of Saptasindhu from, the beginning. Now many scholars are, searching for the answer to the question,, whether the Harappans and the Vedics were, one and the same. Apparently no final, answer has been found yet. The answer may, be found if researchers could decipher the, Harappan script., 4.2, Vedic Literature and Social, organisation of Vedic Times, The Vedic literature is supposed to be, the earliest literature of India. Its language, is Sanskrit. The four Vedas namely, Rigveda,, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvveda form, the core of the Vedic literature. The texts of, these four Vedas are known as the ‘Samhitas’., ‘Vid’ in Sanskrit means to know and ‘Ved’, means the knowledge., , The archaeological research has now, proved that the origin, spread and decline of, Harappan civilisation took place mainly in, some parts of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and, Iran as well as in Punjab, Harayana,, Rajasthan and Gujarat. The Geographic, region described in the Vedic literature, concurs with it. However, there is no, agreement among the scholars about the, chronology of the Vedic Aryans. Therefore,, in spite of a number of academic declarations,, nothing conclusive can be said about the, interrelationship between the Vedic and the, Harappan cultures. Chronologically Mature, , The Rigveda contains Suktas (hymns), composed to eulogise the deities. The verses, in Rigveda are known as ‘Rucha’. A number, of Ruchas strung together makes a Sukta, (hymn). Many Suktas make one Mandala., The Yajurveda offers explanation of the, sacrificial rituals. It explains when and how, , 29

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the mantras should be used. A Rigvedic, richa, when recited in sacrificial rituals, is, regarded as Mantra. The Yajurveda is a, combined composition of the Rigvedic richa, in verse and the explanation of its use as a, mantra in prose., , by dividing the span of human life into four, successive, stages,, namely, Brahmacharyashram,, Grihasthashram,, Vanaprasthashram and Sanyasashram. In the, first stage one was expected to spend an, austere life and earn knowledge and necessary, occupational skills. In the second stage one, was expected to fulfil one’s prescribed duties, with one’s wife by his side. In the third stage, one was expected to retire from the active, life of the householder and if the need be,, to give advise to the younger people. It was, also desirable that one shuld stay away from, human settlement. In the fourth and the last, stage one was expected to renounce all the, family bonds, accept a wandering life and to, go away. A Sanyasi was not permitted to, settle at one place for a longer time., , The Samaveda is a text that gives the, rules of reciting mantras in a musical form., The Samaveda is regarded as the text that, is fundamental in the development of Indian, music., The Atharvaveda is about, life. It contains information, and medicines for various, diseases. It also talks about, statesmanship., , the day-to-day, about charms, problems and, the norms of, , Later, Brahmana texts, Aranyaka texts, and Upanishadas were created. They are also, considered as integral part of the Vedic, literature. Vedic literature was created over a, prolonged time. Its completion took about, 1500 years . It is the only source of, information about the life of Vedic people. It, offers a glimpse of the organisation of Vedic, society, Vedic family and the day-to-day life, of the Vedic people., , 4.3 The Early Vedic Culture, unfolded through Vedic Literature, , as, , The Rigvedic culture is the culture of the, Early Vedic period. The tribes of the Early, Vedic period staying in the Saptasindhu, region have been mentioned in the Rigveda., Among them occur the names like Puru,, Anu, Yadu, Druhyu, Turvash, etc., They, were the tribes who subsited on agriculture., The Rigveda mentions a battle known as, ‘Dashradnya Yuddha’ that was fought among, ten tribal chiefs. In the Early Vedic period, along with the Rigvedic tribes, other local, tribes also stayed in the Saptasindhu region,, who did not belong to the Rigvedic people., They were called ‘Das’, ‘Dasyu’ and ‘Pani’., Panis were looked upon as enemies by the, Vedic people. Panis used to steal the cattle, of the Vedic people., , Varna System, The Vedic society was organized into, four classes known as ‘Varna’, namely,, Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra., The varna system is first mentioned in the, tenth mandala (chapter) of the Rigveda. In, the later Vedic period the varna system lost, its flexilblity. Also the caste system got, rooted firmly by this period. In the beginning, the varna or the caste was decided by one’s, occupation. Later it came to be determined, on the basis of birth. Hence it became, impossible to change one’s varna and caste,, in which he/she was born., , The tribal settlements and the Vedic, people residing there have been mentioned as, ‘Krishtya’ in the Rigveda. ‘Krish’ means, ploughing. Hence the people who ploughed, and also their settlements were metioned as, ‘Krishtya’. The importance of agriculture is, , Ashrama System, The Ashrama System of the Vedic culture, lays down the norms of living an ideal life, , 30

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certain that the Later Vedic people, migrated by two different routes. The, Vedic literature mentions ‘Uttarapath’, (The northern route) and ‘Dakshinapath’, (the southern route). Both of these routes, pass through regions, which differed, drastically. Accordingly their environment, also differed. Considering this, it becomes, clear that the ancient people managed to, traverse through extremely difficult, terrains., The northern route extended from, Central Asia to Saptasindhu and from, there to Himalayan foothills and then, proceeding to Ganga-Yamuna Doab,, reaching the delta region thereafter., The southern route formed a link, between the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the, southern regions of India. It extended from, the southern part of Sindh, through Kutch,, South Rajasthan, Malwa and from there, to the Deccan Plateau. We have seen in, the previous lesson that the Harappan, people reached Maharashtra via this route., , You would like to know : There is, a school of thought, according to which,, the Late Harappans, that is the Vedic, people, migrated because of adverse, climatic conditions and natural calamities., They migrated to Ganga-Yamuna Doab in, the east and also went toward the west, to Iran, Iraq, Egypt, etc. The evidence, of the inscriptions found at ‘Boghazkui’, in Iraq is used to confirm it. These, inscriptions contain the text of a treaty, between two tribes called Hittite and, Mittanni. It begins by invoking deities, like Indra, Varuna and Nasatya. This and, similar evidence is offered by some of the, European and Indian scholars to prove, that Vedic people arrived in India from, the West. This is one of the examples to, illustrate the way the riddles in history are, created., So far, scholars have been unable to, solve the riddle of the ‘Aryans’ by putting, together the archaeological and literary, evidence. Nevertheless, it seems to be, , clearly emphasised in the 10th mandala of the, Rigveda., , palace of Lord Varuna having 1000 doors., This description is an allegory, indicative of, the imagination of the poet. There is no, evidence available so far to support this kind, of Vedic architecture., , It states, that for the farmer his, ploughshare is the means of obtaining food., The deities, Ashwins and Indra were supposed, to be the gods of agriculture. It is mentioned, that the Ashwins hold the plough and make, available food in large quantities. ‘Urvara’, means cultivable land prepared by ploughing., Indra is mentioned as the ‘Lord of Urvara’, (Urvarapati). Barley was the main crop, grown by the Vedic people. The 10th mandala, of the Rigveda mentions well water used for, irrigation. According to its description a stone, wheel tied with earthen jars (Rahatgadage in, Marathi) was used to draw water from the, well. It is instructed to secure the belts firmly, around the jars. The Rigved describes the, , Along with agriculture the Early Vedic, people also practised animal husbandry., Cattle, Buffaloes and horses formed part of, their pastoral wealth. The god who protected, their animals was known as ‘Pushan’. The, chariot makers in this period were known as, ‘Rathakara’ and the carpenters were known, as ‘Takshan’. Rathakar and Takshan were, artisans of importance. A Rathakara was, supposed to have a good knowledge of, carpentry too. The carpenters used to make, wooden utensils, equipments necessary for, performing the sacrificial rituals and other, , 31

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objects of domestic utility. The Rigveda, mentions boats with hundred oars known as, ‘Aritram’. These descriptions afford a glimpse, of the skills of the carpenters of those times., , Varuna and Ashwins were the lords of water, routes. The Rigveda also mentions trade by, exchange, negotiations and traders travelling, far and wide to earn profits. At times, though, rarely, an ornament called ‘Nishka’ was used, like money., , The Rigveda does not have a specific, term for the potter. However there are, separate terms for utensils of specific use., ‘Ukha’ was the term used for a cooking pot., The other terms like ‘patra’, ‘kumbha’,, ‘kalash’ etc. also occur. A potter is mentioned, as an artisan in the Yajurveda for the first, time as ‘Kulal’., , 4.4, , Later Vedic Period, , Later Vedic Period is dated to around, 1000-600 B.C.E. The information about this, period is gathered from the treatises written, in that period. The material culture as, reflected in the epics, Ramayana and, Mahabharata was studied with the help of, archaeological evidence. A picture of the, migration in the Later Vedic period can be, gathered from the Saptasindhu region toward, the east and its geographic markers from the, literature of that period. This period saw the, spread of Later Vedic culture from the, foothills of Himalayas in the north to the, Vindhya mountains in the south. There is a, story of Videgha Mathava (Videha Madhava), in this context that occurs in the Shatapatha, Brahmana. It appears in this story that the, Later Vedic people were settling and bringing, the land under cultivation from the west to, the east., , ‘Vayya; means the weaver, and its, feminine as it occurs in the Rigveda is, ‘Vayyaa’. Along with this there are terms, associated with the textile industry. ‘Tantum’, (warp), ‘Otum’ (weft), Shuttle (tasar), are a, few of them. Rigveda also mentions woollen, cloth. ‘Urna’ is the word for wool. However,, Rigveda does not mention cotton or silk, cloth., The artisan who worked on leather, was known as ‘Charmnma’. Various objects, of leather are mentioned in the Rigveda., Objects made of gold (hiranya), of copperbronze or iron (ayas) are mentioned. Iron, was not yet common in the Early Vedic, period. The artisans who made the metal, objects were known as ‘Karmar’. The Varna, system seems to have established by the end, of the Early Vedic period. The 10th mandala, of the Rigveda in which this system finds the, first mention is supposed to be composed at, the end of the Early Rigvedic period., , The Later Vedic period saw a gradual, formation of confederacies of, the Vedic, villages. They were known as ‘Janapada’., Generally, the seniors and the elites in a, Janapada collectively took social decisions., They functioned like oligarchic states. The, powerful Janapadas among them gradually, expanded into Mahajanapadas. In the next, lesson we will study the history of the 4, centuries from 1000-600 B.C.E., , The chariot has been already, mentioned. A cart was known as ‘Anas’. The, river transport was known as ‘Navya’., Pushan was the lord of the land routes while, , 32

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Exercise, Q1. (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The importance of agriculture is, clearly emphasised in the, mandala of the Rigveda., (a) 4th (b) 10th (c) 8th (d) 6th, , Q.2 Complete the concept map given below., Tribes, , Dashradnya Yuddha, , Early Vedic, Culture, , (2) A potter is mentioned as an artisan, in the, for the first time., (a) Rigveda, (b) Yajurveda, (c) Samaveda, (d) Atharvveda, , Means of, Livelihood, , (3) The god who protected the animals, was known as, ., (a) Indra, (b) Pushan, (c) Ashwin, (d) Varun, , Deities, , Q.3 Choose the correct reason and complet, the sentence., Panis were looked upon as enemies, by the Vedic people because (a) they belonged to a different tribe., (b) their language was impure, (c) Panis used to steal the cattle of, the Vedic people, (d) Panis did not obey the orders of, the Vedic people., , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Nishka – Gold ornament, (2) Barley – Main crop of the Vedic, people, (3) Krishtya – The apparatus of drawing, water from the well, (4) Navya – river transport, , Q.4 State your opinion., (1) There is a debate about the original, home of the Aryans., (2) The Rigvedic people subsisted on, agriculture., , (C) Write the names, (1) A branch of linguistics (2) A battle fought among the ten tribal, chiefs (3) Cultivable, land, prepared, by, ploughing -, , Q.5 Explain the following concepts., (1) Origin of Aryan people, (2) Indo-European family of languages, , , , 33

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5., 5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas, 5.2 Janapada, 5.2.1 Territoriality and, Autonomous Functioning, 5.2.2 Expansion and Development, of the Janapadas, 5.3 Federation of States (Ganarajya), , Janapadas and Republics, , 5.2 Janapada, The term ‘janapada’ occurs in the, Brahmana texts for the first time. Thereafter,, it is frequently used in the Vedic literature, and the epics – Mahabharata and Ramayana,, as also in the Jain and the Buddist literature., Considering the ancient Indian geographic, perception with reference to the janapadas,, the said literature seems to divide the Indian, subcontinent into five sections : ‘Praachya’of the east, ‘Praatichya’- of the west,, ‘Udichya’ - of the north, ‘Dakshina’ - of the, south, ‘Madhyadesha’ - The central region., However, this division does not include, the entire subcontinent. It mainly focuses on, the region to the north of the Vindhya ranges., The geographic awareness seems to have, expanded in the Puranic literature. The, Purana texts mention the regions to the south, of, the Vindhyas, also. These, are,, ‘Dakshinapatha’ and ‘Aparanta’, that is the, coastal region of Konkan., 5.2.1 Territoriality and Autonomous, Functioning, It may be noted, that the sense of, territoriality and the ensuing awareness of, autonomy were the main factors responsible, for the formation of ancient janapadas in, India. However, their administrative system, was not much different from that of the, janas in the Rigveda. Two assemblies known, as ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ were at the apex of, all administrative decision making process,, since the very beginning of the Vedic period., The chief of the janapada was known as, ‘Rajan’. The Sabha and Samiti had the, authority either to elect or to remove the, chief. However, the administrative objectives, and policies, the norms of social organisation,, etc. were flexible enough to accommodate, changing socio-geographic milieu., , 5.1 ‘Jana’ and Janapadas, Vedic people used the term Jana to, designate a group of people, united under a, common bond of singular kinship structure., Their settlement was known as ‘Grama’. A, cluster of gramas consisting of the same jana, was known by the name of that particular, jana. In the beginning, however, the concept, of jana included only an extended family, (kul), its settlement (grama) and the cattlepen (goshtha-gotra-gaulwada). The concept, of jana was not yet inclusive of the concept, of territoriality. Hence, the geographic, boundaries of a jana were not defined., In the last lesson we saw that the Vedic, people migrated and spread from the, Saptasindhu region to the delta region of the, Ganga. Vedic janas gradually began to settle, in the new region. The concept of jana, increasingly acquired the sense of territoriality., The sense of territoriality instilled the sense, of geographic boundaries among the janas. It, resulted into the emergence of informal local, administrative structures among the janas., Thus, independent Janapada came into, existence. A region occupied by a janas was, called as Janapada. Gradually the Janapadas, had more formal administrative structures, transforming them into independent states., These were the first well-established states of, ancient India. However, this does not, necessarily mean that every Janapada evolved, into an independent state., , 34

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Uttar Kuru and Uttar Madra were of, ‘Vairajya’ type. It means that the state was, not ruled by a monarch but the members of, the janapada run the state collectively. The, ancient literature mention such type of states, as ‘ganasangha or sangharajya’ (oligarchy/, republic)., ‘Gana’ means the ruling class comprising, members of equal social status. Similarly, sangha means a state formed by many kulas, or janapadas by coming together. By 6th, century B.C.E. many sangharajyas had come, into existence., There were three main types of the, ancient federation of states in India., (1) Ganarajya of the members of the same, kula. For example, Malava and Shibi., (2) Ganarajya created by more than one, kulas coming together. For example,, Vajji Ganasangha. It included eight, kulas. Vajji, Lichchhavi, Dnyatruk and, Videha were the important ganas among, them. Lichchhavi was most influential, gana of them., (3) More than one ganrajyas coming together, to create a sangharajya. For example, Yaudheya-Kshudrak Sangh., We can get a glimpse of the administrative, system of the ancient ganasanghas in the, Buddhist texts. Each ganasangha had its own, system of decision making and its, implementation. We may find approximate, parallels of these systems in the following, types:, , For additional information : Ancient, Indian literature mentions two more types, of ganasanghas. ‘Ayudhjivi’ sangh and, ‘Varta-Shastropajivi’ sangh. They existed, in the northwest regions of the Indian, subcontinent. The ganasangha of the, Trigartas was mentioned as Ayudhajivi., These people were skilled warriors and, warfare was the means of their livelihood., For example Yaudheya, Malava and, Kshudraka. ‘Varta’ means trade and, commerce. The people in the VartaShastropajivi ganasanghas lived by trade, and commerce, agriculture and animal, husbandry, as well as their skills in, warfare. People in the Kamboj and, Surashtra ganasanghas earned their, livelihood by these means., Each elective representative of respective, regional zone was, designated as, ‘Ganamukhya’. Every ganamukhya was the, member of the assembly known as, ‘ganaparishada’. Ganaparishada was the, highest decision-making authority concerning, all the administrative matters of the, ganasangha. The decisions made by the, ganaparishada,, were, implemented, by, designated functionaries of various cadre., The ganapramukha was the principal, functionary presiding over the administrative, system. He was known as the ‘Adhyaksha’, or ‘Raja’. The rest of the main designated, functionaries, included,, Uparaja, (Upadhyaksha), Senapati and Bhandagarika, (Koshadhyaksha)., 2. Oligarchic States : In this type the, elite class in the society held all the powers, of decision-making and administration. Panini, and, Kautilya, mention, them, as, ‘Rajshabdopajivi’ sangh. Panini includes, Vajji, Andhaka, Vrishni, Yaudheya in the, Rajashabdopjivi type. Kautilya includes the, Vrijji or Vajji, Madrak, Kuru, Panchala, etc., in this type. This type of ganasanghas were, more prevalent in the eastern region of Uttar, Pradesh and Bihar., , 1. Democratic States : Some of the, ganasanghas were divided into regional zones, called ‘Khanda’. They functioned through a, group of elected individuals, who were found, capable. Each of the elected members, represented his respective khanda. These, elected members were installed with collective, authority for the smooth running of the, ganasangha. This was a democratic system., Ganasanghas which functioned in this, democratic way existed in Punjab and Sindh, at the time of Alexander’s invasion., , 36

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We have seen that the janapadas mainly, emerged as the result of the sense of, geographic boundaries (territoriality) and, autonomous functioning. Some of the powerful, janapadas expanded and developed to the, extent that they were acknowledged as, ‘Mahajanpadas’ by the 8th century B.C.E. In, the next lesson we will study the sixteen, mahajanpadas of ancient India., , By the Way, : The ganasanghas, of Vajji, Shakya, Lichchhavi and Malla, were closely associated with the life of, Gautama Buddha. Gautama Buddha was, born in the Shakya family. His father, Shuddhodan was an elected president, (Rajan) of the Shakya Ganaparishad., , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence.., (1) ‘A region occupied by the ‘janas’, was called as, ., (a) Ganarajya, (b) Janapada, (c) Mahajanapada (d) Gotra, (2) The principal functionary of a, ganasangha was known as, ., (a) Senapati, (b) Bhandagarika, (c) Raja, (d) Uparaja, (3) The author of the ‘Ashtadhyayi’,, which mentions ‘janapadin’, was, ., (a) Kautilya, (b) Panini, (c) Chanakya, (d) Vyas, (4) The sense of territoriality and the, ensuing awareness, were the, main factors responsible for the, formation of ancient janapadas in, India., (a) of unity, (b) of authority, (c) of autonomy (d) of public, authority, , (3) Praatichya - Anu, Pundra, Bhalan,, Parashu, (B) Choose the correct reason and, complete the sentence., The ganasangha of the Youdhey, Malav,, Kshudraka were mentioned as Ayudhajivi., Because –, (a) it was in the northeast region of the, Indian subcontinent., (b) these people were skilled warriors, and warfare was the means of their, livelihood., (c) they were skilled in trade and, commerce., (d) these were the ganasanghas dependednt, on agriculture and animal husbandry., Q.3 Complete the concept chart., Later Vedic, Literature, , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Praachya – of the east, (2) Praatichya – of the west, (3) Udichya – of the north, (4) Aparanta – the region to the north, of Vindhya ranges, , Ancient Literature, mentioning, ‘Janapada’, , Brahamana, Texts, , Q.4 Explain the concept with examples., (1) Ganarajya and Sangharajya, (2) Vartashastropajivi ganasangh, (3) ‘Jana’ and ‘Janapada’, Q.5 Answer the following question in detail., Describe the democratic and oligarchic, states in ancient India., , Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out., (1) Praachya - Anga, Magadh, Kikat,, Shalva, (2) Madhyadesha, - Aja, Bharata,, Vaikarna, Matsya, , Activity, Present an act in the class, based on the, simulation of the administrative system of, an oligarchic state., , , , 37

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6., , Second Urbanisation in India, , 6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas, , For additional information:, The Sanskrit ‘Ashmak’ and the Pali, ‘Assak’ are supposed to be two versions, of the same name. This can be further, explained by the following examples., (1) ‘Avantyashmak’ is a term, mentioned in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. It, means Avanti and Ashmak were two, adjacent states., (2) Three states of ‘Ashwayana’,, ‘Ashwakayana’ and ‘Hastikayana’ are, mentioned in Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’., When Alexander invaded India, his, advent through Afghanistan and Punjab, was fiercely resisted by some warrior, tribes. The Greek historians have, mentioned their names as ‘Aspasioi’,, ‘Assakenoi’ and ‘Astakenoi’. These, three names are equivalents of, ‘Ashwayana’,, ‘Ashwakayana’ and, ‘Hastikayana’ respectively. Assaka, mentioned in the Buddhist literature, may be identified, according to some, historians, with the Ashwakayanas in, the northeast region, which may not, have any association with the Ashmakas., (3) It seems that the king of Assaka, was known as ‘Andhakraja’ during, Gautama Buddha’s times. The region on, the banks of the Godavari was known, as ‘Andhakratta’. Sage Bavari, a, contemporary of Gautama Buddha, had, his ashram in this region. Originally he, was from the state of Kosala. According, to ‘Suttanipata’, a Buddhist text, he, came from Shrvasti, the capital of, Kosala to Assaka. It was situated on, the Godavari and in the region of, ‘Dakshinapatha’. This evidence confirms, that the name Assaka in Pali is, equivalent to Sanskrit Ashmaka., , 6.2 Ashmak/Assak Mahajanapada, 6.3 Second Urbanisation in India, 6.4 Mahajanapadas and The, Contemporary Cities, 6.5 Mahajanapadas – Administrative, System, Guilds, 6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects, 6.7 New Religious Trends, , 6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas, The ambition of territorial expansion, led to a conflict among the janapadas., Some janapadas proved more powerful than, the others in this conflict. The stronger, janapadas began to annex the conquered, territories to their own and thus, they, successfully expanded their boundaries. By, 600 B.C.E. sixteen mahajanapadas were, established in India, from the northwest, region to Magadha. Conquering other, janapadas and annexing their territory, permanently to one’s own, became a regular, practice in the times of mahajanapadas., Ultimately, this conflict resulted into the, creation of the large empire like Magadha., Ancient India once again witnessed the rise, of cities. This process is known as the, ‘Second Urbanisation’., The names of sixteen mahajanapadas, are found in the Jaina and Buddhist, literature and also in the Purana texts., Buddhist texts were written in a period,, which was closer to the period of the, mahajanapadas. Hence the names occurring, in the Buddhist texts are accepted as more, reliable., , 38

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You would like to know : The following, examples will throw light on the challenges, faced by historians when a single name is, mentioned in varying contexts., (1) The jataka story known as ‘Nimi Jataka’, gives us the list of kings who ruled the, state of Videha from its capital city,, Mithila. It includes a king whose name, was ‘Assaka’., (2) The Jataka story known as ‘Assaka, Jataka’ tells us about a king named, Assaka who ruled the state of Kasi, and, his queen. In this story, it is mentioned, that Potali was the capital of the king, Assaka. The capital of ancient state of, Kasi was Varanasi. However, it is inferred, that the mention of Potali as the capital, of king Assaka may indicate that he might, , have been a feudatory of the king of Kasi., (3) The Jataka story known as ‘Chulla, Kalinga Jataka’ describes the battle, between King Assaka and the Kalinga, king of Dantapur. King Assaka defeated, the Kalinga king and married his sister., This marital alliance helped to establish, congenial relations between the two states., In the Hathigumpha inscription of, Kharavela, it is mentioned that King, Kharvela, without fearing the dreaded, name of Satakarni, attacked the city of, Asikanagara in the west and created a, fright among its residents. Some historians, identify ‘Assaka’ occurring in the Jataka, stories with ‘Asiknagara’ mentioned in the, Hathigumpha inscription., , Tirthankara was given the kingdom of, Ashmaka and Podanpur was its capital., The magnificent statue of Bahubali stands, at Shrvanbelgola, in the Hassan district of, Karnataka. Bahubali had attained Keval, Gyan (Omniscience)., 6.3 Second Urbanisation in India, The janapadas with definite geographic, borders and administrative system were, established roughly around 1000 B.C.E. The, ambition to expand geographic boundaries, and the political conflict caused by it left, some janapadas more powerful than others., It resulted into the creation of sixteen, mahajanapadas from Afghanistan in the, northeast to Bengal in the east, stretching, to the banks of the Godavari in the south., The capital cities of the mahajanapadas, and some other cities, which flourished, because of prospering trade once again, brought the age of urbanisation in India. It, is known as the ‘Second Urbanisation’., The ‘Mahaparinibbansutta’ mentions, names of six cities, which were of great, importance. They are, Champa, Rajagriha,, Shravasti, Saketa, Kushambi and Varanasi., By the 6th century B.C.E. these and a few, other cities had become very prosperous., , Characteristic pottery of janapadas and, mahajanapadas has been recovered from, various archaeological sites. Also, many, sites have yielded iron implements and, punch marked coins of silver and copper., The punch marked coins have been, mentioned in the ancient Indian literature, as ‘Karshapana’ or ‘Pana’., The following things are perceived as, markers of urbanisation : Development of, the cities as administrative centres, network, of surrounding villages to cater to the needs, of urban centres (hinterland), interlinking of, the village administration with the central, administration, well defined rules of taxation,, internal and distant trade, well-established, network of land routes and waterways (both, rivers and oceans), purchase and sales of, goods by increasingly using monetary, exchange along with the barter system, a, stable legal system and judiciary. All these, characteristics of urbanisation were present, in the times of mahajanapadas., 6.4 Mahajanapadas and The, Contemporary Cities, 1. Kasi : This mahajanapada was a, powerful one in the beginning of the, , 40

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entitlement of ‘Saamraj’. The epithet ‘Raja’, always indicates a lower cadre., A ‘Raja’ was expected to be a ‘Kshatriya’, and according to the existing norms a, Brahmin was expected to refrain from, accepting the position of a ‘Raja’. However,, there are a number of exceptions to this norm, as seen in the Vedic literature and Buddhist, jatakas. The position of Raja was generally, bequeathed on the son of the ruling king, after him. However, at times, a king was, elected by people. The first wife of the king, was given the epithet of ‘Rajmahishi’. She, was the one who was formally crowned, along with the king. A powerful sovereign, performed ‘Ashvamedha’ sacrifice to, establish his supremacy. The coronation of a, king, principally gave him absolute authority, over his subjects. He was the one to decide, the amount of taxes to be collected from, them. He was the ultimate lord of all the, land in his kingdom and so he could donate, any portion of that land according to his, wish. Nevertheless, his power was not totally, unrestricted. The king made his decisions by, seeking advice from his officials such as, ‘Purohita’, ‘Senani’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Gramani’,, etc. Besides, there was an assembly of people, of all classes. When it assembled, everybody, present there could participate in the decision, making process. There were instances when, people’s assemblies made a king step down, from the throne., Guilds (Shrenis) : Along with, agriculture and animal husbandry, trade and, systematic management and organisation of, the trade are also essential factors for the, prosperity of a state. The guilds of the, merchants and the artisans played a great, role in the growth of the mahajanpadas into, wealthy states. These guilds had their own, way of organisation and functioning. Among, the important characteristics of the guilds, were, local organisation of various, occupations, transferring the skills to the, young members in the family with hands-on, , became an integral part of the Maurya, empire., 15. Gandhara : This mahajanpada had, spread into Kashmir and Afghanistan., Taxila was its capital. Pukkusati or, Pushkasarin was the king of Gandhara,, who was a contemporary of King Bimbisara., He had established diplomatic relations with, King Bimbisara. By the 6th century B.C. the, Iranian emperor, Daryush I conquered, Gandhara mahajanapada. The Behistun, inscription in Iran (516 B.C.E.) mentions, Gandhara as one of the satrapies of the, Iranian empire., 16. Kamboja : This mahajanapada is, mentioned in the ancient literature along, with Gandhara. Rajapura (Rajauri) was its, capital. Kamboja was well-known for its, excellent horses and its horsemen warriors, for their skills of warfare. Kamboja people, had resisted Sinkandara’s advent. The, Aspasioi (Ashvayana) was part of the, Kamboja mahajanapada. The mahajanapada, is mentioned in Ashoka’s edicts as ‘araj’,, meaning ‘those who do not have a king’., In turn, it means that those who were a, republic., 6.5 Mahajanapadas - Administrative, System, Guilds, Administrative System : In the 5th lesson,, we have seen various terms in the context, of the types of ancient states. They were, ‘Rajya’, ‘Svaarajya’, ‘Bhaujya’, ‘Vairajya’,, ‘Maharajya’,, ‘Saamrajya’, and, ‘Parmeshthya’. It is difficult to define these, terms. However, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’, and ‘Katyayana Shrautsutra’ explain the, term Rajya and Saamrajya in the conext of, sacrificial system. According to it, the king, who performs ‘Rajasooya’ sacrifice is, designated as ‘Raja’. The kingdom ruled by, him is designated as ‘Rajya’. When a ‘Raja’, performs ‘Vajapeya’ sacrifice, he is entitled, to the epithet of ‘Saamraj’ and the ‘Rajya’, under his rule is entitled as ‘Saamrajya’. A, ‘Raja’ is always desirous of the superior, , 43

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training, leadership naturally invested in the, senior and experienced members of the, guild and other members following them, voluntarily., Guilds had their own, strict rules., Hence, they had a stringent structure. This, stringent structure is perceived as one of the, main reasons of the rise of the caste system., The paid outsiders who worked in the guilds, were known as ‘Karmakara’ and unpaid, workers as ‘Dasa’., The guilds had acquired an important, place in the political, social and financial, matters by the Maurya period. According to, Kautilya, the king’s control on the, transactions of guilds was very important., Structurally the shrenis had a great potential, of channelling the central power., The, Ashokan edicts show that the roads and the, transport system was maintained with great, care. It had made transport of goods and, travelling convenient. Obviously, this state, of affairs was favourable for the growth of, trade and development of shrenis., The functioning of the guilds was, controlled by the state. Detailed records, were kept of the production by the guilds,, their financial operations and above all the, traditions of guilds. Every guild had an, independent space in the city, allotted to it., There were independent traditions with, respect to the interrelationship between the, guild members and the karmakaras, various, stages of production and fixing the prices, of produced goods. Each guild had its own, rules based on its traditions. The state, administration did not interfere in these, aspects of the functioning of the guilds. It, kept the internal independence of the guilds, intact. If a decision has to be reached about, the matters of a guild, then the king sought, advice from a guild representative., The chief of a guild of artisans was, known as ‘Jyeshthaka’ or ‘Jyetthaka’. The, chief of a guild of merchants was known, as ‘Shreshthi’ or ‘Setthi’. The guilds used, , their funds for the operations involved in, production and trade, as well as for the, social cause. It was in the way of giving, donations and giving loans with interest at, modest rates., 6.6 Philosophy and Various Sects, During the times of mahajanapadas the, political and social scenario in ancient India, was witnessing transition and these changes, were bound to reflect in the material and, philosophical notions about life. In this, regard, the Vedic system revolved around, the duties of a householder, sacrificial, system and material prosperity. At the end, of the Vedic period questions about abstract, aspects of human existence began to gain, attention. It included questions about matters, like the meaning of human life, its, significance in the infinite nature of the, universe, the mystery of death and the, journey of the soul after death. It resulted, in the creation of various philosophical, texts, known as ‘Upanishadas’. The debates, that were churned up during this period, gave rise to various schools of thoughts., They included schools propounding the, immortality of soul to the schools that, refuted the very existence of the soul. The, latter included ‘Charvaka’ or ‘Lokayat’, school, which openly opposed the social, organisation based on the Vedic authority,, beliefs and rituals. This school also, propagated that the ‘Truth’ comprises only, those things, which are subject to sensory, experience. The Charvaka/Lokayat school is, one of the ancient Indian schools of thought, (darshan) which denies the existence of, ‘God’. It opposes the authority of Vedas, (vedpramanya) and the notions of the, existence of god and life after death. It also, discarded all rituals arising out of this kind, of belief systems. It is the only materialistic, school of philosophy ( ‘Jadavadi Darshan’), that was developed in ancient India., It may be said that the ancient Indian, philosophical schools took roots in this, , 44

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period. The 6th century B.C.E. is important, from this point of view. The rising of a, class of wandering mendicants known as, ‘parivrajakas’, or, ‘shramanas’,, was, characteristic of this period. They renounced, the householder’s life and wandered with, their disciples, in search of the ultimate, truth., Among the various streams of, thoughts, a large number of people were, attracted to the teachings of Vardhamana, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. Their, teachings showed the way to overcome the, disparity in the society resulted from the, varna and caste system., Both, the Jaina and the Budhhist, schools of thought are considered as the, ‘nastik’ schools. Both refuse to accept the, authority of the Vedas and the Vedic rituals., Both the schools had followers in large, numbers from all strata of the society., 6.7 New Religious Trends, Jainism : The Jaina religion has a, tradition going back to very ancient times., According to the tradition of Jain religion,, Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th and the, last ‘tirthankara’ (saviour and the spiritual, teacher). Parshvanath was the 23rd, tirthankara. He gave four vows of nonviolence (Ahimsa), truth (Satya), nonstealing, (Asteya), and, non-possesion, (Aprigrah) to his followers. Vardhamana, Mahavira added the fifth vow of celibacy, (Brahmacharya) to it. These five vows are, known as ‘Panchmahavratas’., , Siddhartha, the father of Vardhamana, Mahavira, was the chief of the ‘Dnyatruka’, clan. His mother, Trishaladevi was from the, Lichchhavi clan. Vardhamana Mahavira, was born in 599 B.C.E., in Kundgram near, Vaishali. His wife’s name was Yashoda., Vardhamana Mahavira left home at the age, of 30, in search of the truth. At the age of, 42 he attained absolute knowledge (Keval, Dnyana)., Thereafter,, people, started, addressing him as ‘Kevali’, ‘Jina’ and, ‘Mahavira’. His followers came to be, known as ‘Jaina’. Vardhamana Mahavira, travelled and preached continuously for 30, years after the attainment of absolute, knowledge., Vardhamana, Mahavira, addressed, people in Ardhamagadhi, the language of, common people. He preached about good, behaviour and life of devotion (devotion to, the five vows). He put absolute emphasis, on the three principles of ‘Samyk Darshana’,, ‘Samyk Dnyana’ and ‘Samyak Charitra’., These three principles are known as the, ‘Triratna’ of the Jaina religion. They are, the primary guiding principles for a person, aspiring for the attainment of absolute, knowledge. Vardhamana Mahavira preached, that all beings, animate and inanimate,, possess consciousness, to a varying degree., If hurt, each of them experiences pain., The core principle of Vardhamana, Mahavira’s philosophy is ‘pluralism’, (Anekantavada) or ‘many sidedness’ of the, truth. According to it the truth has multiple, facets., Mahavira founded the Jaina Sangha., Emperor Chandragupata Maurya was a, contemporary of Bhadrabahu, the sixth, principal Acharya of the Jaina Sangha., According to the Jaina tradition Chandragupta, Maurya had embraced Jaina religion., Buddhism : Gautama Buddha and, Vardhamana Mahavira were contemporaries., Gautama Buddha was born in 563 B.C.E., in, Lumbini (Rummindei) in Nepal. His father’s, , Vardhamana Mahavira, , 45

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(1) There is Sorrow (Dukkha), everywhere in the world. (2) The root cause, of sorrow is Greed (Trishna). (3) To, conquer this greed is the way to cut the, sorrow at its very root (Dukkhanirodha)., (4) The way to stop sorrow from emerging,, is the eightfold path (Ashtangika Marga)., Gautama Buddha explained the eightfold, path by including:, (1) Samyak Drishti (To understand and, accept that nothing happens against the, rules of the nature), (2) Samyak Sankalp (Right determination), (3) Samyak Vacha (Right speech), (4) Samyak Karmanta (Right behaviour), (5) Samyak Aajiva (Livelihood by right, means), (6) Samyak Vyayam (Conscious avoidance, of offensive things), (7) Samyak Smriti (Watchfulness and, memory of right things), (8) Samyak Samadhi (Establishing the, mind firmly in equanimity; a state, beyond pleasure and sorrow), The eightfold path is also known as, ‘Madhyama Pratipada’. Gautama Buddha, founded the ‘Bhikkhu Sangha’. The concept, of ‘Surrendering to Buddha, Dhamma and, Sangha is very important. This concept is, known as ‘Trisaran’. The three vows,, namely, ‘Buddham saranam gachchhami’,, ‘Dhammam saranam gachchhami’ and, ‘Sangham saranam gachchhami’ are, essential in the Buddhist religion., The 6th century B.C.E. saw transition in, all the fields of life, in ancient India. The, power conflict among the mahajanapadas, started in this century. It continued among, the four mahajanapadas of Kashi, Kosala,, Avanti and Magadha. By the 4th century, B.C.E. the kingdom of Magadha grew, powerful and the independent existence of, the other mahajanapadas came to an end., We will study the history of the rise of, Magadha in the eighth lesson., , name was Shuddhodana. He was a member, of the Shakya clan. Gautama Buddha’s, mother’s name was Mayadevi. She was from, the Koliya clan. Gautama Budhha’s wife, was Yashodhara., Gautama Buddha left home at the age, of 29, in search of the truth. This event is, known in the Buddhist tradition as, ‘Mahabhinishkramana’. Thereafter, Gautama, Buddha tried to attain the ultimate knowledge, through various means, such as seeking, guidance from various gurus and extreme, austerities. After realising that nothing of it, was useful, he sat down meditating at Gaya,, under a pippal (ficus religiosa) tree, on the, banks of the river Niranjana (Lilajana). Here, he attained enlightenment at the age of 35., After that he was known as ‘Buddha’,, ‘Tathagata’ and also as ‘Shakyamuni’. After, the enlightenment he delivered his first, sermon in the deer-park at Ishipattana, near, Saranath. This event is known as, ‘Dhammachakkapabattan’. For the next 45, years Gautama Buddha travelled continuously, to preach dhamma to people. He taught in, Pali, a language of common people., , Gautama Buddha, , In his sermons, Gautama Buddha, addressed the fundamental question of, ‘sorrow’ in human life. The root cause of, human sorrow and the way to overcome it, were two main issues addressed by Gautama, Buddha., Gautama, Buddha, preached, four, ‘Aryasatyas’ (four great truths)., , 46

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You would like to know : An Ashokan pillar inscription was discovered at the site, of Rummindei in Nepal. The inscription announces, “The king ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’, visited this place after his coronation and he prayed here. He declares that Buddha, Shakyamuni was born here. To commemorate the fact he erected a stone pillar at this, place. He did this with the intention of making this place venerable in people’s mind. He, exempted the village of Lumbini from paying the taxes in order to enhance its prosperity.”, , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) Ashmaka is the name in, language., (a) Pali, (b) Sanskrit, (c) Ardhamagadhi, (d) Prakrit, (2) The capital of Kashi mahajanapada, was, ., (a) Gorakhpur, (b) Chandanagar, (c) Rajagriha, (d) Varanasi, (3) Gautama Buddha was born in, ., (a) Kushinagara (b) Sarnath, (c) Lumbini, (d) Pataliputra, (4) The river, was the natural, boundary between Uttara Panchala, and Dakshina Panchala., (a) Yamuna, (b) Bhagirathi, (c) Ganga, (d) Niranjana, , Q.3 Complete the concept map given below., Jaina Religion, 24th Tirthankara, Parshwanath, , Vardhamana Mahavir, , Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons., (1) Rise of mahajanapadas came into, being., (2) The process of Second urbanisation, began in ancient India., (3) Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama, Buddha attracted a large number of, followers., , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Kosala – Shravasti, (2) Anga – Champa, (3) Matsya – Mathura, (4) Gandhara – Taxila, , Q.5 Explain the following cocepts., (1) Nastik Darshan, (2) The eightfold path preached, Gautama Buddha, , by, , Q.6 Describe the administrative system of, the mahajanapadas with the help of, following points., (a) Terms showing types of states, (b) King’s installation, (c) Authority of the king, (d) Decision-making, , Q.2 (A) Find the odd man out., (1) Buddha, Tathagata, Shakyamuni,, Vardhamana Mahavira, (B) Choose the correct reason and, complete the sentence., Gautama, Buddha, travelled, continuously for 45 years...., (a) in the search of a Guru, (b) to practice austerities, (c) to preach dhamma, (d) to attain enlightenment, , Activity, (1) Collect and compile the information, about Jain Tirthankaras., (2) Collect information about Jataka, stories. Select any of the Jataka, stories and present it as stage play., , , 47

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7., , 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, , India and Iran (Persia), , same name, ‘Pars’. Greeks knew the city by, the name, ‘Persepolis’. The Iranian empire, was known as ‘Persian empire’ because it, originated in the Pars region., , Indian Subcontinent and Iran, Conflict between the Iranian, (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece, Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire, and India, Political and Cultural Impact of, the Iranian Contact, Taxila, Advent of Alexander, , Emperor Cyrus II had begun to build a, new capital at ‘Pasargade’. However, it did, not get completed in his lifetime. His son,, Cambyses II succeeded him. He moved back, to Susa and re-established his capital there., Cambyses II had conquered Egypt., Daryush I, who succeeded Cambyses II, reinforced the fortification walls of Susa. He, also built a massive palace and a hypostyle, (many columned) hall known as ‘Apadana’., He also built the city of ‘Persepolis’ in the, style similar to Susa. He built a palace and, apadana in Persepolis also., , 7.1 Indian Subcontinent and Iran, Excavated evidence has sufficiently, proved that the trade and cultural relations, between the Indian subcontinent and Iran, have continued since the Harappan times., The empire of Elam, contemporary to the, Harappan civilisation, existed in the southwest, regions of Iran. It was culturally closer to, Mesopotamia. Its capital was at ‘Susa’., Hence, it was also known as ‘Susiana’. Many, dynasties ruled Iran at later dates but all of, them maintained their capital at ‘Susa’. The, archaeological evidence found at Susa has, confirmed the trade and cultural relations, between Iran and the Harappan civilisation., , Reconstructed, picture of, ‘Apadana’ at, Susa, , Visit the following website to see the map of the Iranian, empire:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/, , Persian_Empire%2C_490_BC.pnghttps://commons.wikimedia., org/wiki/File:Persian_Empire,_490_BC.png, , The Iranian empire was established by, Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great) of, the Achaemenid dynasty. He was from the, tribe of ‘Pars’. This tribe dwelt in the, mountainous region in the northwest of Iran, and adjacent to Afghanistan. This region was, known by the tribe’s name, ‘Pars’. Even the, main city of the region was known by the, , Geographically Iran is the region, which, forms a link between the east and west of, Asia. Naturally Iran held an important, position in the trade and also in the cultural, exchange between East Asia and West Asia., , 48

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the kingdoms in West Asia and then the city, states in Greece. Then also they continued to, have intermittent battles. The rising of the, Ionian Greeks against the Achaemenid rule, is supposed to be significant., , By the Way : ‘Ariana’ is another, name of Iran. Greek historians mention, it as ‘Ariane’. ‘Ariana’ is the Latin, variation of the Greek name ‘Ariane’., , Cyrus II conquered Lydia, a Greek state, to the north of Mediterranean Sea, around, the mid of the 6th century B.C.E. As a result,, the Ionian Greek city states under the Lydian, rule, inevitably became part of the Achaemenid, empire. The Greeks in Ionia had migrated to, Anatolia, that is, the Asian part of the, Turkey. It is also known as ‘Asia Minor’., , The trade that was conducted from Asia, and the Persian Gulf to Mesopotamia and, Egypt expanded to Greece and Rome. The, ancient routes used by caravans of merchants, were provided with safety and security by, the Persian emperors. They rebuilt some of, the routes. Cyrus II and Daryush I developed, the route beginning from Susa and reaching, the Mediterranean Sea. This route is known, as the ‘Royal Road’. Some of the branches, of the Royal Road linked the Indian, subcontinent and Egypt. Alexander started, from Macedonia on his expedition to India., He used the same route to reach India., , During the reign of Daryush I all, Ionian city states got together and rebelled, against the Achaemenid rule. The rebellion, was subdued completely after a struggle of, five years by the Achaemenid army., The effects of this unsuccessful rebellion, are important for understanding the, interrelationship between Greece and Persia, in the ensuing period. The Ionian Greeks had, received help from the states of ‘Athens’ and, ‘Eretria’ in Greece. Hence, Daryush I attacked, Athens. At this time the battle between, Daryush I and Athens was fought on the, grounds of Marathon near Athens. Therefore,, it is known as the ‘Battle of Marathon’., Daryush I was defeated in this battle., , By the way : (1) To see, how the, name Alexander was changed to, ‘Sikander’ in Indian languages, is a, matter of linguistic analysis. Alexander, is a common version of the Greek, name ‘Alexandros’. The meaning of, ‘Alexin’ is ‘to protect’. ‘Andros’ means, ‘man’. Thus, the name ‘Alexander’, means ‘the protector’., ‘Iskander’,, ‘Skander’ are the Persian variations of, Alexander. Iskadnser or Skander turned, into ‘Sikandar’., (2) The inscriptions of the emperor,, Daryush I at Susa, Pasargade,, Persepolis and Behistun have been, enlisted as the ‘World Cultural, Heritage’., , Xerexes, the successor of Daryush I,, tried once again to invade Greece. However,, he was also defeated. Thereafter the conflict, between the Achaemenids and the Greeks, continued over a prolonged time. Ultimately,, Athens and the confederacy of other Greek, city states declared a war for independence, against the Achaemenid rule in Greece., Neither of the two had a conclusive victory., In 449 B.C.E. a treaty was signed between, the Greek confederacy and the Achaemenids., , 7.2 Conflict between the Iranian, (Achaemenid) Empire and Greece, Greek historians have recorded the, frequent battles between the Achaemenid, empire and the city states in Greece. Among, them the records of Herodotus are important., The Achaemenid emperors first conquered, , As the effect of this prolonged conflict, the Achaemenid rule grew weak. This was, bound to reflect in the political and financial, spheres. An impact of this conflict was to, , 49

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manifest in the way of the invasion of Persia, by Alexander III, the king of Macedonia,, who was later regarded as the ‘Conqueror of, the World’., , By the way : The Greek historian, Herodotus was born in 484 B.C.E., in, Halicarnassus, a Greek city state. He, began to write with the intention of, tracing the history and causes of the, battles between Greek city states and, Achaemenid empire during 500-449, B.C.E. The book he wrote was named, as ‘Historia’ (The Histories). He, at, the outset of the book says, “Herodotus, of Halicarnassus here displays his, inquiry, so that human achievements, may not become forgotten in time, and, great and marvellous deeds – some, displayed by Greeks, some by, barbarians – may not be without their, glory.”, Herodotus was the first historian, who collected information seeking, answers to a particular question, and, then to put it in a chronological order., While doing this he did not bring in, notions like god, human destiny, etc., Later putting historical events in, chronological sequence became an, essential theme of history writing. This, theme proved to be fundamental in the, development of history writing as an, independent, discipline., Therefore,, Herodotus is said to be the father of, historiography., , Arrian was a Greek historian of the, 1 century C.E. He wrote a book called, ‘Anabasis* of Alexander’. He has referred to, the correspondence between Daryush III, the, last Achaemenid emperor and Alexander., Daryush had written to Alexander about the, release of his mother, wife and children., Alexander responded by reminding Daryush, of the sorrow inflicted on the Greeks by the, earlier invasions of the Achaemenid emperors., Alexander wrote that he had arrived in, Russia by crossing the ocean, with the, intention of punishing the aggressive Persians., Next, he accused Daryush of provocating the, Greeks against him and he reminded Daryush, that he was a defeated king. So Daryush was, further snubbed that he should not behave as, an equal to Alexander., st, , *, , ‘अअअअअअअअअ’, Anabasis* means अअअअअअ, to spur into action., , This correspondence is indicative of, two things:, (1) The Greeks felt that their self-esteem, was challenged., (2) The Greeks now felt confident about, their strength to conquer the Persians., It may be said that these two factors, inspired Alexander’s expedition., , kept by the Greek historians that Cyrus II, had conquered the region of the Kabul basin, (Gandhara). It was part of the Achaemenid, empire. The river Vitasta (Jhelum) had, formed its eastern boundary. Alexander, crushed the Achaemenid empire and the, region of Punjab which was the part of, Achaemenid empire., , 7.3 Iranian (Achaemenid) Empire and, India, The Achaemenid emperors established, the Persian empire by conquering smaller, kingdoms in the northeast region of the, Indian subcontinent and expanded their, boundary up to Punjab. It was the same, period when the Magadha empire was on the, rise in India., , The revenue received by the Achaemenid, empire from its provinces (satrapies) in the, Indian subcontinent was more than any other, provinces. According to Herodotus, this, revenue amounted to 360 talents* of gold, , It becomes apparent from the inscriptions, of the Achaemenid emperors and the records, , 50

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dust**. Accepting, the, possibility, of, exaggeration in this description, it clearly, indicates that the revenue collected from the, Indian states formed a major share of the, Achaemenid treasury., , and proceeded further by sailing around the, coast of the Arabian Sea and then entering, the Red Sea. He ended his journey at ‘Suez’,, situated in the delta region of the Nile. It, took two and half years for him to complete, this journey., , *Talent used to be a unit of weight and, according to the standard, set in various ancient, countries it varies from 20 to 40 kilograms per, talent., , The logbook of the journey of Scylax is, known as ‘Periplus of Scylax’. The original, periplus is lost but we get to know about its, contents from the writings of the Greek, historians. This periplus was the first source, of information of the Indian subcontinent to, the western world, especially to the Greeks., Very soon after the completion of the, expedition by Scylax, Daryush I conquered, the region in the lower reach of the Sindhu., , ** Gold dust (placer gold) is collected from, the sands on the river banks., , 7.4 Political and Cultural Impact of, the Iranian Contact, The Persian supremacy prevailed in the, Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries., However, it had ended much before the, advent of Alexander. Thinking of the impact, left by the Persian contact in the period of, two centuries, one thing can be noticed, prominently. It is about the administrative, system set by the Persian rulers. Every, conquered region was annexed to their, territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor), was appointed as its chief administrator. This, method was followed by Alexander and later, by the Scythian (Saka) and Kushana rulers, as well., , Scylax had reported an already existing, canal that linked the Nile and the Red Sea., It was dug by an Egyptian Pharoh. Daryush, I revived that canal by digging it again. It, opened a new water way for the transport, between Persia and the Indian subcontinent., This newly available route facilitated the, trade between Achaemenid provinces in the, north-western region of the Indian subcontinent, and the regions of Sindh-Punjab. The ivory, and the teak wood coming from India had, great demand in the Persian markets. The, inscription of Daryush I at Susa records the, use of Indian ivory and teakwood for building, the palace., , The Aramaic script came into use in, the north-eastern regions of the Indian, subcontinent, during the times of Achaemenid, rule. Kharoshthi, an ancient Indian script, evolved from this script. The Ashokan edicts, in this region are inscribed in the Aramaic, script. The method of installing royal edicts, at vantage points seems to be borrowed from, the examples of Achaemenid inscriptions., , Herodotus has described the Indian, soldiers in the Achaemenid army. According, to it, Xerexes’ army had soldiers from, Gandhara, Sindh and Punjab, when he, invaded Greece in 480 B.C.E. The soldiers, from Gandhara were equipped with bows, made of cane and spears with short shafts., They also had horses and chariots drawn by, horses. The Indian soldiers from Sindh and, Punjab used cotton clothes and used bows, and arrows made of cane. They were expert, archers. When Xerexes retreated from Greece,, it was decided to keep a regiment posted, , Herodotus tells us that Daryush I had, sent many explorers to gather information, about the course of the river Sindhu and the, Arabian Sea. Among them was ‘Scylax of, Karyanda’, a Greek sailor from Ionia, who, was well- known. He was the first Ionian, Greek who stepped on the Indian land., Scylax began his exploration from the Sindhu, , 51

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Susa and Persepolis. For that purpose,, emperor Cyrus got Greek architects and, sculptors from the Greek settlements in Asia, minor under his rule., , there. That regiment had Indian soldiers., In the times before Cyrus II, the founder, of Achaemenid empire, there was no coinage, in use in Persia. The barter system prevailed, to a large extent. Sometimes silver ingots of, particular weight were used for exchanging, commodities. Cyrus II had conquered the city, state of Lydia, where use of coins was, already in practice. Those coins were known, as ‘stater’. Cyrus issued coins similar to, Lydian coins., Daryush I issued coins with his own, portrait on it., The Gold coins, issued by him, were known as, ‘Darik’, and, silver, coins, Persian ‘Siglos’, were known as, ‘Siglos’. A portrait of Daryush I, holding a, bow and arrow can be seen on these coins., One ‘Darik’ was equivalent to 12 ‘Sigloi’*, in value., , Columns at Persepolis, , Persepolis was razed completely by, Alexander after conquering Persia. It was the, end of the Persian Empire. The architects,, sculptors and other artisans lost the royal, patronage. They had to move out in search, of work. They migrated to India. They, received royal patronage in the court of, emperor Ashoka. Their style is reflected in, the stone pillars erected by empror Ashoka., Thus, the sculptural art in ancient India has, its roots in the Persian; and acordingly in the, Greek sculptural style., , * ‘अअअअअअअअअ’, ‘Sigloi’ is the plural अअअअअअ, of ‘Siglos’., *, , Along with the Achaemenid coins, coins, from Greek satrapies also remained in, circulation in Persia. Some satraps issued, their own coins imitating Greek coins. These, coins were cast in moulds. The obverse side, of a coin usually carried the portrait of a, king and the reverse side had a symbol, punched on it., , 7.5 Taxila, Mahabharata mentions King Takshaka, as the king of ‘Naga’ people. Taxila was the, capital of King Takshaka. The archaeological, evidence confirm that Taxila has a hoary, past. It was the capital of Gandhara, mahajanapada., , It is possible that the ancient Indian, punch marked coins were influenced by this, technique of punching., , The archaeological remains of this city, are strewn over a large area that comprises, 18 archaeological sites. They are enlisted as, the World Cultural Heritage. It is situated on, the Grand Trunk Road, 30 kilometres away, from Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan., , In the times that preceded emperor, Cyrus’ reign, the practice of building huge, public monuments did not exist in Persia., Hence, there was no existing Persian, architectural style to follow while creating, the magnificent palaces and sculptures in, , Evidence of prehistoric people using, microliths have been found at Taxila and in, , 52

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from various regions of the Indian subcontinent, were attracted to Taxila because of the fame, of the acharyas. Thus, Taxila had become a, great centre of education. Thereby it had, assumed the magnitude of a natural university., However, the king and his administration at, Taxila did not interfere in the decisions of, an individual acharya as to the nature of his, method of teaching, the subjects to be taught, by him or the nature of the syllabi. The, duration of a course was dependent on, individual student’s intellectual capacity to, learn. There was no formal system of, examinations. Rather success in examination, was not perceived as the test of real, knowledge. It was the acharya who decided, the level of maturity of his students., , By the way : The inscription of, Daryush I mention the Greeks as ‘Yauna’., The roots of this word is in the Greek, word, ‘Ionia’ The terms such as ‘Yona’, (Prakrit), and, ‘Yavana’, (Sanskrit), mentioned in Indian literature originally, mean ‘the resident of Ionia’. These terms, occur in Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puran, texts and other literature., Let us see one more example of, changes happening in the meaning and, form of the word through the cultural, contacts and borrowing of words from, other languages. Ancient Persian language, was the official language of the, Achaemenid empire. It is used in the, inscriptions of the Achaemenid emperors., These inscriptions mention the people in, the Indian subcontinent as ‘Hidush’ and, ‘Hridush’. In the Ionian Greek language, the consonant ‘h’ is not pronounced when, it occurs at the beginning of a word., Hence, Scylax the Ionian Greek explorer,, perhaps recorded it as ‘Indos’ and its, plural as ‘Indoi’. Herodotus used these, words as synonymous to Hidush and, Hridush. The roots of the word ‘India’, is in this Greek usage., , Among the subjects taught at Taxila, included, Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda,, ancillary branches of the Vedas (Vedangas),, Ancient Traditions and Ethics, Philosophy,, Mathematics, Music, Medicine, Puran Texts,, History, Weaponry, Poetry, etc., Acharya Chanakya is believed to have, taken Chandragupta Maurya to Taxila for, education when he was young. Chanakya, himself hailed from Taxila. After becoming, the emperor of Magadha, Chadragupta, established a regional capital at Taxila., , some caves in its vicinity. The neolithic, village at Taxila was settled around 3500, B.C.E. Its remains have been found at a site, called ‘Sarai-Khola’., , During the reign of Ashoka Maurya, Taxila became an important centre of learning, of Buddhist tradition. Taxila did not lose its, importance even when the land suffered from, the invasions of, Greeks, Shakas and, Kushanas. However, in the 5th century C.E., the glory of Taxila gradually waned under, the pressure of Huna invasions., , Taxila was ruled by King Ambhi at the, time of Alexander’s advent. He welcomed, Alexander and presented gifts to him. The, Greek historians accompanying Alexander, described Taxila as a “city full of hustle, bustle of people, prosperous and the one that, was under a well-established administration.”, , 7.6 Advent of Alexander, Alexander, invaded, the, Indian, subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms, from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He,, however, could not establish his rule there, for a long time. The information of his, advent primarily comes from the Greek, , Some information about Taxila can be, gathered from the Buddhist literature and, from the writings of the Greek historians., There were several learned individuals, (Acharyas) staying in Taxila. Many students, , 53

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historians like Arrian,, Plutarch and Justin., , Curtis,, , greatly influenced by his valour. The Greeks, were unfamiliar to the use of elephants in, warfare. To penetrate the file of elephants, proved to be a great challenge for them. The, Greek historians have unanimously praised, the skill of Porus in warfare and also his, courage., , Diodorus,, , At the time of Alexander’s advent the, Achaemenid rule in Sindh-Punjab and, Afghanistan had weakened and a number of, small kingdoms had come into existence. The, political strife stopped them from uniting to, resist Alexander’s invasion., , After the confrontation with Porus,, Alexander reached Nysa, a Greek settlement., People of Nysa resisted Alexander in the, beginning but later they welcomed him., Thereafter, Alexander proceeded in the, direction of Chenab and Ravi. He conquered, the kingdoms on the way and reached the, banks of Beas. By that time Alexander’s, soldiers had lost spirit and they refused to, march forward. Alexander was forced to, return., , Alexander became the king of Macedonia, in 334 B.C.E. He defeated emperor Daryush, III in 331 B.C.E. Thereafter he marched up, to ‘Shistan’ province of Iran and from there, he turned toward Kabul. After conquering the, region around Kabul, he reached the foothills, of Hindukush mountains. Then he camped at, a place called Nicaea, situated on Uttarapatha., Ambhi welcomed Alexander and sought, friendship with him. Another king whose, name was Sisikottas (Shashigupta) surrendered, to Alexander. However, not all Indian kings, surrendered to Alexander so easily. Many, fought with Alexander with great valour., Alexander conquered almost all kingdoms in, Kabul, Sindh and Punjab., , Before setting on the return journey, Alexander handed over the regions in Punjab, to Porus and those in Sindh to Ambhi. He, handed over the kingdom of Kashmir to, Abhisara, the king of Varanavati. On his, way back he defeated Shibis and Mallas, etc., In rest of the regions he appointed Greek, satraps. In 325 B.C.E. Alexander died at, Babylon, while he was on his way back to, Greece., , On the banks of Jhelum Alexander and, King Porus confronted each other and there, was a fierce battle between them. Porus was, defeated but Alexander and his army was, , trees on both sides of the road, sarais for, overnight stay, etc. He erected pillar edicts, at vantange points on this highway., At a later period Shershah Sur and, Emperor Akbar rebuilt this highway. In the, British period a new metalled road running, parallel to Grand Trunk Road was built, from Kolkata to Peshawar. This road is, still in use., In modern times the highway starts, from Bangla Desh and from Hawrah it, proceeds to West Bengal, thereafter it goes, to Delhi and to Amritsar, from there to, Lahore and Peshawar and in the end to, Kabul., , For Additional Information : The, highway linking the regions from Bihar to, Afghanistan is known as ‘Grand Trunk, Road’ in modern days. It was in use as, a trade route even during the times of, Gautama Buddha. It was known as, ‘Uttarapatha’ in those days. Its starting, point was at the port city of ‘Tamralipti’, in Bengal; known as Tamluk today. It, ended at Taxila. Emperor Chandragupta, Maurya established this highway in a well, planned way. It was about 3200 kilometres, in length., Emperor Ashoka provided many, essential amenities for the merchants and, travellers on this highway, such as planting, , 54

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Alexander’s invasion of India did not, have far reaching impact on the political, scenario of India. In a very short period after, his death Chandragupta Maurya established, , his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan., It was the beginning of a new era in the, Indian history., , Exercise, , Q.3 Write in correct chronological order., (1) There was a fierce battle between, Alexander and Porus., (2) Alexander appointed satrapies before, starting on the return journey., (3) Alexander died at Babylon in 325, B.C.E., (4) Alexander conquered Kabul and, Sindh., , Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The Greek historian, is said, to be the father of modern, historiography., (a) Herodotus, (b) Alexander, (c) Scylax, (d) Daryush, (2) Taxila was ruled by King, at the time of Alexander’s advent., (a) Chandragupta (b) Ambhi, (c) Porus, (d) Shashigupta, , Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons., (1) Alexander invaded Persia., (2) Alexanders’ invasion of India did not, have for reaching impact on the, political scenario of India., , (3) The Ashoka edicts are written in, script., (a) Sinhala (b) Aramaic, (c) Kharoshthi (d) Modi, , Q.5 State your opinion., (1) Herodotus is said to be the father of, modern history writing., (2) Ancient Taxila was the centre of, knowledge and education., , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Persopolis - City built by Daryush I, (2) Halicarnassus - Herodotus was born, here, (3) Taxila - Centre of knowledge and, education, (4) Nysa - Persian settlement, , Q.6 Answer the following questions in detail., (1) Describe the political and cultural, effects of Achemenid rule on India., (2) Describe Alexander’s invasion of, India., , (C) Write the names (1) Last emperor of Achaemenid empire(2) Name of the coins issued by Daryush, I -, , Activity, Collect additional information about the, palace at Persepolis and Apadana at Susa, with the help of internet., , Q.2 Find the odd man out., Daryush I, Xerexes, Cyrus II, Alexander, , , , 55

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8., , 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, , India during Mauryan period, , Rise of Magadha Empire, Nanda and Mauryan Empire, Emperor Ashoka, Administrative, system,, trade,, literature, art and architecture,, social life, , You would like to know : The, concept of ‘Chakravarti’ occurs in the, literature on ancient Indian polity. The, sovereign ruler whose chariot could roll, in all four directions without any, obstruction, was known as Chakravarti., It was expected that his rule should be, ethical and for the welfare of the State., During his tenure the wheel of ‘Ruta’, remains intact. His rule is on an extended, territory. Chandragupta Maurya was the, first Chakravarti Emperor., , In lesson six, we studied the history of, the sixteen mahajanapadas that existed in, India. Among these mahajanapadas, the, power of Magadha became strong during the, struggle of the four mahajanapadas namely,, Kasi, Kosala, Avanti and Magadha and the, empire of Magadha came to a rise., During this period, the first Indian empire, emerged. The kingdom of Magadha acquired, the form of an Empire. The administrative, system of this empire was well established, and its work was carried out through various, departments. Several factors are essential for, the emergence of an empire. For example,, dominance over an expanded region, an, administrative system having the revenue, gathered in the form of taxes, king is the, sovereign ruler of the state and army actively, enforces king’s authority., The king’s position was strengthened, through ritual performances. The power and, related rights are concentrated in the hands, of the ruling family., 8.1 Rise of Magadha Empire, Magadha was an important kingdom, among the mahajanapadas that existed in, ancient India. Fertile and rich land, perennial, rivers, excellent facilities of navigation,, availability of commercial markets etc. were, the reasons for the rise of Magadha as, empire., In the 6th century BCE, the Haryanka, , dynasty ruled over Magadha., The Haryanka dynasty is mentioned in, the Mahabharata. Bimbisara was the first, well-known king. His father Mahapadma, built the fort at Girivraja and established the, first capital of Magadha. After ascending the, throne, Bimbisara started building the, foundation of Magadha Empire. He attacked, the neighbouring kingdom of Anga and, conquered it. This victory increased the power, of, Magadha., Bimbisara, established, matrimonial relations with many royal houses, such as Kosala, Lichchhavi, Videh, Madra to, support his expansionist policy. At the foot, of the fort of Girivraja, he established the, new capital of Rajgriha., After killing Bimbisara, his son, Ajatashatru became the king. He adopted the, expansionist policy of his father. He expanded, the Magadha kingdom up to the foot of, Vindhya ranges. Ajatashatru built a small, fort on the bank of Ganga at Pataligrama., It became a centre of trade of local, commodities. In the later period, Pataligrama, came to be known as Pataliputra. It became, the capital of the Mauryan Empire., Later the people deposed Ajatashatru, , 56

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and selected his minister Shishunaga as the, king. The Shishunaga dynasty ruled between, 430 B.C.E. to 364 B.C.E. and then, Mahapadmananda usurped the throne and, established the Nanda dynasty., , ruler of the Nanda dynasty. During his, period, the state treasury was enormously, rich. His military was also very huge. It, consisted of 2,00,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry,, 6000 elephants and 2000 chariots., During the period of Nandas, another, factor that helped in strengthening the central, power was the importance given to enhance, the revenue collection. Along with the, expansion of the empire came the economic, prosperity of the State. The state treasury, was always full. The Nandas built canals, and made arrangement of irrigation facilities., These facilities led to the development of, agriculture and trade. In 321 B.C.E., Chandragupta Maurya attacked Pataliputra, and brought an end to the Nanda rule., Mauryan Empire: Mauryan Empire was, the first well organised and strongly controlled, empire in the history of India. Religious texts, and other literature, inscriptions, coins,, sculptures etc. are the sources that help us, to clearly understand the political, social,, economic, and religious conditions of this, period., The Mauryan empire had spread on a, large region of the Indian sub continent and, was controlled by a central power. The, Mauryan rule brought about consolidation of, the political system., Chandragupta Maurya defeated the, Nandas and established the Mauryan dynasty., In the text of Mahavamsa, Chandragupta is, referred as ‘the emperor of Jambudvipa i.e., emperor of Bharatvarsh’. The Mauryas, created a huge empire by conquering the big, and small states in northwest, north and, southern, regions., The, war, between, Chandragupta and the Greek king Seleucus, was very important. As a consequence, the, boundaries of Mauryan Empire extended to, the Hindukush in the northwest. The Mauryan, Empire extended from Hindukush to the Bay, of Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the, west, as well as Himalayas in the north to, the Krishna river in the south., , By the way : Pataliputra was an, important city in ancient India. The city, of Pataliputra was the capital of ruling, dynasties like Shishunaga, Nanda,, Maurya, Gupta and Pala. ‘Patali’ is a, species of rice grown in this region., Hence, the city might have acquired the, name. In his book Indica, Megasthenes, has mentioned the city of Pataliputra as, Palibothara., Political stability as well as other factors, were responsible in the strengthening of, Magadha as an empire. Magadha had control, over all the prominent regions in the Ganga, Valley. By conquering the kingdom of Anga,, the regions of the east coast came under their, control and Magadha succeeded in increasing, the trade with the distant regions. Magadha, was blessed with natural resources. Its land, was fertile, especially for rice cultivation., There was rise in revenue due to the, expansion of the kingdom. The abundance of, sources for timber, ivory, iron and copper, gave a momentum to the local industries., The political ambitions of the rulers, combined, with wealth and prospering trade were the, reasons for the development of Magadha rule, and establishment of a huge empire., 8.2 Nanda and Mauryan Empire, Nanda Dynasty: The Nanda dynasty is, mentioned in the Puranas. The Magdhan, empire established by Ajatashatru was further, expanded by Mahapadma Nanda. According, to some scholars, the Nanda rule had spread, upto Nanded in the South, whereas some, scholars think that it was extended upto, Mysore. On this basis it can be said that, Mahapadma Nanda was the first great, emperor of India. Dhanananda was the last, , 57

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Chandragupta Maurya died around 298, B.C.E. His son Bindusara became the king., During his tenure he sent his son Ashoka to, subdue the revolt in Taxila. During the period, of Bindusara the empire established by, Chandragupta Maurya remained intact., Bindusara died in 273 B.C.E., 8.3 Emperor Ashoka, Ashoka became the emperor of Mauryan, empire after the death of Bindusara. He got, , himself coronated in 268 B.C.E. He called, himself as ‘Devanampiyo Piyadasi’ (Beloved, of the Gods) in many of his rock edicts and, pillar inscriptions., During the early period of his rule,, Ashoka adopted his ancestors’ policy of, Digvijaya and expansion of kingdom. He, attacked Kalinga and conquered it. Ashoka’s, victory at Kalinga proved to be a turning, point in history as well as in the life of, , 58

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For Additional Information : The, rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions of, Ashoka:, The rock edicts and Pillar inscriptions, of Ashoka are found at many places in, the regions of Afghanistan, Nepal and, India. In 1750 C.E. Padre Tieffenthaler, rediscovered Meerut pillar inscription of, Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions are, inscribed in Brahmi script. In 1837 C.E., James Princep deciphered the Brahmi, script on the inscriptions. The inscriptions, of Ashoka are very important sources of, the history of his rule. The boundaries of, Maurya Empire can be ensured on the, basis of these inscriptions. The description, of Ashoka’s efforts for the spread of, Buddhism can be obtained from these, inscriptions., Even, though, Ashoka, embraced Buddhism but he never tried to, forcibly impose it on his subjects. The, written evidence of the spread of, Buddhism and Indian culture in distant, countries through the Buddhist monks, sent by Ashoka occurs in these, inscriptions. It included Emperor Ashoka’s, son Mahendra (Mahinda) and daughter, Sanghamitra (Sanghamitta)., , You would like to know : During, the period of 321 B.C.E. to 181 B.C.E.,, the expansion of Mauryan empire took, place in Maharashtra. The Mauryas must, have entered Sopara from Gujarat. Sopara, is a well-known port in north konkan., Sopara and Chaul (Champavati) were, prosperous trade centers and learning, centers of Buddhism. Bhagvanlal Indraji, excavated the Stupa at Sopara which is, known as ‘Baruda Rajacha kot’. In this, excavation the fragments of rock edict of, Ashoka were found. It is the 8th rock, edict among the 14 edicts of Ashoka., Some of its remains are kept in the, museum of Asiatic Society in Mumbai., The 9th rock edict was found in the, Bhuigaon village. Its remains are kept in, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu, Sangrahalaya in Mumbai., , Stupa of Nalasopara, , drinks, guiding principles regarding code of, conduct etc. Ashoka’s policy of ‘Dhamma’, meant virtuous conduct based on moral, values. He sent monks to various countries, for the spread of Buddhism., The first Buddhist council was held at, Rajgriha after the mahaparnibban of Gautama, Buddha. King Kalashoka organised the, second council at Vaishali. Ashoka organized, the third Buddhist council at the capital, Pataliputra., The kings who succeeded Ashoka were, not efficient. This led to the decline of the, Mauryan empire. Brihadratha was the last, king of the Mauryan dynasty. He was killed, by his General Pushyamitra who then came, to power., , Ashoka. There was a great human loss, in this war. Ashoka became victorious. The, destruction caused due to the Kalinga war, brought about a great change in the mind of, Ashoka. His mind got diverted towards the, non- violent, peaceful Buddhist religion. The, desire of digvijaya was replaced by, Dharmavijay (Dhammavijay). His career, proved to be important because of the, religious ideals propagated by him and the, creation of a mechanism to until it in people’s, life., For, the, implementation, of, dhammavijay, Ashoka introduced some new, policies, for example, appointment of, ‘Dharmamahamatras’, ban on intoxicating, , 59

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Important information : In the rock, edicts of Ashoka there are references about, the contemporary kings from the western, world. The identification of Greek king, Antiouchus and the four greek kings beyond, the kingdom of Antiouchus namely,, Turmaya,, Amtekina,, Maga, and, Alikasundara is done through a paragraph, from one of the inscriptions. That is, , Antiochus II Theos of Syria (260 B.C.E., -246 B.C.E.), Ptolemy II Philadelphus of, Egypt (285 B.C.E. - 247 B.C.E.), Antigonus, Gonatus of Macedonia (276 B.C.E. -239, B.C.E.), Magas of Cyrene and Alexander, of Epirus. This paragraph is an important, link in the process of connecting the, chronological sequence of ancient Indian, history., , 8.4 Administrative system, trade,, literature, art and architecture, social life, Administrative system, The nature of administrative system, during the Mauryan period is clearly, understood with the help of Kautilya’s, Arthashastra, Megasthenes’ Indica and the, inscriptions of Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya, was a valiant king and an efficient, administrator. He set up a defined mechanism, of state administration, which suited the, economic conditions and the needs of the, Mauryan empire. The Mauryan emperors, created a unified empire. At the same time,, they devised a decentralised administrative, system for efficient functioning of the vast, empire. In the administrative system of the, empire, there was a Mantri Parishad (council, of ministers) made up of wise, experienced,, virtuous and selfless ministers who gave, advice to the king. There was a committee, of some of these ministers, who were known, as ‘Mantrana’ to look after the day to day, affairs of the state. Mauryas had created a, stable framework of administration by, creating various departments of administration, and appointing the experienced and expert, officers over it. These officers were known, as Amatya. Arthashastra mentions total 18, Amatyas such as Pradhan, Samaharta, (revenue), Sannidhata (finance), Senapati,, Yuvraj etc. Kautilya has given information, about 30 administrative departments. The, hierarchical order of the officers in the, Mauryan empire started from the Samrat at, , the head to the lowermost office of the, Gramini. At the local level the people were, given autonomous rights to a great extent in, the internal matters. In this way the, administration of Mauryan kingdom was, decentralised. The most important feature of, Mauryan administration was the effort made, for the overall material and moral development, of the people. The Mauryan administration is, appreciated due to various factors such as, keeping the civil and military areas separate, from each other, creating an independent, judicial system, implementing a specific, salary system to the officers, control over the, trade in the kingdom etc., Trade, There was an increase in revenue due to, well organised taxation system. ‘Bali’ was a, tax to be given in the scale of the land under, cultivation. ‘Bhag’ was a share from the tax, on production. Agricultural land and the tax, acquired from the agricultural production was, the basic foundation of the administrative, system. Industries gained momentum during, this period. Cloth production was the most, important industry. Apart from that metallurgy,, carpentry, ivory art, spinning, weaving and, many such professions began. The prosperous, agriculture and flourishing industries led to a, flourishing internal and foreign trade. Internal, trade was carried through land route and, water ways. Many royal ways were built on, the trade routes during this period. Many, roads such as Pataliputra to Takshashila,, Pataliputa to Kashi-Ujjaini, Pataliputra to, , 60

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During the Mauryan period, along with, Sanskrit literature, many texts were written, in Prakrit language. Especially the orders of, Ashoka are inscribed on the rocks and pillars, in Prakrit language. The famous texts of, Buddhist literature, Tipitaka, were edited, during this period. Among the texts of, Tipitakas, Abhidhammapitaka was composed, after the third Buddhist council., This period was very rich from the point, of view of Jain literature. The texts like, ‘Dashavaikalika’,, ‘Upasakadashanga’,, ‘Acharanga Sutra’, ‘Bhagvati Sutra’ etc. were, composed during this period., Art and architecture, After the establishment of Mauryan rule,, there was happiness, peace, prosperity and, good governance. Mauryan art is the, beginning of ancient Indian architecture and, the sculptural art., It appears that, during the Mauryan, period, the artists had acquired the skill of, cutting and carving the stone. In both, the, skill of a specific expression of art and the, technique of mirror polish of the stone is, seen. This is known as ‘Mauryan Polish’., During this period stone statues of Yaksha, and Yakshi are found. Especially the statues, of Yakshi are beautiful, and finely carved. The, famous Chauri bearer, of Didarganj is supposed, to be one of such, statues. The Yaksha, statues in Parkham and, the female images at, Besnagar and Patna of, this period are exhibited, in the Mathura museum., The pillars erected, by Emperor Ashoka and, the sculptures on them, are excellent examples, Chauri bearer, of Mauryan sculpture., , The increasing use of iron and also the, different types of iron implements, painted, pottery and its distribution upto southern, parts of India indicates expansion of trade., Bharuch, Roruk (Rodi), Sopara, Tamralipti, and many such ports on the coastal region, of India were famous for trade purpose., Exports were carried out on a large scale, from India to countries like Greece, Rome,, Egypt, Syria, Bactria, Sri Lanka etc. The, commodities such as cotton and silk cloth,, linen, jari clothes, spices, diamonds, ivory,, perfumes etc. were exported from India to, these countries. Glass articles, dyes etc. were, imported. The government levied taxes on the, production of goods as well as on its import, and export. Vartani (transport tax) and shulk, (octroi) are found to be mentioned in the, contemporary sources. In return the, government took up responsibility of security, of the goods. For the protection of the trading, community the government had appointed, officers like Chorarajjuka and Seemaswami., Literature, Literature reflects the thought process of, the people and the political, social, economic, and religious conditions. During the Mauryan, period, along with the literature in Sanskrit, language, the use of Pali and Ardhamagadhi, literature in Prakrit language is also seen., For the spread of Jainism and Buddhism,, literature was created in Prakrit language., The Prakrit languages mainly included Pali,, Ardhamagadhi, Shaurseni, Maharashtri etc., The world famous work of Panini’s, Ashtadhyayi was composed in this period., Bhasa was one of the great dramatists in, Sanskrit literature. The thirteen dramas written, by him includes ‘Swapnavasavadattam’. The, most important work of this period is, Kautilya’s Arthashastra. This text is divided, into 15 sections including total 180 topics., The topics from King to Ganikas and politics, to war strategies are found to be discussed, in Arthashastra., , of Didarganj, , 61

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Social Life, , There is the lion capital of the pillar at, Rampurva and Lauria Nandangarh. The, Sankissa pillar has an elephant capital. At, Sarnath the pillar capital has four lions, carved on it. This sculpture of the four lions, is the ‘National emblem’ of India., The beginning of rock-cut caves is seen, in the Mauryan architecture. The rock cut, caves on Barabar and Nagarjuni hills are the, first datable rock cut caves of India., , The remains found in the excavations, reflect the rich lifestyle of the people., Megasthenes mentions the seven classes of, Indian society based on their profesion;, Priest, Cultivators, Shephards and Hunters,, Traders and Labours, Soldiers, Spies and, Government officials. The life of the people, was prosperous and happy. The class of, entertainers is mentioned which includes, actors, dancers, singers, musicians etc. Chariot, and horse racing, wrestling as well as dance, and singing competition were the popular, means of entertainment. Gambling was also, in practice but the state had control over it., , Do You Know?, During this period the concept of, ‘Vishti’ is mentioned in context of craft, production. ‘Vishti’ was a tax paid by the, people in form of physical labour. Through, vishti the artisans provided a stipulated, amount of free labour to the state., , The system of education during vedic, period continued during the Mauryan period., The cities of Taxila, Kashi Ayodhya etc., became great centres of higher education and, art during the Mauryan period., , There was a huge palace of Chandragupta, at Pataliputra. Megasthenes compares it with, the Palace of Susa, the, capital of Iran. The high, brick fortification wall, was built for the protection, of the palace and inside, the palace there were, many buildings. These, buildings were built of, stone. Wood was also, used in the buildings. One, of the unique contribution, in the field of art are the, huge, standing, pillars, Capital of an, erected during the period, Ashokan Pillar, of Ashoka for the spread, of religion. We know them as Ashokan, Pillars. These pillars are erected at thirty, places. They are erected at places related to, important events in the life of Gautama, Buddha and on important royal paths. During, Ashoka’s period, stupas were built on a large, scale. It is said that during his rule, Ashoka, built 84,000 stupas., , Female education began to be neglected, during this period. But according to Kautilya’s, Arthashastra, it seems that during Mauryan, period women were given certain rights., Women had complete rights over the, Stridhana. The Government took care of the, orphan and disabled women. Many women, spies were a part of the intelligence system., The Mauryan period has multiple, dimensions and hence it has obtained a, historical significance. After the death of, Ashoka, the centralised administration, continued to grow weak and the empire, disintegrated into small kingdoms. In the, Post-Mauryan period Shunga, Kanva and, Satavahana rulers rebuilt their empires. Vedic, religion, varnashrama system, and vedic, lifestyle once again gained importance. We, are going to study about these dynasties in, the next chapter., , 62

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Exercise, , Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The first well-known king of the, Haryank dynasty is, ., (a) Chandragupta Maurya, (b) Bimbisara, (c) Ajatashatru, (d) Mahapadma, (2) The Nanda dynasty was established, by, ., (a) Dhanananda, (b) Shishunaga, (c) Mahapadma Nanda, (d) Emperor Ashoka, (3) The great drama in Sankrit literature,, Swapnavasavadatta, was written by, ., (a) Kautilya, (b) Bharat, (c) Kalidasa, (d) Bhasa, , (a), (b), (c), (d), , Spread of Art, Spread of religion, Growth of trade, For recognition of his work, , Q.3 Explain the following statements with, reasons., (1) Ashoka’s victory at Kalinga proved, to be a turning point in history as, well as the life of Ashoka., (2) The war between Chandragupta and, the Greek king Seleucus was very, important., (3) The Mauryan administration acquired, a definite form., Q.4 State your opinion., (1) Chandragupta Maurya is the first, Chakravarti emperor in the history of, India., (2) The rock edicts of Ashoka are, important sources of history., (3) Various trade guilds developed during, the Mauryan period., , (B) Find out the incorrect pair, correct, it and rewrite., (1) Built the foundation of Magadha, Empire – Bimbisara, (2) Brought an end to Nanda rule –, Chandragupta Maurya, (3) Chinese traveler who visited India, during the period of Chandragupta, Maurya – Megasthenes, (4) Changed his mind due to the, destruction in Kalinga war – Emperor, Ashoka, , Q.5 Observe the map on Page number 58, and answer the questions based on it., (1) Regions included in Ashoka’s Empire, (2) Locations of Ashoka’s rock and, pillars edicts., Activity, Collect information about the Stupas, during the period of Ashoka., , Q.2 Choose the correct reason and complete, the sentence., Emperor Ashoka erected many pillars., Reason, ., , , , 63

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9., , 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, , Post Mauryan India, , Heliodorus at Besnagar (Vidisha) indicates, that there were some Greek followers of, Vaishnavism. Literature in Sanskrit language, was encouraged during the Shunga period., To review the changes in Sanskrit language,, Patanjali wrote the ‘Mahabhashya’ based on, Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’. According to some, scholars, there were many new additions, made in the original text of Mahabharata, during this period. The Manusmruti was, composed during this period., Along with literature, the Shunga’s, contribution in the field of art is also, important. The stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut,, Garuda pillar at, Besnagar are excellent, examples of art during this period. The, sculptural art in the Shunga period widened, its horizons and depicted the life of common, people on a large scale., The last king of Shunga dynasty,, Devbhuti, was not an efficient king. His, minister, Vasudeva, killed him and established, the Kanva dynasty. This incident is described, in the Harshacharita by Banabhatta., 9.2 Rise of Satavahana Empire:, After the Mauryas, the Shunga dynasty, established itself in the north whereas in the, south the Satavahana dynasty rose to power., The disintegration of Mauryan empire created, a favourable atmosphere for the rise of new, powers. Satavahanas are mentioned as the, earliest ruling dynasty in Maharashtra., Initially the Satavahana rule came to a rise, in Nashik, Pune, Aurangabad and later, spread in the vast region of Maharashtra,, Andhra and Karnataka. Paithan, in, Maharashtra, was the capital of the, Satavahanas. The Puranas mention the, ‘Andhras’ or ‘Andhrabhrutyas’. According to, some scholars, these terms refer to, Satavahanas., , Shunga Empire, Rise of Satavahana Empire, Administrative system, literature,, art and social life, , Magadha was the first empire of India., A stable and systematic administration was, set up during the Mauryan period. We studied, this in the previous lesson. After Emperor, Ashoka, due to the internal conflicts, this, empire became weak. After Brihadratha, the, last Mauryan emperor, Pushyamitra Shunga, came on the throne., 9.1 Shunga Empire, The Shunga empire was spread from, Magadha in the east to Siyalkot (Punjab) in, the west, as well as Himalayas in the North, to Vidarbha in the south. Although Pataliputra, was the main capital, Pushyamitra established, a second capital at Vidisha. Pushyamitra, Shunga was valiant and ambitious. He, strengthened his rule in the provinces of, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti etc. Later he conquered, the lost provinces of Magadhan empire upto, Siyalkot. He courageously repelled the attack, of the Greek King Demetrius. His victory, over, Demetrius, is, mentioned, in, ‘Malavikagnimitram’ a play written by, Kalidasa., Try this out : Collect information, about the plays written by Kalidasa and, make a note based on it., After establishing his rule over North, India and some parts of South India., Pushyamitra twice performed the Ashwamedha, sacrifice to proclaim himself as a powerful, king. Pushyamitra revived the vedic sacrificial, system which had lost its significance during, the Mauryan period. The Garuda pillar of, , 64

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(Pratishthana or Paithan of today) at a, distance of about twenty day’s journey to the, south of Barygaza (Bhadoch); beyond which, about ten days to journey towards the east,, there is another great city, Tagar (Ter)., Carnelion is transported in great quantity, from Paithan to Bhadoch. There are no, permanent roads built for these purposes, but, only untreaded tracts. Cotton cloth, muslins, and sack cloth (rough jute fabric) and other, merchandise from coastal regions is, transported from Tagar to Barygaza.”, , Various artisons such as Kularika*,, Tilpishaka**, Kolika*** are mentioned in the, inscriptions at Nashik and Junnar. Pliny, mentions thirty fortified cities that existed in, Satavahana kingdom. The coins, found during, the excavations at the archaeological sites of, these cities are indicators of the well, developed trade during this period. Sopara,, Kalyan, Bhadoch were important trade centres, of this period., *, , ‘अअअअअअअअअ’, *Potter, **Oil अअअअअअ, miller, ***‘अअअ, Weaver, , for the convenience of travellers. There is a, stone jar excavated for collection of toll in, the pass. Sopara and Kalyan were the most, important trade centres in ancient, Maharashtra. Internal as well as foreign, trade was carried out from these towns., Especially, the goods imported from Rome, were unloaded at Sopara and from there it, was carried over to Paithan and Kolhapur, via Kalyan, Naneghat, Junnar, and Nevasa., Similarly the same route was used to, transport the goods to be exported to Rome., Another important feature is that the, inscriptions in the cave include numeric, symbols for “2, 4, 6, 7, and 9’’ that resemble, modern numerals., , You would like to know : Naneghat, is a mountain pass on the ancient trade, route in Maharashtra. This route connects, the ancient town ‘Jirnanagar’ (Junnar) and, the konkan province. The route proceeds, in the direction of Junnar and descends, into Kokan at Murbad (District Thane)., Satavahanas excavated a cave on this, route; the inscriptions in this cave mention, the Satavahana queen Naganika, the, achievements of the Satavahana kings and, the donations given by them. These, inscriptions are in Brahmi script. There, were statues of the Satavahana kings. At, the foothills of the pass there is a village, named Vaishakhede. A number of inns, (Dharmashalas) were probably built here, , By the Way : This is, a picture of a ship on the, coin belonging to King, Pulumavi. This image on, the coin is an indication of, flourishing sea trade during, Satavahana period., , Literature :, During the Satavahana period, learning, and art received royal patronage. Prakrit, language and literature flourished during, Satavahana period. Hala, the seventeenth, , king of the Satavahana dynasty,, compiled, ‘Gathasaptashati’., Gunadhya, a minister in his, court, wrote an incomparable, text named ‘Brihatkatha’ in a, Prakrit language called Paishachi., Sarvavarma wrote a treatise on, Sanskrit, Grammer,, named, ‘Katantra’., , Art and Architecture : The influence of, Persian and Greek sculptural styles during, the Mauryan period seems to have decreased, during the Shunga and Satavahana period. A, new native Indian style emerged in this, , 66

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For Additional information : The, world famous Ajanta caves, cave no. 8,, 9, 10, 12 and 13 belong to the, Satavahana period. It is interesting that, the paintings in cave no. 9 and 10 are, the earliest in India., , Society : The society of Satavahana, period was organised into four varnas., Similarly during this period the caste system, also became deeply rooted. The intermixture, of varnas and castes (Varnasankara), closed, nature of different guilds, need of including, foreigners in the social structure were some, of the reasons behind it., Apart from that, there were four classes, in the society. The first class consisted of, officials such as ‘Maharathi’, ‘Mahabhoja’, and ‘Mahasenapati’. They were appointed on, the, various, ‘Rashtrakas’, (Subhas)., ‘Mahabhoja’ was appointed on the Konkan, province and Maharathi on the plateau area., The second class consisted of ‘Amatya’,, ‘Mahamatra’ and ‘Bhandagarika’, ‘Naigam’, (traders), ‘Sarthavaha’ (chief of caravan, merchant), and ‘Shreshthi’ (Head of trade, guilds). ‘Lekhanika’ (scribes), ‘Vaidya’, (physicians),, ‘Halakiya’, (cultivators),, ‘Suvarnakar’ (goldsmith), ‘Gandhika’ (traders, of perfumes) were included in the third social, class. Whereas the fourth class included, ‘Vardhaki’, (carpenter),, ‘Malakara’, (gardeners), ‘Lohavanija’ (blacksmith), and, ‘Dasaka’ (fisherman)., The invasions of foreigners like Greeks,, Pallavas, Shakas and Kushanas took place, during the Satavahana period. But these, foreigners were soon absorbed in the social, structure. This means that the contemporary, society, was flexible enough to accommodate, the foreigners. However, these political, invasions also brought about some social,, economic and cultural changes which we will, study in the next lesson., , Karle Chaitya, , period. The four gateways (Toranas) of the, Sanchi Stupa No.1 built during this period, are excellent examples of this style. Many, incidents from the life of Gautama Buddha, are carved on these gateways. A number of, rock-cut caves (Viharas and Chaityas) at, Bhaje, Nashik, Karle etc. belong to, Satavahana period. Especially the Chaitya at, Karle, its magnificient facade entrance and, sculptures are the finest examples of the, sculptural art of this period., Gatha, Saptashati, :, The, Satavahana king, Hala, compiled, several poems written in Prakrit. He, selected 700 verses, and compiled it, which was named as ‘Gaha Sattasai’, (Gatha Saptashati). This is the first text, composed in Maharashtri Prakrit, language. These poems beautifully, portray human nature and transactions., Various religious observance, ethical, norms and contemporary festivals are, described in it. Gatha Saptashati reflects, the social life in Maharashtra of, Satavahana period. Some words in, Gatha Saptashati are used in today’s, Marathi language as well. The poems, in Gatha saptashati clearly indicate the, relation between Maharashtri Prakrit, and the modern Marathi language in, Maharashtra., , 67

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Exercise, Q.2 Explain the following statements with, reasons., (1) During the Satavahana period there, was rise of many trade centres., (2) The caste system became rigid during, the Satavahana period., , Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The last emperor of the Mauryan, dynasty was, ., (a) Ajatashatru, (b) Chandragupta Maurya, (c) Brihadratha, (d) Emperor Ashoka, , Q.3 Give your opinion., Prakrit language was encouraged during, the Satavahana period., , (2) The Nashik inscription mentions king, as ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’., (a) Gautamiputra Satakarni, (b) Hala, (c) Yadnashree Satakarni, (d) Simuka, , Q.4 Write short notes:, (1) Nashik inscription of Gautami, Balashri, (2) Naneghat – ancient trade route in, Maharashtra, (3) Gatha Saptashati, , (3) Satavahana king, Hala, compiled, ., (a) Brihatkatha, (b) Gatha Saptashati, (c) Katantra, (d) Meghdoota, , Q.5 Write information about the Satavahana, dynasty with the help of the given, points., (a) Rise and expansion, (b) Administrative system, (c) Trade and industries, (d) Literature and art, , (B) Find incorrect pair and write the, correct ones., (1) Kalidasa – Malavikagnimitram, (2) Gunadhya – Gatha Saptashati, (3) Sarvavarma – Katantra, (4) Patanjali – Mahabhashya, , Activity, Collect information about historical, remains in your surrounding area and, prepare an information booklet based on, the gathered information., , , , 68

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10., , 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, , Changing Times, , 10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, , Nomadic tribes of Central Asia, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, Kushana Empire, Gupta Empire, Vardhan Empire, Karkotaka Empire, Trade, coinage, art, iconography, Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres, in Maharashtra), , Indo-Greeks : The Greek Satrapas of, North-west are known as ‘Indo-Greeks’. In, Indian tradition, they are mentioned as, Yavana. Their objectives were to establish, their dominance in the region of Mediterranean, Sea and to strengthen the hold over trade in, west and central Asia. Seleucus Nicator was, Indo-Greek king from the province of Bactria, in the North-west. In the conflicts between, the Indo-Greek kings, the kingdom of Bactria, proved to be powerful. Bactrian king, Demetrius attacked India in 180 B.C.E. He, won over Takshashila. His capital was at, Sakal (Siyalkot). During this period, the, Indo-Greek king Eucratides established an, independent kingdom. In this way, two, independent Indo-Greek kingdoms were, established in the northwest region. There, were 40 Indo-Greek kings in total including, the two branches established by Demetrius, and Eucratides. The only source to know the, history of Indo-Greeks is their coins. Things, like emblems, script, portraits on their coins, of the kings, images of deities are their gifts, to the numismatic tradition of India., , After the disintegration of Mauryan, empire, the ambition of local rulers got, strengthened. The regional kingdoms came to, a rise. Among them, we studied the Shunga, and Satavahana kingdoms in the last lesson., During the same period there began foreign, invasions, such as invasions by Greek,, Shakas, Kushanas, on India. This period of, the rise of regional kingdoms was also the, period of political and social transition., 10.1 Nomadic tribes of Central Asia, After the death of Alexander, the, Satrapas appointed by him declared their, independent status and they came to be, known as Indo-Greek kings. During the, declining period of Indo-Greek kings, nomadic, tribes in Central Asia attacked Bactria. The, tribes of Central Asia migrated to India in, this period. These migrations proved to be, important in the political scene in North, India. In the latter half of 2nd century B.C.E.,, the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas, (Scythians) attacked northwestern regions., The Yuezi tribes from China pushed the, Shakas out from Central Asia. Yuezis were, pastoralists. With the strength of their war, skills, they vanquished the local kings and, there they established their own kingdoms., , To know the extent of Indo-Greek kingdom see :, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IndoGreeks_100bc.jpg, , Shakas : Shakas came from Central, Asia. They established their kingdom by, driving out the Greeks of Bactria. Their, colony acquired the name ‘Shakasthan’, (Shistan). ‘Maues’ alias ‘Moga’ was the first, Shaka king in India. He established the, kingdom by conqureing the provinces of, Gandhara and Punjab. Due to the weakness, of the succeeding Shaka kings, Pahalava, king Gondophernes defeated them and, established his rule in India., , 69

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For additional information : The rule of Shaka king, Rudradaman proves to be noteworthy due to his conflict, with the Satavahanas. The Junagarh inscription in, Saurashtra is an important Sanskrit inscription. It is, inscribed below the Ashokan edict. The Ashokan edict is, in Prakrit while Rudradaman’s inscription is in Sanskrit., It seems that the Shaka kings had adopted Sanskrit, language. The Rudradaman inscription records repairs of, Sudarshan lake that was built during the Mauryan era. It, shows that the lake was used over a prolonged period. It, mentions Rudradaman’s victory in the Narmada valley,, expedition against Satavahana kingdom and praises him, for his victory over Yaudheya Republics in Rajasthan., Junagarh inscription, , Although the Shaka rule in Gandhara, and Punjab came to an end, some Shaka, rulers continued to rule in Western India. The, Shaka administrative system was structured, after the Achaemenid and Seleucid models., The state was divided into various Satrapis, (provinces) and ‘Mahakshatrapa’, a military, official, was appointed for each satrapy., These Satrapies were further divided into, sub-sections and a Satrapa was appointed on, each of it. These Satrapas were permitted to, engrave their own inscriptions and also issue, coins. It seems that they had considerable, autonomy., , Kushanas : After coming to Bactria from, central Asia, the Kushanas captured the IndoGreek kingdoms. As an effect of their contact, with the Greek is reflected in some traits of, Kushana culture. After pushing the Shakas out, to the South, under the leadership of Kujula, Kadphises, the Yuezi groups came together, and Kujula Kadphises brought them to, northwest India from the Hindukush mountains., He declared himself as the king of Bactria., With this the Kushana rule was established, upto Kabul, Kashmir. We get this information, from Chinese records, Greek, and Roman, literature. In Indian literature, Kushanas are, referred as ‘Tukhar’ or ‘Tushar’., 10.3 Kushana Empire, After winning over the small kingdoms,, Kushanas followed the system of Shakas and, established their Satrapis there. A military, officer called ‘Satrapa (Kshatrapa) was, appointed on the satrapies. The King was the, chief of all the Satrapas and adopted the, titles like ‘Rajadhiraj’, ‘Maharaj’ etc. The, concept of divinity of the King is seen for, the first time in the inscriptions on the, Kushana coins. They called themselves as, ‘Devputra’(Son of God)., By defeating many Shaka kings,, Kanishka obtained the status of an emperor., He built the Kushana empire from Kabul to, Pataliputra and from Kashmir to Malwa. He, , You would like to know : Shakas, were nomadic pastoralists. There are, no architectural remains, which can be, ascribed to Shakas. However, their, characteristic, tombs, have, been, discovered. These tombs contain, remains of an individual, who could, be their chief, along with his personal, belongings including remains of his, horse and other objects. Horse was an, important part of the culture of Shakas., Their skills in mounted archery enabled, them to make swift attacks. Saddle,, reins, composite bow and arrow made, their war technique more effective., , 70

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is said to have attacked China twice. From, Central Asia it was difficult to administer, over the far extended empire. Hence an, intermediate administrative centre was the, need of the moment. Hence, Kanishka, established two capitals, one at Purushpur, (Peshawar) and the other at Mathura., Kanishka had organised the fourth Buddhist, Council in the vihara at Kundalvan in, Kashmir., The Kushanas had adopted the Indian, culture. This is obvious from the name of, last Kushana king ‘Vasudeva’. During his, period the decline of Kushanas began. The, Kushana empire disintegrated into pieces and, the various Satrapas became independent., The Kushana rule existed in the province of, Punjab and Gandhar till 4th century C.E., , You would like to know : The detailed, Prashasti (eulogy) of Samudragupta is, inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad., This prashasti is a written source giving, information of his political career. This, inscription is known as ‘Prayaga Prashasti’., It is paradoxical right below Ashokan’s, edict, declaring, the, importance, of, ‘Dhammavijay’ is inscribed the detailed, account of Samudragupta’s ‘Digvijaya’., , means, ‘the annihilator of all kings’ proves, this. Samudragupta first conquered neighboring, kingdoms. After the conquest in the North,, he carried out expedition in the South to, conquer the Southern kingdoms. During that, period, the rule of Vakatakas was strong in, southern region. Samudragupta could include, the southern part upto the region of Kanchi, under his dominance, except the Vakatakas., The rulers of the regions beyond his conquered, area became his feudatories. By obtaining, tribute from these kings, he made them accept, his sovereignty., After this great conquest (Digvijay),, Samudragupta, performed, Ashwamedha, sacrifice and proclaimed himself as, Chakravarti king. Shakas, Kushanas, and, kings in Sri Lanka accepted the suzerainty, of the Guptas. The image of Samudragupta, along with a lyre (Veena) on his coins, indicates that he was a patron of art., Chandragupta II defeated Shakas and, ascended the throne. He took up the title, ‘Vikramaditya’. He established his rule in the, western regions of Malwa, Gujarat, and, Kathewar. Due to this the areas on west, coast also came under the dominance of the, Guptas and they entered into the trade carried, out in the west. Later Chandragupta crossed, Hindukush and brought the north-western, provinces under his control. In this manner, he established a sovereign state encompassing, the entire north India. He gave his daughter,, Prabhavati, in marriage to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena II and created congenial relations, with the Vakatakas in the south., , Visit the below website to see the expansion of the, Kushana empire : https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/, Kushan_Empire#/media/File:Kushanmap.jpg, , 10.4 Gupta Empire, The history of Gupta empire indicates, the process of transformation of a small state, into a mighty empire. Srigupta was the, founder of Gupta dynasty. His title ‘Maharaj’, indicates that he was a feudatory. His son, Ghatotkach also uses the same title which, means during his period also the Gupta kings, were feudatories. Chandragupta I is given the, credit of expanding the Gupta rule and, transforming it into an empire. The title, added to his name, titled ‘Maharajadhiraj’,, gives an idea of the increasing status of the, Gupta kings. He married Kumaradevi who, belonged to the Lichchhavi clan. This, matrimonial alliance proved to be politically, beneficial for the Gupta dynasty. His portrait, with Kumaradevi is seen on a coin issued by, him. His rule was spread over in the regions, of Magadha, Saket (Ayodhya) and Prayag., King Samudragupta was the most brilliant,, valiant and benevolent ruler of this dynasty., Samudragupta’s ambition was to rule, entire India as an unified empire. His title, ‘Sarvarajochchheta’ on his coins, which, , 71

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During the period of Kumargupta, son of, Chandragupta II, the Huna invasions in India, began. Kumaragupta withheld the attacks of, Hunas. After Kumaragupta, the succeeding, , kings proved to be incapable of protecting, their kingdom. Finally their kingdom was, disintegrated into many small kingdoms., , You would like to know : Chandragupta II gave patronage to many scholars, just, like his father and had deep interest in knowledge and art. It is said that there were, ‘Navratnas’ (nine gems) in his court. They were : Dhanvantari (physician), Kshapanak, (astrologer), Amarsinha (lexicographer), Sanku (architect), Vatal Bhatt (magician),, Ghatkarpura (architect/author), Kalidasa (great poet), Varahamihira (astronomer) and, Vararuchi (grammarian)., , 72

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excellent examples of their skills. Beautiful, and realistic portrayal of various aspects of, the king is characteristic of Gupta coins., ‘Nigam’,, ‘Shreni’, and, ‘Gana’, like, Organisations were established by traders, and industrialists., Till the Gupta period, many foreign, communities, came and settled in India., They were accepted in the social system., Smriti texts such as ‘Narada Smriti’,, ‘Yajnavalakya Smriti’ were written during, this period. These texts provide a glimpse of, the social changes in this period., , State administration and social life:, The Gupta period is considered as the, Classical Age of Indian history., During the Gupta period, king was the, centre of administration. The Prince, Amatya, (ministers) and advisors helped him. Many a, times, the Prince was appointed as Viceroy, who looked after the provincial administration., Every province was subdivided. These, subdivisions were called ‘Vishaya’. There, was an independent administrator appointed, on these Vishayas. They were known as, ‘Vishayapati’. ‘Kumaramatya’ were the, provincial officers and ‘Ayuktak’ were the, officials who looked after the affairs of the, districts., Gupta, administration, was, decentralized. Many decisions were taken at, the local level., The Gupta kings changed the economic, structure of agricultural system. Their, preference was on giving the land to local, farmers for tilling. Land donations were also, made for the cause of religion and learning., These lands were tax free. They were called, as ‘Agraharas’. Similarly, in this period the, civil and military officers were granted land, grants instead of salaries. The roots of feudal, system, an important feature of the mediaeval, period lie in this system. It is believed that, this feudal economy brought about the decline, of urban centres. Because of revenue tax, exemption on the donated land, the revenue, decreased and royal treasures depleted. It, was concentrated in the hands of local, landlords. Because of this the king no longer, remained in the centre of power., According to the Chinese traveller Yuan, Chwang, sugarcane and wheat were cultivated, in the north-western province of the Gupta, empire, while rice was cultivated in Magadha, and eastern regions., Minerals, animals and herbs were the, main commodities of trade that brought, prosperity during Gupta period. Goldsmiths, enjoyed a high social status in this period., The gold coins during Gupta period are, , For additional information : Textile, industry flourished during Gupta period., A variety of textiles were produced on, large scale. These varieties include, Kshaum (linen), Chitrapatta (printed silk),, Dukul (silk), Pulakbandh (coloured cotton),, Pushpapatta (floral designs), Amshuka, (muslin). These textiles had great demand, in internal and distant market., The, prosperity, is, reflected, in, contemporary sculptural art and literature., Political stability in the Gupta period,, prosperity and royal patronage gave impetus, to the creation of Sanskrit literature. One of, the best creations in Indian literature of this, period is Kalidasa’s ‘Shakuntalam’. Human, figure was the central theme of the sculptures, in Gupta period. Human sculptures and, images of deities were created during this, period. Sculptures belonging to this period, are found at many places such as Sarnath,, Devgadh, Ajanta. During this period, Hindu,, Buddhist and Jain religious icons were made, of stone, metals and terracotta. The Greek, influence seen on Gandhara style is no longer, seen on the sculptures of Gupta period., During this period, the foundation of, Indian temple architecture was laid down., Use of dressed stones became common during, this period. The earliest remains of temples, of Gupta period are found in places like, Sanchi, Bhumra, and Deogadh. These are a, , 73

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few examples, architecture., , of, , the, , Gupta, , style, , of, , Hundreds of students, not only from India, but also from other countries like China,, Tibet, Korea, Japan, Shri Lanka etc. came, here. Harshavardhan’s empire was the last, powerful empire in ancient India., 10.6 Karkotaka Empire, Among the dynasties that ruled in, Kashmir, the Karkotaka dynasty (7-9th century, C.E.) is mentioned by Yuan Chwang. He had, been to Kashmir when he had visited India., A detailed information regarding this dynasty, is, found, in, Kalhan's, Rajatarangini., Durlabhavardhan was the founder of, Karkotaka dynasty. His empire extended, from Narmada to Tibet., The reign of Lalitaditya (Muktapeed,, 724-760, C.E.),, the, grandson, of, Durlabhavardhan, is noteworthy. He is credited, with two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya)., He drove away many foreign tribes on the, northern borders of Kashmir, especially the, region in the Amudarya basin. It included the, Tukhar (Turks) as well. He conquered the, regions from Avanti in the north upto, Pragiyotishpur (Assam). He conquered Tibet, with the help of Yashovarma, the king of, Avanti (Kanauj). After conquering the regions, upto Kaveri river in the south, he crossed the, seas and reached the land beyond (Shri, Lanks). This is mentioned by Kalhan, which, suggests that Lalitaditya had extended his, empire from Tibet in the north to the river, Kaveri in the south. Lalitaditya's empire is, comparable to the Gupta empire. Lalitaditya, was a devotee of Vishnu. He built the Martand, temple. He set up the city of Lalitpur. Latpur,, situated on the banks of river Jhelum, might, be the ancient Lalitpur. He built Buddhist, Viharas at Hushkapur (Ushkur)., 10.7 Trade, coinage, art, iconography, In Indian history, the period of six, centuries from 2nd century B.C.E. to 4th, century C.E., was the period of arrival of the, Central Asian tribes and the kingdoms that, they established. These people adopted, various cultural traits as they came to India., The introduction of these traits brought about, , You would like to know : In the Gupta, period, there was remarkable progress in, making alloys and casting of metals. The, iron pillar at, Delhi stands as a, witness for this., Since, many, centuries the iron, pillar, stands, without rusting., From this we, understand that, during this period, the science of, metallurgy was, very advanced., , Iron Pillar : Mehrauli, , 10.5 Vardhan Empire, During the declining period of the, Guptas, in Nothern India there was rise of, dynasties such as Vardhans at Sthaneshwar, (Thanesar), Maukharis in Ganga Yamuna, Doab,, Maitrakas, in, Saurashtra, etc., Pushyabhuti was the founder of the Vardhan, dynasty., After, the, accession, of, Prabhakarvardhan, the Vardhan dynasty, became powerful. He took up the sovereign, title of ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj’., The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was, Harshavardhan. His empire extended from, Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal., After Harshavardhan, there was no heir to, the throne under the situation the empire, disintegrated and many feudatories declared, independent status in North India., We get a lot of information about this, period from ‘Harshacharita’ written by, Banabhatta who was the court poet and also, from the travel accounts of Chinese traveller, Yuan Chwang. The universities of Nalanda, and Vallabhi became the great learning, centres, during, harshavardhan’s, reign., , 74

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border regions of India and China. There, were political relations between Kushanas, and Chinese rulers. The legends on the, Kushana coins found in Central Asia are in, Prakrit language, written in Kharoshthi script., This evidence indicates that people speaking, Prakrit language were also staying outside, the Indian subcontinent., The Gandhara region had become a, melting pot of Indian, Greek, Roman, Persian, and Shaka cultures. This province acquired, importance from cultural, point of view. A new style, of iconography developed in, the cities of Pushkalavati,, Taxila, Purushpur etc. It is, known as ‘Gandhara style’., The theme of the sculpture, was Indian but the style was, Greek. The Mahayana sect, of Buddhism gave an, impetus for the development, of this style of art. Along, with the images of Gautama, Gandhara Art, Buddha and Bodhisatva, statues of the donors are carved in stone. But, this style remained limited to parts of Northwest India. In the icons of Gandhara style,, there was more emphasis on physical beauty., During the same period, Mathura and Varanasi, style of art developed. The images of Gautama, Buddha were completely Indian in nature., Mathura was an important centre of Indian art, of sculpture. Portrait sculpture is the feature of, Mathura style of art. The statues of Kushana, kings, Vima Takshama and Kanishka are, examples of this portrait sculpture. Similarly, images of Saraswati, Vishnu, Surya, Shiva, and Karttikeya were created for the first time, during this period. The sculptural art during, Kushana period was an indication of innovation, in the history of Indian sculpture. During this, period there was an effort of imprinting the, reflection of the then society., 10.8 Indo-Roman trade (Trade centres, in Maharashtra), The Periplus of Erythrean Sea written in, , For Additional Information : Some, Bactrian coins resemble the Greek coins in, terms of their shape and weight. On some, of these coins the image of owl is seen., Owl is the symbol of Goddess Athena., Athena was the main deity of Athens., Indo-Greek coins are found in Bactria. The, Greek legends are written on the obverse, side and the legends are written in Prakrit., Kharoshthi script on the reverse side., , a transformation in the cultural life of India, as well., In contemporary India, agriculture and, animal husbandry were the main sources of, livelihood. Along with it various industries, and trade developed during this period., India’s contact with the foreigners proved to, be beneficial for this. During this period also, merchant and artisans guilds (shrenis) were, in existence. During this period, India’s sea, trade began to increase on a large scale., Indian goods were sent upto the Red Sea and, from there via Egypt to Rome. From India,, animals such as tiger, lion and monkey; birds, such as parrot and peacock; wool, silk,, muslin, cotton cloth, ivory, pearls, spices,, sandalwood, medicinal herbs, diamonds,, precious stones, and other luxury items were, exported and from other countries goods such, as lead, copper, glass, silver, gold, wines etc., were imported. Due to this trade the flow of, gold coins was constantly coming in India, and hence India became prosperous., The portraits of kings and images of, deities were inscribed on the gold coins of, the Bactrian Greeks. There was a great, impact of the Greek and Roman coins on the, coins of Shaka and Kushana rulers. The use, of Kharoshthi script is seen on the Shaka, coins., The coins of this period indicate the, mixed impact of Greeks, Indian and Persian, cultures. The Kushana kings depicted Indian, deities on coins. They brought in circulation, the gold and copper coins with the image of, Shiva. Kushana coins are also found in the, , 75

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Greek language in the mid 1st century C.E.,, mentions about the Red Sea and the sea, routes connecting coastal line, ports, provinces,, goods exchanged in trade. Red Sea was, important for trade relations between India, and Rome. Among the trading commodities, textile, black pepper, precious stones, ivory, and animals such as monkey, parrot and, peacock for the entertainment of the Roman, elites came to be exported from India. Gold, coins were paid in exchange of these goods., Coral and liquor were also imported. The, remains of Amphorae are found in the, excavations. Residues at the base of the, amphora, revealed remains of wines., Amphoras were also used for storing olive, oil and garom (pickled fish). The price of, the goods exported to Roman market was, paid in gold coins. The large amounts of, , these coins found in South India gives an, idea of the extensive scale of this trade. The, flourishing Indo-Roman trade gave rise to, several markets and cities. There was rise of, important ports in western India as well. The, merchandise transported to Maharashtra were, stored at Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur,, and Sannati. The ports of Sopara and Kalyan, were important centres of Indo-Roman trade., Excavations at the archaeological sites have, brought forth the evidence of trade in the, form of Roman pottery (amphorae) and red, ware. The replicas of Roman coins are also, found in the excavations. In South India,, along with increase in trade the Buddhist, centres were established at places such as, Dharnikot, Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda., In the next lesson we are going to study, about the ruling powers in South India., , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The history of Indo-Greeks is known, through their, ., (a) literature, (b) inscription, (c) coins, (d) pottery, (2) Gupta dynasty was founded by, ., (a) Sri Gupta, (b) Ghatotkach, (c) Samudragupta (d) Ramgupta, (3) After accession by defeating the, Shakas,, took up the tile of, ‘Vikramaditya’., (a) Chandragupta II, (b) Ramgupta (c) Chandragupta I, (d) Kumaragupta, , was concentrated in the hands of, local landlords., (2) Every tide of Huna invasion made, the Gupta rule weaker., Q.3 State your opinion., Samudragupta performed, sacrifice after Digvijaya., , Asvamedha, , Q.4 Write Short notes., (1) Gupta Sculpture, (2) Indo-Roman Trade, Q.5 Answer the following question with the, help of given points., How did the standardisation in various, sections during the Gupta period take, place?, a. division of Gupta administration, b. changes in economic struture economy, of agriculture, c. Development of Gupta coinage, , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Kshaum – Linen cloth, (2) Pushpapatta – Cotton cloth, (3) Dukul – Silk cloth, (4) Amshuka - Muslin cloth, , Activity, Collect, more, information, about, ‘Harshacharita’ written by Banabhatta,, with the help of internet., , Q.2 Explain the following statements with, reasons., (1) During the Gupta period the power, , , 76

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11. Kingdoms in South India, , 11.1 Important kingdoms in South India, 11.2 Administrative system, trade, social, life, 11.3 Literature, art, architecture, , established their rule from Pudukkottai to, Kanyakumari. Towards their west, the Cheras, had created their kingdom in Kerala. They, are mentioned as ‘Kedalaputra’ (Keralaputra/, Sons of Kerala) in contemporary literature., These kingdoms were in constant conflict, with each other to establish political suprem, acy., In many stories of Sangham literature,, we find mention of the first Chola king, ‘Karikala’. He brought together eleven small, kingdoms and built a strong army and by, defeating the Chera and Pandya kings, he, established the Tamil dominance., Some kingdoms arose to the north of, Krishna-Tungabhadra rivers. Among them, Satavahanas were most powerful., Vakataka dynasty : The power of, Satavahanas started growing weaker from, the 3rd century C.E. Vakatakas took advantage, of this situation and established independent, rule. Vindhyashakti was the founder of, Vakataka kingdom. After Vindhyashakti ,, King Pravarasena I ascended the throne. He, expanded the Vakataka Empire to Malwa in, the North and from Gujarat to South upto, Kolhapur,, Kurnool, (Andhra, Pradesh)., Kolhapur was knwon as ‘Kuntala’ at that, time., Pravarasena, I, performed, four, Ashwamedha sacrifices and took up the title, ‘Samrat’., After Pravarasena I, the Vakataka, kingdom got divided and two main branches, were created. Among them, Nandivardhan, (Nagardhan-Ramtek, Nagpur district) was the, capital of one branch. The capital of the, second branch was at Vatsagulm, i.e. modern, Washim (Washim district)., Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Gupta, emperor Chandragupta II, was married to, , In this lesson we will be introduced to, the kingdoms in South India, their, administrative system, trade etc., 11.1 Important Kingdoms in South, India, Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties :, Chola, Pandya and Chera were the ancient, ruling powers in South India. The kingdoms, in South are mentioned in Megasthenes’, ‘Indica’, Panini’s grammar and inscriptions, of Ashoka. Ancient Tamil literature, known, as ‘Sangham’ literature, is believed to be one, of the main sources of history of South, Indian rulers., For Additional information :, South India has a great contribution in, the history of India and its culture. Due, to the cultural exchange between North, India and South India, the Indian culture, became diverse and still remained, united. The people living in South India, spoke Dravidian languages. Tamil,, Kannada, Malyalam and Telugu are the, four main languages in the Dravidian, group of languages. ‘Brauhi’ language, spoken in Baluchistan is a part of the, Dravidian group of languages., Chola Dynasty : The Chola Kingdom, was established in first century C.E. Chola, dynasty originated in Thanjavur and, Tiruchirappalli (Tamilnadu). This province, was known as ‘Cholamandala’ (Coromandel, is an anglicised form of ‘Cholamandala’). To, the south of Cholas, the Pandyas had, , 77

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Vakataka king Rudrasen II. This is already, mentioned earlier. Varahadev, minister of, Harishena, was a follower of Buddhism., Cave no.16 of Ajanta was excavated at his, instance. The excavation of other caves at, Ajanta and the murals were done during the, reign of Harishena., Vakataka king Pravarasena II composed, ‘Setubandha’ in Maharashtri Prakrit. Among, many of Kalidasa’s classical works,, ‘Meghadoota’ deserves special mention., References to historical geography of, Vakataka period occuring in this poetic work, are important., Chalukyas : During the rule of, Harshavardhan in North India, the Chalukya, dynasty ruled in the south for approximately, 200 years. Jaising was the founder of this, dynasty. In the beginning of 6th century C.E., , he established his capital at Vatapi (Badami)., His grandson Pulakeshi I was the first, important king of the Chalukyas. He built the, fort of Badami. He performed the, Ashwamedha sacrifice and took up the title, of ‘Maharaja’. He also took titles like, ‘Prithvivallabha’ and ‘Satyashraya’. After, Pulakeshi I, his son Kirtivarman I came to, power. During his reign, he conquered the, Kadambas of Vanvasi (Karwar) and Mauryas, of Aparanta (North Konkan) and expanded, his rule. Kirtivarman was a patron of art., The beautiful caves at Badami were created, by him., Pulakeshi II was the greatest king of the, Chalukyan dynasty. He performed the, Digvijaya and strengthened the power of, Chalukyas. His achievements are described in, the eulogy (prashasti) composed by poet, , 78

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Ravikirti. He defeated the Kadamba, kings, Maurya, Nala, Kalchuri, Rashtrakuta,, Lat, Malav and Gurjara dynasties and, established the Chalukyan rule over Vidarbha, and other parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka., The expedition of Harshavardhan to conquer, the southern states was resisted by Pulakeshi, II. He defeated Harshavardhan thereby, acquiring great fame. After his victory he, took up the the title ‘Parameshwara’. With, the conquest in south, his empire extended, from Narmada to Kaveri and from east coast, to the west coast. His fame had reached, beyond India as well. During this period, Badshah Khosrow Parvez ruled in Iran. It is, said that he had sent his ambassador to the, court of Emperor Pulakeshi. The Pallavas of, Kanchi defeated Pulkeshi II. Vikramaditya,, the son of Pulakeshi II, in turn defeated the, Pallavas. The struggle between Chalukyas, and Pallavas continued over prolonged period, of time. The last king of Chalukyas,, Kirtivarman, was defeated by the Rashtrakuta, king Dantidurg., Pallavas : Around 6th century C.E. to 9th, century C.E., the Pallavas were known as the, most powerful rulers in South India. Historians, vary in their views regarding the origin of, the Pallavas. Some copperplates of the, Pallavas are found. There is a mention of, Sinhavarman and Shivaskandavarman Pallava, who ruled over the regions of eastern coast., Kanchi was the capital of the Pallavas. We, get a detailed information of the Pallava, dynasty beginning from the reign of, Simhavishnu. He conquered the province of, Cholas and extended his rule from Krishna, to Kaveri. After Simhavishnu, his son, Mahendravarman ascended the throne. He, was a great scholar. He wrote the Sanskrit, play ‘Mattavilasa’. He wrote books on, subjects like music, dance, sculpture, painting, etc. These art forms received patronage under, him. During his reign, several temples were, built at Tiruchirapalli, Chingalput and in east, and west Arkat district. The war between, , Pallavas and Chalukyas took place during, his period. His son Narsimhavarman defeated, the Chalukyan Emperor Pulakeshi II. During, Narsimhavarman’s region, many temples, were built at Mahabalipuram. It includes the, monolithic temples (Rath Mandiras) as well., Yuan Chwang, the well-known Chinese, traveller, was in his court for a certain period, of, time., The, literary, works, by, Narsimharvarman are important as major, source of Pallava history. The Pallava rule, ended in 9th century C.E. The Chola king,, Aditya,, defeated, the, Pallavas, and, destroyed it., , Yudhisthira Rath Temple at Mahabalipuram, , Rashtrakutas : Dantidurga was the first, powerful king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty., The rule of Rashtrakutas was spread from, Vindhyan ranges to Kanyakumari in the, south. After Dantidurga, his uncle Krishna I, became the king. He uprooted Chalukyas, rule. The famous Kailas temple at Ellora is, ascribed to Krishna I. The succeeding, Rashtrakuta rulers became influential in, North India as well. Amoghvarsh was a, capable king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty., Amoghvarsh composed the texts entitled, ‘Ratnamalika’ and, ‘Kavirajmarg’., He, established a new city at Manyakheta, (Malkhed) near Solapur. The Rashtrakuta, dynasty declined because of the attacks by, Parmars and Chalukyas of Kalyani., , 79

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the Gond dynasty, against the Mughals is, considered important. After the death of, her husband, Duragavati fought against in, Mughal emperor Akbar. She was not ready, to surrender to him. Instead she preferred, death., Yadavas : Yadava dynasty is one of the, important dynasties of mediaeval Maharashtra., Bhillam V (1185-93 C.E.) is the important, king of the Yadava dynasty. He expanded, the kingdom by defeating the Kalachuris. He, established his capital at Devgiri and got, himself coronated. In the later period Singhan, was an important ruler of this dynasty. He, defeated the Hoysalas, Shilaharas and, expanded the rule of Yadavas., In 1294 C.E. Alauddin Khalji attacked, south India. Ramadeva, the Yadava king was, defeated by Khalji. From here onwards the, Yadava rule began to decline. In 1307 C.E., Alauddin sent his commander Malik Kafur, to carry out a campaign over Devgiri. He, defeated the Yadavas. Yadavas accepted a, feudatory status to Delhi. In 1310 C.E., Yadava king Shankardev was killed by, Malik Kafur. In 1318 C.E. the rule of, Yadavas was brought to an end by the Delhi, Sultanate., The Yadava period has a special, importance in the history of Maharashtra., During this period there was notable, development in the cultural sphere of, Maharashtra. The Mahanubhav and Warkari, sects had a beginning in the Yadava period., During this period, Patan in Khandesh,, Solotagi in Karnataka and Paithan in, Maharashtra become important learning, centres. During the same period, Sanskrit, texts were written on subjects like, Dharmashastra,, ‘Purva, Mimansa’, (philosophical text), Nyaya and Vedanta. The, critical work on Yajnyavalkya by Aparark,, ‘Chaturvargachintamani’ are among the, important Sanskrit texts. ‘Sangitaratnakara’,, text based on Indian music, by Sharangdev, is considered relevant even today., , ‘Lilacharitra’ written by Mhamimbhatta, of the Mahanubhava sect, ‘Viveksindhu’ by, Mukundaraj,, ‘Bhavarthdipika’, by, Dnyaneshwar belong to this period. Similarly, the composition of saint poets like Namadeva,, Janabai, Chokhoba of the Varakari sect, composed poems, which are known as, ‘Abhangas’. Many temples were built in this, period. They are generally referred to as, ‘Hemadpanti’ temples. The Gondeshwar, temple at Sinnar and the temple complex at, Anjaneri are the finest example among the, temples built during this period. An important, feature of the Hemadpanti temples is that no, mortar is used. Instead the stones are, interlocked with the help of mortise and, tenon. During this period, the crucial forts of, Ankai and Tankai were constructed., , Gondeshwar Temple at Sinnar, , 11.2 Administrative system, trade,, social life, In the administrative systems of South, Indian dynasties there were officials such as, ‘Mahadandanayaka’,, ‘Rashtrika’,, ‘Deshadhikruta’, ‘Amatya’, ‘Ayukta’, etc., The council of officers in the Chola kingdom, was called ‘Udankuttam’. The kingdom was, divided into many provinces. These provinces, were known as ‘Mandalam’. A member of, the royal family was the chief of the, Mandalam. There were many officers under, him such as ‘Vishayapati’, ‘Deshadhipati’,, ‘Deshadhikrut’, ‘Rashtrika’, etc., The, administration of the Southern kingdoms was, very efficient. Every order issued related to, state affairs recorded down and no action, was taken unless authenticated by the, concerned officer. Village autonomy was an, important feature of the state administration, in South India. The ‘Gramasabha’ (village, , 81

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industries in South India flourished during, this period. Cities like Paithan, Tagar (Ter),, Nashik etc. flourished because of it., The goods produced in rural areas were, brought for sale in the cities. The market, place used to be located in the centre of the, city. The merchant guilds (Shreni) in South, India played an important role in trade and, the social system., 11.3 Literature, art, architecture, The tradition of writing poetry and, grammar was prevalent in south India from, ancient times. The ‘Sangham literature’ is, supposed to be most ancient in the Tamil, tradition. This literature is one of the main, sources of political history of South India. It, is believed that three ‘Sanghams’ (Council), were held., This period was important from the point, of view of Sanskrit literature. Kalidasa, composed the ‘Meghdoot’ at Ramtek in, Vidarbha. During the Vakataka rule,, compositions in Prakrit language were created., Pravarsena II, the Vakataka king, wrote the, well-known composition named ‘Setubandha’., ‘Harivijaya’ was composed by Sarvasena,, the founder of Vatsagulm branch of, Vakatakas., Two styles of architecture are seen in, South India, one is the ‘Dravida’ style and, other is the ‘Vesara’ style of architecture., The Dravida style of architecture emerged, and developed in the regions from Krishna, river to Kanyakumari. The important feature, of Dravida architecture identified by, construction of Shikhara. In this type the, storeys reduce in size as the Shikhara rises., Kailasnath and Vaikuntha Perumal temples, at Kanchi, Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore, are some of the excellent examples of, Dravida style of architecture., The Chalukyas built temples at places, like Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal etc., During the Rashtrakuta period the world, famous ‘Kailasa’ temple was created., The metal statues of the Chola period, , council) looked after the entire administration, of the village. The head of the Gramasabha, was known by different names such as, ‘Gramabhojaka’, ‘Gramakuta’ etc. head of, the Gramasabha was elected by the villagers, or sometimes appointed by the king. A, council similar to Gramsabha functioned at, district and provincial level. Land revenue, was the main source of income for the state., Apart from it the excise tax, professional tax,, pilgrimage tax were the sources of income., In the kingdom of Cholas, Pandyas,, Cheras, Vakatakas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas,, Pallavas, Shilaharas and Yadavas many, professions requiring specialised skills were, practiced. Ivory was obtained from the, Malayagiri jungle. The Cholamandalam, provinces were well-known for excellent, quality textiles. Plain and coloured cotton, cloth as well as silk clothes was produced in, this province. In the Chera kingdom was, known the fine cloth produced there. It was, one of the important commodities in the, Indo-Roman trade. It is mentioned in the, travel accounts of Marco Polo. The trade and, For Additional information : Coins, of South India- During the Mauryan, period the Maurya coins were in circulation, in South India. After the decline of, Mauryas the Pandya kings issued their, own punch marked coins. The images like, sun, horse, stupa, tree, fish were carved, on it. On the Chera coins, there used to, be bow and arrow on one side and image, of an elephant on the other. On the Chola, coins the symbol of tiger as the royal, emblem of Cholas is depicted. The Chola, coins were made of gold, silver and the, legends on it was inscribed in Devnagari, script. The coins belonging to Chalukya, king Rajaraja are issued in three metalsgold, silver and copper, with the image of, Rajaraja and a tiger. Due to the trade, with Rome, many Roman coins are found, in this area. It is seen that the seals of, Indian rulers are reprinted on these coins, and again brought into circulation., , 82

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Bronze statue of Nataraj Shiva, , are the best among Indian metal sculptures. Among, them the most famous is the bronze statue of Nataraj, Shiva., During the Vakataka period the sculptural art, and paintings reached its zenith. The Ajanta cave no., 1, 2, 16, 17, and 19 were carved out during this, period. It seems that the artists had good knowledge, about the details of physiology and nature., Till now we studied the cultural and political, history of India. Ancient India had established cultural, relations with far away countries., In the next two lessons we will study about the, cultural relations between India and other countries., , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The name of the well-known king of, Vakatak dynasty was, ., (a) Sarvasena, (b) Pravarasena, (c) Jaising, (d) Chandragupta, (2) After the conquest in South,, Pulakeshin II took up the title of, ., (a) Parameshwara (b) Vishayapati, (c) Deshadhipati, (d) Satyajay, (3) Kalidasa composed, at, Ramtek in Vidarbha., (a) Shakuntal, (b) Meghdoot, (c) Malavikagnimitra (d) Harivijay, (4) The world famous Kailasa temple, was built during the, period., (a) Chalukya, (b) Pallava, (c) Cher, (d) Rashtrakuta, , (2) Examples of Dravidian style –, Rajarajeshwar temple, Elephanta, caves, Halebid temples, Badami, temples, Q.3 Explain the following statements with, reasons., (1) A strong rule of the Chalukyas was, created in south India, (2) Yadava period has a special, importance in the history of, Maharashtra., Q.4 Write short notes., (1) Administrative system in South India, (2) Coins in South Indian dynasties, Q.5 Answer the following question in brief, with the help of points given below., Describe the rule of Shilahara dynasty., (a) Founder, (b) Shilahara of south Kokan, (c) Shilaharas of north Kokan, (d) Shilaharas of Kolhapur, , (B) Fine the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Setubandh – Panini, (2) Harivijay – Sarvasena, (3) Indica – Megasthenes, (4) Sangit Ratnakar – Sharangdev, , Activity, Visit the Kailasa temple at Ellora and, prepare a detailed note., , , , Q.2 Find the odd man out in the group., (1) Ancient kings in South India – Chola,, Pandya, Maurya, Cher, , 83

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12. India, Nations in the northwest of the Indian, Subcontinent and China, , 12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in, the Ancient times, 12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan, and Pakistan), 12.3 India and China, , never tried to impose their culture, religions, and political rule on the local people., Wherever they went, they had cultural contact, and exchange with the native people and it, resulted into the enrichment of the native, cultures., , 12.1 Trade and Cultural Relations in, the Ancient times, , The spread of Indian culture in the, nations lying beyond the Hindukush mountains, was mainly a result of the spread of Buddhist, religion., , So far, we studied about the transitions, in the various fields such as historical, social,, financial, cultural etc., over a prolonged, period of about 4000 years. In this lesson we, are going to study about the impact of the, Indian culture on the other countries., , The Indian trade with distant lands is, mentioned in the texts like ‘Kathasaritsagara’,, Jataka Stories, ‘Deepvamsa’, ‘Mahavamsa’,, etc. These texts narrate many stories of the, sea travels and adventures of the Indian, merchants. The Sangham literature mentions, , It is very significant that the Indians, travelling or migrating to other countries, , 84

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group of merchants, who paid a visit to the, court of the Roman Emperor Augustus., , the boats of the yavanas who brought gold, and carried back black pepper in exchange., There are a number of inscriptions reported, from the western parts of Maharashtra, that, mention the donations given by yavanas., , The coin hoards found in Tamilnadu had, Roman gold coins in it. Many of those coins, show cuts taken for the purpose of assaying, (for the checking the grade of gold) the gold., It means those coins were not in circulation, as coinage but they were valued for its gold., It is said that Nero, the Roman emperor had, paid one million gold coins for a single, chalice of emerald of Indian make. Pliny the, elder had expressed concern about that the, Roman gold being drained into India. He, compared India to an enormous sink draining, all gold of the world. Strabo tells us that, animals such as snakes, hunting dogs, tigers,, elephants, birds like parrots and peacocks,, things like hides and horns of rhinoceros,, expensive textiles, pearls, ivory and spices,, etc. from India were in great demand among, the Roman elites., , ‘Ophir’, a port city is mentioned in the, ‘Old Testament’ (Bible), which is supposed, to be referring to ‘Sopara’ near Mumbai. The, Indian teakwood and the Himalayan cedar, timber was in demand in Babylon. Beside, the timber, commodities like sandalwood,, ivory, tortoise shells, monkeys, peacocks,, pearls, precious and semi-precious stones, as, well as black pepper, cinnamon and incense, were also exported from India. A sailor’s, handbook of his sea travels is known as, ‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ ( Latin name :, Periplus Maris Erythraei). The ancient port, cities like Bharuch, Sopara, Kalyan, etc. are, mentioned in this periplus. Also the important, trade centres like Ujjain are described in it., Beside the periplus there are other texts like, ‘Geographia’ written by the Greek historian, Strabo, ‘Naturalis Historia’ by Pliny the, elder, ‘Geographia’ written by the Greek, mathematician-geographer Claudius Ptolemy,, ‘Indica’* by the Greek historian Arrian, etc.,, which are the sources of information about, the Indo-Roman trade., , Apart from the Roman gold coins, many, other things like lead, zinc, corals, wines,, olive oil were the Roman imports coming to, India. The archaeological survey conducted, in the sea near ‘Bet Dwaraka’ in Gujarat, in, the year 2000-2001 has yielded amphorae of, various sizes, anchors, potsherds and a lead, ball, etc. The amphorae were used to transport, olive oil and wines, which were imported, from Rome. There are many archaeological, sites, which have yielded evidence of the, Indo-Roman trade. It confirms that the cities, in Maharashtra like Paithan, Ter, Kolhapur*,, Bhokardan (Bhogvardhan) in the Jalana, district were important trading centres., , *Arrian was the historian of the 2nd century, C.E. He never visited India. Most of the, information in his work is derived from ‘Indica’, written by Megasthenes., , ‘Periplus of Erythrean Sea’ mentions, that Hippalus, the Greek navigator had, accurately traced all the ports on the, Erythrean Sea., , *Ptolemy has mentioned Kolhapur as ‘Hippokura’., , In the 1st century C.E. the Indo-Roman, trade had begun to grow. The silk route and, the ports on the south and west coasts of, India played vital role in this trade. The, records of the Greek historians mention of a, , 12.2 India and Gandhara (Afghanistan, and Pakistan), It is apparent that geographically, Afghanistan (Gandhara) was favourably, , 85

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By the way: The crows were known, to ancient sailors as the birds who begin, to fly in the direction of land, the moment, it is in their view. The sailors used to, follow the crows in order to reach the, coast safely. Crows trained for these, purpose were known as ‘Dishakak’. A, Harappan terracotta tablet shows a boat, and dishakaks flying above it., , also clearly indicates that the ancient, Indian merchants used to sail to distant, lands., ‘Baveru’ is identified with Babylon., Babylon was a kingdom that existed in, Mesopotamia during 1800-600 B.C.E. The, Achaemenid emperor Cyrus II conquered, Babylon in 539 B.C.E., This story confirms that ancient Indian, merchants used to carry birds like crow, and peacock for selling., , The story of ‘Baveru Jataka’ offers a, testimony to the use of dishakak by ancient, Indian sailors to reach the coast. This story, , Kushana Emperor Kanishka and PostKushana Period : Kanishka’s empire had, spread from Pataliputra in the east to Kashmir, in the north and further to Central Asia., Purushspur (Peshawar) and Mathura were the, two capitals of his empire. Ancient Kapisha, (Begram) was an additional capital of the, Kushanas, which was located on the silk, route at a vantage point. The trade route, from Afghanistan to China was under the, rule of Kushanas. This route starting from, Taxila extended further, crossing through, Khyber pass to Bamiyan in Afghanistan and, from there to China through the plateau of, Pamir., , situated on the trade route that linked India, and Central Asia. It had close cultural, connections with India from the ancient, period of janapadas till the introduction of, Islam. Whether it were the invaders from the, Central Asia, or the Buddhist monks sent out, by Emperor Ashoka , or the Chinese monks, travelling to India, all had to pass through, Afghanistan., Emperor Ashoka’s Period : We have, seen that the 13th edict of Emperor Ashoka, mentions the names of Greek kings, who, were his contemporaries. It also mentions, that people in their kingdoms were following, the path of morality as outlined to his, message of Dhammavijaya. Among these, kingdoms was included the kingdom of, Kamboja in Afghanistan., , In the Kushana period, Buddhism reached, China by this trade route. Some of the coins, of emperor Kanishka carry the image of, Gautama, Buddha. It also, has a legend, which, reads,, ‘Boddo’. This, is the oldest, Gold coin of Kanishka, representation, of, Gautama, Buddha in an image form on a coin., , The Ashokan edict at Kandahar is in, Greek language and the script used for it is, Aramaic. This inscription shows that, Afghanistan was the integral part of Ashoka’s, empire., Ashoka had sent ‘Thera Mahyantika’, (Majjhantika) to Kashmir and Afghanistan, and ‘Thera Maharakkhita’ to the Greek, (Yona) kingdoms, for spreading the teachings, of Gautama Buddha., , 86

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The building of the vihara complex at, Takht-i-Bahi had begun in the 1st century, C.E. The work was continued till 7th century, C.E. Among the remains discovered there are, three stupas and other buildings., , The Chinese monks like Fa-Hien, Yuan, Chwang, who travelled through India have, described the Buddhist viharas and stupas in, India. There are numerous remains of viharas, and stupas in Afghanistan. Among them a, place called ‘Shahji-ki-Dheri’ near Peshawar, in Pakistan was excavated. The importance, of the stupa discovered at this place is, underlined by the fact that it was built during, Kanishka’s period. It is also known as, ‘Kanishaka’s Stupa’. According to prevailing, tradition, the sacred remains in the box, (karandaka) found there are of Gautama, Buddha. The box has an inscription. It also, mentions the name ‘Agnishala’, the main, supervisor of the building work of ‘Kanishka, Vihara’, in the precints of ‘Mahasena, Sangharama’*. This box is in the Peshawar, museum at present., , Apart from these remains in Afghanistan,, the famous ‘Bamiyan statues of Buddha’ are, declared as the World Cultural Heritage., Bamiyan is 250 kilometres away from Kabul,, to the west of it. There are about 750 caves, hewn out in one of the cliffs of the mountain, ranges known as ‘Kuh-e-Baba’. There were, very beautiful Buddhist murals painted inside, these caves. The same cliff has two huge, niches dug in it. In these niches were built, two standing Buddha statues in stucco. One, of it was 53 metres tall the other was 38, metres. The core of these statues was carved, out in the original sandstone of the cliff. The, core was plastered with several layers of, mud mixed with straw. The folds of Gautama, Buddha’s robes were modelled in this clay, plaster. His forearms were supported with the, help of wooden armatures and fixed with, wooden pegs. According to Yuan Chwang, the statues were surrounded by colourful, murals and even the statues were painted and, decorated with gold coating and precious, stones., , *Sangharama means the residential complex built, for the bhikkhus., , The ancient ‘Nagarhar’, modern ‘Hadda’, near Jalalabad in Afghanistan was another, important centre of Buddhism. There are, several remains of stupas and viharas, scattered over the place. The sculptures found, around the stupas are excellent specimens of, Gandhara style. ‘Takht-i-Bahi’ is another, important place, which is enlisted as ‘World, Cultural Heritage’. It is in the Pakhtunkhwa, province of Gandhara region. It is a part of, Pakistan now., , These statues were destroyed by Taliban,, a fundamentalist organisation in 2001 C.E., The government of Afghanistan, with the, help of UNESCO and various associations, from countries like Japan, France, Switzerland,, etc. is working to restore this World Cultural, Heritage. Some of the murals inside the, Bamiyan caves were rediscovered, when the, work of restoration began. Also, remains of, a 19 metres long ‘Mahaparinibban’ image of, Gautama Buddha were found., According, there was a, manuscripts at, indeed found, manuscripts in, , A Sculpture from a stupa at Hadda, , 87, , to Yuan Chwang’s description, library of rare Buddhist, Bamiyan. Archaelogists have, birch bark and palm leaf, a Bamiyan vihara.

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further to Central Asia, linking one oasis, to the other in the desert. It was easier for, the merchants and travellers to find, facilities of accommodation and food in, the oasis cities. They also found ready, market for their merchandise. Another line, crossed through the steppes to the north of, this main line. Journey on this line was, relatively shorter. However, it was rarely, used by merchants as it was infested by, troublesome pastoral tribes and it hardly, have any accommodation and food facilities, en route., , Bamiyan Buddha images, , The Silk route that continued from the, Xinjiang province of China bifurcated into, two lines and both reached Taxila. One of, it reached the Gandhara region from the city, of Kashgar in Xinjiang and the other reached, Kashmir via Leh from Yarkand in the same, province. The Chinese monks used the same, route to reach India. An internal line to the, north of the Xinjiang line started from the, province of Gansu (Kansu) and reached, Kashgar. The famous ‘Great Wall of China’, is in this province., , Some images of Hindu gods and, goddesses have also been found in, Afghanistan. Among them is an image of, Ganesha found near the city of Kabul. This, image is dated to 4th century C.E. and it is, the earliest image among the extant Ganesha, images. It may be noted that even in India, an image of Ganesha, as ancient as this one, is not found. There is one temple called, ‘Khair Khana’ near Kabul. The excavations, at this site have yielded an image of God, Surya mounted on a chariot., , By the way : Some Chinese texts, mention Kashmir by the name of ‘KiPin’. Some texts have mentioned the, ancient city of Kapisha (Begram) in, Afghanistan by the same name., Chinese literature mentions India, variously as ‘Shen-tu’, ‘Tien-chu’,, ‘Tien-tu’, ‘Xien-tu’, ‘Yuan-tu’, ‘Xuantu’, etc. Among all these names the, name Yin-tu has prevailed in China, till today., In China the kings of ‘Han’, dynasty were ruling, when Kanishka, ruled in India., Sir Aurel Stein, the British, archaeologist was the first to conduct, an archaeological survey on the silk, route traversing through India, China, and Central Asia., , A detailed review of all the Buddhist, and Hindu remains in Afghanistan is not, possible in this book. However, the above, examples are enough to confirm the close, cultural association between the Gandhara, region and India before the advent of Islam., 12.3 India and China, The route that links Asia and Europe, was referred for the first time as the ‘Silk, Route’ by Ferdinand von Richthofen, German, geographer. The silk route runs more than, 6000 kilometres. One may have an impression, that the silk route is an unbroken highway., However, in reality this route is an intricate, web of major and minor lines bifurcating and, crossing each other., One of the major lines of this route, linked China and India and then extended, , 88

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Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This art style that, originated in the Xinjiang province is known, as ‘Serendian Art Style’ (Seres meaning, China + India). Serendian Art Style was, influenced by Gandhara art. It presents a, combination of Greek, Persian and Chinese, art forms. During the exploratory survey, conducted by Sir Aurel Stein many terracotta, sculptures of Serendian style were brought to, light., , It was in the 1st century C.E. that, Buddhism began to spread from India to, China. The ‘Han’ dynasty that arose in China, in this period had expanded its empire up to, Central Asia. They dominated the silk route., Keeping in with the tradition ‘Ming-ti’ the, second king of the Han dynasty had sent his, representatives to India. They returned to, China accompanied by two Buddhist monks,, ‘Kashyapa Matang’ and ‘Dharmaraksha’ in, 67 C.E. They carried many Buddhist texts, with them. The texts were loaded on white, horses. After reaching China the monks, translated the texts in Chinese language. The, Chinese emperor built a temple in their, honour, which is known as ‘White Horse, Temple’. This is the first Buddhist temple, built in China., , In the 4th- 6th century C.E. many Buddhist, temples and viharas were built in China., However, stupas built in this period were, very few. Instead of a stupa every temple, had a pagoda of Chinese style. These pagoda, being wooden, hardly any of them exists, today. These pagodas used to have multiple, floors. The upper floors of the pagodas, successively reduced in size. The uppermost, floor held a metal staff (yashti), which was, fixed with metal rings that became, successively smaller in size. Arrangement of, staff and the rings seems to be the only, reminder of the Umberella in the Indian, stupa architecture. Later, pagodas were built, by using bricks and stones., , In the 3rd century C.E. the rule of the, Han dynasty ended and the period of, disintegration and unrest began with it,, pushing common people to a state of, desperation. This period lasted till 6th century, C.E. People got attracted to Buddhism in, this period in large numbers. Many Chinese, pilgrims began to visit Buddhist centres in, Central Asia and India. In the 4th century, C.E., Kumarjeeva the famous and highly, learned monk translated many Buddhist texts, in Chinese language. In the 6th century the, popularity of Buddhism reached its peak in, China. By this time both sects of Buddhism,, Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana, and, their sub-sects were well established in China., In 7th century C.E. Islam and Christianity, were gradually introduced. Kubalai Khan, the, grandson of Genghis Khan had great interest, in Buddhism., , The influence of Buddhist art tradition, from India still exists in the form of rock-cut, caves. Three of them have received the status, of World Cultural Heritage. Among them the, caves of ‘Dunhuang’ are located on the, ancient silk route. These caves are known as, ‘Mogao Caves’. Creation of these caves, continued till 13th-14th century C.E., The merchants coming from the, interior regions of China used to gather at, Dunhuang. It was an important meeting point, for the Chinese merchants and those coming, from other countries. Nearly 500 caves of, Dunhuang are enriched with numerous, sculptures and murals. Thousands of, manuscripts were discovered from these, caves., , The spread of Buddhism in China in the, 1 century C.E. also introduced a new trend, in the Chinese art. Many of the Mahayana, Buddhist monks who arrived in China, hailed, from Central Asia. Their presence in China, inspired the making of images of Gautama, st, , 89

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In the next lesson we will briefly, review the spread of Indian culture in Sri, Lanka and the countries in Southeast Asia,, , its history and the extant traces of Indian, culture in those countries., , Exercise, Q.2 Complete the concept map., , Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The coin hoards found in, had Roman gold coins in it., (a) Tamilnadu, (b) Maharashtra, (c) Karnataka, (d) Kerala, (2) The famous king Hammurabi had, ruled the kingdom of, ., (a) Syria, (b) Babylon, (c) China, (d) Greece, (3) The route that links Asia and, is referred as the ‘Silk Route’., (a) Europe, (b) Africa, (c) America, (d) Russia, , Jataka Stories, , Texts describing the, Indian trade with, distant places, , Q.3 Explain the following statements with, reason., (1) Buddhism reached China during, Kushana period ., (2) The merchants rarely used the shorter, line of the Silk Route., , (4) ‘White Horse Temple’ is the first, Buddhist temple built in, ., (a) India, (b) Japan, (c) China, (d) Egypt, , Q.4 Give your opinion., There were close cultural association, between the Gandhara region and India, before the advent of Islam., , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Strabo – Geographia, (2) Pliny the Elder – Naturalis Historia, (3) Hippalus – Hippokura, (4) Arrian – Indica, , Q.5 Write short notes., (1) Shahji-ki-Dheri, (2) The Bamiyan Buddhas, , (C) Write the names., (1) A place in the Gandhara region, enlisted as a world Cultural heritage., (2) Buddhist monks in the 4th century, B.C.E. who translated many Buddhist, texts in Chinese language, , Q.6 Answer the following question with the, help of given points., Write about the ties between ancient India, and China., (a) Trade relations, (b) The spread of Buddhism in China, (c) Serendian art style, Activity, Collect more information about the ‘Silk, Route’ with the help of internet., , , , 90

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the establishment and spread of Buddhism in, Sri Lanka., , as a memorial to his queen. These temples, are the most ancient Hindu temples in Sri, Lanka., , Important stupas at AnuradhpurMihinthale : ‘Kantakchetiya’ is one of the, earliest stupas at Mihinthale. An inscription, near the stupa mentions that the revenue, collected from a nearby tank and the, surrounding land was reserved as a gift for, the maintainance of this stupa., , The supremacy of the Cholas in Sri, Lanka, was, ended, by, Vijayabahu., Parakramabahu, a descendant of Vijayabahu,, who ruled in 12th century C.E. is supposed, to be historically an important king. The, Buddhist sanghas in Sri Lanka had become, disrupted by the time of Parakramabahu. He,, under the guidance of Mahathera Kassap,, focused on reorganising them., , The stupa erected on the remains, (Shareerik Dhatu/asthi) of Thera Mahinda at, Mihinthale, is known as ‘Ambasthal Thupa’., , Parakramabahu, had, routed, the, kingdom of Ruhuna in Sri Lanka. This, kingdom had a tooth of Gautam, Buddha (dantdhatu) in their custody. It, was reclaimed by King Nissanka, Malla. He built a temple on it in, Polannaruwa., There is a stupa at the centre of the, temple. At the foot of the stupa is a, semicircular step, which is characteristic, of the stupa architecture of Sri Lanka. It, is called, ‘Moonstone’ (Chandrashila). It, is carved with the figures of swans,, elephants, horses and creepers., , Thuparama, , King Devanampiya Tissa erected a stupa, on the relics of Gautama Buddha in, Anuradhpur. It is known as ‘Thuparama’., Thuparama is the earilest stupa among those, that are extant in Sri Lanka., Buddhaghosha was an Indian philosopher., He stayed ‘Mahavihara’ in Anuradhpur., ‘Vishuddhimagga’ a text written by him is, well-known. ‘Vishuddhimagga’ is the text,, which is honoured as an equivalent of, Tipitaka texts., , ‘Moonstone’ (Chandrashila), , Pulatthinagar (Polannaruwa) : The city, of Polannaruwa is mentioned in Chullvamasa, by the name, ‘Pulatthinagar’. In the 10th, century C.E. the Chola emperor Rajraja I, attacked Sri Lanka and razed Anuradhpur, completely. Then he established his capital, at Polannaruwa. He renamed Polannaruwa as, ‘Jananathmangalam’ and built a Shiva temple, there. Later he built one more Shiva temple, , Galapotha (Book in stone) is a unique, inscription, recording, the, reign, and, achievements of Nissanka Malla. It is, inscribed on a stone slab that is 8.17 metre, long and 1.39 metre wide. On one side of, the galapotha an image of Gajalakshmi is, carved between two borders of a row of, swans., The temple of dantdhatu at present is in, , 92

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the city of ‘Kandy’. It is known as ‘Sri, Dalad Maligava’. This temple is enlisted as, the World Cultural Heritage., , Galapotha, Mural of Sigiriya, , By the way : The relics of (corporeal, remains) Gautama Buddha were handed, over to various sanghas in India and, other counries after his mahaparinibbana., These relics are known as ‘dhatu’., According to ‘Deegha Nikaya’ a, ‘dantdhatu’ was given in the custody of, the king of Kalinga. Later this dantdhatu, reached Sri Lanka., A deep belief was rooted in Sri, Lanka that a royal house holding the, custody of the dantdhatu had the divine, right to rule. As a result the ruling kings, of Sri Lanka strived to see that it, remains in the precincts of their palace., Consequently the seat of the dantdhatu, kept changing from time to time., , By the way : The inscriptions, found in Sri Lanka, dated to the 3rd, century B.C.E. to the 1st century C.E., are inscribed in the Ashokan Brahmi, script. Researchers opine that the modern, Sinhala script gradually developed from, the Ashokan Brahmi., ‘Lalitvistar’, the Buddhist text, enlists 64 Indian scripts. The Brahmi, script is one of it. The scripts used in, Sri Lanka and many other countries in, Southeast Asia were developed from it., 13.2 India and Southeast Asia, , Dambulla and Sigiriya : The caves at, Dambulla in Sri Lanka are declared as, World Cultural Heritage. There are images, of Gautama Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, inside the caves. The roofs of five caves at, Dambulla are decorated with paintings., , There are very few references in the, Indian literature to the Indian settlements and, kingdoms in Southeast Asia. However, the, court records of Chinese emperors provide, considerable information in this regard. The, ancient Indian literature refers to the land of, Southeast Asia as ‘Suvarabhumi’ (the Land, of Gold)., , There is an enormous rock in the, mountains near the city of Dambulla. A fort, and a palace was built on this rock. At its, entrance a huge image of a lion was carved, in the rock. The place was named ‘Sigiriya’, after this lion. Sigiriya murals are compared, with the murals at Ajanta., , The trading relations between India and, Southeast Asia began in the 1st century, B.C.E. and continued through the 1st century, C.E. The strait of Malacca was convenient, for the Indian merchants to enter the South, China Sea. They unloaded their merchandise, on the western coast of Malya Peninsula,, , 93

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new lands they visited. Traces of Indian, culture can be seen there even today., , from there transported it to the east coast by, land route and again loaded it on the boats., This was easier than proceeding along the, coast all the way. This trade by the sea and, land route grew to a great extent under the, rule of Chola kings at the end of the 10th, century C.E., , Myanmar : ‘Myanmar’ is a neighbouring, country of India, adjacent to its northeast, border. It was earlier known as ‘Brahmdesh’., In the 2nd century B.C.E. there were city, states known as ‘Pyu’ in the north and, central regions of Myanmar. Some new Pyu, cities came into existence at a later period., Among them the cities of ‘Halin’ and, ‘Shrikshetra’ were important., , The term ‘Southeast Asia’ was coined in, the times of the second world war. The, Buddhist texts mention a ‘Suvarnabhumi’., The scholars divide Southeast Asia into two, parts based on its geographic features :, , Shrikshetra (near the city which was, known as ‘Prome’ during the British period, and presently known as ‘Pyay’) was the, largest among the ‘Pyu’ cities. According to, the prevailing tradition the two brothers, who, were the founders of Shrikshetra hailed from, the Shakya clan of Gautam Buddha. The, kingdom of Pagan (Bagan) arose in Myanmar, in the 1st century C.E. and by the 11th century, it grew into a great empire. All the Pyu city, states including Shrikshetra were merged into, the empire of Pagan., , 1. The Mainland - This region is also, known as Indo-China. It comprises the, countries of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia,, Laos, Vietnam and also the western region, of Malaysia. 2. The Maritime region - It, comprises the Malaya peninsula, the eastern, region of Malaysia as well as Indonesia., Although all these regions are included under, a single umbrella name as Southeast Asia, it, is necessary to keep in mind the local, diversity of cultural and historical constitution, of each region., , King Anawrahta the founder of ‘Pagan, empire’ is known as the greatest ruler in the, history of Myanmar. He is credited with the, unification of the north and the south, Myanmar. This unification is supposed to, have given Myanmar its national identity., Anawrahta put a check to the increasing, power of the Khmer empire of Cambodia., During his reign the ‘Thervada Buddhism’,, which had grown weaker, was revived., , Southeast Asia – for additional information, visit the following web sites :, (1) http://www.world-maps.co.uk/continent-mapofsouth-east-asia.htm, (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_Empire#, /media/File:Map-ofSoutheast-asia_900_CE.png), , The contact of Indians with various, regions in Southeast Asia was on the increase, because of trade during the 2nd century B.C.E., to 2nd century C.E. The merchants who had, to travel for months together were naturally, accompanied by a large retinue of priests,, monks, also travellers who were out to test, their luck, ambitious members of royal, families etc. These were the people who, proved instrumental in the spread of Indian, culture in Southeast Asia. Some of them, even established independent kingdoms in the, , The remains of the fortifications and, moats around the three Pyu cities of Halin,, Beikthano and Shrikshetra can be seen even, today. The archaeological excavations at the, sites of these cities have brought into light, many remains of buildings of those days,, stupas, cemeteries and the structures built for, water management. The three sites have been, declared as the World Cultural Heritage., The ‘Shwedagon’ pagoda built between, 6 - 10th century C.E. at Yongan (Rangoon), th, , 94

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Thailand : The ancient Thai people, referred to their country as ‘Mueng Thai’., However, it was known in the world as, ‘Siam’. In the 20th century its name was, changed to ‘Thailand’. Thailand was ruled, from the 6th to the 11th century by ‘Mon’, people. At that time it was known as, ‘Dvaravati’. Indian culture was introduced, and spread in Thailand in the ‘Dvaravati’, period. The Indian traditions of sculpture,, literature, ethics, judicial science, etc. had a, great role in shaping up the Mon culture., Compared to other kingdoms in Southeast, Asia the kingdom of Dvaravati was smaller, and weaker. However, it contributed greatly, to the development of writing, arts,, administration, religion and science, etc. in, the other kingdoms. The remains of sculptures, and architecture of the Dvaravati period have, been found in the vicinity of the cities like, Lop Buri (Lao Puri) and Ayuttha (Ayodhya)., , is looked at as the finest example of the, stupa architecture in Myanmar. It is said that, two merchant brothers had visited India and, they had the fortune of meeting Gautama, Buddha in person. At that time they had, received 8 hair of the Buddha from himself., After returning to their motherland they, handed over the hair to the king. The king, erected a stupa on the hair and it came to, be known as ‘Shwedagon’ pagoda. This, pagoda is covered with sheets of gold., , Shwedagon Pagoda, , The ‘Anand Temple’ is another important, monument built during the reign of Kyanzittha,, the emperor of Pagan in the 11th century C.E., It is the finest example of the combined, architectural style of India and Pagan., Dvaravati style of temple architecture, , The Dvaravati Sculptures show a great, influence of Indian sculptural style. Primarily, it includes Buddha images, but a few, Shivalingas and images of Vishnu are also, found. The sculptural art of Cambodia is, supposed to have originated from the, Dvaravati art style., , Anand mandir, , 95

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In the 14th century C.E. a new kingdom, of Ayuttha was established in Thailand. In, the 18th century it was completly razed by, the rulers of Myanmar. It was burnt by the, conquerors. All of its sculptures, libraries,, temples were completely burnt., , skilled artisans. Arieal photography has, confirmed this description. The excavations, conducted by the French archaeologist Louis, Malleret have brought to light remains of, temples built in brick masonry, workshops of, making jewellery, residential houses, etc., Roman coins of 2nd century C.E. were also, found., , The kings of Ayuttha bore names with, the prefix ‘Ram’. The popularity of Ramayana, may be the reason behind it. Thai Ramayana, has been developed into an independent, tradition. It is known as ‘Ramakien’ (Ram, Akhyana). The stories of Ramakien have, been preserved in all Thai art traditions, including sculpture, folk music, dance and, theatre., , * Mekong river originates on the plateau of Tibet, and flows through the Yunnan province of China,, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and in the, end Vietnam, where it merges into South China Sea., , 2. Champa : ‘Champa’ was an ancient, kingdom in the coastal region of Vietnam., Several Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script, have been found there. Champa was named, after the ‘Cham’ tribe. The names of the, cities, in, Champa*, were, ‘Indrapur’,, ‘Amaravati’,, ‘Vijay’,, ‘Kauthara’, and, ‘Panduranga’. The city of Vijay was the, capital of Champa kingdom. The inscriptions, of Champa mention the names of it kings, and queens and the temples of Hindu deities, built by them, especially Shiva temples., Wooden images of Gautama Buddha have, also been found. This evidence indicates the, existence of more city states like Funan in, Vietnam, which were trade centres from, where various types of merchandise were, imported and exported., , Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia : In the, colonial period Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia,, these three countries together were known as, ‘Indo-China’., During the 8th - 12th century C.E. the, Mon and Khmer people ruled over Cambodia., Khmer empire originated in Cambodia., For the reference of map visit the following, web site: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/, File:Bandovietnam-final-fill-scale.svg, , 1. ‘Funan’ :, This was a kingdom in, Vietnam which existed in the Delta region of, the river Mekong*. Funan is known mainly, through the Chinese records. The ‘Han’, dynasty ruled in China in the 3rd century C.E., When the rule of Han dynasty was ended,, China disintegrated into three parts. Because, of it the southern kingodom of China was, not left with any alternative path to reach, the silk route. Hence, the king of the southern, kingdom sent some people to explore the sea, route. They found a kingdom in the delta, region of the Mekong. They named it ‘Funan’., According to their description, Funan was a, city with fortification, a place, well-established, revenue system, laws, system of record, keeping in written form, and a class of, , To see the names and the map of Champa visit the, following web site: https://upload.wikimedia.org/, wikipedia/commons/4/45/VietnamChampa1.gif, , During the span of 4th - 14th century C.E., Shaiva temples were built in the kingdom of, Champa. These temples are built in a valley, known as ‘My Son Valley’. The temple of, ‘Bhadreshvara’ is supposed to be important, in this group. Once there were more than 70, temples at My Son. In the walled courtyards, of these temples many stone tablets with, inscriptions are erected. These inscriptions, , 96

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are in Sanskrit and Cham languages. In the, same precincts are found burials of the, members of the royal families. It seems that, My son was the ceremonial complex, reserved, for the royal families. The site of My Son, is declared as the World Cultural Heritage., , Buddhism is the main religion in Laos. The, cultural and literary expressions of people are, influenced by the stories of Gautama Buddha’s, life and Ramayana. Especially, this influence, is conspicuous in the sculptural and, presentations of performing arts, which are, frequently based on the themes from these, sources. ‘San Sinxay’ is an epic composed, in the 16th century in Laos. It is popular, not, only in Laos but also in Thailand. Its main, plot is quite akin to the story of Ramayana., , The characteristic aspect of the, architectural style of My Son temples is that, it is imagined in the form of ‘Meru Parvata’., , 4. Cambodia : Cambodia was known, as ‘Kambujadesha’ in ancient times. Its, history is known from the inscriptions, installed in the precincts of its temples. These, inscriptions are in Sanskrit and Khmer, languages. The first kingdom, established in, Cambodia was known by the name of, ‘Chenla’. The people who established Chenla,, were known as ‘Khmer’. The influence of, Indian culture in Cambodia dates back to the, Chenla period. The kingdom of Chenla was, established by Jayavarman II. He was, coronated in 802 C.E. His capital’s name, was ‘Hariharalaya’., In the span of next 500 years the kings, of Chenla expanded their empire from, Vietnam to Myanmar and to China in the, north. It came to be known as the Khmer, empire. After King ‘Jayavarman VII’ the, Khmer empire began to decline. In the 15th, century C.E. the Khmer empire was ultimately, rooted out completely., , Sculptural model of My Son Temple, , The war that was continued for 20 years, in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia is known, as ‘Vietnam War’. The vicinity of My Son, temples got damaged to a great extent, because of this war., 3. Laos : Loas is a landlocked country., The population of Laos is mainly composed, of the ‘Lao’ people who came to Laos from, southern China. The name of the kingdom of, Laos was ‘Lao Sang’. This kingdom was in, existence during 14th-18th century. Lao Sang, was attacked by Thailand in the 19th century., Lao Sang could not survive the attack. In, the latter half of the 19th century the French, established their administrative centre in, Vientiane, the capital of Laos., , The reign of Suryavarman II in the 11th, century and that of Jayavarman VII was, proved beneficial for temple architecture., The world famous temple of ‘Angkorwat’, was built in Yashodharpura, the capital city, built by Suryavarman II. The temple area is, about 500 acres, that is about 2 Sq.Kilometers., The main entrance is at the west and the, temple is surrounded by a moat, which is, 200 metres in depth. Among the sculptural, panels on the southeast walls of the temple, the panel of ‘Samudramanthan’ is notable., , Like other countries in Southeast Asia,, , 97

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Angkorwat Temple, , After the death of Suryavarman, Angkorwat was attacked by the king, Champa. He caused considerable damage, the temple. Later, it was turned into, Buddhist temple., , II,, of, to, a, , Heritage by UNESCO., Malaysia and Indonesia : Before the, arrival of the Europeans, there have been, three kingdoms in Malaysia. The ‘Vayu, Purana’ mentions Malay peninsula as, ‘Malaydvipa’. The Chinese Bhikkhu I-Tsing/, Yi-Jing (7th century C.E.) had visited the, ‘Malayu’ kingdom. Ptolemy has mentioned, Malayu as ‘Maleu Kolon’ and ‘Golden, Chersonese’ (golden peninsula). An inscription, in the Brihadishvara temple in Tanjore, mentions it as ‘Malaiyur’. Malayu was one, of the kingdoms conquered by the Chola king, Rajendra. The Chinese court records also, mention ‘Malayu’., , Jayavarman VII built a new capital,, ‘Angkorthom’ near Yashodharpura, the first, capital of the Khmer empire. He was a, Budhhist. The planning of Angkorthom city,, its water management and architecture are, the indicators of the advanced Khmer style., The temple of ‘Bayon’ was built at the centre, of Angakorthom. Bayon temple represented, ‘Mount Meru’. The planning of the temple, and the city represents the mythological story, ‘Samudramanthana’. The temple at the centre, is supposed to be the churner. There are, statues of gods and daityas, the rivals of, gods, standing at both sides of the southern, gate, churning the ocean with Mount Meru, as the churner. The moats around the city, are linked to two lakes called ‘East Barray’, and ‘West Barray ’. These two lakes are the, source of water for the moats, and also for, Angkorthom as well as for Angkorwat and, other temples in the vicinity. City gates of, Angkorthom are known for their Shikharas,, which are in the form of a smiling human, face of enormous size. The faces are built, by assembling stones that are cut as different, parts of the face., , 1. Srivijaya : This kingdom proved to, be more powerful among all kingdoms who, competed with each other. This kingdom, originated in Sumatra. Malayu and other, neighbouring kingdoms who were weaker, than Srivijaya were gradually merged into it., In the 11th century C.E. Srivijya became, weaker while facing the Chola invasion. In, the 14th century C.E. ‘Parameswaran’ alias, ‘Eskandar Shah’, the last king of Malayu, established the first sultanate of Malaya., 2. Majapahita : In the 13th century C.E.,, in Eastern Java, arose a kingdom known as, ‘Majapahita’. This was the last kingdom,, with Indian cultural traits. The name of the, founder king of Majapahita was, ‘Vijaya’., King Vijaya was successful in sacking Kublai, Khan from Java., He established his, , Angkorwat, Angkorthom and its vicinity, have been declared as the World Cultural, , 98

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A group of Hindu temples on the Dieng, plateau in Central Java was built in the, Shailendra period., , For additional information :, I-Tsing/Yi-Jing had stayed in Sumatra, before coming to India and also on his, return journey to China. He studied, Sanskrit grammer during his stay in, Sumatra. He has mentioned the, kingdom of Sumatra by the name of, ‘Shili Foshi’ (Srivijaya). The king of, Srivijaya had sent him to Malayu. He, stayed in Malayu for two months., Before returning to China, he again, stayed in Malayu for two months. He, mentions that in the intervening period, of twenty years between his first, arrival and return journey the name of, Malayu had changed to Srivijaya., According to his description there were, more than a thousand Buddhist, Bhikkhus in Srivijaya studying Sanskrit., , 4. Matram : There was a kingdom, called Mataram contemporary to Shailendra., Its founder king’s name was Sanjaya. During, the period of Matram kingdom, ‘Mahabharata’, and ‘Harivamsha’ were translated in Javanese, language. Poems in ancient Javanese language, are composed in Sanskrit metres like, ‘Shardulvikridita’. Poems composed in metres, are known as ‘Kakvin’., The shadow puppetry show known as, ‘Wayang’ is a famous performing art of, Indonesia. This show is presented by using, cut-outs from leather or wood. Stories of, Mahabharata and Ramayana are presented, on the stage by the artists in this show., There are also some forms of ‘Wayang’, played by human characters., , For additional information : A, number of inscriptions have been, discovered in Sumatra. They are written, in the ancient Malayu language and the, script used for it is Pallava Brahmi (a, form of Tamil Brahmi script)., supremacy in some of the islands like Java,, Bali and also some other islands and extended, the kingdom of Java into an empire. Its, existence came to an end with the rise of, Islamic states in the 15th and 16th centuries., , Wayang Puppets, , The Shaivaite temples, and Jaina temples, were akso built in Indonesia. The group of, temples in Prambanan is important. This, group has been accorded the status of World, Cultural Heritage. The main temple in this, group is known as ‘Candi* Prambanan’ or, ‘Candi Lara/Rara Jonggrang’. It was built by, King Daksha. This is a temple dedicated to, Siva and it has a beautiful image of Goddess, Durga in it. Local people call her Lara/Rara, Jonggrang., , 3. Shailendra : According to some, Indian historians the Shailendra kings hailed, from India. However, this opinion is not, accepted by all historians. The Shailendras, reached the peak of their political power in, the 8th - 9th centuries. The shailendra kings, were followers of Buddhism. They built many, Buddhist temples and stupas. Among them, the stupa of ‘Borobudur’ is unique for its, architecture, sculptural art and its expression, of Buddhist philosophy. It has been enlisted, as World Cultural Heritage., , *, , 99, , Candi means temple.

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Thus, so far, we have studied the history, of cultural impact of India in several other, countries. Spread of Buddhism and Indian, trade facilitated the spread of Indian culture., , For additional information :, According to Buddhist philosophy the, universe exists at three planes : (1), Kamdhatu ( Bondage in the form of, desire) (2) Roopdhatu (Bondage in the, form of physical appearance and, appelations) (3) Aroopdhatu (State of, being beyond any bondage). The, architectural design of Borobudur Stupa, is based on the concept of these three, planes. The first two planes have, platforms that successively reduce in size., , The history from the beginning of the, Christian era in the ancient period to the, medieval age is the history of cultural, exchange between India and other countries., , The base of every platform is decorated, with sculptures all around. There are, niches with images of Gauthama Buddha, in it. On the third plane, there are three, circular platforms, which have stupas, with latticed structure along the edges of, the platforms. There are images of, Gautama Buddha inside the latticed, stupas. The last platform has a stupa in, its centre. This stupa is built in solid, masonry. The grand stupa of Borobudur, was built around 800 C.E., , Borobudur Stupa, , 100

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Exercise, , Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) Buddhaghosh was an Indian, in Sri Lanka., (a) Thinker, (b) Philosopher, (c) King, (d) Priest, (2), , The founder of Pagan empire was, ., (a) Kyanzittha, (b) Anwrahta, (c) Ayuttha, (d) Jayavarman, , (3) The ancient name of Cambodia was, ., (a) Kambuja Desh (b) Laos, (c) Angkorwat, (d) Sumatra, (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Finest example of stupa architecture, in Myanmar - Shwedagon pagoda, (2) Saivaite temples in Champa kingdom, - My Son, (3) The world famous, temple in, Cambodia - Angkorwat, (4) The centre of Angkorthom - Dieng, Temples, , 101, , (C), (1), (2), (3), (4), , Write the names., Son of Emperor Ashoka Ancient kingdom in Laos Kingdom of ‘Cham’ people Last king of Malayu -, , Q.2 Write short notes on (1) Chenla kingdom, (2) Visnhu temple at Angkorwat, (3) Majapahit kingdom, (4) Champa kingdom, Q.3 Answer the following questions in detail., (1) Explain the spread of Indian culture, in Thailand., (2) Write, about, the, cultural, interrelationship between India and, Myanmar., Activity, Find out the names of World Cultural, Heritage in this lesson. Collect their, pictures with the help of internet. Prepare, a chart by using the following points :, Name of the heritage, place and country., , 

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14. Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom, , 14.1 Political conditions in India, 14.2 Arab and Turkish invasions, 14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of, Devgiri, 14.4 Trade and Commerce, 14.5 Urbanisation, 14.6 Art, architecture, literature, social, life, 14.7 Vijaynagar Empire, 14.8 Bahamani kingdom, The transition of ancient period to, mediaeval period is reflected in various, sectors. This transition took place in all fields, including political, social, economic, religious, and cultural., Do you Know?, An era ending at a particular date, and the era beginning from the next is, not what happens in reality. Some, traditions of the earlier era continue to, exist while new traditions are being, formed. Accordingly the historic period, was roughly divided into various periods,, such as : Early, Mediaeval and Modern., It is difficult to draw a line between, two eras as the contexts of the beginning, and the end of two eras may differ, from place to place and time to time., 14.1 Political conditions in India, Some of the royal dynasties of ancient, period continued to rule during the mediaeval, period while new dynasties arose. The Chola, kingdom in South India had expanded into, an empire during the mediaeval period. King, Vijayalaya defeated the rulers like Pandyas,, , 102, , Pallavas etc.; thus Chola empire expanded its, boundaries., After, the, decline, of, Harshavardhan’s empire many big and small, kingdoms came into being in North India., There was constant struggle for power among, these kingdoms. There was no power, who, could have control over the rulers of these, kingdoms. The Turkish invaders took, advantage of this political instability of India, in 13th century. During this period many petty, rulers existed such as Chauhans of Rajasthan,, Pratiharas and Gadhwals (Rathod) of Kanauj,, Chandellas of Bundelkhand, Parmars of, Malwa, Kalachuris of Gorakhpur, Kalachuris, of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh), Chalukyas, (Solanki) of Gujarat, Palas of Bengal etc., They did resist the invasions of the Turks, individually but they did not unite for it., 14.2 Arab and Turkish invasions, Muhammad bin Qasim of Ummayad, dynasty attacked Sindh in the year 712 C.E., He conquered the entire region from Sindh, to Multan. After Muhammad bin Qasim, the, Arabs rule in India grew instable., In India, the Islamic rule was established, by the Turks. They attacked India several, times. None of the rulers in India could, successfully resist them. The Turks looted, enormous wealth from India. Many kingdoms, were destroyed and Islamic rule was, established., In the 11th century, Sultan Sabuktigin of, Ghazni in Afghanistan attacked King Jaipal, of Punjab. His kingdom was spread from, Hindukush mountains to the river Chenab., After the death of Sabuktgin, his son Mahmud, became the Sultan of Ghazni. He invaded, India for seventeen times (1001 to 1018 CE), with the aim of looting and spreading Islam.

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Khyber Pass, , For Additional Information : One, needs to cross Hindukush to enter, Pakistan from Afghanistan. This route, goes across Khyber Pass. This pass has, proved to be very important in Indian, history. During ancient period, the trade, between India and Central Asia was, carried via this pass. After the Persian, Emperor Darius, Alexander came, to, India, via this pass. During mediaeval, After Mahmud of Ghazni, the series of, invasions of Muhammad Ghuri on India, began. He was very ambitious. Along with, looting India, his main intention was to, establish his rule in India. The Rajput king, Prithviraj Chauhan opposed him. Two wars, were fought between the two rulers. They are, known as ‘Battles of Tarain’. Prithviraj, Chauhan was defeated in the Second battle, of Tarain. After this defeat there was no, such powerful king who could hold the, Rajputs together. Muhammad Ghuri succeeded, in establishing the Turkish Empire from, , 103, , period Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir, Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali also came, to India via this pass. In the 20th century, the British built a railway line with its, last destination at a place called ‘Jamrud’, near Peshawar in Pakistan. Jamrud is the, doorway of Khyber pass. This railway, track runs about 52 kilometers. There, are 34 tunnels and 92 small and big, bridges on it., Sindh to Bengal. The Indian rulers could be, defeated easily by the Turkish invaders, because of internal dissent, lack of centralised, power, lack of unity, lack of a standing army, in addition to the cruel and aggressive war, strategies of the invaders., Muhammed Ghuri appointed one of his, slaves, Qutubuddin Aibak to administer the, province of Delhi and surrounding regions., After the death of Muhammad Ghuri,, Qutubuddin Aibak became the first Sultan of, Delhi. He is the founder of the ‘Slave, Dynasty’.

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14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of, Devgiri, After Qutubuddin Aibak, Iltutmish came, on the throne of Delhi. After his death, his, daughter Razia became the Sultan of Delhi., Since childhood Razia was trained in state, affairs by Iltutmish. She was a capable ruler, and concerned with the welfare of her people., She also lead some military campaigns. She, was the first and the only woman to ascend, the throne of Delhi. After Razia, Balban was, an important Sultan who ruled Delhi., After the end of the slave dynasty, the, Khalji dynasty came to power. Alauddin, Khalji attacked Yadavas of Devgiri and, collected enormous wealth., Devgiri was a prosperous city in the, South. King Ramadevarai Yadava was ruling, over Devgiri. Alauddin attacked Devgiri in, 1296 C.E. In face of the sudden attack, Ramadevarai took shelter in the fort of, Devgiri (Daulatabad). Alauddin seized the, fort. He plundered the city. There was an, acute shortage of food in the fort. Finally, Ramadevarai had to sign a treaty with him., Alauddin conquered nearby provinces of, Devgiri as well, and collected a large booty, as part of the treaty., During 1312 C.E., Alauddin once again, turned his attention towards south as, Ramdevrai, the ruler of Devgiri had stopped, paying the tribute to Alauddin for some time., Alauddin sent his Commander, Malik Kafur,, to South. There were political and economic, reasons behind this campaign. The most, important reason was to subdue the Yadavas, and to collect tribute from them. Alauddin, had increased his army in size. He was the, first Sultan to set up a permanent standing, army on a large scale. He devised some new, economic reforms for controlling the market, prices. These new measures created a heavy, strain over the state treasury. It was also, , 104, , necessary to keep the newly increased army, and its officers busy by planning new, campaigns. All these factors were responsible, for his campaign in the South., After the Khalji dynasty, the Tughluq, dynasty ruled Delhi. In this dynasty, the, reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq proved to, be important. The shifting of the capital to, Devgiri and changes in the coinage system, proved to be the major reasons for his failure., He was the first Sultan to issue copper coins., As a policy matter, perhaps Muhmmad-binTughluq was right in his decisions. However,, when it came to the implementation of those, policies he overlooked the ground realities, such as transport and communication, adverse, effect on the trade and resultant unrest among, the subjects, this decision became unsuccessful, and he again shifted the capital back to, Delhi. The prestige of the Sultan and the, kingdom declined due to his erroneous, decision., Taimur was the Mongol* ruler in Central, Asia. He invaded India during the period of, Naseeruddin Mahmood and brought an end, to the Tughluq dynasty. During Muhmmadbin-Tughluq’s absence in Delhi, the Mughals, captured Punjab and they reached up to, Delhi., During this period an important incidence, * The Mughal rulers in India claimed to be the, descendants of the Mongols in Central Asia., , took place in the South. Muhammad Tughluq, did succeed in building his Empire in South., But during the same period, two other, kingdoms arose in the south, the Vijaynagar, and the Bahamani kingdom. The establishment, of Vijaynagar posed a strong challenge to the, Sultanate., After the Tughluques, the Sayyed dynasty, ruled over Delhi. After Sayyed, the Lodi, dynasty was established. Ibrahim Lodi proved

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to be the last Sultan. He had earned many, enemies because of his nature. His Afghan, Sardars also went against him. Daulat Khan,, the Subhedar of Punjab, approached Babur, the, ruler of Kandahar and Kabul, for help against, Ibrahim Lodi. In 1526 C.E., Babur defeated, Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat and, the Sultanate period came to an end. It was, the beginning of the Mughal period., 14.4 Trade and Commerce, Agriculture was the main occupation of, majority of people during the Sultanate, period. Agricultural production and its revenue, were the main sources of revenue. Along, with it, textile industry also flourished on, large scale. Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan,, Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur,, Devgiri were the main centres of textile, industry during this period. The cotton cloth, was exported on a large scale from Bengal, to Gujarat. The textile exports included, muslin, linen cloth, satin and jari cloth., During this period, the textile dyeing, industry gained importance. Golconda,, Ahmedabad, Dhaka, etc. were the centres of, this industry., During this period various, other industries also flourished such as metal, industry, sugar industry, leather works etc., The manufacturing of paper began during, this period. Paper was made out of rags and, tree barks. Paper manufacturing was carried, out in the regions of Kashmir, Siyalkot,, Delhi, Gaya, Bihar, Bengal and Gujarat., During the Sultanate rule, there was an, increase in the internal trade of India. The, local markets operated through weekly, markets (Bazaar) and market places (Mandi /, Mandai). There was rise of new trade centres, (Peth) due to continuously expanding, transactions of trading. The Indian as well, as foreign traders picked up their goods from, the trading centres at Delhi, Multan, Jaunpur,, Banaras, Agra, Patna etc., , 105, , The goods were further transported to, various ports via land or river ways. From, there it was sent by sea route to countries, like Iran, Arabia, China etc. The goods, mainly included cotton cloth, muslin, dyed, cloth, scented oils, indigo, sugar, cotton, dry, ginger etc. Horses were imported to India, from Iraq, Turkey and Iran. Semi precious, stones, mercury, lead, alum, saffron, metals, like gold and silver were imported from, You would like to know : Amir, Khusrow was a well-known poet and, scholar who composed poetry in the, Persian language. He spent his life in, the court of Sultan Balban in Delhi., While describing the muslin of Dhaka,, he says, “the Muslin is so fine that, even if hundred yards are tied around, the head, one could still see the hair.”, He says further, “Hundred yards of, muslin can pass through the hole of a, needle, but the same needle cannot, make a hole in the cloth.” This shows, the fines of craftsmanship of those days., Mecca and Aden., During the Sultanate period there were, major changes in coinage system. Instead of, images of deities on the coins, the names of, the Khalifa and the Sultan were inscribed on, the coins. Details regarding the year of issue,, place of minting etc. were inscribed on it in, the Arabic script. ‘Tola’ came to be considered, , Coins of Muhmmad-bin-Tughluq

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By the Way : Some of the Sultans, carried out some experiments in the, economic sector. Alauddin Khalji, attempted to bring the markets under, royal control. The prices of grains,, vegetables,, fruits,, day, to, day, commodities as well as slaves, horses, were standardised by the central, administration. The traders were obliged, to sell their goods at a standard price., During famines the government provided, essential commodities at regulated, prices in the market. The farmers and, traders were asked to set aside the, grains for house consumption and to, sell the rest to the government at a low, price. In this process, the farmers were, the ones who suffered the most., as a standard unit for the weight of the coin., 14.5 Urbanisation, The rise and fall of the cities depend on, its political and cultural graph of events. The, process of urbanisation is associated mainly, with political and economic development., The rulers play an important role in the, settling and development of a city. According, to the Arab historian, Ibn Khaldun, trade, gains momentum as a result of conducive, policies of the ruler. Some cities gain, importance as administrative centres while, others gain importance as industrial centres., During the Sultanate period, the process, of urbanisation received momentum. At the, end of the 13th century Delhi developed as, the capital of the Sultans. Alauddin Khalji, of the Khalji dynasty built the city of ‘Siri’., The Sultan of Tughluq dynasty set up three, cities namely, Tughluqabad, Jahanpanha, and, Firozabad. The Sultans of Sayyed and Lodi, dynasty made the city of Agra as their, capital. During this period many small and, big kingdoms existed and the nature of their, capitals was similar to small and big cities., Trade and sources of transport and, , 106, , communication increased considerably. The, cities developed because of it., 14.6 Art, architecture, literature, social, life, The Sultanate period left its impact on, the religious and cultural life as well as it, did in the political life. Some new facets, were added to the field of Indian art. For, example, Razia Sultan encouraged the, musicians and singers by honouring them, with awards. Balban himself was a musician., He created new Ragas by continuing the, Iranian music with Indian music. Amir, Khusrow, Amir Khas and many other poets, and musicians were honoured members of the, royal court of Balban., The Sufi saints have greatly contributed, to the development of Indian music. The, followers of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti used, to present ‘Qawwali’ every evening in the, court of Delhi. It became a popular form, of vocal music. Hussain Shah Sharukhi, developed the Khayal style of vocal music., The Islamic rulers built huge mosques,, dargahs, and tombs. It presents a beautiful, blend of Iranian and Indian architecture., Qutubuddin Aibak was the first ruler to have, started building monuments in this style,, which is known as Indo-Islamic architecture., He built ‘Quwwat-i-Islam’ mosque at Delhi., Qutub Minar at Mehrauli is a well-known, example of Islamic architecture. The, construction of Qutub Minar bagan during, the reign of Qutubuddin Aibak and completed, during the period of Iltutmish. Later, many, buildings were built in the precincts of Kutub, Minar. Among them are the ‘Alai Darwaza’, and Jamalkhan mosque built by Alauddin, Khalji. Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Fatehabad, and Hisaf-i-Firuz. He built many forts,, bridges, dharamshalas and canals. The, buildings built by the Sultans of Tughlaq, dynasty were huge but simple., The Sultans of Delhi encouraged literary, activities as well. During the Arab period, and the reign of Sultans, many important

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(primary school) and, established., 14.7, Vijaynagar Empire, , Madarasas, , were, , At the end of, 13, century,, Alauddin Khalji’s, invasions,, the, coffers of local, rulers in South, India were emptied, to a great extent., This was the time, Krishnadevaraya, when Harihara and, Bukka, established, new, kingdom, of, ‘Vijaynagar’ in 1336 C.E. During the rule of, king Krishnadevaraya the kingdom expanded, into an empire spreading from South Konkan, in the west to Vishakhapatnam in the East, and Krishna river in the north to Kanyakumari, in the south. Krishnadevaraya wrote a text, entitled, ‘Amuktamalyada’ which is about the, State and Policy., th, , Qutub Minar, , Sanskrit texts were translated in Persian, language. Al-Beruni, who came to India, during the period of Mahmud Ghazni, studied, Sanskrit language and translated many, sanskrit texts in Arabic language. Many, writers and poets found patronage in the, court of the Sultans. Many scholars from, countries like Syria, Arabia, Iran, etc. used, to travel to India during this period. Tuli, translated the text of ‘Koshashastra’. During, the Sultanate period many historians rose to, fame. Among them some names were Hasan, Nizami, Ziauddin Barani, Afif Yahya etc., During this period the Persian, Arabic and, Turkish language gave rise to a new language, called Urdu in South India., During the Sultanate period, the Muslim, society in India comprised people of various, origin like Turks, Ulemas, Mughals, Arabs,, and the Indian Muslims. Most of the Sultans, were Turks or Pathans. An independent class, of Amirs and Umravs (nobility) came into, existence. During this period, many Maktabas, , 107, , The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti and, Persian traveller Abdul Razzaq had visited, Vijayanagar. Their travel reports give fair, account of the history of Vijayanagar., 14.8 Bahamani kingdom, In 1347 C.E. some of the Sardars in, south revolted against Sultan Muhammad, Tughluq under the leadership of Hasan, Gangu. They captured the fort of Daulatabad., Hasan Gangu took up the title, ‘Alauddin, Bahamatshah’ and established the Bahamani, kingdom., Hasan Gangu established his capital at, Gulbarga in Karnataka. He focused on the, expansion of his kingdom. During the period, of Bahamani rule, the Prime Minister (Vazir), Mahmud Gawan strengthened the kingdom., He paid the soldiers with fixed salary instead, of Jahagirs (land grants). The land revenue, was fixed based on land measurement.

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Gawan was interested in mathematics, and medicine. He had a large personal, collection of books, and established Madarasa, at Bidar, because of which he stands apart, from his contempories., After the death of Mahmud Gawan, the, Bahamani court was divided into different, factions. The conflict among them affected, the kingdom adversly. The conflict with the, Vijaynagar kingdom had also taken a toll on, the political strength of the Bahamani, kingdom. The provincial Governors began to, operate more independently. This led to the, disintegration of the Bahamani kingdom into, five small ruling houses - Imadshahi of, Varhad, Baridshahi of Bidar, Adilshahi of, , Bijapur, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar and, Qutubshahi of Golconda., In 1565 C.E., in the battle of Talikota,, these five ruling houses came together under, the Bahamani leadership and defeated the, emperor of Vijayanagar and the Vijayanagar, Empire came to an end., The Sultanate period had far reaching, effects on political and social life of India., A new culture developed as the effect of, synthesis between Islamic and local Indian, traditions. After the end of the Sultanates, the, Mughal Empire was established in the north., We are going to study about it in the next, lesson., , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) The royal poet in the court of, ., Balban was, (a) Al-Beruni, (b) Tuli, , 108, , (c) Amir Khusrow, (d) Husen Shah Sharukhi, (2) The first ruler who built the buildings, in Indo-Islamic style of architecture, was, .

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(a), (b), (c), (d), , Ferozshah Tughluq, Qutubuddin Aibak, Alauddin Khalji, Akbar, , (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Rajasthan – Chauhans, (2) Kanauj – Patiharas, (3) Bundelkhand – Chandelas, (4) Tripuri – Paramars, Q.2 Write in correct chronological order, (1) Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in, the second battle of Terain., (2) Muhammad Tughluq shifted the, capital from Delhi to Devgiri., (3) Sabuktigin, the Sultan of Ghajni,, attacked king Jaipal of Punjab., (4) Qutubuddin Aibak became the first, Sultan of Delhi., Q.3 Complete the following concept map., , Q.4 Explain the statements with reasons., (1) The Arab rule did not expand in, India, (2) The Rajput rulers had to accept, defeat in front of the Turkish, invaders., Q.5 State your opinion., The textile industry flourished during the, Sultanate rule., Q.6 Write short notes (1) Khyber Pass, (2) Coins during Sultanate period, Q.7 Anwer the following question with the, help of given points., Write down the information about the, invasion of Alauddin Khalji on Yadavas, of Devgiri with the help of points given, below., (a) Reasons of invasion, (b) Invasion and events, (c) Effects of invasion, Activity, Collect information about the Hindi, movie Razia Sultan and critically, evaluate it from Historical point of view., , Buildings in Islamic, style during the, Sultante period, , , , 109

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15., , India during Mughal period, , capable of facing the onslaught of new, challenges. The Indians were not familiar, with modern weaponry. Taking advantage of, all this, the Mughals established their rule in, India., , 15.1 Mughal rule in India, 15.2 Reforms in revenue system, 15.3 Art, architecture, literature, 15.4 Trade, industries, social life, 15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan, , The period of Delhi Sultanate was the, first phase of Islamic rule in India. We have, studied this phase in lesson 14. Ibrahim Lodi, was the last Sultan of Delhi. He died while, fighting with Babur. After that the Delhi, Sultanate came to an end and the Mughal, rule was established. After the decline of the, Sultanate, the Mughal rule dominated the, political scene during 1526 C.E. to 1707 C.E., During this period most of north and central, India and some parts of the Deccan were, under their control. The Mughal period was, prosperous as far as the development in the, fields of art and literature, administrative, system, foreign relations, trade etc. are, concerned., 15.1 Mughal rule in India, In the beginning of the 16th century, the, political condition in India was somewhat, disturbed. The Sultanate rule had begun to, decline after Muhammad Tughluq. The Delhi, Sultanate broke down completely and many, new independent kingdoms emerged in the, North, Central and South India. The Bahamani, kingdom got divided into five branches. The, prosperous Vijaynagar empire was destroyed, by the five Islamic ruling houses in the, South. During the same period Portuguese, began to settle on the western coast of India., The traditional military system of the Indian, rulers in the mediaeval period was not, , 110, , For, Additional, Information:, ‘Mughal’ or ‘Mogal’ are the corrupted, forms of the Persian word ‘Mongol’. The, Mughals had come from Central Asia., They were the descendants of Mongol, ruler Genghis Khan and Turkish ruler, Taimurlang. The Mughals held great, pride in their ancestry. The stories of, Taimur’s attack on India inspired Babur, to carry out expedition in India. Babur, was born in Uzbekistan. He was the king, of Farghana province in Central Asia., He defeated the Lodi Afghans of North, India and established the Mughal rule in, India. The Mughals ruled over India for, more than three centuries., The grand army of Ibrahim Lodi could, not survive in front of Babur in the battle of, Panipat. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi on the, strength of configuration skills, strong, artillery, system of secret intelligence and, strong leadership. Babur established his rule, in Delhi. The Rajput kings came together, under the leadership of Mewar King Rana, Sangha to counter him. Babur defeated the, Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. After, Babur, his elder son Humayun ascended the, throne. But Humayun was deprived from the, kingdom due to the defeat at the hands of, Shershah Sur of Bihar., Shershah Sur made some reforms in the

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administrative set up. He brought together the, Afghan sardars scattered in North India and, established the Afghan rule. The descendants, of Shershah were not efficient. Hence after, the death of Shershah, Humayun regained his, lost kingdom., After Humayun, his son Akbar ascended, the throne. He proved to be the greatest, Mughal Emperor because of his qualities, such as high intelligence, tolerance, firmness, and courage. The kingdom established by, Babur was transformed into a great empire, by Akbar. He established his rule from Kabul, to Bengal and Kashmir to Varhad-Khandesh., During this period, Rana Pratap, the ruler of, Mewar, put up a strong resistance against, Akbar. Akbar could never win a war with, Rana Pratap. Hence for the expansion of the, empire, he adopted the strategy of persuasion, with the Rajputs. Akbar had realized that if, , 111, , the Mughal rule has to be strengthened in, India then he had to adopt non-offensive, policies, which would be popular., After Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and, Aurangzeb ruled efficiently. Aurangzeb, attempted to expand his empire in the Deccan, with prolonged campaigns. Aurangzeb reign, is notable for his wars in frontier provinces,, his political policies in North and south India,, staunch religious policies, and the MughalMaratha conflict. This period is marked by, the expansion of Maratha kingdom,, interference by the Europeans in the political, affairs of India and the decline of Mughal, power. Finally, the aftermath of the struggle, of Independence in 1857 C.E., saw the end, of the Mughal rule under Bahadur Shah., 15.2 Reforms in revenue system, Akbar made further reforms in the, revenue system implemented by Shershah

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Sur. This bought a certain discipline in the, Mughal revenue system. He graded the, cultivable land based on systematic land, survey. The land was classified into four, types on the basis of annual yield, i.e. fertile, (supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat), and dry crop (jirayat) land. Individual land, holdings of farmers were registered. An, average of the annual yield in the last ten, years was calculated and one third of this, average yield was fixed as the base for the, tax to be paid. The tax, thus fixed, was, applicable for the span of ten years. This, offered considerable respite to farmers for a, span of ten years. Documents known as, ‘Kabulayat’ and ‘Patta’ were prepared from, the farmers after the fixing of the tax rate., The tax was collected in cash or in kind., The farmers were sanctioned loans for tilling, the land, which could be repaid in installments., Concessions were also granted to the farmers, during times of calamities like famine, floods,, and epidemics. These were the Welfare, policies of Emperor Akbar. Todarmal in, emperor Akbar’s court is known for his, insights regarding the welfare of common, people. His insights were instrumental for, Akbar’s land reforms., , Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri, , of ‘Baburnama’. The art of painting received, encouragement during the period of Akbar., He appointed skilled painters in his court., During the period of Jahangir, paintings were, done based on the court and hunting scenes., The paintings of this period were done in a, more realistic style, which is vibrant and, attractive. These paintings, portray birds and, animals, cloud formations, human figures,, and natural scenery., , 15.3 Art, architecture, literature, The reign of the three emperors, Akbar,, Jahangir and Shahjahan was a period of, peace, order and prosperity. A new era began, in the field of art and architecture. The, etched designs on the marble walls of, Mosques, tombs and palaces are an evidence, of the highly advanced styles of art and, architecture. The carved designs on the tombs, of Salim Chisti at Fatehpur Sikri and Taj, Mahal are its paramount examples. During, the period of Akbar and Jahangir the art of, ivory carving received royal patronage. The, Mughal paintings originated from the Persian, styles of painting. There are miniature, paintings of Persian style in the manuscript, , 112, , Mughal Painting

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For Additional information : In, 1758, the army of Afghan King, Ahmadshah Abdali, was pushed back, beyond the boundaries of Attock by, Maratha army. After driving away Abdali,, the Marathas camped at Shalimar garden, in Lahore. Riyasatakar G.S.Sardesai in, Marathi Riyasat Vol.4 states that,, “Dadasaheb (Raghunathrao Peshwa) has, captured Lahore. The old palace of the, Emperor is located outside the city in, Shalimar garden. Adina Beg made, arrangements for the stay of Dadasaheb, During the Mughal period, the art of, music seem to have received royal patronage., During the period of Akbar, the Persian,, Kashmiri, Turkish musicians were given royal, patronage. Tansen was a great singer in the, court of Akbar. During this period the, Hindustani music prospered. During the, period of Jahangir and Shahajahan, music, was encouraged as well. However under, Aurangzeb’s rule art declined, since he had, banned all art forms., By the way : During the period of, Aurangzeb, the royal patronage to the, art of painting was withdrawn. The, artists were forced to seek patronage, elsewhere under various rulers in, Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Gujarat and, the provinces of Himalayan ranges. New, local styles of paintings emerged there,, which are known as ‘Rajasthani’ and, ‘Pahari’ paintings. The ‘Ragamala’,, ‘Baramas’ paintings depict the different, seasons in nature. The painters of Pahari, style depicted various themes apart from, daily life, such as religious, historic etc., Later, various styles such as ‘Basauli’,, ‘Gadhwali’, and ‘Kangra’ emerged out, of the Pahari style of painting., , here and arranged huge festival of lights, in his honour, for which one lac rupees, were spent. This occasion was arranged, on the onset of the year known as, ‘Bahudhanyasamvatsar’. This opened, great future for Raghunath Rao.’’, On 21 April 1758, the Maratha, Sardar Hari Raghunath Bhide wrote a, letter to the Peshwa in Pune regarding the, Punjab campaign. He states, “the army, of the Deccan had previously not marched, up to Delhi, but now it has marched up, to Chenab.”, The influence of Persian style of, architecture was more prominent till Akbar’s, period. In the later period it evolved by, absorbing Indian elements, which came to be, known as ‘Indo-Islamic’ style of architecture., The architectural style during Sultanate period, had great implements on strength and, simplicity. But during the Mughal period, the, focus shifted to aesthetics. During the period, of Babur the Kabulbag mosque at Panipat, and Jama Masjid at Sambhal in Uttar, Pradesh were built in Persian style. The, memorial built during the period of Shershah, Sur at Sahastram (Bihar) is an excellent, example of Indo-Islamic style of architecture., The Purana Qila was built by Shershah at, Delhi. The city of Fatehpur Sikri was set up, during Akbar’s period. Later the buildings, like Jama Masjid, Buland Darwaza were, built in Fatehpur-Sikri. Akbar built the, important forts like Agra fort, Lahore fort,, Allahabad fort, and Attock fort. The use of, Red stone and marble, huge domes, arches, were the salient features of the architecture, of this period., The Mughal Emperors were nature, lovers. They created huge gardens. Among, them the Shalimar garden at Lahore, Shalimar, garden and Nishat garden in Kashmir are, popular even today., , 113

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Persian which include ‘Rajatarangini’,, ‘Lilavati’,, ‘Ramayana’,, ‘Mahabharata’,, ‘Harivamsh’ and ‘Panchatantra’. Abul Fazal, wrote the famous ‘Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-iAkbari’. Dara Shukoh, the son of Shahjahan,, was a sanskrit scholar. He translated text of, several Upanishada texts in Persian language, from Sanskrit. During the Mughal period,, number of biographical, historical texts were, written. Among them Khafi Khan’s ‘Tarikhi-Khafikhan’ is well-known., Shalimar Baug, Lahore, , The period of Shahajahan was the most, glorious period of Mughal architecture., ‘Diwan-i-Aam’ and ‘Diwan-i-Khaas’ in Red, fort, ‘Jama masjid’, ‘Moti Masjid’, were built, during his period. The ‘Taj Mahal’ of Agra, built by him is incomparable and immortal., Later, the Mughal architecture began to, decline., , During the Mughal period, a number of, literary works of high quality were created, in local north Indian dialects. To mention a, few, ‘Ramacharitamanas’ written by Goswami, Tulsidas, the compositions of Surdas and, Meerabai, Padmavat composed by Malik, Muhammad Jaysi, dohas of Saint Kabir., 15.4 Trade, industries, social life, During, the, Mughal, period,, the, transportation of goods within the empire had, become speedy. New highways were built for, internal trade. Highways were built from, Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat,, Burhanpur and Bengal. The foreign trade via, sea route was mainly carried out from the, ports on western coast such as Khambayat,, Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol and Calicut., The Indian merchants traded with, merchants from Arabia, Iran, China, Armenia, and some countries of European continent., Silk, carpets, indigo, leather items, sugar,, ginger, asafoetida, precious stones and many, such items were exported to foreign countries, from India. The goods imported to India, included gold, silver, horses, China silk etc., , Taj Mahal, , During the Mughal period excellent, literature was created in Persian language., Babur himself knew Persian and Turkish, languages. His autobiography known as, ‘Baburnama’, is, well-known., Another, important text is ‘Tarikh-i-Rashidi’ by Mirza, Hyder written during the period of Humayun., Akbar got many Sanskrit texts translated in, , 114, , During the Mughal period, the Indian, textile industry flourished. Indian cotton cloth, had great demand in the regions of Arabia,, East coast of Africa, Egypt, Myanmar,, Malacca etc. The dyes for textiles were made, at Agra. Colours were mainly prepared from, indigo, turmeric, lac, Kusumba (dried flowers, of safflower) etc. Weapons and farming

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philosophy,, agriculture,, politics,, and, astronomy. During the Mughal period, a, number of Madarasas were established at, Sambhal, (Uttar, Pradesh), Ahmedabad, (Gujarat) etc. In South India cities like, Ahmednagar, Gulbarga, Burhanpur, Bijapur,, Golconda, and Hyderabad had also become, famous as learning centres. There was a, Madarasa established at Ahmednagar by, Saint Tahir. The libraries in Madarasas use, to have a special staff appointed for its, maintenance., , For Additional information :, The foreign trade flourished to a great, extent during the Mughal period., Exports from India were larger than, the imports. Many commodities, including silk cloth, precious stones,, spices etc. were exported from India, while the imported goods mainly, included luxury items. The foreign, traders had to pay for the Indian, goods in the form of silver. Hence, India received silver every year in, large quantities. Edward Terry, an, European states, “Just as rivers meet, the sea and stay there similarly the, tide of silver from all over the world, comes to India and does not return.”, , 15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan, , equipments were the main products of casting, industry. The copper and brass vessels were, in demand on large scale. The province of, Bihar was famous for paper production., Paper was produced from silk. Siyalkot was, famous for white paper. Salt and sugar, production were important industries of this, period., During the Mughal period, most of the, population stayed in villages. Every village, was self-sufficient. The law and order was, managed and the daily needs were met at, the village level. During this period, there, were no major changes in the social, organisation which was based on caste, system., During the Mughal period, the purdah, system was rooted in the elite class of both, Muslim and Hindu community. The education, system of Sultanate period had continued till, the rule of Akbar. However Akbar made, important reforms in this system. Along with, education of Islamic religion, he also included, new subjects in the syllabi such as Indian, , 115, , During the rule of Babur and Humayun, boundaries of the Mughal empire had no, extended beyond North India. The main, ruling powers to the South of river Narmada, were Sultan of Khandesh, Nizamshahi of, Ahmednagar, Adilshahi of Bijapur and, Qutubshahi of Golconda. Akbar led a, campaign against Nizamshahi., In 1595 C.E. Akbar seized the fort of, Ahmednagar. During that time, Chand Sultana, (Chandbibi), the daughter of Nizamshah,, successfully resisted the attack with courage, and intelligent strategies. After her death the, Mughals conquered Ahmednagar, the capital, of Nizamshahi. Akbar personally came down, to South and divided the conquered province, into three Subhas namely- Ahmednagar,, Varhad and Khandesh. While Akbar was, engaged in the southern campaign, Prince, Salim rebelled against him and Akbar had, to wind up his campaign hastily. During the, period of Shahjahan, the Nizamshahi kingdom, declined. However, the Adilshahi and, Qutubshahi kingdoms manage to survive., Later,, uprooting, power in, resistance, study the, lesson., , Aurangzeb was successful in, them completely. The Maratha, the Deccan put up a strong, to Aurangzeb’s advent. We will, history of this part in the next

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Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., (1) Mughal Emperor Babur was born at, in, ., (a) Baluchistan, (b) Kazakhstan, (c) Uzbekistan, (d) Afghanistan, (2) Mughal Emperor Humayun was, defeated by, ., (a) Ibrahim Lodi, (b) Shershah Sur, (c) Babur, (d) Akbar, (3) Akbarnama was written by, ., (a) Mohammad Qasim, (b) Abul Fazl, (c) Mirza Hyder, (d) Badauni, (B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Khafi Khan - Akbarnama, (2) Malik, Muhammad, Jayasi, Padmavat, (3) Sant Kabir - Doha, (4) Mirza Hyder - Tarikh-i-Rashidi, (C) Write the names., (1) He defeated Ibrahim Lodi, (2) She successfully resisted the attack, of Akbar and saved the Nizamshahi, kingdom, , 116, , Q.2 Explain the statements with reasons., (1) The Rajput rulers united against, Babur., (2) Shershah Sur was well-known for, his ideal administration., (3) Emperor Akbar strengthened the, foundation of his rule in India., (4) Mughal art declined during the, period of Aurangzeb., Q.3 Write short notes, (1) Mughal Art, (2) Mughal literature, Q.4 Answer the following questions in, detail., (1) During the Mughal period what were, the changes made in the revenue, system?, (2) Elaborate the features of Mughal, architecture., Activity, Collect information about the expansion, of Mughal rule by Emperor Akbar and, the contemporary cities., , 

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16. Swarajya to Empire (Maratha period), , 16.1, 16.2, 16.3, 16.4, 16.5, 16.6, 16.7, 16.8, , Contribution of Sants, Foundation and Expansion of, Swarajya, Maratha war of independence, Administrative system established, by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, Release of Shahu Maharaj, Peshwa period, Art, architecture, literature, Trade, industries and social life, , Alauddin Khalji defeated the Yadavas of, Devgiri and the rule of Delhi Sultans began, in south India. After Khalji, the Tughluq and, Bahamani kingdoms ruled over Maharashtra., Later Bahamani kingdom was disintegrated, into five parts. Among them, Nizamshahi and, Adilshahi ruled parts of Maharashtra. The, Mughals turn their attention to south India., As a result, Nizamshahi came to an end., This was the general political scenario during, 17th century, when Chhatrapati Shivaji, Maharaj established Swarajya marking the, rise of Maratha power., 16.1 Contribution of Sants, Superstition and rituals ruled at large in, the medieval Indian society. People had, become fatalistic and inert. They had become, inert. The condition of the common people, was miserable. These were the times when, the sants in Maharashtra made efforts to, bring the masses back to life., In Maharashtra, the tradition of sants,, which began with Chakradhar Swami, Sant, Namdev, Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Eknath,, Sant Tukaram and Samarth Ramdas. It was, continued by sants coming from various, strata of the society. For example Sant, Chokhamela, Sant Goroba, Sant Sawata,, Sant Narhari, Sant Sena, Sant Shaikh, Muhammad etc. Similarly women sants such, , 117, , as Sant Nirmalaba (निर्मळाबाई), Sant Muktabai,, Sant Janabai, Sant Kanhopatra and Sant, Bahinabai Siurkar also belong to this period., The sants, created a sense of belonging, among people toward their native region,, language, literature, and culture. They gave, message of equality to people. Their teachings, were based on the principles of humanity., They preached harmonious community life,, unity and love. Their efforts created social, awakening. Their teaching helped people to, survive situations like foreign invasions,, draughts or other natural calamities. Their, devotional songs became a source of a great, moral support for people. Their work created, a sense of self-esteem among the people of, Maharashtra., 16.2 Foundation and Expansion of, Swarajya, In the first half of the 17th century,, Nizamshahi and Adilshahi had established, their rule in Maharashtra. Many eminent, Maratha sardars flourished under their rule., They held Jahagirs in the remote regions of, the Sahyadris. The difficult terrain of Sahyadri, allowed them to operate independently., Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent sardar, in the Nizamshahi kingdom. After the end of, Nizamshahi rule,, he accepted the, rank, of, a, Mansabdar* in, the, Adilshahi, court. Shahajiraje, was, valiant,, courageous, wise, and well-versed, in the science of, statehood., He, had successfully, handled, many, Shahajiraje, Adilshahi, expeditions in Maharashtra, Karnataka and

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For Additional Information : In the year, 1657 C.E., after conquering Kalyan and, Bhiwandi, the boundaries of Swarajya extended, upto the coastline. The British and the French, were involved in Salt trade. Shivaji Maharaj, wanted to establish control over the sea waters., However, he did not have any knowhow of, building war ships. The Portuguese were afraid, of the Siddis. Shivaji Maharaj assured the, Portuguese to fight the Siddis. In turn, Shivaji, Maharaj sent some selected fishermen with the, Portuguese ship builders named Rui Leitao, Viegas and his son Fernao Viegas and got, twenty war ships built with their help. These, fishermen were the people, who once trained,, , intentions of Afzalkhan, who had taken up the, challenge of killing Shivaji Maharaj. He met, Afzalkhan at Pratapgad. As expected, Afzalkhan attempted treachery but Shivaji, Maharaj was well prepared and killed, Afzalkhan in self defence. Afzalkhan’s huge, army was set on the run and huge booty and, weapons were collected left behind by them., This made Swarajya’s treasury richer., After Afzalkhan’s defeat, the Bijapur, court sent Siddi Jauhar to attack Swarajya., He seized the fort of Panhala and closed all, posibilities of escape for Shivaji Maharaj. In, this difficult situation Shiva Kashid, a loyal, servant of Swarajya, disguised himself as, Shivaji Maharaj and made it easy for Shivaji, Maharaj to escape. When Siddi came to, know the truth he killed Shiva Kashid. Thus, Shiva Kashid sacrificed his life for the cause, of Swarajya. Bajiprabhu took up the task of, blocking Siddhi Masud’s path in Ghodkhind, and stop him in his chase of Shivaji Maharaj., Bajiprabhu was succussful in doing this. He, fell dead only after receiving the news of, Shivaji Maharaj reaching Vishalgad safely., At the time of ascending the throne,, Aurangzeb was aware of the ambitious plans, of Shivaji Maharaj. He sent his maternal, uncle Shaistakhan on an expedition against, Shivaji Maharaj. Shaistakhan camped in Lal, Mahal in Pune. Shivaji Maharaj who knew, Shaistakhan’s intentions manage to enter the, Lal Mahal and cut off Shaistakhan’s fingers., , 119, , could later build war ships on their own. Till, 1675 C.E., Shivaji Maharaj had four hundred, small and big ships in his fleet. During the, second sack of Surat, Shivaji Maharaj brought, those ships to the coast of Surat and loaded, the huge booty on them acquired from Surat., It is apparent that Shivaji Maharaj wanted to, establish complete control over the land as, well as on the sea. Shivaji Maharaj was the, first to have the foresight to create his own, navy. Hence, he is known as the ‘Father of, the Indian Navy’ Maynak Bhandari,, Daulatkhan, Kanhoji Angre were experts of, Marine war strategies., , Shaistakhan had no alternative but to hastily, leave Lal Mahal. Shivaji Maharaj gained, more confidence and he attacked Surat, the, prosperous economic capital of Aurangzeb, and collected a large booty. Enraged by this,, Aurangzeb sent his powerful sardars Mirza, Raje Jaising and Diler Khan to attack, Swarajya. They captured many forts in the, Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj had the wisdom, to comprehend the situation and decided to, retreat tactically by signing the ‘Treaty of, Purandar’. According to the treaty, Shivaji, Maharaj had to present himself before, Aurangzeb at Agra, along with his son, Sambhaji, Maharaj., Aurangzeb, acted, treacherously and put Shivaji under house, arrest. Shivaji Maharaj very cleverly misled, the guards and escaped from Agra., Soon after returning to Swarajya Shivaji, Maharaj conqured the forts which were held, by Aurangzeb., To announce the sovereign and, independent status of Swarajya it was, necessary to make it official. Realising this, Shivaji Maharaj decided to get himself, coronated. With his coronation as a sovereign, king the provinces under his rule assumed the, status of an independent kingdom. After, coronation he began the Karnataka expedition., However, he did not live long after the, victory in the south. He passed away on 3rd, April 1680. His untimely death caused an, irreparable loss to Swarajya.

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aggresive policy while the Maratha, policy remained that of defence. But by the, second half of the 18th century, this condition, changed. With the weakening of Mughal, power, the Marathas could extend their rule, almost all over India., 16.4 Administrative system established, by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, The regions in Maharashtra including, Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur,, Sindhudurga, Ratnagiri, Raigad; Belgaum,, Karwar, Dharwad in Karnataka; some regions, of Andhra, Jinji and Vellore in Tamil Nadu, comprised Swarajya. Shivaji Maharaj set up, an ideal administrative system for the smooth, running of Swarajya’s affairs., The formation of the Ashtapradhan, Mandal (council of eight ministers) and its, growth took place alongwith the expansion, of the kingdom. After coronation, Chhatrapati, Shivaji Maharaj created special posts of, Ashtapradhans., It, included, ‘Peshwa’,, ‘Amatya’, ‘Sachiv’, ‘Mantri’, ‘Senapati,, ‘Sumant’, ‘Nyayadhish’ and ‘Panditrao’., Shivaji Maharaj had a strong intelligence, network of his own. Bahirji Naik was the, Chief of this network. Before starting on any, expedition, Shivaji Maharaj obtained detailed, information from his spies and then planned, his expedition., When the ministers went on expedition,, their representatives (Mutalik) looked after, For, additional, information, :, Determining the grade (prat) of the land, formed the basics of the Revenue System., The land revenue system introduced by, Malik Amber of Nizamshahi was in practice., But Shivaji Maharaj introduced a new, system. He fixed the measuring unit of, ‘Kathi’ (measuring stick) for the measurement, of the land. The length of this kathi was 5, cubits (length of a forearm) and 5 closed, fists. Based on this following units were, decided: the area of 20 kathis was 1 ‘Bigha’, and 120 Bighas made one ‘Chavar’. Annaji, Datto (Sachiv) travelled from village to, , 121, , the administration. There was a special, officer called ‘Darakdar’ appointed to look, after every department of the ministry. Other, officers were ‘Diwan’ (secretary), ‘Majumdar’, (auditor and accountant), ‘Phadnis’ (Deputy, Auditor),, ‘Sabnis’, (office, in-charge),, ‘Karkhanis’, (Commissary),, ‘Chitnis’, (Correspondence clerk), ‘Jamdar’ (Treasurer),, ‘Potdar’ (assay master) etc., The Kingdom was divided into two parts, for the sake of administration. One of it was, the province which was geographically bound, together and the other comprised scattered, regions in the south. The first province was, divided into three sections. The northern, section was assigned to the Peshwa which, included the regions from Salher to Pune and, North Konkan. The central part consisted of, south Konkan, Sawantwadi and Karwar. This, was assigned to the Sachiv. In the third part, the regions of high plateau i.e. Satara-Wai to, Belgaum and Koppal was assigned to the, ‘Mantri’. A separate ‘Subha’ of Karnataka, was created and Hambirrao Mohite and, Raghunath Narayan Amatya were appointed, on it. ‘Sarsubhedars’ were appointed on all, these regions in association with the ‘Pradhans’, (Ministers). This was known as ‘Rajmandal’., The appointment of ‘Killedar’ (keeper of the, fort) and ‘Karkun’ (clerks) was made by the, King himself. The Pradhans had to submit, annual accounts to Shivaji Maharaj., Sarsubhedars taking care of provincial, administration were known as ‘Deshadhikari’., village and determined various criteria of, calculating revenue such as ‘Dhara’,, ‘Chavarana’, ‘Pratbandi’ etc., based on the, annual yield. Chavarana means deciding the, boundaries of land by measurng it., Assessment of land in the hilly regions was, not done areawise but yieldwise. While, collecting the revenue, the quality of the, yield was also taken into consideration, along with the grade of the land. Revenue, was fixed only after the calculation of the, average yield of previous 3 years. Land, such as Barren land, jungle, grazing land, etc. were not counted for land revenue.

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There was a difference between the, administration under the Islamic rulers and, the administrative system set by Chhatrapati, Shivaji Maharaj. Sarsubhas in the Swarajya, were meant to be the zonal divisions for, overall administration, while under Islamic, rulers a division merely served the purpose, of revenue collection., The Subhedars were assisted by, ‘Deshmukhs’ and ‘Deshpandes’. The main, task of a Deshmukh was to collect the land, revenue, to develop waste land into cultivable, land and settle new villages. All government, officials received salary in the form of cash, instead of land grant (watan)., ‘Village’ was the basic unit of the, administrative system. New villages were, settled. The people were provided with cattle,, seed money, money for daily utilities. The, farmer was given a period of two years, to, repay the advance after a good harvest. This, system was known as ‘Batai system’., 16.5 Release of Shahu Maharaj, The Mughals continued their efforts to, defeat the Marathas, even after the death of, Aurangzeb., For, that purpose they, adopted, the, strategy of dividing, the, Marathas., They, released, Shahu, Maharaj, from captivity in, 1707 C.E. After, his release there, was a conflict, Chhatrapati Shahu, between Maharani, Maharaj, Tarabai and Shahu, Maharaj. Shahu Maharaj won the ensuing, battle. Balaji Vishwanath played an important, role on behalf of Shahu Maharaj and later, he was appointed as Peshwa., 16.6 Peshwa period, After Balaji Vishwanath, his son, Bajirao, I was appointed as the Peshwa. He expanded, the Maratha empire upto Malwa, Rajasthan, and Bundelkhand. He defeated the Nizam., After Bajirao I, Balaji Bajirao alias, , 122, , Nanasaheb, was, appointed as the, Peshwa. Meanwhile,, the Marathas were, defeated in the third, battle of Panipat., The Maratha rule, became, weak., Madhavrao Peshwa, tried to re-establish, the Maratha power., The, defeat, in, Panipat was not, Bajirao Peshwa I, just, a, political, defeat but it also lowered the morale of the, Marathas greatly., Madhavrao Peshwa tried to elevate the, spirits of Marathas as well as re-establish the, Maratha power in, the, north., The, Marathas, were, successful, in, overcoming, the, great defeat at, Panipat and create, a politically strong, position, for, themselves in the, politics, of, the, Madhavrao Peshwa, north. This factor, was very important. Malharrao Holkar,, Ahilyabai Holkar, Raghuji Bhosale, Mahadji, Shinde, Nana Phadanvis played a great role, in the re-establishment of Maratha influence., Malharrao was, the founder of the, Holkar, State, at, Indore. He served, the Maratha power, for a long time. He, had a great share in, establishing, the, Maratha prestige in, the north. After the, death of Khanderao,, son of Malharrao., Malharrao Holkar, Ahilyabai, Holkar, assumed the reins of Indore administration., Maheshwar was the seat of administration

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For additional information : The, Pathans from Afghanistan had settled at the, foothills of the Himalayas near Ayodhya, province. These Pathans were known as, ‘Rohillas’. This province later came to be, known as ‘Rohilkhand’. Najib Khan was the, leader of the Rohillas. He was not happy, with the supremacy of the Marathas in North, , under her. She built, temples,, ghats,, dharamshalas,, and, drinking water facilities, at, various, pilgrim, centres. She was a, capable, astute, and, excellent administrator., Raghuji, Bhosale, was the most capable, ruler among the Bhosales, of Nagpur. He brought, , India. He invited Ahmedshah Abdali, the, ruler of Afghanistan, to India. At the behest, of Najib Khan, Abdali invaded India. He, returned to Afghanistan with a huge booty., However, the Marathas pursued Abdali’s, soldiers upto Attock and raised there the, Maratha standard successfully. Attock is, presently in Pakistan., , the regions in Eastern India upto Bengal, under the Maratha dominance. After the, miserable defeat of, the Marathas at, Panipat,, Mahadji, Shinde, was, instrumental in reestablishing, the, Maratha supremacy, and prestige in North, India. He trained his, Ahilyabai Holkar, , Raghuji Bhosale, , 123

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Army, and, modernised, his, artillery under the, guidance of French, military, expert,, Benoit de Boigne., Mahadji managed, the difficult affairs, with, strong, determination and, remained incharge, of Delhi affairs, Mahadji Shinde, during 1771 C.E., to 1794 C.E. Nana Phadanvis and Mahadji, Shinde set the affairs of the state right after, the death of Peshwa Madhavrao., The two Peshwas who succeeded Peshwa, Madhavrao, namely Narayanrao and Sawai, Madhavrao, did not live long. Their untimely, death set the decline of Maratha power. At, this time, the Mughal power had also become, weak. Taking advantage of this situation, the, British started interfering in the internal strife, among the Maratha sardars. Peshwa Bajirao, II was defeated by the British and the British, established their supremacy over India. The, British brought entire India under their, dominance., 16.7 Art, architecture, literature, Art : The development of Maratha, miniature Paintings is seen through illustrations, on the manuscripts such as pothis, pattachitra, and patrikas. The same style is maintained, in the glass paintings as well. Illustrated, manuscripts of Sanskrit texts such as ‘Bhagvat, Gita’, ‘Devi Saptashati’, ‘Bhagvat Purana’ as, well as Marathi texts such as ‘Dnyaneshwari’, (Bhavarthadipika),, ‘Shivaleelamrut’,, ‘Pandavapratap’ etc. are available. The, paintings of Dashavatara are included in, them. The wooden stands of the pothis have, paintings of various deities such as Ganapati,, Riddhi-siddhi,, Ramapanchayatana,, Gopalkrishna, Vishnulakshmi in dark red,, green and yellow colours. The miniature, paintings, include human portraits and themes, like ragamalas, talamala, processions etc., Remarkable portraits of Bajirao I, Nanasaheb, , 124, , Peshwa, Pilaji Jadhavrao are available., Murals are found on the facade of the, Wadas, as well as on the walls of reception, areas (Diwankhana) and bedrooms. In the, temples, the mandapa wall, owri (varanda),, shikhara, gabhara (sanctum sanctorum) and, chhat (ceiling) were also decorated with, paintings. The 18th century murals have, survived till today at places like the NaikNimbalkar wada at Vathar, Nana Phadanavis, wada at Menavali, Rangamahal at Chandwad,, Mayureshwar mandir at Morgaon, Shiva, temple of Pandeshwar, and Matha at, Benawadi. Mythological stories form the, main theme of these murals. They include, scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata, and Puranas. The paintings of Dashavatara, and Krishnaleela are found almost everywhere., The subjects of contemporary social life were, also popular in the paintings. Royal court,, royal meetings, processions were also included, in them., During the Maratha period, keertan and, , Miniature painting - Maratha period, , singing of Bhajans were popular. Powadas, (Ballads) were composed during this period, to encourage the spirit of heroism among the, people. The ballads known as ‘powadas’ and, ‘katavas’, composed by the Shahirs were the, types of historical poetry. The powadas

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composed by Adnyandas on the slaying, of Afzalkhan and Tulsidas on the battle of, Sinhagad are well-known., The literary, tradition of ‘Lavani’, developed in the later Peshwa period. Shahirs, like Anantafandi, Prabhakar, Ramjoshi,, Saganbhau and Honaji Bala are known for, their beautiful compositions., Various dance forms from the Maratha, period have existed till today such as, including lavani, koli dance, Gaja Nrutya, etc. The tradition of vocal music also received, patronage in Maratha States., Architecture : Shivaji Maharaj gave, priority to build forts. The tradition of, building forts was prevalent in the Deccan, since three centuries. This tradition proved to, be of advantage to Shivaji Maharaj. The, required expertise of maintaining forts was, easily available to him. The Kasaba temple, in Pune and Vitthal temple in Vitthalwadi, were reconstructed by Veermata Jijabai., During the Peshwa period, the Maratha, kingdom regained its prosperity and all forms, of art and architecture once again received, patronage. Pune, Satara and Nashik developed, into big cities. These cities had well paved, roads, wadas on both sides of the road and, arched gates at intervals., The construction of temples began on a, large scale during the later Peshwa period., These temples were of three types. Examples, of the temple architecture of this period are, found, at, Saswad, (‘Vateshwar’,, ‘Sangameshwar’), Mahuli (‘Vishweshwar’),, , For additional information :, Dressed stones, raw and baked bricks, were used in the construction of wadas., The ground floor walls of the wada were, built in stone while the upper storeys, were of bricks. There were generally, three to five storeys supported on wooden, pillars and beams. The rooms were built, around the rectangular courtyard (chowk)., Usually there use to be two courtyards, in the wada. However, sometimes there, could be three to seven courtyards as, well. Wadas such as Vishrambaug wada, in Pune and Nana Phadanavis wada in, Menavali and Raghobadada’s wada are, among the fine examples of wada, architecture. The wooden pillars and, beams in the wada were square in shape., Motifs such as parrot, peacock, and, monkeys were popular., , Jejuri etc. These are huge in size. The plan, of these temples is in star shaped design, the, foundation of the temple was multi layered,, and were named accordingly. The construction, of shikhara is made in bricks and stucco, method. The ‘Kalaram’, ‘Goraram’ and, ‘Sundarnarayan’ temples at Nashik and, ‘Mahadev’, temple, at, Trimbakeshwar,, ‘Mohiniraj’ temple at Nevasa were similar to, the temples in Malwa and Rajasthan. The, temples were constructed in stone. These, temples were embellished extensively with, sculptures as compared to other contemporary, temples. In the third type of temples, the, , Sindhudurga, , 125

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Jejuri, , temples at Pune, Satara, Wai, etc. were built, in independent style. It included arches,, wooden hall (sabhamandapa) and sanctum, sanctorum (gabhara). The Shikhara slopes, inwards at the top. In the small niches of, the Shikhara, beautiful sculptures are made, of stucco. It includes images of dashavataras, and other deities as well as male and female, figures. The stone deepmala is a remarkable, feature of these temples. The stone deepmalas, at Jejuri were built by Shahajiraje. Since, most of the villages and temples were located, on river banks, stone steps (ghats) were also, built on the river. Such extensive ghats are, seen at Nashik, Puntambe, Wai, Menavali,, Mahuli etc. The Chhatris (Samadhis) built at, various places are noteworthy., Literature : Marathi literature developed, greatly during this period. Sant Tukaram of, this period was a poet of the warkari sect., Samarth Ramdas wrote ‘Dasbodh’ and, ‘Manache Shlok’ in Marathi. Chhatrapati, Shivaji, Maharaj, got, the, ‘Rajyavyavaharakosha’ prepared which was, a compilation of Sanskrit lexicon for Persian, terms. Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj was a, great writer and Sanskrit scholar. The Sanskrit, text ‘Budhabhushan’ was written by him., This text is an overview of ancient texts on, polity. Apart from Sanskrit, he also knew, many other languages. He wrote texts in Brij, language namely ‘Nayikabhed’, ‘Nakhshikh’, and ‘Satasattak’. Muhammad Qasim Ferishta, , 126, , wrote the history of India in 12 volumes, named ‘Gulshane-i-Ibrahimi’., In the 18th century well-known literary, works, were, composed, such, as,, ‘Yatharthdeepika’, by, Vaman, Pandit,, ‘Naladamayanti Swayamvara’ by Raghunath, Pandit,, Pandavapratapa,, Harivijay,, Ramavijay by Shridhar Pandit and the, translation of Mahabharata by Moropant., Bakhar literature is important among the, historical literature in Marathi. It contains, eulogies of the heroes and stories of historic, events, battles, lives of great men. Sabhasad, Bakhar, Bhausahebanchi Bakhar, Panipatchi, Bakhar are some of its exmaples. Krushna, Dayarnav and Shridhar were the main poets, during the Peshwa period. Poet Mahipati, composed ‘Bhaktivijay’ in this period., 16.7 Trade, industries and social life, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was aware, of the importance of a flourishing trade for, the economic well being of the state. He, encouraged the traders and merchants by, creating Peths (market places). ‘Shete’ and, ‘Mahajan’ were the officers who supervised, the transaction of these Peths. Chaul, Rajapur,, Dabhol, Kelshi, Ratnagiri were some of the, important ports and trade centres of this, period. Commodities like black pepper and, lac* etc. were exported from Dabhol. Silk,, For additional information :, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was keen, on protecting the local industries. Here, we can cite the example of salt industry., He protected the salt industry in Konkan., At that time, traders imported salt from, the Portuguese territory and sold in, Swarajya. That affected the local trade, in Konkan areas. So Maharaj charged, heavy duty on the salt imported into, Swarajya from the Portuguese territory., The intention was that the salt imported, from the Portuguese territory would then, cost more and as a result its import, would be discouraged and the sale of the, local salt would increase.

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opium, and indigo were exported from, Chaul. Black pepper, cardamom, cotton cloth, were the items of trade in Rajapur. Foreign, traders procured required goods from Rajapur, and transported them on ships to the Red Sea, and Iran., A self-sufficient village was the basic, unit of the Swarajya. The economic system, of the village was never affected greatly by, external political changes. Every village had, 12 ‘balutedars’ (service providers in the, village). Their occupations were hereditary in, nature. Every occupation in this system had, a specific status in the social hierarchy. The, balutedars, for example goldsmiths (sonar),, blacksmiths (lohar), braziers (tambat) etc., practiced their hereditary occupations. Weekly, markets were set up in big villages. Such, villages were known as ‘Kasba’. People, visited weekly markets to buy daily provisions, and other goods. Some industries of this, period include textile industry, metallurgy,, sugar industry etc., , Nashik, Paithan, etc. Traditional festivals, (utsavas), pious observances (Vrata vaikalye), were celebrated with great enthusiasm in the, society. Celebrating the festivals was, encouraged by the State, as such celebrations, help to create joyous and hormonius society., For Additional Information :, Urbanisation during Maratha period Many market cities of the Maratha, period emerged because of political, expansion and development of various, industries, trade, professions etc. The, process, of, urbanisation, gained, momentum during the Peshwa period., There was extensive development of, Pune, the capital of Peshwas. There, was increase in the number of market, cities (Bazar peths). Pune, Indapur,, Saswad, Junnar, Kalyan, Bhiwandi,, Vengurla, Paithan, Kolhapur, Satara,, Ahmednagar, and small and big ports, on the Konkan coast flourished with, the development of trade and industries., , *Lac is a resinous substance used for sealing,, varnish, making ornaments, etc., , The rural Maharashtra of Maratha period, was organised into different social classes, such as nobility (sardars), landlords, (watandars), Balutedars and Ryot (rest of the, subjects)., There, were, traditional, schools, (pathshalas) established in cities like Wai,, , The journey from the founding of, Swarajya to the expansion of the Maratha, empire, is an important part of Indian history, of mediaeval times. The Maratha power, came to an end and the British brought most, of India under their dominance. The transition, took place in various sectors. It marks the, onset of modern era., , Exercise, Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and, complete the sentence., is known as the Father of, (1), Indian Navy., (a) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, (b) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, (c) Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj, (d) Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj, , (2) The Pathans from Afghanistan had, , the province at, settled in, the foothills of the Himalayas., (a) Varanasi, (b) Mathura, (c) Ayodhya, (d) Delhi, (3) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj wrote, the Sanskrit text, ., (a) Nayikabhed (b) Budhabhushan, (c) Nakhshikh, (d) Satasattka, , 127

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(B) Find the incorrect pair and write, the correct ones., (1) Naik-Nimbalkar wada – Vathar, (2) Nana Phadanvis wada – Menavali, (3) Kalaram temple – Jejuri, (4) Mohiniraj temple – Nevase, (C) Write the name., (1) He was the Chief of the intelligence, network of Shivaji Maharaj (2) He assisted in the provincial affairs (3) Leader of the Rohillas -, , Q.3 Explain the statement with reasons., (1) Shahajiraje is known as the visionary, of Swarajya., (2) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj built, the naval force., (3) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj charged, heavy duty on the salt imported, from the Portuguese territory., Q.4 Write short notes., (1) Maratha Art, (2) Maratha Architecture, , Q.2 Complete the following concept map., Characteristic, architecture, , Sculpture, , Characteristic, of Maratha, Temples, , , Places, , Building, material, , 128