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1, MODULE 1 :, GUIDANCE : CONCEPT AND NEEDS, Concept of Guidance, Unit Structure :, 1.0, Introduction, 1.1, Objectives, 1.2, Meaning and Principles of Guidance, 1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance, 1.2.2 Guidance and Education : Guidance and Counseling, 1.2.3 Principles of Guidance, 1.3, Need and Importance of Guidance, 1.4, Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services, 1.5, Implications of Areas of Guidance in Global Context., 1.5.1 Personal, 1.5.2 Educational, 1.5.3 Vocational, 1.5.4 A vocational, 1.5.5 Social, 1.5.6 Moral, 1.5.7 Health, 1.5.8 Leisure-time, 1.6, Let us sum up, , 1.0, , INTRODUCTION, , We are social beings and, so in some way or other we need, help and guidance of others. Mother, father, grand parents,, teachers and other elders, home, school and society guide, youngsters for successful living. Due to explosion of knowledge,, industrialization and changes in socio-economic set up the need of, professional guidance is felt in the present day society., In this unit you will be familiarized with concept, principles,, need of guidance and implications of areas of guidance on global, context.
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2, , 1.1, , OBJECTIVES, , After going through this unit you will be able to:, Define the meaning of guidance, Describe the need for guidance, State the principles of guidance, Explain different areas of guidance, , 1.2, , MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE, , 1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance:, Literally guidance means ‗to direct‘, ‗to point out‘, to show the, path‘. It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced, person to a less experiences person to solve certain major, problems of the individual (less experienced) i.e. educational,, vocational, personal etc., Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept, guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the, individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self, understanding (understanding one‘s strengths, limitations, and, other resources) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems,, make choices and decision on one‘s own)., 1.2.2 Guidance and Education; Guidance and Counselling,, Guidance and Education :, The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible, realization of possibilities inherent in the individual. Education, fosters all aspects of an individual‘s personality. Guidance is an, integral part of education and helps in achieving the goals of, education. Guidance is quite essential for the development of, individual which is the main objective of education. The Education, Commission (EC-1964-66) observes ―Guidance should be regarded, as an integral part of education and not as a special, psychological, or social service which is peripheral to educational purposes. It is, ―meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm, in one direction or the other‖., Jone, A.J., pointing out the relationship between guidance, and education observes, ‗All guidance is education but some, aspects of education are not guidance. Their objectives are the, same the development of the individual but methods used in, education are by no means the same as those used in guidance‖.
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3, Guidance and Counseling :, The terms ‗guidance‘ and ‗counselling‘ have been loosely or, interchangeably used. Guidance is a term which is broader than, counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter, makes a logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i), adjustive and (ii) distibutive phase. In the adjustive phase, the, emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the, individual, in the distributive phase the focus is upon educational,, vocational and occupational problems. The ‗distributive phase‘ can, be most aptly described as ‗guidance‘ while the ‗adjustive‘ phase, can be considered as description of ‗counselling‘., 1.2.3 Principles of Guidance:, Guidance is based upon the following principles., (i), Holistic development of individual : Guidance needs to be, provided in the context of total development of, personality., (ii), Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each, individual is different from every other individual. Each, individual is the combination of characteristics which, provides uniqueness to each person. Similarly human, beings have an immense potential. The dignity of the, individual is supreme., (iii), Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon, individual needs i.e. freedom, respect, dignity., (iv), The individual needs a continuous guidance process, from early childhood throughout adulthood., (v), Guidance involves using skills to communicate love,, regard, respect for others., , 1.3, , NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE, , Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need, and importance of guidance are as follows., Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in, understanding one‘s strength, limitations and other, resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to, solve problems and take decisions., Optimum development of individual, Solving different problem of the individual, Academic growth and development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational, adjustments, Social personal adjustment
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4, Better family life, Good citizenship, For conservation and proper utilization of human resources, For national development, Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an, educational institution but also to the parents ,administrators,, planners and community members., Check Your Progress – I, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, Q.4, Q.5, , Define guidance, Explain the relation between guidance & counseling., State the relation between guidance & Education., Why do we need guidance?, What should be the principles of guidance?, , 1.4, , DIFFERENT SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES, , The school is expected to provide more than just teaching, and instruction. A school guidance programme includes all those, activities other than instructional which are carried out to render, assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal, development and adjustment. The fundamental aim of guidance, programme being the maximum development of the child, all, guidance programme must be geared toward attainment of the, goal. Guidance services can assist the pupils in knowing, themselves-their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate, choices in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the, important guidance services are;, The orientation services, Student inventory services
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5, Career Information services, Counseling services, Group guidance services, Placement services, Research and evaluation services, , 1.5, , IMPLICATIONS OF AREAS OF GUIDANCE IN, GLOBAL CONTEXT, , The students life is getting complex day by day. Students in, the twenty-first century have facing many perplex and difficult, situations i.e. to make wise curricular and other curricular choices,, to acquire basic study skills for optimum achievement, adjustment, with peers etc. In its beginning guidance was concentrated on, problems relating to vocations. It was largely concerned with getting, jobs for young people. Now guidance has gone for beyond this. It is, now concerned with the entire individual in all aspects., The areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some, of the important areas of guidance., 1.5.1 Personal:, Students face many personal problems related to, themselves, their parents and family, friends and teachers, etc., They often have memories related to home or family which creates, feeling of disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too, much of them it leaves them with a feeling of incompetence and, insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem. The, objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual in his/her, physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development., The aims and objectives of personal guidance are :, To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself., To assist the individual involving the personal problems., To assist the individual in taking independent decisions and, judgement., To assist the individual to view the world and the social, environment in right perspective., To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to, different problems confronted in life., Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At the, elementary school stage opportunities should be given to students
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6, for their self expression. Personal guidance at this stage deals with, the problems related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance,, discipline etc., At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate, personal problems. During the secondary stage adolescent, students due to peculiar physical, emotional and social, developments undergo noticeable changes in their attitude and, behaviour. Personal guidance at this stage should therefore focus, on personal and social adjustment., Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view, life in relation to reality. The scope of personal guidance at this, stage is very wider., 1.5.2 Educational Guidance:, If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in, schools and colleges, one would exactly realize the need of, educational guidance. Educational problems head the needs of, students‘ problems. So education is an important guidance area., Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education, school / colleges, the curriculum, the methods of instruction, other, curricular activities, disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the, assistance given to the individual (i) to understand his/her, potentialities (ii) have a clear cut idea of the different educational, opportunities and their requirements (iii) to make wise choices as, regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular and extra, curricular., Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are:, To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to, understand his/her potentialities, strength and limitations., To help the child make educational plans consist with, his/her abilities, interests and goals., To enable the student to know detail about the subject and, courses offered., To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in, various school/ college subjects., To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules,, regulations, social life connected with it., To help the child in developing good study habits., To help the child to participate in out of class educational, activities in which he can develop leadership and other, social qualities.
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7, At the elementary stage guidance programme must help the, children to make good beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the, best out of their education and prepare them for secondary schools., Educational guidance needs to be used in diagnosing difficulties, in, identifying the special needs of children., At the secondary stage educational guidance should help, the pupils to understand themselves better, to understand different, aspects of the school, to select appropriate courses to get, information about different educational opportunities, to develop, good study habits. The students should be helped to be acquainted, with the vocational implications of various school subjects., Educational guidance at the tertiary stages must oriented, students about purpose and scope of higher studies and helps, them to stimulate their studies. Each college/ university must have, a guidance unit with due provision of guidance services., 1.5.3 Vocational Guidance:, You know that ‗bread and butter aims‖ is one of the main, aims of education. Due to advancement in science and technology, and consequent charges in industry and occupations have been, emerged. There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In, this context, there is a great need for vocational guidance., Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual, to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress, in it. It is concerned primarily with helping individuals make, decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a, career. The purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare,, enter and progress in a vocation is the optimum growth of the, individual., Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:, Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet, them into general requirements of the occupation under, consideration., Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that, will dignify whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter., Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of, occupations and to learn a technique for analyzing information, about vocations., Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the, facilities offered by various educational institutions engaging in, vocational training.
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8, At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance, programmes are needed, the orientation to vocation can be, initiated at this stage. At this stage some qualities and skills, which have grater vocational significance viz. love and respect, for manual work (ii) training in use of hands (iii) spirit of, cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all works (vii), good interpersonal relationship are to be developed., At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the, students to know themselves, to know the world of work, to develop, employment readiness to develop decision making rules., At the higher education stages it should be more formal one., The objectives of guidance at this stage are to help the students to, get information about different career, training facilities,, apprenticeship etc., 1.5.4 Avocational Guidance:, The individual student spends only a small portion of his time, i.e. 4 t0 6 hours per day in school. The rest of the time needs to be, effectively managed and utilized by the child for his/her progress, and development. Avocational guidance helps the child to, judiciously utilize the leisure time. The other co-curricular activities, play an important role in all-round development of the child .But, many parents, teachers and children put secondary importance to, these activities. The students need to be properly guided for, effective participation in varied types of avocational pursuits so that, they are able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable, direction and widen their outlook., 1.5.5 Social Guidance:, We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a, problem area for most of the students. School/educational, institution is a miniature society and pupil from different socioeconomic status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read, there.Students some time may face problems in adjustment and, social relationship. It is very important that the students to be, helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the, group;in developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant, towards others. This is the task of social guidance. Formally social, guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal, guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media, etc.
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9, 1.5.6 Moral Guidance:, Moral values occupy an important place in our life.Some, times due to influence of diverse factors students tell lies and, indulge in undesirable practices. Moral guidance helps in bringing, these students in to proper track and help in their all round, development., 1.5.7 Health Guidance:, Health is regarded as the wealth.Total health i.e. preventive and, curative is the goal of health guidance.The health guidance may be, a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors, Counsellor/psychologist,, Teachers, Students and parents. For promoting preventive care the, conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly, health education through formal classes and information is, essential in school education stages. In the present day the, concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs., 1.5.8 Leisure – time guidance :, Guidance for leisure is basically a part of personal guidance., the individual should know how to utilize his/her leisure time, fruitfully. leisure generally refers to free time a person at his, disposal. leisure in modern time is available to those who are, technically trained and efficient. But, unfortunately most of us do, not know how to utilize the leisure time. That is why guidance for, leisure is necessary., Leisure can be fruitfully utilized for two purposes. First of all, Leisure provides us time for personal development. One can, increase his efficiency by utilising his leisure time., The second use of leisure is that it helps the individual to be, more productive by getting the necessary rest and recreation., Jones divides leisure time activities into four groups., 1., 2., 3., 4., , Escape activities, General culture or appreciation activities., Creative activities and, Service activities, , It has also been suggested that individuals should spend, their leisure time in social welfare activities. For professional growth, are must take active interest in the professional society of his, profession.
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10, Thus it is quite evident that guidance for leisure is extremely, important in modern society because it helps the individual to attain, efficiency and become a useful member of the society., Therefore, it has been suggested that in the school, curriculum there should be provision for teaching about various, leisure time activities so that children will able to know about them., Check Your Progress – II, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, Q.4, a), b), c), d), , 1.6, , What are the different guidance services?, Differentiate between vocational & a vocational guidance., Explain the use of leisure time guidance., Write short notes on :, Objectives of educational guidance., Need of vocational guidance., Orientation services., Personal guidance, , LET US SUM UP, , Guidance is a concept as well as a process. Guidance is, different from education and counseling. Guidance is based upon, the principles of holistic development of individual, recognition of, individual differences and dignity and acceptance of individual, needs. Guidance is needed wherever there are problems., Guidance helps in optimum development of individual, Solving, different problem of the individual, Academic growth and, development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and, vocational adjustments, Social personal adjustment., Better family, life, for conservation and proper utilization of human resources, and, national development. Guidance is helpful not only for student and, teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents,, administrators, planners and community members. A school, guidance programme includes all those activities other than
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11, instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in, their educational, vocational, personal development and, adjustment. The areas of guidance are very vast. Some of the, important areas of guidance are personal, educational, vocational,, avocational, health, social etc., , UNIT END EXERCISES, 1. What is guidance? Discuss the need and importance of, guidance., 2. Discuss the principles upon which guidance is based., 3. State the importance of educational guidance and vocational, guidance., 4. Write short notes on:, a) Personal guidance, b) Guidance and education, c) Guidance and Counselling, SUGGESTED READINGS, Agrawal,R(2006), Educational,Vocational, Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication, , Guidance, , and, , Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A, theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House, Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel, work,New Y ork,MiGraw Hill, Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in, Secondary, Schools,New, Delhi,Strling, Publisher, NCERT, (2008).Introduction to Guidance,Module -1,DEPFE,New Delhi, , , ,
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12, , 1A, Module -1, TYPES AND AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE, 1A.0 Introduction, 1A.1 Objectives, 1A.2 Types of Guidance: Individual and Group, 1A.2.1 Individual guidance, 1A.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance, 1A.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance activities, 1A.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance, 1A.2.5 Advantages of Group Guidance, 1A.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance, 1A.3 Agencies of Guidance at different Levels, 1A.3.1 International Level Agencies, 1A.3.2 National Level Agencies, 1A.3.3 State Level Agencies, 1A.3.4 Local Level Agencies, 1A.4 Let us Sum up, , 1A.0 INTRODUCTION, In the previous unit you have learnt about meaning,, importance and areas of guidance. You have also learnt about, different school guidance services. One of the services is group, guidance service .From the organization point of view guidance can, be of two types‘ i.e. individual and group. Many, institutions/organizations work in the area of guidance and, counseling. In this unit you will learn about importance of group, guidance and international, national and state level agencies of, guidance., , 2.1 OBJECTIVES, After going through this unit, you should be able to:, define group guidance
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13, aware of the need and importance of group guidance, know the practical consideration of organization of group, guidance activities;, understand the limitations of group guidance activities; and, deal effectively with the problems of organization of such, group guidance activities, state the role and functions of different agencies at, international, national and state levels., , 1A.2 TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP, 1A.2.1 Individual guidance:, Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice,, strategy or planning designed for a singular person or thing and, their unique situation. This is in contrast to general guidance which, is frequently based on demographic information such as age or, income or meant for the general population. The most common, reference to individual guidance is in reference to children or, students. This is ideally the role of guidance, educational or career, http://www.ehow.com/careers/ counselors., Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice,, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their, unique circumstances. This could include legal services, career, counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a, number of other areas where a trained professional is looked to for, direction in a given area., 1A.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance:, Group refers to collection of people, interaction between, individuals, development of shared perceptions, the development of, affective ties and the development of interdependence of roles. For, example many students and teacher/teachers at one school may, gather together to form a group., Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance, which are carried on in a group situation to assist its members to, have experiences desirable or even necessary for making appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts. In a more specific, term, it is guiding the individual in a group situation. Group could be, of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group should have a, common goal. Just collection of individual may not be called a, group for organizing guidance activities. Selection of group
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14, members will have to depend on sharing a common problem,, volunteering to be members and willingness to group activities., Jones, A.J(1951)define group guidance ‗as any group, enterprise or activity in which the primary purpose is to assist each, individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his, adjustment‘., Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs, of a functional group consisting of a number of students to, implement programme that would benefit them at all time.Students, in group with common problems and concerns are helped in groups, i.e. small or large. In other words, if guidance is to be available to, all, it should be planned in groups., Some of the objectives of group guidance are:, 1. To help people in identifying common problems, analyse them, and find relevant solutions, 2. To place a wide range of information before people with, common problems which could be useful for them for finding, solutions?, 3. To provide a platform where people with common problems, could interact with each other and could be benefited by each, other‘s perspectives, ideas and experiences, 4. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get an, opportunity to express themselves and in the process analyze, themselves., 1A.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance Activities:, Planning of group guidance activity may focus the following points., 1. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to, find out the common problems of individuals in the group., This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists, and interview., 2. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group, activities: Depending upon the group activity the size of the, group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and, manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to, account the group selected for activity., 3. Selection of members and role specifications: The, participants selection for group guidance activity is also very, important. The students for example should be communicated, about their roles in group activities.
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15, 4. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be, clarified. It should be stated in clear, objective and, measurable terms., 5. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we, want to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be, properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback, about activity needs to be collected from participants., Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class, talk, career talk, displays and exhibitions., 1A.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance:, A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance., Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage, students should have knowledge about different career.A group, discussion may be organized in the school. For organization of the, group discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and, expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion, will be useful only if the members participate effectively without the, fear and all the members have the opportunity to participate. But, the effectiveness of the groupm discussion depends upon the, facilitator and the group selected., Problemsolving: For solving individual as well as common, problems, problem solving can be applied as a technique. It, comprises of the following steps;, Existence of common problem, Focused description of the problem, Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant, facts, Analysis of problem in the light of data collected, Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them, Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group, Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a, technique of guidance. Role playing is a method where real life, situations are simulated by group members/participants. This, provide new insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing, viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the following steps;, Existence of common problem, Orientation of group to role playing and the problem
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16, Assigning of roles, Preparation, intelligently, , of, , other, , members/audience, , to, , observe, , Assessing the role play, Concluding session and feedback, Other methods like case study and sociometric technique, can be used as group guidance technique., 1A.2.5 Advantages of Group guidance:, We have discussed about different activities and approaches, of group guidance. Some of the advantages of group guidance are, as follows:, Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group, setting inspires learning and understanding of students. The, student learns from other member of group., Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save, time and effort of both the counselor and students. The time, saved can be used for the more, difficult and complex, problems of students., Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior, Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of, unrecognized needs and problems of student/s, 1A.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance:, Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they, cannot be taken as a substitute for individual counseling. Group, activities serve many of the objectives of the school guidance, programme, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant, to come out with their personal problems in the group. So, in these, cases group guidance cannot be of help., Group guidance activities serve useful purposes specially, saving in time and effort. While organizing these activities, some, problems that a counsellor may face are mentioned below:, A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of, trouble. Generally, when the counselor asks for time in the time, table for conducting these guidance activities, he/she may get a, discouraging reply, the time table is already full. No periods are, free. So the counsellor is left with no other choice than to take the, substitute management period.
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17, , Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as, the staff members may also create problems in organizing such, activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of, adequate funds is another problem., Check Your Progress – I, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, Q.4, Q.5, , What is individual guidance?, What is group guidance?, What are the objectives of group guidance?, How can you organize group guidance activities?, State the techniques of group guidance. Explain Role play, technique of group guidance., , 1A.3 AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE AT DIFFERENT, LEVELS:, Different agencies i.e. government and private at, international, national and regional level have been doing, significant works in the area of guidance. These agencies are, working in training /orientation, career guidance services or, development of materials for guidance workers/functionaries., 1A.3.1 International Level:, International Association of Educational and Vocational, Guidance (IAEVG)is a worldwide guidance and counselling, organization, whose mission is to promote the development and, quality of educational and vocational guidance. IAEVG‘ s mission is, also to ensure that all citizens who need and want educational and, vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling, from a competent and recognized professional. The objectives of, the organization are as follows :
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18, To promote communication among persons and organizations, active in educational and vocational guidance., To encourage the continuing development of ideas, practice, and research in the field of guidance and counselling on each, level, national and international, in developing and developed, countries., To advise government and national or international, organizations on the development of guidance systems and, further the exchange of professionals and experts., To collect and disseminate information of interest in the field, of educational and vocational guidance practice, study and, research, The Mission of IAEVG is to:, advocate that all citizens who need and want educational and, vocational guidance and counselling can receive this, counselling from a competent and recognized professional, recommend the basic nature and quality of service that, should typify the service provided to students and adults, recommend the essential training and other qualifications that, all counsellors in educational and vocational guidance should, have, urge governments to enhance, facilitate or establish an, agency, institution, or office with responsibility to develop and, maintain, policies governing the provision of educational and vocaitonal, guidance, the provision of training and continuing education programs, for counselling and guidance practitioners, the development and provision of appropriate and effective, methods and materials for guidance, the conduct of research and development to create new,, more comprehensive, and better ways of conducting, educational and vocational guidance, the development of appropriate methods of evaluation af, counselling and guidance, The Association publishes a newsletter three times a year., Furthermore IAEVG publishes the International Journal for, Educational and Vocational Guidance which is a refereed journal, publishing articles in relation to work and leisure, career, development, career counseling and guidance and career, education. The website can be found at www.iaevg.org/
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19, , Cedefop, the European Agency to promote the development, of vocational education and training, is the European Union‘s centre, of expertise to support the development of VET and evidencebased policy-making. One important task for Cedefop is to provide, guidance practitioners with advice, research, analysis and, information. On Cedefop‘s website European Training Village, (ETV)there is an area with information on lifelong guidance, (Choose lifelong guidance in the left menu). Here you will find, information on European guidance projects, links to publications, and research results, examples of good guidance strategies and, practices and a live network for all the actors who have an interest, in, the, field., The, website, can, be, found, at, www.cedefop.europa.eu/, FEDORA is an organisation for those involved in student, guidance in institutions of higher education in Europe. The, FEDORA network has especially the focus on the higher student, mobility across Europe and the challenges that gives to the, guidance practitioners. FEDORA contributes to the further, development of the guidance practitioners‘ competencies so they, can better support, inform and guide the students on mobility, issues. FEDORA organizes congresses, conferences and summer, universities and each event takes place every three years. All types, of events take place in different countries in the FEDORA member, states each year., The website can be found at, fedora.plexus.leidenuniv.nl/, IAC (International Association for Counselling) wishes to, encourage the exchange of ideas, research findings and personal, experience in the field of counselling and guidance. This happens,, among others, through organising conferences and publishing the, International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling. The, website can be found at www.iac-irtac.org/, The International Centre for Career Development and, Public Policy, ICCDPP, has the task to facilitate international, sharing of knowledge and information concerning public policy and, career development issues. ICCDPP has a base for knowledge and, information which contains proceedings from international, symposia, and reports and news provided to the site by the users, and by other international contacts. ICCDPP is supported by, OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commission etc. The, website can be found at www.iccdpp.org, The Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational, Guidance is a coalition of national associations for education and, vocational guidance in the Nordic countries and the self-governing, areas of Aaland Islands and Faeroe Islands. The aim of NFUE is to
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20, strengthen professional educational and vocational guidance in, Nordic countries., NAEVG organizes seminars and conferences and develops, cooperation with the Baltic countries. The website can be found at, www.nfsy.org, The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network aims to, assist the European Union Member States and the Commission in, moving European cooperation on lifelong guidance forward in both, the education and the employment sectors. The purpose is to, promote cooperation at Member State level on lifelong guidance, and to propose appropriate structures and support mechanisms in, implementing the priorities identified in the Resolution on Lifelong, Guidance (2004). The ELGPN was established by the Member, States and the Commission has foreseen to support the activities of, the network in 2007-2008 under the Lifelong Learning Programme., The website can be found at ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn/, International Labour Organization(ILO):, The ILO is the international organization responsible for, drawing up and overseeing international labour standards. It is the, only 'tripartite' United Nations agency that brings together, representatives of governments, employers and workers to jointly, shape policies and programmes promoting Decent Work for all., This unique arrangement gives the ILO an edge in incorporating, 'real world' knowledge about employment and work.The, organization publishes the results of research related to changing, nature of work and employment which is important for policy, makers and other users., 1A.3.2 National Level Agencies:, At national level the following organizations work in the area, of guidance and counseling., National, Council, of, Educational, Research, and, Training(NCERT):The Department of Psychology and Foundation, of Education(DEPFE), a Department under NCERT,New Delhi and, Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational, Education(PSSCIVE) ,Bhopal a constituent of NCERT organize, programme on guidance and Counselling.Some of the functions of, PSSCIVE are:, To advise and assist the Ministry of Human Resource, Development, State Governments and Union Territory, Administration in the implementation of the Vocational, Education and Work Experience Programme.
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21, To function as the technical wing of the Joint Council of, Vocational Education on all matters relating to Vocational, Education Programme (VEP)., To promote, supervise and guide the establishment of a, comprehensive management system for VEP., To serve as a resource institution for both formal and nonformal VEP., To orient and train various key functionaries of VEP,, including teachers., To evaluate and monitor VEP in States/UTs., To ensure uniformity and maintain quality standards in, vocational teaching and learning., To provide guidance and counseling on, Education and Training to the people at large., , Vocational, , DEPFE is the department of NCERT which coordinates guidance, activities in the country. The department runs an International, Diploma Course in Guidance and Counseling in collaboration, with Commonwealth of Learning, Canada. This course is offered, at the Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations, of Education (DEPFE), NCERT New Delhi as well as five, Regional Institutes of Education located at Bhubaneswar, Bhopal, Mysore, Shillong, and Ajmer. Besides the department, conducts training programme in the field of guidance and, counseling., Central Institute for Research and Training in Employment, Service (CIRTES) was established in October, 1964 under the, aegis of Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T),, Ministry of Labour, Government of India. Later, in 1970 and in, 1987, the Institute was expanded with the added responsibilities of, developing career literature and to provide guidance for the, promotion of self-employment. The Objectives of CIRTES are:, Planning and conducting training programmes for, Employment Service Personnel at State, National and, International Levels., Conducting research into problems, activities of the Employment Service., , concerning, , the, , Development and publication of career literature and audiovisual aids for use in Vocational Guidance and Career, Literature Programmes.
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22, Development of motivational material for promotion of selfemployment., There are four divisions of CIRTES i.e. training division,, research division, career study center and self employment, guidance cell., 1.TRAINING DIVISION, Training Division caters to the training needs of all the, Employment Officers of the country in placement, vocational, guidance, employment market information, self-employment, promotional activities and other related matters. Instructional, materials and training aids are devised and developed to assist, the States in organizing training programmes for the staff of their, employment exchanges. Besides, special training programmes for, the employment officers of foreign countries under various ILO, bilateral programmes are organized on request basis. The, Division also associates with other training organisations for, imparting training in the field of vocational guidance and selfemployment., 2. RESEARCH DIVISION, Research Division conducts studies on organizational,, operational and procedural aspects of NES, labour market, conditions and other related matters. Development of various, tools and techniques and evaluation of various programmes of, NES inter alia come under its purview., 3. CAREER STUDY CENTRE (CSC), CSC develops and publishes the career literature in the, shape of bookelets and pamphlets/folders on various, careers/occupations covering their job content, educational, preparatory requirements, employment and self-employment, opportunities, as a reference tool to meet the career planning, needs of students, job seekers, Vocational Guidance, Officers/Counsellors and others. These publications are, disseminated to Employment Exchanges, University Employment, Information & Guidance Bureaux (UEIGBx), Coaching-cumGuidance Centre for SC/ST, colleges, schools and also to other, agencies engaged in vocational guidance activities, through, Employment Exchanges as per their jurisdiction., 4. SELF-EMPLOYMENT GUIDANCE CELL (SEGC), SEGC prepares informative and motivational material to, assist Employment Officers in guiding and confidence building, among job seekers for adopting self-employment ventures. It also
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23, provides training to the Employment Officers on self-employment, promotional related activities., Directorate, General, of, Employment, Training(DGE&T),under Ministry of Labour evolves, and standards for vocational guidance activities, employment exchanges., , and, policy, through, , Other organizations like University Grants Commission, (UGC), All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) also, works on guidance and counseling., 1A.3.3 State Level Agencies of Guidance:, At state level SCERT, Bureau of Educational and, Vocational Guidance, Directorates of Employment work for, guidance of students., SCERT/State Guidance Bureaus coordinates guidance services, at the state level. They organize state level training./orientation for, guidance personnel., State Directorates of Employment coordinates vocational, guidance programme through employment exchanges in, states.They also develop publication on occupational information., Universities; In university employment bureaus facilities are, provided for students., 1A.3.4 Local Level:, At the local level some district employment exchanges,, private agencies and institutional level organizations work for, guidance and counseling., The role of NGOs at different level for providing guidance, activities is also very important., Check your Progress – II, Write short notes on the following :, a), b), c), d), e), , IAEVG, CIRTES, SEGC, ILO, SCERT, , 1A.4 LET US SUM UP
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24, , Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice,, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their, unique circumstances. Group guidance is used to address the, developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number, of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all, time Organization of Group Guidance Activities should focus on, Need Assessment, Determining size of the group and time, venue, for group activities, Selection of members and role specifications,, Orientation of Members, Monitoring of activities and evaluation of, outcomes. Problem solving, role play, group discussion, case, study and sociometric are some of the important techniques of, group guidance., At international level IAEVG, Cedefop, ILO, Nordic, Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance work in the, area of guidance. At the national level NCERT, CIRTES and DGE, & T are important organizations in the field of guidance., UNIT END EXERCISES, 1. Explain the term group guidance., 2. Discuss any two group guidance activities which are carried, out in school., 3. Discuss various techniques of group guidance with suitable, examples., 4. Prepare a list of national and international agencies of, guidance listing their works., SUGGESTED READINGS, Agrawal,R(2006), Educational,Vocational, Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication, , Guidance, , and, , Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A, theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House, Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel, work,New York,MiGraw Hill, Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in, Secondary Schools,New Delhi,Strling Publisher, ,
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25, , 2, GUIDANCE FOR POPULATION WITH, SPECIAL NEEDS, a., b., , Mentally Challenged Learners: Slow Learners,, Mentally Retarded and Gifted., Learning Disabilities: Dyslaxia, Dysgraphia and, Dyscalculia., , Unit Structure, 2.0, , Objectives, , 2.1, , Introduction, , 2.2, , Mentally Challenged learners, 2.2.1 Slow learners, 2.2.2 Mentally Retarded, 2.2.3 Gifted, , 2.3, , Learning disabilities, 2.3.1 Dyslenia, 2.3.2 Dysgraphia, 2.3.3 Dyscalculia, , 2.4, , Let us sum up, , 2A.0 OBJECTIVE, After reading this unit you will be able to :, Define mentally challenged learners., State different types of mentally challenge of learners., Identify special problems of slow learners., Explain learning disabilities., Tell examples of disability., Identify the learning disability of students.
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26, , 2A.1 INTRODUCTION, Children who have been determined to require special, attention and specific necessities than other children. Special, needs children face a lot of emotional, social and psychological, problems due to their disability. A teacher can prove to be very, helpful to students in providing personal and academic support. A, little help and concern from a teacher can help them stabilize their, emotional, social and psychological levels into a more balanced, learner in the classroom. Under a teacher's guidance, students will, feel secure and more engaged in the learning process. Teacher, guidance can help students with special needs express their, feelings and communicate their needs freely in the classroom which, will create a more constructive student/teacher engagement and, understanding., Therefore by providing guidance to students with Special, needs, teachers can effectively help students towards a greater, academic and social adjustment to their learning environment., , 2.2, , MENTALLY CHALLENGED LEARNERS, SLOW LEARNERS: MEANING, , Slow-learners are those who fail in school because of their, low intellectual abilities. Their IQ ranges from 55 / 60 to 85 / 90., They have a wide range of abilities and a variety of characteristics, depending on their background., The term Slow-learners is used to cover various group of, students otherwise referred to ‗Dull‘,‗Retarded‘ or ‗Educationally, Subnormal‘. Now the term Slow-learners is used more widely to, indicate the fairly large group of children whose learning is slowed, down by one or more factors of which limited ability may be one, even though their intellectual potential may be considerably higher., Definitions, Knoff (1987) – Slow Learner is the one who learn or, underachieve, in one or more academic areas, at a rate that is, below average yet not at the level considered comparable to that of, an educable mentally retarded student., Types of SL:, Very Backward – Due to retarded mental development, accompanied by psycho-social deficiency., Ability not quite limited but having difficulty in learning than, average children due to school, family or personal factors.
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27, They may derive benefits from special classes not limited in, intelligence but have, problems in reading and writing where as arithmetic and other, subjects are high. Their causes may range from specific, perpetual difficulties to emotional maladjustment. For them, some kind of remedial teaching is required., In some schools there are many SL, for them sometimes, special class is required. The children receive education in, special school or class move to a regular school after the, backwardness is removed., These children are hard to identify as they even manage in a, less advanced society and do not drew attention easily as, deaf, blind or physically handicapped do., The period at which their limitations arise are most obvious is, that of school years., 2.2.1, , SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THE SLOW-LEARNERS:, , 1., , Since in physical appearance they look like normal children,, parents and teachers have the same expectations from them, as from the latter., , 2., , When they are not able to live up to these expectations,, parents and teachers scold and punish them instead of trying, to find out the reason behind their failure., , 3., , Their classmates make fun of them., , 4., , Consequently, they are bewildered and confused, wondering, what wrong they have committed., , 5., , Since their basic needs of being loved, accepted and, recognised are not met, they develop emotional problems and, behaviour difficulties., , 6., , They generally have a low self-concept due to their limited, experience of success and due to the low opinion expressed of, them by parents, teachers and others around them., , CHARACTERISTICS, 1), , In physical appearance they are no different from normal, children and therefore likely to get admission into schools for, normal children where the curriculum is drawn up to meet the, needs of average children. So they find it extremely difficult to, cope with the education imparted in these schools, unless, special provision is made for them and the curriculum is, oriented towards practical and real life activities.
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28, 2), , They are capable of being educated in ordinary schools and, even achieving a moderate degree of success, if they are, allowed to proceed at a slower pace and the syllabus is, adapted to suit their abilities., , 3), , But, they will not be able to keep pace with the average, children and never be able to learn all the things we expect, normal children to master by the time they leave school., , 4), , They will not be able to go for higher studies despite all the, guidance and educational facilities made available to them., , 5), , They have poor memories. Their attention span is short and, they cannot concentrate on one topic, , 6), , Weakness in thinking capacity, finding out relationships,, similarity, familiarity, reasoning, object characteristic observing,, poor language and number concept development., , 7), , Poor verbal ability, Brief vocabulary., , 8), , Difficulty in abstractions., , 9), , Weakness in the memory., , 10) Constant Feeling of Insecurity., Physical Characteristics:, Poor in dressing, using drawing & writing materials and, tools., Need large practice in climbing, jumping, dancing, skipping,, games etc., Sometimes SL have better physical development than, mental development., Their capacity to learn is reduced because of sickness,, minor ailments, malnutrition etc., Causes, Poorer powers of retention., Weakness in Attention, Physical or mental personal inadequacy., Having limited capacity for taking responsibility, Unable to control feelings of aggression or outburst., Solation., Showing the sign of slow learner doesn‘t mean that the child, is slow learner, there are other factors that could cause the process, of slow learning, Emotional growth:
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29, Feelings about one self and the developing of these feeling, positive or negative is called emotional growth, Emotional and, social development are often link together because they are, relevant. In the initial stages child learn the feelings of trust, fear,, and love later on as he grow he develops the feeling of friendship,, pride, and relationship which also guide toward social-emotional, development of the child.. if the child is ignore in this stage and, proper care is not provided to them, they build negative emotion, and they avoid trust initially parents and later on other people, they, isolated them self from the outer world. Furthermore, a neglected, child, feel him self rejected, and unsecured, it affect the developing, skills of the child to socialize with others children., In this stage the changes are very rapid in child and every, change bring new change in the behaviour of the child and each, change brings about new skills. Child develop multi skills in this, stage, the most important one is positive feelings about self and, trust building with others, Environment:, Children react to their environment in early stages and he, learns from the environment in which they grow. Create a safe, environment for them and reduce the stress on your child and, remove the things which are physical threats to the children e.g.:, abusive behaviour and unsafe toys etc, With whom the child is spending his time, what is their, intellectual level. And how they treat the child, when children have a, secure environment, it flourishes their abilities in positive direction., Studies show those children who have better environment show, better confidence in life and in education., Growth and opportunities of Learning :, Opportunities of learning is very necessary for the, development of children cognitive abilities, Parents should provide, rich learning environment to their children and open new windows, of learning opportunities for them. They need simple playable, activities and games to develop their brains, Show them new things, and arrange new activities for them to enhance their thinking skill., Absenteeism:, Absenteeism from the school is another factor which can, affect the ability of learning of a child, when a child is often absent, from the class, he could catch with other student in school, he need, extra home work with the help of parents to cover his short coming, other wise he lose his self confidence, EDUCATIONAL PROVISIONS
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30, •Use of appropriate methods of learning, •–Motivation, –Learning Readiness, –A practical approach, –Concept formation, –Grading of work, –Assessment of progress, –Consolidation, –Active methods, ••individualization of treatment, ••Cooperation between various professionals, ••Parent Education and Guidance, There are several other strategies that are useful., Computers are great to use in the classroom. Computers never tire, or get interrupted making the drill and practice more effective and, fun. It is important to allow the student time to get out of his/her, seat to let off energy and relieve a little stress. A classroom that, utilizes centers is good for this. In giving instructions you should say, the child‘s name or touch them before giving the direction, write the, directions on the board or paper for each child to keep, and ask that, the student repeat the direction orally. This helps to reinforce the, direction and gives them something to refer back to if they forget., Once the student turns in the work or answers orally, provide, immediate feedback. This assures the student of their answer or, allows them to correct the answer and keeps them on task. The, most important, strategies is to provide three or four hours of, academic work. Slow learners are not efficient learners and, therefore require more hours of academic instruction to keep pace., A very big problem that every school faces, i.e. the difficulty, to deal with the slow learners. The teachers have their big, headache over these children. Handle them in homework & class, work, understanding the topic, etc are the areas concerned with the, slow learners. We try to advise them or we try to get result by hook, or crook through putting negative enforcement by punishing them. It, is estimated that due to that problem many slow learners or dropout, students are being termed as weak students & thrown out of the, school. But that is not the solution. The result of the action of the, throwing out the child out of the school paves the way to create a, dark spot in the life of the victim child. Then, where are the, solutions? If the teachers will give time to think over those children,, definitely the solution comes in their hand. It is also the proof in, history that many slow learners have become qualified themselves, as the scientists & writers in their life. So, why not we experiment, with these slow learners who are with us? Have we thought over it?, Have we tried to understand the life of a slow learner? The
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31, following discussion may help the teachers to improve the skill of, the slow learners., 1., , Psychological Analysis & Problem solution The more & more we think about the child the more we get, the solution. Firstly, we have to search the problem area of the, child. The problem of the child may be his family or friends or his, personal condition. If we go for personal asking questions as a, relative of his own, then we can be assured about getting some, difficulties for which the child is not reading. Them we, from our, level will try to get solution of this problem., 2., , Guidance from his level Child has a level of his own. Level of understanding is, different from one child to another. The weak child more often can‘t, understand the studies because he has not understood the, previous formula / concept in the previous classes. How can he, understand the concept of class IX if he has not understood the, simple concept of class VII & VIII? That‘s why the child should be, personally taught from his understanding level., 3., , Encouragement in small success The greatest factor for the success of the life of the child is, his encouragement. If we try to find out the strengths of the weak, child then we come across some of them. If we try to applaud him, with encouraging words & give confidence he definitely feels his, importance & worth. Once the child has grown his confidence, means he will definitely improve. The most important cause of his, weakness is we; the teachers always give importance to the good, children & neglect the weaker in the class. Encouragement can, change the whole personality of a child., 4., , Fixing the goal & Prescribi9ng a Time table The child should be persuaded to make a time table for the, study purpose. Sometimes some children have no goal regarding, study. The teacher should observe those children & inspire them to, fix the goal for the life & help him to make a time table for every day, work so that the child will be captured through the time table to do, the things at write time., 5., , Giving Memory tips More often the child forgets what ever he learns. That‘s why, he loses his confidence on him & differentiates between him & the, good students. The teacher‘s role is to give the tips such as ‗how to, recall‘, ‗in which way to write systematically‘, ‗when to learn‘, ‗how, to learn‘ etc., 6., , Giving importance in the class -
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32, It‘s always seen that the class room teaching goes on with, the direction & understanding of the strong children. But if the, average children do not understand your teaching & you are just, running towards the completion of syllabus then the whole teaching, is a futile one. Some times it‘s very urgent to go near the weak child, & ask personally whether he has understood or not. Here the, teacher‘s asking approach should be very polite & sweet, not rude., 7., , Self reading method Most of the weak children are found that they neglect self, reading. They may have the language understanding problem for, which they do not take interest to read. If the teacher freely tells the, child to come at home or to him in extra time for understanding the, key words then little the child will take interest to self reading. Then, definitely he improves himself slowly., 8., , Questions for Practice Some questions can be given time to time to engage the, learner in the habit of study. That is a practice which can enable the, student to come across the learning point at a regular basis., 9., , Special guidance beyond school hour Basically we the teachers now have become very, professional. After school hour we hesitate to give even a single, minute to the children which reduce our rapport. The weak children,, they need special attention beyond school hour that is personally to, take up the child‘s difficulty. We the teachers, beyond school hour,, either we waste time in gossiping or earn money in tuition. If we, give 1 hour extra time for the weak children then definitely they will, improve. Because it is very difficult to give time to the weak ones in, the classroom itself., 10., , Seating arrangement More often we see that the strong children in the class room, don‘t wish to sit with the weak children. The weak ones always sit, with the weak. This is another cause for the no improvement of the, weak children. If the class teacher prepares seating arrangements, properly to benefit the weak children-to make arrangement to sit the, strong one with the weak one & instruct to the strong one to help, the weak one in studies then the weak ones may be improved in, studies., 11., , Search physical or mental problem The teacher should find out any physical or mental problem, of the child. A child is not writing anything from the black board, means may be some eye defect. A child is not obeying the words of, the teacher, may be some mental problem is there. Some children, are severely affected by the physical problems which made them
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33, lazy to read & write. Firstly the teacher / parent should find out the, problems then treat them accordingly., , 12., , Creating confidence level in his interest areas The teacher should observe the child & secretly know the, interest areas of the child. Even if the child plays, act, does some, work the teacher / parent should find out his interest / specialty., Because every child is special. The encouragement can be started, from the child‘s interest areas. When the child builds his confidence, in his interest area then we can expand & inspire the same, confidence in other areas also., 13., , BE A FRIEND TO HIM Be a friend to the weak child. Teacher should try to, knowingly mix with the child more & more with him. Unknowingly, when the friendship is build with that child then the child starts, loving the teacher. The starting of love starts the surrender of the, child towards the same teacher. Then the teacher, whatever he, tells the child obeys it. The mystery of all success is the love,, understanding & friendship., Oh teacher! Many more children are waiting to catch your, lovable hand. They are searching you as a friend. They are so, called by the society as slow learners or weak ones but actually, they are not. May be some unfortunate moment misguided them. Is, it not noble to improve them, support them to develop in their own, pace? Is it not wise to take care of them?, The history has proved the slow learners such as Thomas, Edison & Gandhi as the world class Scientist & Leader respectively., Every child is special. As every child has a soul, there is, every possibility of improvement, sooner or later. The goal of the, soul is to develop. The source of energy is lying within them but the, only thing is to stretch the hand of confidence towards them which, will solve their problem & improve their quality., 2.2.2 Mental retardation:, Introduction:, A developmental disability characterized by significantly sub, average general intellectual functioning, with concurrent deficits in, adaptive behavior. The causes are many and include both genetic, and environmental factors as well as interactions between the two., In most cases the diagnosis is not formally made until children have, entered into school settings. In the preschool years, the diagnosis, is more likely to be established by evidence of delayed maturation
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34, in the areas of sensory-motor, adaptive, cognitive, social, and, verbal behaviors. By definition, evidence of mental retardation must, exist prior to adulthood, where vocational limitation may be evident,, but the need for supervision or support may persist beyond the, usual age of social emancipation., Definition:, Mental retardation is a developmental disability that first, appears in children under the age of 18. It is defined as an, intellectual functioning level (as measured by standard tests for, intelligence quotient) that is well below average and significant, limitations in daily living skills (adaptive functioning)., Limitations in adaptive behavior must also be demonstrable, in order to satisfy diagnostic criteria for mental retardation. This, criterion is important because certain artistic or other gifts may not, be revealed by formal IQ testing, and different levels of learning, difficulty may be accentuated by the demands of specific, environments. Outside such environments, an individual may, navigate a normal course in life., Levels of Mental Retardation:, Mental retardation varies in severity. There are four different, degrees of mental retardation: mild, moderate, severe, and, profound. These categories are based on the functioning level of, the individual., Individuals with mental retardation are typically sub classified, in terms of the manifest severity of cognitive disability as reflected, by the ratio of mental age to chronological age, or intelligence, quotient (IQ). Sub average intellectual functioning is defined as an, IQ score of at least two standard deviations below the mean, or, approximately 70 to 75 or below. Mild, moderate, severe, and, profound degrees of mental retardation refer to below the normal IQ, for the general population., Class, , IQ, , Profound mental retardation, , Below, 20, 20–, 34, 35-49, , Severe mental retardation, Moderate mental retardation, Mild mental retardation, Borderline intellectual functioning, , Mild Mental Retardation:, , 50–, 69, 70–, 84
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35, Approximately 85 percent of the mentally retarded, population is in the mildly retarded category. Their IQ score ranges, from 50 to 75, and they can often acquire academic skills up to the, sixth grade level. They can become fairly self-sufficient and in some, cases live independently, with community and social support., Moderate Mental Retardation:, About 10 percent of the mentally retarded population is, considered moderately retarded. Moderately retarded individuals, have IQ scores ranging from 35 to 55. They can carry out work and, self-care tasks with moderate supervision. They typically acquire, communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function, successfully within the community in a supervised environment, such as a group home., Severe Mental Retardation:, About 3 to 4 percent of the mentally retarded population is, severely retarded. Severely retarded individuals have IQ scores of, 20 to 40. They may master very basic self-care skills and some, communication skills. Many severely retarded individuals are able, to live in a group home., Profound Mental Retardation:, Only 1 to 2 percent of the mentally retarded population is, classified as profoundly retarded. Profoundly retarded individuals, have IQ scores under 20 to 25. They may be able to develop basic, self-care and communication skills with appropriate support and, training. Their retardation is often caused by an accompanying, neurological disorder. The profoundly retarded need a high level of, structure and supervision., The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), has developed another widely accepted diagnostic classification, system for mental retardation. The AAMR classification system, focuses on the capabilities of the retarded individual rather than on, the limitations. The categories describe the level of support, required. They are: intermittent support, limited support, extensive, support, and pervasive support. Intermittent support, for example, is, support needed only occasionally, perhaps during times of stress or, crisis. It is the type of support typically required for most mildly, retarded individuals. At the other end of the spectrum, pervasive, support, or life-long, daily support for most adaptive areas, would, be required for profoundly retarded individuals., Causes:, Low IQ scores and limitations in adaptive skills are the, hallmarks of mental retardation. Aggression, self-injury, and mood, disorders are sometimes associated with the disability. The severity, of the symptoms and the age at which they first appear depend on, the cause. Children who are mentally retarded reach
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36, developmental milestones significantly later than expected, if at all., If retardation is caused by chromosomal or other genetic disorders,, it is often apparent from infancy. If retardation is caused by, childhood illnesses or injuries, learning and adaptive skills that were, once easy may suddenly become difficult or impossible to master., In about 35 percent of cases, the cause of mental retardation, cannot be found. Biological and environmental factors that can, cause mental retardation include genetics, prenatal illnesses and, issues, childhood illnesses and injuries, and environmental factors., Genetics:, About 5 percent of mental retardation is caused by, hereditary factors. Mental retardation may be caused by an, inherited abnormality of the genes, such as fragile X syndrome., Fragile X, a defect in the chromosome that determines sex, is the, most common inherited cause of mental retardation. Single gene, defects such as phenylketonuria (PKU) and other inborn errors of, metabolism may also cause mental retardation if they are not found, and treated early. An accident or mutation in genetic development, may also cause retardation. Examples of such accidents are, development of an extra chromosome 18 (trisomy 18) and Down, syndrome. Down syndrome is caused by an abnormality in the, development of chromosome 21. It is the most common genetic, cause of mental retardation., Prenatal Illnesses and Issues:, Fetal alcohol syndrome affects one in 600 children in the, United States. It is caused by excessive alcohol intake in the first, twelve weeks (trimester) of pregnancy. Some studies have shown, that even moderate alcohol use during pregnancy may cause, learning disabilities in children. Drug abuse and cigarette smoking, during pregnancy have also been linked to mental retardation., Maternal infections and illnesses such as glandular, disorders, rubella, toxoplasmosis, and cytomegalovirus infection, may cause mental retardation. When the mother has high blood, pressure (hypertension) or blood poisoning (toxemia), the flow of, oxygen to the fetus may be reduced, causing brain damage and, mental retardation., Birth defects that cause physical deformities of the head,, brain, and central nervous system frequently cause mental, retardation. Neural tube defect, for example, is a birth defect in, which the neural tube that forms the spinal cord does not close, completely. This defect may cause children to develop an, accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid on the brain (hydrocephalus)., By putting pressure on the brain hydrocephalus can cause learning, impairment.
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37, , Childhood Illnesses and Injuries:, Hyperthyroidism, whooping cough, chickenpox, measles,, and Hib disease (a bacterial infection) may cause mental, retardation if they are not treated adequately. An infection of the, membrane covering the brain (meningitis) or an inflammation of the, brain itself (encephalitis) cause swelling that in turn may cause, brain damage and mental retardation. Traumatic brain injury, caused by a blow or a violent shake to the head may also cause, brain damage and mental retardation in children., Environmental Factors:, Ignored or neglected infants who are not provided the mental, and physical stimulation required for normal development may, suffer irreversible learning impairments. Children who live in, poverty and suffer from malnutrition, unhealthy living conditions,, and improper or inadequate medical care are at a higher risk., Exposure to lead can also cause mental retardation. Many children, develop lead poisoning by eating the flaking lead-based paint often, found in older buildings., Diagnosis:, A complete medical, family, social, and educational history is, compiled from existing medical and school records (if applicable), and from interviews with parents. Children are given intelligence, tests to measure their learning abilities and intellectual functioning., Such tests include the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, the, Wechsler Intelligence Scales, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary, Scale of Intelligence, and the Kaufmann Assessment Battery for, Children. For infants, the Bayley Scales of Infant Development may, be used to assess motor, language, and problem-solving skills., Interviews with parents or other caregivers are used to assess the, child's daily living, muscle control, communication, and social skills., The Woodcock-Johnson Scales of Independent Behavior and the, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale (VABS) are frequently used to, test these skills., Treatment:, Training in independent living and job skills is often begun in, early adulthood. The level of training depends on the degree of, retardation. Mildly retarded individuals can often acquire the skills, needed to live independently and hold an outside job. Moderate to, profoundly retarded individuals usually require supervised, community living. Family therapy can help relatives of the mentally, retarded develop coping skills. It can also help parents deal with, feelings of guilt or anger. A supportive, warm home environment is, essential to help the mentally retarded reach their full potential., Prognosis:
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38, Individuals with mild to moderate mental retardation are, frequently able to achieve some self-sufficiency and to lead happy, and fulfilling lives. To reach these goals, they need appropriate and, consistent educational, community, social, family, and vocational, supports. The outlook is less promising for those with severe to, profound retardation. Studies have shown that these individuals, have a shortened life expectancy. The diseases that are usually, associated with severe retardation may cause the shorter life span., People with Down syndrome develop in later life the brain changes, that characterize Alzheimer's disease and may develop the clinical, symptoms of this disease as well., Prevention:, Immunization against diseases such as measles and HIV, prevents many of the illnesses that can cause mental retardation. In, addition, all children should undergo routine developmental, screening as part of their pediatric care. Screening is particularly, critical for those children who may be neglected or undernourished, or may live in disease-producing conditions. Newborn screening, and immediate treatment for PKU and hyperthyroidism can usually, catch these disorders early enough to prevent retardation. Good, prenatal care can also help prevent retardation. Pregnant women, should be educated about the risks of drinking and the need to, maintain good nutrition during pregnancy. Tests such as, amniocentesis and ultra sonography can determine whether a fetus, is developing normally in the womb., Strategies:, Activities should be divided into manageable parts and carefully, sequenced to offer a progression of skills., Repetition of important tasks may also facilitate learning., Whenever possible, it is helpful to provide a demonstration so, participants can model the desired behavior., Use verbal instructions that are clear and easy to understand., Provide careful supervision of all activities especially those in, which accidents or injuries are possible, but be careful not to, overprotect participants., Explain required learning tasks in terms of concrete concepts., Stress real life applications., Plan activities that are age appropriate., Plan activities that require skills useful in community living, job, training, etc., Try to ensure that the challenges of an activity correspond with, the skills of the participants.
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39, When possible start an activity at the participant‘s current skill, level rather than the lowest possible level., Small group and cooperative activities may facilitate social, development for those with deficiencies in adaptive behavior., Establish necessary rules for appropriate behavior, and use, consistent consequences., Parental Concerns:, All states are required by law to offer early intervention, programs for mentally retarded children from the time they are, born. The sooner the diagnosis of mental retardation is made, the, more the child can be helped. With mentally retarded infants, the, treatment emphasis is on sensori motor development, which can be, stimulated by exercises and special types of play. It is required that, special education programs be available for retarded children, starting at three years of age. These programs concentrate on, essential self-care, such as feeding, dressing, and toilet training., There is also specialized help available for language and, communication difficulties and physical disabilities. As children, grow older, training in daily living skills, as well as academic, subjects, is offered., Counseling and therapy are another important type of, treatment for the mentally retarded. Retarded children are prone to, behavioral problems caused by short attention span, low tolerance, for frustration, and poor impulse control. Behavior therapy with a, mental health professional can help combat negative behavior, patterns and replace them with more functional ones. A counselor, or therapist can also help retarded children cope with the low selfesteem that often results from the realization that they are different, from other children, including siblings. Counseling can also be, valuable for the family of a retarded child to help parents cope with, painful feelings about the child's condition and with the extra time, and patience needed for the care and education of a special-needs, child. Siblings may need to talk about the pressures they face, such, as accepting the extra time and attention their parents must devote, to a retarded brother or sister. Sometimes parents have trouble, bonding with an infant who is retarded and need professional help, and reassurance to establish a close and loving relationship., 2.2.3 Gifted Children:, Meaning:, Someone who shows, or has the potential for showing, an, exceptional level of performance in one or more areas of, expression., Characteristics of Gifted Students:, • Learn Quickly and Easily
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40, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Able to use abstract thought and critical reasoning, Exhibit Verbal Proficiency, Have a high energy level, Become bored and frustrated, Dislike repetition, Receive negative adult attitudes to smartness, Dominate Discussions, Difficulty with listening skills, Become frustrated with inactivity and lack of challenge, Be extremely persistent, Concentrate on tasks of high interest for extended periods of, time, Exhibit unusual emotional depth and intensity, Be highly sensitive, Be acutely perceptive, Disrupt class routine, Resist interruptions or schedules, Perceived as stubborn or uncooperative, Be unusually vulnerable, Perceived as immature, Be confused if thoughts and feelings not taken seriously, Aim at perfection, Exhibit independence and nonconformity, Heightened self-awareness, Relate more to older children and adults, Feel frustrated, Fear failure, Challenge and question indiscreetly, Exhibit rebellious behavior, Social isolation, Low self-esteem due to seeing differences from peers as bad, Seen as a ―show off‖, Keen sense of humor, Possess unusual imagination, Causes, Experience, Biological Factors, Social Factors, No single factor that ―causes‖ giftedness, , Difficulties for Gifted Children: Chil
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41, Perfectionism, Isolation, Underachievement– vs. Selective Achievement v Selective, Impostor Syndrome Impostor Syndrome, Masking Abilities Masking Abilities, Delinquency, Depression, Anxiety, Suicide, Strategies for Teaching Gifted Students:, Create alternative activities that go beyond the regular curriculum., Work with students to design an independent project that, they would be interested in completing for credit, If possible, involve students in academic competitions in, your area., Create tiered assignments, which, expectations for different levels of learners., , have, , different, , Computers can be used to complete alternative activities, and independent projects. Program For Gifted, Acceleration and Enrichment:, Acceleration refers to the speeding up of instruction. Gifted, children are fast learners and require little repetition of information., Enrichment refers to the increased depth of study of a particular, topic. It extends the regular curriculum. Both are needed in some, form., Multiple Options:, Is the program a ―one size fits all‖ program or are there, various options for the different needs of the different types of gifted, children? A profoundly gifted child has significantly different, educational needs than does a mildly gifted child, for example. In, addition, a child may be exceptionally gifted in math, but not in, language arts. Multiple options are essential., Student Learning Expectations, Learning outcomes must be clear. The students may have, fun, but they must also learn something new., Challenging Curriculum, Gifted children need a stimulating curriculum. Without it, they, can "tune out," losing interest in school. A curriculum for gifted, children should require them to stretch their minds.
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42, Flexibility, Flexibility is needed in order to respond to the needs of, individual gifted children. Rigid adherence to the system often, prevents some gifted children from appropriate challenges., Staff Development Plan, Teachers who have been trained to work with gifted, children are much more effective than those who have not., Guidance Component, Gifted children often feel isolated or "different." They, sometimes don't feel like they fit in socially with the other children., They also can be very sensitive and have a harder time than other, children dealing with the day-to-day stress of school or growing up., The guidance can be individual or group guidance., Honoring Academic Talent, Schools must honor all talent areas in the same way athletic, talent is honored Names of achievers can be listed or announced in, the same way sports heroes are listed and announced., TIPS FOR NURTURING GIFTED CHILDREN, , , Appreciate gifted learners as children., , , , Interact with families with gifted children., , , , Recognize how the personal and instructional needs of a, gifted child differ from others., , , , Appreciate the differences among high achievers, gifted, learners, and creative thinkers., , , , Understand the developmental crises for gifted students., , , , Assure your child that being different is okay., , , , Be an encourager., , , , Emphasize that what is learned is more important than any, grade., , , , Be an active listener and elicit children‘s perceptions., , , , Follow their interests and leads in learning situations rather, than pressure them with your agenda., , , , Talk up to them., , , , Enjoy music, plays, museums, art, sports, and historical, places together and discuss the experience.
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43, , , Model life-long learning habits, , , , Facilitate real-life reading, writing, science, and math, experiences., , , , Give books and learning games as presents, and then spend, time together reading and playing those games., , , , Recognize that gifted children need to question and respond, critically., , , , Maintain a sense of humor!, , 2.3, , LEARNING DISABILITIES:, , Dyslaxia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia, What is a learning disability?, A child with a learning disability cannot try harder, pay closer, attention, or improve motivation on their own; they need help to, learn how to do those things. A learning disability, or learning, disorder, is not a problem with intelligence. Learning disorders are, caused by a difference in the brain that affects how information is, received, processed, or communicated. Children and adults with, learning disabilities have trouble processing sensory information, because they see, hear, and understand things differently., Symptoms and types of learning disabilities and disorders, Motor difficulties and learning disabilities:, Motor difficulty refers to problems with movement and, coordination whether it is with fine motor skills (cutting, writing) or, gross motor skills (running, jumping). A motor disability is, sometimes referred to as an ―output‖ activity meaning that it relates, to the output of information from the brain. In order to run, jump,, write or cut something, the brain must be able to communicate with, the, necessary, limbs, to, complete, the, action., Signs that your child might have a motor coordination disability, include problems with physical abilities that require hand–eye, coordination, like holding a pencil or buttoning a shirt., Math difficulties and learning disabilities:, Learning disabilities in math vary greatly depending on the, child‘s other strengths and weaknesses. A child‘s ability to do math, will be affected differently by a language learning disability, or a, visual disorder or a difficulty with sequencing, memory or, organization., A child with a math–based learning disorder may struggle, with memorization and organization of numbers, operation signs,, and number ―facts‖.
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44, Language difficulties and learning disabilities:, Language and communication learning disabilities involve, the ability to understand or produce spoken language. Language is, also considered an output activity because it requires organizing, thoughts in the brain and calling upon the right words to verbally, explain something or communicate with someone else., Signs of a language–based learning disorder involve problems with, verbal language skills, such as the ability to retell a story and the, fluency of speech, as well as the ability to understand the meaning, of words, parts of speech, directions, etc., Reading difficulties and learning disabilities:, There are two types of learning disabilities in reading. Basic, reading problems occur when there is difficulty understanding the, relationship between sounds, letters and words. Reading, comprehension problems occur when there is an inability to grasp, the, meaning, of, words,, phrases,, and, paragraphs., Signs of reading difficulty include problems with: letter and word, recognition , understanding words and ideas . reading speed and, fluency, general vocabulary skills., Writing difficulties and learning disabilities:, Learning disabilities in writing can involve the physical act of, writing or the mental activity of comprehending and synthesizing, information. Basic writing disorder refers to physical difficulty, forming words and letters. Expressive writing disability indicates a, struggle to organize thoughts on paper., Symptoms of a written language learning disability revolve, around the act of writing and include. They include problems with:, neatness and consistency of writing , accurately copying letters and, words , spelling consistency, writing organization and coherence., Auditory and visual processing: the importance of the ears, and the eyes., The eyes and the ears are the primary means of delivering, information to the brain, a process sometimes called ―input.‖ If, either the eyes or the ears aren‘t working properly, learning can, suffer and there is a greater likelihood of a learning disability or, disorder., Professionals may refer to the ability to hear well as, ―auditory processing skills‖ or ―receptive language.‖ The ability to, hear things correctly greatly impacts the ability to read, write and, spell. An inability to distinguish subtle differences in sound, or, hearing sounds at the wrong speed make it difficult to sound out, words and understand the basic concepts of reading and writing., Problems in visual perception include missing subtle, differences in shapes, reversing letters or numbers, skipping words,
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45, skipping lines, misperceiving depth or distance, or having problems, with eye–hand coordination. Professionals may refer to the work of, the eyes as ―visual processing.‖ Visual perception can affect gross, and fine motor skills, reading comprehension, and math., Common Types of Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, , Difficulty processing Problems reading, writing,, language, spelling , speaking, , Dyscalculia, , Difficulty with math, , Problems, doing, math, problems,, understanding, time, using money, , Dysgraphia, , Difficulty with writing, , Problems with handwriting,, spelling, organizing ideas, , Dyspraxia, (Sensory, Integration, Disorder), Auditory, Processing, Disorder, , Difficulty with, motor skills, , Visual, Processing, Disorder, , Difficulty interpreting Problems, with, visual information, math,, maps,, symbols, pictures, , Difficulty, differences, sounds, , fine Problems with, coordination,, manual dexterity, , hand–eye, balance,, , hearing Problems, with, reading,, between comprehension, language, , reading,, charts,, , Diagnosis and testing for learning disabilities and disorders, Specialists trained to do psychological testing and result, interpretation, Clinical psychologist, School psychologist, Educational psychologist, Developmental psychologist, Neuropsychologist, Psychometrist, Occupational therapist (tests sensory disorders that can lead, to learning problems), Speech and language therapist, Sometimes several professionals coordinate services as a, team to obtain an accurate diagnosis, including input from your
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46, child's teachers. Recommendations can then be made for special, education services or speech–language therapy school system., 2.3.1 Dyslexia, Definition:, The term "Dyslexia" is used to cover a wide range of, learning problems. It refers to a specific difficulty in learning, either, inborn or acquired, in reading, spelling and written language. This, may also be accompanied by difficulty in number work. It is a, neurological condition in which the child has tremendous difficulty, acquiring language skills, even though she may be intellectually, bright, with oral skills so good that she is able to bluff her way, through the early classes., Dyslexia is a broad term defining a learning disability that, impairs a person's fluency or accuracy in being able to read, write,, and spell, and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with, phonological awareness, phonological decoding, orthographic, coding, auditory short-term memory, and/or rapid naming. Dyslexia, is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other, causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or, hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction. There are, three proposed cognitive subtypes of dyslexia: auditory, visual and, attentional. Although dyslexia is not an intellectual disability, it is, considered both a learning disability and a reading disability., Dyslexia and IQ are not interrelated, since reading and cognition, develop independently in individuals who have dyslexia., The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, gives the following definition for dyslexia:, "Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that, specifically impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals, typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite, having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies from, person to person, common characteristics among people with, dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the, manipulation of sounds), and/or rapid visual-verbal responding. In, adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or in the context, of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent, studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an, individual to developing dyslexia".[, , Signs and symptoms:, The symptoms of dyslexia vary according to the severity of, the disorder as well as the age of the individual., The chronological sequence of events:
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47, 1., , In the first year the child may be a bit slow in acquiring the, alphabet and some aspects of sight vocabulary., , 2., , By about 7 years of age, the child may begin to have, difficulty in reading and spelling and may therefore become, demotivated., , 3., , As the child grows older and is not given appropriate help in, reading, writing and spelling, these will further lag behind the, chronological age., , 4., , The child, faced with his own failure, will show a low self, esteem., , 5., , Another feature therefore, is a secondary anxiety problem, which manifests itself in many ways. The child may be, withdrawn, anxious, aggressive or 'playful '., , Preschool-aged children:, It is difficult to obtain a certain diagnosis of dyslexia before a, child begins school, but many dyslexic individuals have a history of, difficulties that began well before kindergarten. Children who exhibit, these symptoms early in life have a higher likelihood of being, diagnosed as dyslexic than other children. These symptoms, include:, delays in speech, slow learning of new words, not crawling, difficulty in rhyming words, as in nursery rhymes, low letter knowledge, letter reversal or mirror writing (for example, "Я" instead of "R"), Early primary school children:, Difficulty learning the alphabet or letters order, Difficulty with associating sounds with the letters that represent, them (sound-symbol correspondence), Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting, syllables in words[33] (phonological awareness), Difficulty segmenting words into individual sounds, or blending, sounds to make words[34] (phonemic awareness), Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems[35][36][37], Difficulty learning to decode written words, Difficulty distinguishing between similar sounds in words; mixing, up sounds in polysyllabic words (auditory discrimination) (for, example, "aminal" for animal, "bisghetti" for spaghetti), Older primary school children:, Slow or inaccurate reading (although these individuals can, read to an extent).
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48, Very poor spelling[38] which has been called dysorthographia, (orthographic coding), Difficulty reading out loud, reading words in the wrong order,, skipping words and sometimes saying a word similar to, another word (auditory processing disorder), Difficulty associating individual words with their correct, meanings, Difficulty with time keeping and concept of time when doing a, certain task, Difficulty with organization skills (working memory), Children with dyslexia may fail to see (and occasionally to, hear) similarities and differences in letters and words, may not, recognize the spacing that organizes letters into separate, words, and may be unable to sound out the pronunciation of an, unfamiliar word (auditory processing disorder)., DYSLEXIA SYMPTOMS:, A discrepancy between the pupil's ability and their actual, achievement If you notice that a child who appears to be average, or bright when they are talking to you is struggling to read, spell or, cope with math/s, this may be the strongest indicator that they may, be dyslexic. It is very common for dyslexic children to be quite able,, especially in the areas of creativity (art, drama, drawing, etc) and, physical co-ordination (physical education, swimming, sports,, model-making, etc.). However, there are differences in the neural, links in their brain that makes it hard for them to deal with text (and, often with numbers) without extra support. A reading age or grade, level of two years below what you would expect from them is a sign, of possible dyslexia. Obviously, this could also be caused by other, factors such as lengthy absences from school due to illness., A family history of learning difficulties:, Dyslexia is most often inherited through the genes. It can, also be caused by early ear infections. In both cases it is harder for, a young child to distinguish the difference between similar sounding, words. The numbers of boys and girls who are dyslexic are roughly, the same., , Difficulties with spelling:, Spelling is the activity which causes most difficulty for, dyslexic children. Noticing spelling errors in short, simple words is
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49, the way in which most dyslexic children first come our attention., Examples of words which cause particular difficulty are: any, many,, island, said, they, because, enough, and friend., Other words will sometimes be spelt in the way that you, would expect them to be spelt if our spelling system were rational,, for example does/dus, please/pleeze, knock/nock, search/serch,, journey/jerney, etc., Dyslexic children also experience difficulties with 'jumbled, spellings'. These are spelling attempts in which all the correct, letters are present, but are written in the wrong order. Examples, include, dose/does,, freind/friend,, siad/said,, bule/blue,, becuase/because, and wores/worse. 'Jumbled spellings' show that, the child is experiencing difficulty with visual memory. Non-dyslexic, children and adults often use their visual memory when trying to, remember a difficult spelling: they write down two or three possible, versions of the word on a spare piece of paper and see which, spelling 'looks right'. They are relying on their visual memory to help, them, but the visual memory of a dyslexic child may not be, adequate for this task., Confusion over left and right:, A fairly quick way to establish this type of confusion is to, ask a child to point to your left foot with his or her right hand. If you, try similar instructions - in a non-threatening environment - you will, soon be able to see if this causes difficulties or not. (Try it on a, colleague - who is not dyslexic - and you can see how a nondyslexic person is able to sort out the left and right elements quite, readily.) You may also notice difficulties with east and west, or in, following directions like 'Go to the end of the road and turn left, then, right, etc'., , Writing letters or numbers backwards:, You will have noticed some children who mix up 'b' and 'd',, or even 'p' and the number 9. These letters are the same in their, mirror image, and cause regular confusion for a dyslexic person., Some pupils make a point of always writing the letter 'b' as au, upper-case or capital 'B', as they find this much easier to remember, in terms of the direction it faces., , Difficulties with math/s:, One feature of dyslexia is difficulties with sequencing getting things in the right order. Math/s depends on sequences of
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50, numbers - 2. 4. 6. 8. etc. Whilst many people are aware that, dyslexic children and students have problems with reading and, spelling, they do not know that math/s can also be a real challenge., Difficulties organizing themselves:, Whilst you may quite reasonably think that all children live, their lives in a mess, this is particularly so for dyslexic children and, students, who may have genuine difficulties with planning and, thinking ahead to when a book or pen might be needed next. They, can really benefit from help with organizing papers and folders, under a simple color-coded system., Difficulty following 2- or 3-step instructions:, 'Go to Mrs. Brown and ask her if Peter Smith is in school, today. Oh, yes, and ask if I can borrow her dictionary' - such an, instruction is just too much! It involves both sequencing and, memory skills, and you would be very surprised to see a dyslexic, child return with the dictionary and information about Peter Smith!, Dyslexic children love to take messages as much as any other, child, but it has to be a less complicated instruction, e.g. 'Ask Mrs., Brown if I can borrow her stapler'., Causes:, Research shows that dyslexia is unrelated to home, environment, intellect or social class. Dyslexics usually follow, the normal distribution curve of IQ pattern, and several dyslexics, have average to above average IQ., Birth traumas such as oxygen deprivation, head injuries and, certain medications such as those for seizures are also one of, the factors., Recent research also indicates that the brains of dyslexics differ, structurally from brains of others. Their information processing, system also differs in a distinctive manner., There is also some evidence to suggest that dyslexia is largely, inherited., Main characteristics:, Adequate and sometimes above average ability to understand, and comprehend., Poor development of written language skills, Lack of ability to differentiate between letters of similar shape,, such as 'b' and 'd', 'p' and 'q'. Mirror image reversal of these, letters.
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51, Lack of strong preference for either right-handedness or lefthandedness., Tendency to transpose word images: to read 'saw' as 'was', 'on', as 'no', etc., Serious inability to spell and learn things in sequence, such as, months of the year., Difficulty in spelling, reading and writing. Some children have, difficulty in spatial orientation too., Difficulty in, questions., , copying, , notes, , and, , answering, , examination, , Diagnosis:, There is a grave danger of classifying a slow learner, as dyslexic. A child can be considered a dyslexic, if: her intelligence, is high but her academic achievements are low and, she, demonstrates a few of the recognised dyslexic symptoms including:, 1. a disparity between her actual reading ability and listening, comprehension ability, 2. sequencing and visual memory deficit and, 3. problems in spelling., Treatment:, Dyslexics learn best in highly structured environment., They have a poor visual memory for words and must go back to, basic phonics and phonetic techniques in a multi-sensory, teaching approach., The magic formula is: drill, practice and repetition, There is no medicine or drug that can cure dyslexia, only, remedial teaching can., Assessment:, Assessment of children with learning problems provides the, basis for remediation. Assessment information is of two types:, 1. General information: This includes case history material,, general abilities of the child, observational data, etc. It gives an, overall picture of the child and suggests a beginning point for, remediation., 2. Specific information: This gives results of direct measurement, of the students performance in language, arithmetic and other, areas that provides the basis for further instruction.
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52, Assessment of general abilities: This is done to determine, whether the child functions at a lower or higher level of intelligence, for her age. This cannot be done only on the basis of academic, records. A child may be intelligent but due to lack of motivation or, other factors perform poorly in academics. Some of the other ways, of judging the child's general abilities are as follows:, Observing the child's general capacity in areas other than, academics compared to other children her age, such as,, comprehension, ability to go out and buy things, counting,, understanding TV programmes, etc., Observing the child when she plays with other children of her age, group, A Dyslexic Child in the Classroom:, A guide for teachers:, Much can be done by integrating the child into the class, environment (which is predominantly a learning environment), where he/she can feel comfortable and develop confidence and self, esteem., Class teachers may be particularly confused by the student, whose consistent underachievement seems due to what may look, like carelessness or lack of effort., These children can be made to feel very different from their, peers simply because they may be unable to follow simple, instructions, which for others seem easy. It is a class teacher's, responsibility to provide an atmosphere conducive to learning for all, pupils within their class., Class teachers need to have an understanding of the, problems that the dyslexic child may have within the classroom, situation. Hopefully, with this knowledge, a great deal of, misunderstanding of a child's behaviour can be prevented. In a, positive and encouraging environment, a dyslexic child will, experience the feeling of success and self-value., Of particular importance is an understanding of the problems, that poor auditory short term memory can cause, in terms of, retaining input from the teacher., Examples of poor auditory short term memory can be a, difficulty in remembering the sounds in spoken words long enough, to match these, in sequence, with letters for spelling. Often children, with poor auditory short term memory cannot remember even a, short list of instructions.
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53, The following items should provide useful guidelines for, teachers and parents to follow and support :, In the class:, Of value to all children in the class is an outline of what is going, to be taught in the lesson, ending the lesson with a resume of, what has been taught. In this way information is more likely to, go from short term memory to long term memory., When homework is set, it is important to check that the child, correctly writes down exactly what is required. Try to ensure, that the appropriate worksheets and books are with the child to, take home., In the front of the pupils' homework book get them to write, down the telephone numbers of a couple of friends. Then, if, there is any doubt over homework, they can ring up and check,, rather than worry or spend time doing the wrong work., Make sure that messages and day to day classroom activities, are written down, and never sent verbally. i.e. music, P. E., swimming etc., Make a daily check list for the pupil to refer to each evening., Encourage a daily routine to help develop the child's own selfreliance and responsibilities., Encourage good organizational skills by the use of folders and, dividers to keep work easily accessible and in an orderly, fashion., Break tasks down into small easily remembered pieces of, information., If visual memory is poor, copying must be kept to a minimum., Notes or handouts are far more useful., Seat the child fairly near the class teacher so that the teacher, is available to help if necessary, or he can be supported by a, well-motivated and sympathetic classmate., Copying from the blackboard:, Use different colour chalks for each line if there is a lot of, written information on the board, or underline every second line, with a different coloured chalk., Ensure that the writing is well spaced., Leave the writing on the blackboard long enough to ensure the, child doesn't rush, or that the work is not erased from the board, before the child has finished copying., Reading:
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54, A structured reading scheme that involves repetition and, introduces new words slowly is extremely important. This allows, the child to develop confidence and self esteem when reading., Don't ask pupils to read a book at a level beyond their current, skills, this will instantly demotivate them. Motivation is far better, when demands are not too high, and the child can actually enjoy, the book. If he has to labour over every word he will forget the, meaning of what he is reading., Save the dyslexic child the ordeal of having to 'read aloud in, class'. Reserve this for a quiet time with the class teacher., Alternatively, perhaps give the child advanced time to read preselected reading material, to be practiced at home the day, before. This will help ensure that the child is seen to be able to, read out loud, along with other children, Real books should also be available for paired reading with an, adult, which will often generate enthusiasm for books. Story, tapes can be of great benefit for the enjoyment and, enhancement of vocabulary. No child should be denied the, pleasure of gaining access to the meaning of print even if he, cannot decode it fully., Remember reading should be fun., Spelling:, Many of the normal classroom techniques used to teach, spellings do not help the dyslexic child. All pupils in the class, can benefit from structured and systematic exposure to rules, and patterns that underpin a language., Spelling rules can be given to the whole class. Words for class, spelling tests are often topic based rather than grouped for, structure. If there are one or two dyslexics in the class, a short, list of structure-based words for their weekly spelling test, will be, far more helpful than random words. Three or four irregular, words can be included each week, eventually this should be, seen to improve their free-writing skills., All children should be encouraged to proof read, which can be, useful for initial correction of spellings. Dyslexics seem to be, unable to correct their spellings spontaneously as they write, but, they can be trained to look out for errors that are particular to, them., Remember, poor spelling is not an indication of low, intelligence., 2.2.2 Dyscalculia:, "Dyscalculia" is a lesser-known learning disability that affects, mathematical calculations. It is derived from the generic name, "mathematics difficulty".
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55, A student with any degree of mathematics difficulty may be, considered to have "dyscalculia" by some educational specialists., UNDERLYING CAUSES:, Dyscalculia has several underlying causes. One of the most, prominent is a weakness in visual processing. To be successful in, mathematics, one needs to be able to visualize numbers and, mathematics situations. Students with dyscalculia have a very, difficult time visualizing numbers and often mentally mix up the, numbers, resulting in what appear to be "stupid mistakes.", Another problem is with sequencing. Students who have, difficulty sequencing or organizing detailed information often have, difficulty remembering specific facts and formulas for completing, their mathematical calculations., SYMPTOMS:, Many students with disabilities have histories of academic, failure that contribute to the development of learned, helplessness in mathematics. It is important that mathematics, instructors recognize the symptoms of dyscalculia and take the, necessary measures to help students that are affected. Some of, the symptoms are:, Students might have spatial problems and difficulty aligning, numbers into proper columns., Have trouble with sequence, including left/right orientation. They, will read numbers out of sequence and sometimes do, operations backwards. They also become confused on the, sequences of past or future events, Students typically have problems with mathematics concepts in, word problems, confuse similar numbers (e.g., 7 and 9; 3 and, 8), and have difficulty using a calculator., It is common for students with dyscalculia to have normal or, accelerated language acquisition: verbal, reading, writing, and, good visual memory for the printed word. They are typically, good in the areas of science (until a level requiring higher, mathematics skills is reached), geometry (figures with logic not, formulas), and creative arts., Students have difficulty with the abstract concepts of time and, direction (e.g. inability to recall schedules, and unable to keep, track of time). They may be chronically late., Mistaken recollection of names. Poor name/face retrieval., Substitute names beginning with same letter., Students have inconsistent results in addition, subtraction,, multiplication and division. Students have poor mental
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56, mathematics ability. They are poor with money and credit and, cannot do financial planning or budgeting (e.g. balancing a, checkbook). Short term, not long term financial thinking. May, have fear of money and cash transactions. May be unable to, mentally figure change due back, the amounts to pay for tips,, taxes, etc, When writing, reading and recalling numbers, these common, mistakes are made: number additions, substitutions,, transpositions, omissions, and reversals., Inability to grasp and remember mathematics concepts, rules, formulas, sequence (order of operations), and basic addition,, subtraction, multiplication and division facts. Poor long-term, memory (retention & retrieval) of concept mastery. Students, understand material as they are being shown it, but when they, must retrieve the information they become confused and are, unable to do so. They may be able to perform mathematics, operations one day, but draw a blank the next. May be able to, do book work but can fails all tests and quizzes., May be unable to comprehend or "picture" mechanical, processes. Lack "big picture/ whole picture" thinking. Poor, ability to "visualize or picture" the location of the numbers on the, face of a clock, the geographical locations of states, countries,, oceans, streets, etc., Poor memory for the "layout" of things. Gets lost or disoriented, easily. May have a poor sense of direction, loose things often,, and seem absent minded. May have difficulty grasping concepts, of formal music education. Difficulty sight-reading music,, learning fingering to play an instrument, etc., May have poor athletic coordination, difficulty keeping up with, rapidly changing physical directions like in aerobic, dance, and, exercise classes. Difficulty remembering dance step sequences, rules for playing sports., Difficulty keeping score during games, or difficulty remembering, how to keep score in games, like bowling, etc. Often looses, track of whose turn it is during games, like cards and board, games. Limited strategic planning ability for games, like chess., MITIGATIVE STRATEGIES:, Although dyscalculia may be difficult to diagnose, there are, strategies that teachers and parents should know about to aid, students in learning mathematics., 1. Encourage students to work extra hard to "visualize", mathematics problems. Draw them or have them draw a picture to
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57, help understand the problem, and make sure that they take the, time to look at any visual information that is provided (picture, chart,, graph, etc.), 2. Have the student read problems out loud and listen very, carefully. This allows them to use their auditory skills (which may be, strength)., 3. Provide examples and try to relate problems to real-life, situations., 4. Provide younger students with graph paper and encourage them, to use it in order to keep the numbers in line., 5. Provide uncluttered worksheets so that the student is not, overwhelmed by too much visual information (visual pollution)., Especially on tests, allow scrap paper with lines and ample room, for uncluttered computation., 6. Discalculia students must spend extra time memorizing, mathematics facts. Repetition is very important. Use rhythm or, music to help memorize., 7. Many students need one-on-one attention to fully grasp certain, concepts. Have students work with a tutor, a parent, or a teacher, after school hours in a one-on-one environment., 8. If possible, allow the student to take the exam on a one-to-one, basis in the teacher's presence., 9. The student might like instant answers and a chance to do the, problem over once s/he is wrong. Often their mistakes are the, result of "seeing" the problem wrong., 10. In early stages, design the test problems "pure," testing only the, required skills. In their early learning, they must be free of large, numbers and unnecessary destructive calculations., 11. Allow more than the "common" time to complete problems and, check to see that student is not panicking (tears in eyes, mind, frozen)., 12. Most importantly, be PATIENT! Never forget that the student, WANTS to learn and retain. Realize that mathematics can be a, traumatic experience and is highly emotional because of past, failures. The slightest misunderstanding or break in logic can, overwhelm the student and cause emotional distress. Pity will not, help, but patience and individual attention will. It is typical for, students to work with until they know the material well and then get, every problem wrong on the test. Then 5 minutes later, they can, perform the test with just the teacher, on the chalkboard, and many, times get all problems correct. Remember that this is very, frustrating for the teacher/parent as well as the student. Patience is, essential.
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58, 13. Assign extra problems for practice and maybe a special TA, (teaching assistant) or special education is assigned to assist the, affected student., 14. When presenting new material, make sure the student with, discalculia is able to write each step down and talk it through until, they understand it well enough to teach it back to you., 15. Go over the upcoming lesson with so that the lecture is more of, a review., 16. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) mathematics courses, (instruction targeted to special students) can be developed., 2.3.3 DYSGRAPHIA:, "Dysgraphia" is a learning disability resulting from the, difficulty in expressing thoughts in writing and graphing. It generally, refers to extremely poor handwriting., Most learning disabled students experience difficulty with, handwriting and probably could be considered "dysgraphic"., Underlying Causes:, Students with dysgraphia often have sequencing problems., Studies indicate that what usually appears to be a perceptual, problem (reversing letters/numbers, writing words backwards,, writing letters out of order, and very sloppy handwriting) usually, seems to be directly related to sequential/rational information, processing. These students often have difficulty with the sequence, of letters and words as they write. As a result, the student either, needs to slow down in order to write accurately, or experiences, extreme difficulty with the "mechanics" of writing (spelling,, punctuation, etc.). They also tend to intermix letters and numbers in, formulas. Usually they have difficulty even when they do their work, more slowly. And by slowing down or getting "stuck" with the details, of writing they often lose the thoughts that they are trying to write, about., Students with an attention deficit disorder (especially with, hyperactivity) often experience rather significant difficulty with, writing and formulas in general and handwriting in particular. This is, because ADHD students also have difficulty organizing and, sequencing detailed information. In addition, ADHD students are, often processing information at a very rapid rate and simply don't, have the fine-motor coordination needed to "keep up" with their, thoughts., Some students can also experience writing difficulty because, of a general auditory or language processing weakness. Because, of their difficulty learning and understanding language in general,
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59, they obviously have difficulty with language expression. Recall that, written language is the most difficult form of language expression., Although most students with dysgraphia do not have visual or, perceptual processing problems, some students with a visual, processing weakness will experience difficulty with writing speed, and clarity simply because they aren't able to fully process the, visual information as they are placing it on the page., SYMPTOMS:, 1. Students may exhibit strong verbal but particularly poor writing, skills ., 2., , Random (or non-existent) punctuation. Spelling errors, (sometimes same word spelled differently); reversals; phonic, approximations; syllable omissions; errors in common suffixes., Clumsiness and disordering of syntax; an impression of, illiteracy. Misinterpretation of questions and questionnaire items., Disordered numbering and written number reversals., , 3. Generally illegible writing (despite appropriate time and attention, given the task)., 4. Inconsistencies : mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lower, case, or irregular sizes, shapes, or slant of letters., 5. Unfinished words or letters, omitted words., 6. Inconsistent position on page with respect to lines and margins, and inconsistent spaces between words and letters., 7. Cramped or unusual grip, especially holding the writing, instrument very close to the paper, or holding thumb over two, fingers and writing from the wrist., 8. Talking to self while writing, or carefully watching the hand that is, writing., 9. Slow or labored copying or writing - even if it is neat and legible., , STRATEGIES:, 1. Encourage students to outline their thoughts. It is important to, get the main ideas down on paper without having to struggle with, the details of spelling, punctuation, etc
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60, 2. Have students draw a picture of a thought for each paragraph., 3. Have students dictate their ideas into a tape recorder and then, listen and write them down later., 4. Have them practice keyboarding skills. It may be difficult at first,, but after they have learned the pattern of the keys, typing will be, faster and clearer than handwriting., 5. Have a computer available for them to organize information and, check spelling. Even if their keyboarding skills aren't great, a, computer can help with the details., 6. Have them continue practicing handwriting. There will be times, throughout a student's life that they will need to be able to write, things down and maybe even share their handwriting with others. It, will continue to improve as long as the student keeps working at it., 7. Encourage student to talk aloud as they write. This may provide, valuable auditory feedback., 8. Allow more time for written tasks including note-taking, copying,, and tests., 9., Outline, the, particular, demands, of, the, course, assignments/continuous assessment; exams, computer literacy etc., so that likely problems can be foreseen., 10. Give and allow students to begin projects or assignments early., 11. Include time in the student's schedule for being a 'library, assistant' or 'office assistant' that could also be used for catching up, or getting ahead on written work, or doing alternative activities, related to the material being learned., 12. Instead of having the student write a complete set of notes,, provide a partially completed outline so the student can fill in the, details under major headings (or provide the details and have the, student provide the headings)., 13. Allow the student to dictate some assignments or tests (or parts, thereof) a 'scribe'. Train the 'scribe' to write what the student says, verbatim and then allow the student to make changes, without, assistance from the scribe., 14. Remove 'neatness' or 'spelling' (or both) as grading criteria for, some assignments, or design assignments to be evaluated on, specific parts of the writing process., 15. With the students, allow abbreviations in some writing (such as, b/c for because). Have the student develop a repertoire of
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61, abbreviations in a notebook. These will come in handy in future, note-taking situations., 16. Reduce copying aspects of work; for example, in Math, provide, a worksheet with the problems already on it instead of having the, student copy the problems., 17. Separate the writing into stages and then teach students to do, the same. Teach the stages of the writing process (brainstorming,, drafting, editing, and proofreading, etc.). Consider grading these, stages even on some 'one-sitting' written exercises, so that points, are awarded on a short essay for brainstorming and a rough draft,, as well as the final product., 18. On a computer, the student can produce a rough draft, copy it,, and then revise the copy, so that both the rough draft and final, product can be evaluated without extra typing., 19. Encourage the student to use a spellchecker and, if possible,, have someone else proofread his work, too. Speaking, spellcheckers are recommended, especially if the student may not, be able to recognize the correct word (headphones are usually, included)., 20. Allow the student to use cursive or manuscript, whichever is, most legible, 21. Encourage primary students to use paper with the raised lines, to keep writing on the line., 22. Allow older students to use the line width of their choice. Keep, in mind that some students use small writing to disguise its, messiness or spelling., 23. Allow students to use paper or writing instruments of different, colors., 24. Allow student to use graph paper for math, or to turn lined, paper sideways, to help with lining up columns of numbers., 25. Allow the student to use the writing instrument that is most, comfortable for them., 26. If copying is laborious, allow the student to make some editing, marks rather than recopying the whole thing., 27. Consider whether use of speech recognition software will be, helpful. If the student and teacher are willing to invest time and, effort in 'training' the software to the student's voice and learning to, use it, the student can be freed from the motor processes of writing, or keyboarding.
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62, 28. Develop cooperative writing projects where different students, can take on roles such as the 'brainstormer,' 'organizer of, information,' 'writer,' 'proofreader,' and 'illustrator.', 29. Provide extra structure and use intermittent deadlines for longterm assignments. Discuss with the student and parents the, possibility of enforcing the due dates by working after school with, the teacher in the event a deadline arrives and the work is not upto-date., 30. Build handwriting instruction into the student's schedule. The, details and degree of independence will depend on the student's, age and attitude, but many students would like to have better, handwriting., 31. Keep in mind that handwriting habits are entrenched early., Before engaging in a battle over a student's grip or whether they, should be writing in cursive or print, consider whether enforcing a, change in habits will eventually make the writing task a lot easier, for the student, or whether this is a chance for the student to make, his or her own choices. Beware of overload, the student has other, tasks and courses., 32. Teach alternative handwriting methods such as "Handwriting, Without Tears." <www.hwtears.com/inro.htm>, 33. Writing just one key word or phrase for each paragraph, and, then going back later to fill in the details may be effective., 34. Multisensory techniques should be utilized for teaching both, manuscript and cursive writing. The techniques need to be, practiced substantially so that the letters are fairly automatic before, the student is asked to use these skills to communicate ideas., 35. Have the students use visual graphic organizers. For example,, you can create a mind map so that the main idea is placed in a, circle in the center of the page and supporting facts are written on, lines coming out of the main circle, similar to the arms of a spider or, spokes on a wheel., 36. Do papers and assignments in a logical step-wise sequence., An easy way to remember these steps is to think of the word, POWER., P - plan your paper, O - organize your thoughts and ideas, W - write your draft, E - edit your work, R - revise your work, producing a final draft
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63, 37. If a student becomes fatigued have them try the following:, Shake hands fast, but not violently., * Rub hands together and focus on the feeling of warmth., * Rub hands on the carpet in circles (or, if wearing clothing with, some mild texture, rub hands on thighs, close to knees), * Use the thumb of the dominant hand to click the top of a ballpoint, pen while holding it in that hand. Repeat using the index finger., * Perform sitting pushups by placing each palm on the chair with, fingers facing forward. Students push down on their hands, lifting, their body slightly off the chair., 38. Allow student to tape record important assignments and/or take, oral tests., 39. Prioritize certain task components during a complex activity. For, example, students can focus on using descriptive words in one, assignment, and in another, focus on using compound sentences., 40. Reinforce the positive aspects of student's efforts., 41. Be patient and encourage student to be patient with himself., Strategies For Spelling Difficulties:, 1. Encourage consistent use of spell checker to decrease the, overall demands of the writing task and encourage students to wait, until the end to worry about spelling., 2. Encourage use of an electronic resource such as the spell check, component in a Franklin Language Master® to further decrease the, demands. If student has concurrent reading problems, a Language, Master® with a speaking component is most helpful because it will, read/say the words., 3. Have the student look at each word, then close their eyes and, visualize how it looks, letter by letter., 4. Have the student spell each word out loud while looking at it,, then look away and spell it out loud again several times before, writing it down., 5. Have the students break the spelling list down into manageable, sections of only 3 to 5 words. Then take a break after mastering, each section., 6. Have a scrabble board and computer accessible for affected, students.
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64, References:, Ames, L. & Chase, J. (1980). Don't push your preschooler (Revised, ed.). New York: Harper and Row., Calkins, L., with Adellino L. (1997). Raising lifelong learners. A, parent's guide. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley., Chess, S. & Thomas, A. (1987). Know your child. New York: Basic, Books, Inc., Johnson, D. (1999). The language of instruction. The Journal o f, Learning Disabilities Associate of Massachusetts, 9(2), 1-6., Lauren, J. (1997). Succeeding with L. D. Minneapolis, MN: Free, Sprit Publishing Co., Lewis, R., Strauss, A. , & Lehtinen, L. (1960). The other child. New, York: Grune and Stratton., Osman, B. (1979). Learning disabilities: A family affair. New York:, Random House., Silver, L. (1998). The Misunderstood Child: Understanding and, coping with your child's learning disabilities (3rd ed.). New York:, Times Books., Smith S. (1994). Different is not bad: different is the world; A book, about disabilities. Longmont, CO: Sopris West., , ,
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65, , 2A, GUIDANCE FOR POPULATIONS WITH, SPECIAL NEEDS, c., , Disadvantaged Groups: Social, Economical and, Educational (Over Achievers and Under Achievers, , d. Women: Exploitation at Home and Work, e. Senior Citizens: Emotional, social and Physical, Problems, , 2C. DISADVANTAGED GROUPS: SOCIAL,, ECONOMICAL AND EDUCATIONAL (OVER, ACHIEVERS AND UNDER ACHIEVERS, Unit Structure, 2A.0 Objectives, 2A.1 Introduction, 2A.2 The Underachievers: Meaning, 2C.3 Concept of underachievers, 2C.4 Signs and Symptoms of underachievers, 2A.5 The Cause, 2A.6, , Characteristics: Personal and School, , 2A.7 Suggestions, 2A.8 Strategies, 2A.9 Strategies for Improving Academic Performance, 2A.10 Overachiever: Meaning, 2A.11 Concept of Overachiever: Symptoms and Remedies
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66, 2A.12 The Negative Aspects of Overachieving, 2A.13 Maintaining Balance, 2A.14 Unit End Exercise, 2A.15 References, , 2A.0 OBJECTIVES:, After reading this unit the student will be able to:, State the Meaning of Underachievers, Explain the Concept of underachievers, State, Signs, and, Symptoms, of, underachievers, Explain the Causes of Underachievement, List the Personal and School Characteristics of, Underachievers, State the Suggestions for helping Underachievers, Explain the Strategies for helping Underachievers, Explain the Strategies for Improving Academic Performance, State the Meaning of Overachiever, Explain the Concept of Overachiever: Symptoms and, Remedies, Explain the Negative Aspects of Overachieving, Explain how to Maintain Balance, , 2A.1 INTRODUCTION, Overachieving and underachieving are two conditions which, are experienced by many people. These are most commonly, noticed in children, in terms of academics, sports and other, activities which they take part in. Over-and-underachieving are, issues that must be addressed by confidence building. There are, various ways helping a child become more confident, and these, should be seriously considered if parents hope to see him or her, grow into well-balanced adulthood., THE UNDERACHIEVERS: MEANING, ‗Under achieving‘ implies that children should be achieving a, certain norm at the certain age or time, and they currently are not., The Underachievers are often termed as the mistaken identity of, low-ability students. They are endowed with high intellectual, potential but suffer from the crisis of low scholastic performance., Certain traits such as rebellious attitude, frequently lying, fear, phobia with regard to success, day dreaming, inattentiveness, etc
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67, may be either one reason in isolation or multiple reasons in, combination with another. It may also occur due to physical, deformities., Underachieving is the state in which a person performs, significantly below his or her obvious potential. Parents can more, readily relate to the problems faced by an underachieving child,, because they tend to focus heavily on reversing this trend for most, of the child‘s life., CONCEPT OF UNDERACHIEVERS, Underachievers are kids who have a lot of potential but don't, live up to that potential in school. Underachievers span all social,, economic, and ability levels. Many underachievers have very high, IQ's. Teachers and parents often accuse underachievers of being, lazy, of having attitude problems, or of not caring about, themselves. Sometimes these kids get into trouble at school and at, home. Nobody realizes that underachievement is the issue., An underachiever child tends to have little interest in school, work and related activities, invariably blames others for mistakes, is, generally disorganized and either socializes too much or too little., The fact is that though they seem to be opposite syndromes,, overachieving and underachieving are really related conditions that, stem from low self esteem., Children who focus on achieving too much actually consider, their academic grades as barometers of their personal worth., Underachievers are scared to perform well and may even be, averse to trying – simply because they lack sufficient self esteem., For reasons that may well lie in problematic parenting styles, such, kids assume that they are not good enough to succeed at anything., Two types of under achievement have been identified. The first is, where children only achieve on occasions, apparently when the, mood takes them. More likely, their refusal to work or put, themselves forward for selection in a team can be linked with some, emotional crisis that suddenly erupts: a relationship may break up;, a family problem may arise; a personality clash may develop with a, specific teacher. Generally, these children have few long-term, problems if they can get immediate help to overcome their difficulty, and their progress at school is closely monitored. These children, are known as situational underachievers., The second type of underachiever is a much more serious, problem for the school, the home and particularly for themselves., The chronic underachiever has many characteristics that give him a, label hard to remove. Over 80 percent of identified underachievers, are boys! They may become aggressive, giving vent to their
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68, frustration by causing trouble or they may become sulky and, withdrawn and refuse to develop their talent., , SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF UNDERACHIEVERS, Commonly encountered characteristics of underachievers may, include the following :, 1. often impulsive with poor personal judgment and adjustment, abilities;, 2. poor test results at school and no hobbies or interests at home;, 3. a low self-image, often displaying distrust, indifference, lack of, concern and/or hostility;, 4. feel victimized or helpless and may not accept any responsibility, for themselves or their actions;, 5. feel rejected by their family and resist attempts to help by, parents or teachers, 6. choose friends with similar negative attitudes to school, show no, leadership qualities and may be less mature than their peers;, 7. have little motivation with poor study habits; may refuse to do, homework or leave much work incomplete;, 8. either cannot plan for the future or set goals well below their true, ability or potential., THE CAUSES:, underachievers are made and not born. It is the child's, choice to underachieve. We have to look at both sides of the, education coin: the school and the home., The pressure on children, especially at secondary school, to, conform to the mediocre often has more influence than anything, parents or teachers can say. Fortunately, negative peer pressure is, usually a passing phase. As the pressure to succeed at the Higher, School Certificate increases, so too does the realization that one, way to a happy and successful future is to work hard to obtain a, particular job or to gain a place at university or college., Another cause of under achievement can be family, background. There can be difficulties when some members of the, family perceive a bright child is showing off.
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69, , If a child is frequently on the move, for one reason or, another, it can mean that he is never in a school long enough for, any talent to be recognized by himself or his teachers, let alone, developed and nurtured. It's quite possible for people with the, potential to do exceptionally well, to go through life without realizing, that they have a gift which can, and should, be developed., The major cause of under achievement among the talented, is emotional disturbance between parent and child. Children like, this are angry at the parents for some reason and vent their anger, and frustration in many ways. They feel they must hurt their parents, by failing at school and not allowing them to take pride in their, achievements., When conflict exists between the parents when one parent, (often the father) is a stern perfectionist and the other tries to, compensate for this, the child starts to achieve to please dad, but, then feels pressure from mum which carries the message : 'You, don't need to work so hard!'. The child becomes confused trying to, please both parents., Sometimes the family has unrealistic, perfectionist, expectations and the child equates his/her own worth with doing, well at school rather than simply being an individual., There might be a negative relationship with a father who, feels threatened by his son surpassing him and being more, successful at school than he was., Some parents are 'pushy' and try to relive their own lives, through their children and force them along at too fast a pace,, causing stress and unhappiness. Such pushy parents cannot, accept that their children are only children. The child's only defense, is to deliberately fail at school. A vicious circle like this can only be, broken if the parents learn to understand what is happening., The role model that a parent displays might not be, acceptable to the child and lead to his being constantly, embarrassed and having a poor self esteem., Any of these problems is likely to create a poor self-image., Fearing success so much, the child creates failure. Such a child, prefers not to complete work rather than be awarded a grade that, he or she feels will not reach the parents' expectations., •, , Home origins of underachievement:, • The over welcome child, • Early illness, • Birth order (later, not first)
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70, •, •, , Marital discord, Conflicting parenting styles, • Kind mom/ogre dad, • Wonderful dad/ogre mom, • Dummy dad, • Mousy mom, CHARACTERISTICS, All underachievers, whether dependent or dominant in their, behaviour exhibit:, • Forgetfulness, • Disorganisation, • Carelessness and superficiality on tasks, • Non-academic interests, • Manipulation of relations with parents and teachers, • Loneliness and social withdrawal, •, , Personal, • Low self-concept, negative self-evaluation, • Social immaturity, unpopular with peers, • Choose companions who do not like school, • Feelings of rejection, helplessness, feeling victimized, • Hostile toward adult authority figures, • Low aspirations for future, career, less persistent and, assertive, • Externalization of conflicts, problems, , •, , School, • Lack of discipline in tasks, high distractibility, • Don‘t see connection between effort and achievement, outcomes, • Few strong hobbies or interests, • Resistant to influence from teachers, parents, • Withdraw in classroom situations, • Lack of study skills,, • Weak academic motivation, • Leave schoolwork incomplete, nap during study times, • Perform well on synthesis tasks but not on tasks requiring, precise, analytic processing, , SUGGESTIONS:
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71, It is essential to build the child's self-confidence and, independence., Encourage the child to see him or herself as a unique, individual with a valuable contribution to make to family and society., Never take away the thing or things that a child loves and succeeds, in., Don't lecture or nag a child. Reason is always preferable., Don't pressure the child into doing something because you think it's, a good idea., Don't set artificial times for work to be done at all costs and, make the child feel that you are being a martyr. This reinforces the, idea of failure, not only at school but at home as well. Be more, natural in your interest and enthusiasm., Don't keep checking up on the child's progress. This seems, to the child that her or she is irresponsible and not in control of life., It also implies a damaging lack of trust., Learn to Trust the Child's Judgment., Get used to saying things which make it clear that the child's, feelings are important and that you value his or her opinions., Explain that it's all right to feel angry but that it must be expressed, in acceptable ways. Your relationship with your child must be based, on mutual respect., It often helps an underachieving child to point out achievable, goals for them. Put the goals in some priority order, but be flexible., Guide, don't push., Give underachievers the opportunity to work at their area of, ability and make sure someone the child respects is available when, help is needed. Isolation is a fine fertilizer for under achievement., STRATEGIES, Single-sided interests, • Identify ―acceptable minimums for tasks, • Pick up pace of instruction, • Identify ―have to have‖ skills and focus on these, • Help child focus on their single-sided interests, Claims of boredom, • Develop diagnostic- prescriptive instruction, • Compact the regular curriculum
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72, •, •, •, •, , Use continuous progress for learning, Fast paced content presentations, Subject acceleration, Find ―cause‖ of boredom, , •, •, , •, , Perfectionism, Teach strategies for when to quit, how to match effort to, tasks, setting goals, focusing on successes not failures, and, separating self-concept from products, Role model mistake making, , •, •, •, •, •, , Peer Pressure to Underachieve, Selectively encourage certain friendships, Take interest in child‘s friends, Encourage extra- curriculars, Teach strategies for resisting peer pressure, , •, •, •, •, , Lack of Organizational Skills, Study habits training, Strategies for developing work plans, priorities, balance,, flexibility, Provide consistent space and schedule for study at home, , •, •, •, •, •, , Stress, Teach time management techniques, Relaxation exercises, Exercise routines, Socialization opportunities, , STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE, •, , Supportive Strategies, , Behaviors that affirm the worth of the child in the classroom, and convey the promise of greater potential and success yet to be, discovered and enjoyed, • Daily class meetings to discuss student‘s concerns, • Directive atmosphere to show who is in charge, • Daily written contracts of work to be done, • Free time scheduled each day to show import of relaxation,, free choice, • Use of concrete, predictable teaching methods
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73, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Eliminate work already mastered, Allow independent study on topics of personal interest, Non authoritarian atmosphere, Permit students to prove competence via multiple methods, Teach through problem solving rather than rote drill, , Intrinsic Strategies, , Behaviors that are designed to develop intrinsic achievement, motivation through the child‘s discovery of the rewards available as, a result of efforts to learn, achieve, and contribute to the group, • Daily review of/reward for small successes, • Allow students to evaluate work prior to teacher marking, • Frequent, positive contact with family about child‘s progress, • Verbal praise for any self-initiating behaviors, • Assign specific responsibilities for classroom maintenance,, management, • Practice reflective listening, comment to clarify student, statements, • Student sets daily/weekly/monthly goals with teacher, approval, •, , Remedial Strategies, , Behaviors that are used to improve the student‘s academic, performance in an area of learning difficulty which led to experience, of failure and loss of motivation to engage in learning tasks, • Programmed instruction materials, students grade own, papers upon completion, • Peer tutoring of younger students in areas of strength, • Small group instruction in common areas of weakness, • Encourage students to work on projects not involving marks, or external evaluation, • Self-selected weekly goals for improvement, • Private instruction in areas of weakness, • Use of humor and personal example to approach academic, weakness areas, • Familiarize students with learning styles and personal, implications for performance, OVERACHIEVER: MEANING:, Overachieving can be defined as performing far better than, what is expected. In academics, it is defined as one's academic
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74, performance which is way higher than one's performance in, standardized tests such as intelligence quotient (I.Q.) tests., A child may be an overachiever if he feels an impulsive need, to get perfect grades and be on top of everybody else in his class., Overachieving – and the diametric opposite trait of, underachieving – are two rather common conditions in today‘s, times. The seed for either trait is often planted in childhood, when, many children fall into these categories in terms of academic, performance, sports and many other activities., We define overachieving as a state in which a person, performs far better than what is expected – or even necessary., An overachieving child, for instance, feels prevailed upon to, obtain very high grades, with the objective being to top the class., Most parents would not find anything wrong with this. After all,, which parents do not want their children to be the best among their, peers?, This is precisely where the problem lies – children take their, cue from their parents in most things, and in this case the stage is, being set for some significant mental, physical, emotional and, social problems in later life., Overachieving kids tend to skip meals, sleep less than, required and refrain from social interactions and informal, conversations. All that matters is getting A‘s. If such tendencies, percolate over into adulthood – which they invariably do – such a, person is a prime candidate for some rather large social and health, issues., CONCEPT OF OVERACHIEVER, Overachieves are used to setting impossible goals and then, meeting them, but they can melt down when their extraordinary, efforts fail. They can also develop unhealthy habits, like working, long hours and skipping meals and sleep. Few overachievers, become truly dysfunctional, but it‘s important to recognize the, warning signs before behaviour become destructive., 1. Work Addiction:, Symptoms: Some overachievers use work to avoid negative, feelings. They constantly think and talk about work, can‘t ―turn it off‖, at the end of the day, and don‘t take vacations or lunch breaks., What to do: Workaholics tend to drag out a task with unnecessary, attention to detail, so you need to establish their priorities for them
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75, and monitor progress closely. Reward the results of their work, not, the amount of time they spend, and insist that they take lunch, breaks and leave at a decent hour., 2. Depression and Self-Criticism:, Symptoms: Inability to cope with failure is another warning sign. If, a colleague is, Unusually quiet or low-energy, taking lots of sick days, or skipping, meetings and Company functions — particularly after a setback at, work — take note. ―Everyone fails now and then, but it‘s difficult for, overachievers to deal with that,‖, ―On occasion, you will see dysfunctional behaviour that drives the, person to the point of suicide when they‘ve set a goal they can, never, ever meet.‖, What to do: Tread carefully. ―Managers need to refer the person to, a professional psychologist for help and not try and deal with it on, their own,‖ Address the issue directly with the employee, but don‘t, tell them, Instead, refer anyone with an emotional problem to a, mental health professional ., 3. Unethical Behavior:, Symptoms: Most overachievers don‘t fall into this category, but, some can cross legal and ethical boundaries in order to reach their, goals. If someone on consistently breaks rules to get ahead — for, example, neglecting to fill out Paper work because it takes too, much time and they can‘t be bothered ,don‘t ignore the problem. It, could lead to serious legal issues., What to do: If an Overachiever has acted unethically, keep an eye, on the situation and record your observations. When you‘ve, gathered sufficient evidence, approach the person with someone to, serve as a witness. At this point, they will realize they‘ve crossed a, serious line and will shape up or get professional help., 4. Hypercriticism:, Symptoms: If an overachiever shows blatant disregard for other, opinions or actively looks for faults in others, it can cause a serious, rift with colleagues. Sometimes criticism is necessary to improve, performance and get work done, but it becomes destructive when, negative comments far outweigh the positive ones., What to do: A counsellor, can provide guidance without the, overachiever becoming alarmed at the stigma of professional help., Mentoring programs that pair experienced members can also assist
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76, in putting hypercritical overachiever back on the right track. Mentors, can provide wise counsel on tough workplace challenges and give, feedback to develop new skills and competencies., 5. Physical or Emotional Abuse:, Symptoms: Most warning signs are difficult for the overachiever to, recognize in himself. The biggest is a quick loss of temper, such as, swearing, yelling, huffing out of a room, or pounding on the table., Sometimes an overachiever will tease other team members in order, to motivate them without realizing that it causes undue stress., What to do: Set guidelines and clear boundaries. Make a list of, contingency plans., THE NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF OVERACHIEVING, 1. Loss of focus or passion, Overachievers are often spread quite thin. With only so, many hours in the day and so much energy and effort to give, you, have to divide your attention among a number of endeavors if you, over schedule your time. When you feel pressure to excel in every, area, you may lose the chance to discover a genuine personal, interest or talent as you attempt to master all your activities., Consequently, you are likely to lose sight of what you truly like and, to get less enjoyment from the things you do., 2. Poor physical health, The workload and time constraints of the typical, overachiever leave relatively little time for sleep. In fact, sleep, deprivation is common among overscheduled students, with many, of them sleeping less than six hours per night. Excessively busy, kids tend to suffer from poor eating habits, as well. If you don't have, the time to sit down to three solid meals per day, you may have to, grab food on the go, and such diets are often full of fats and sugar., Teens need sufficient sleep and nourishment to stay physically and, mentally strong, so if you have too much to do, you may end up, sacrificing your health., 3. Poor mental health, ―school demands and frustrations‖ and ―taking on too many, activities or having too high expectations‖ are the leading causes of, teenage stress. The desire to please others, as well as our culture‘s, clear emphasis on success, is creating a generation of workaholics, who are draining themselves mentally and emotionally.
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77, 4. Unhealthy self-image, Overachievers often bases their feelings of self-worth on, their accomplishments. The more they do, and the more they do, well, the better they feel about themselves. Reliance on external, validation, though, can be extremely harmful. If you focus on, grades, test scores, awards, and other external markers of, success, you can lose sight of your inner identity. Overachieving, frequently causes students to forget that self-worth is measured, from within rather than by what others think or say., 5. Problems getting into college, The majority of colleges indicate that they are looking for allround students. Essentially, they prefer applicants who achieve, balance among their academic pursuits, their extracurricular, activities, and their personal lives. When admissions officers look at, resumes, they are attempting to assess leadership, commitment,, and integrity. If you're an overachiever, beware. More is not, necessarily better., MAINTAINING BALANCE, 1.Do what you like, Sit down and make a list of your commitments. Then, rank, them according to how much you enjoy each one. Weed out the, activities from which you gain little or no pleasure. Instead, create a, schedule of activities that reflects your true interests and passions,, and don‘t be afraid to cut something out or to say no if you‘re being, pressured to stay involved. In the end, you‘ll be a happier person., 2. Schedule time to relax, If you never have a minute to rest or have fun, you are, doing too much. Take a look at your calendar and carve out specific, times to ease off your usually hectic pace. All work and no play will, end up stressing you out., 3. Take care of yourself, inside and out, Make sure that you eat healthy foods and that you get a, sufficient amount of sleep each night. Also, remember that exercise, is a necessary ingredient for both a strong body and a strong mind., And when you‘re feeling overwhelmed or stressed, take a break., Most importantly, ask for help when you need it. Parents, friends,, teachers, and counselors are all people to turn to if you start to, experience burnout.
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78, UNIT END EXERCISE, Compare Underachievers and overachievers with respect to, meaning, concept, symptoms and causes., Describe the strategies to improve academic performance of, Underachievers., Explain the Negative Aspects of Overachieving., Describe the plan of action for helping Underachievers., How would you as a teacher help Underachievers., REFERENCES:, Blanchard, J. (2002) Teaching and targets: self-evaluation, and school improvement, Routledge/Falmer, Blanchard, J. (2007) ‗Up close and personalised — boosting, creativity and individual learning‘, Curriculum Briefing:, Restructuring learning — changing curriculums, vol 5, no 3,, Optimus Education, DfES (2003) Every child matters: change for children, DfES, Durrant, M. (1995) Creative strategies for school problems,, Norton, Dweck, C. (2000) Self-theories: their role in motivation,, personality, and development, Psychology Press, Fielding, M. and Bragg, S. (2003) Students as researchers:, making a difference, Routledge/Falmer, Harris, A. and Chapman, C. (2002) Effective leadership in, schools facing challenging circumstances, NCSL, MacBeath, J., Demetriou, H., Rudduck, J. and Myers, K., (2003) Consulting pupils: a toolkit for teachers, Pearson, Publishing, Metcalf, L. (1999) Teaching toward solutions: step-by-step, strategies for handling academic, behaviour and family, issues in the classroom, Simon & Shuster, O‘Connell, B., Publications, , (1998), , Solution-focused, , therapy,, , Sage, , Rudduck, J. and Flutter, J. (2004) How to improve your, school: giving pupils a voice, Continuum Press, , ,
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79, , , , , , , 2D. WOMEN: EXPLOITATION AT HOME AND, WORK, Unit Structure, 2D.0 Objectives, 2D.1 Introduction, 2D.2 Sexual Harassment at the Workplace, 2D.3 Suggestions, 2D.4 Forms of violence against women, 2D.5 Kinds of Violence against Women, 2D.6 Challenging Traditional Attitudes, 2D.7, , Framework of guiding principles to combat violence against women, , Identifying Good Practices and Approaches, 2D.9 Strategies that underlie good practices, 2D.10 Unit End Exercise, , 2D.8, , 2D.0 OBJECTIVES, After reading this unit the student will be able to:, Explain Sexual Harassment at the Workplace., State the Suggestions for preventing Sexual Harassment at, the Workplace., State the Forms and Kinds of Violence against Women, Analyze the Challenging traditional Attitudes towards, Violence against Women., Explain the Framework of guiding principles to combat violence against, women., , Describe the strategies required of good practices for, preventing violence against women., Analyze the plan to tackle women bully at workplace, , 2D.1 INTRODUCTION, Although, there are many groups of women who defend, women‗s rights they are still exploited. That is to say women are
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80, easier to be exploited than men. women usually have law salaries, .For example, women work long hours in factories but they are, given low salaries in comparison to men Hence, women contribute, themselves to their fact of being exploited by accepting to work for, minor wage., In addition, women are exploited in media broadly. So, they, become like goods which are sold and bought. For instance, in, advertisements we usually see women presenting products or an, idea about products, but unfortunately, they use their bodies to, attract consumers. However, the consumers do not focus on the, quality of the product being advertised but they focus on the quality, of the women who advertise the product. In fact, this is the purpose, of the advertisement agencies where very skilled people work on, those advertisements., , 2D.2 SEXUAL HARASSMENT AT THE WORKPLACE:, There is a pressing need to examine the aspect of sexual, harassment at workplace from the perspective of emancipation of, women as well as the abuse of the image in which a woman is cast., India doesn‘t have any legislation to deal with sexual, harassment at work places at the moment. The sexual harassment, of women at work place (prevention, prohibition and redressal) bill,, 2006 is still under consideration. Various women‘s groups have, been lobbying with Parliamentarians to get it passed at the earliest., However, only time will reveal as to when it shall actually come into, force., Till then, the guidelines that the Supreme Court has laid, down in the Vishaka case are to be followed. These guidelines, encompass a comprehensive definition of sexual harassment,, directions for establishment of a complaint mechanism and the duty, under which employers are obligated to obviate any such act. It, also directs the legislators to formulate law on the basis of these, guidelines. Abstract guidelines by the Supreme Court without any, established mechanism to protect women in form of legislation, mean that the only legal remedy available to fight this evil is, approaching the Court under Art. 32 for violations of gender, equality, right to life and liberty and right to profession which is, subject to the condition of a safe environment safeguarded as, fundamental rights under the constitution under Art. 14, 15 and 21., In light of the legal scenario that surrounds sexual harassment,, working women need to follow a code to protect them., , 2D.3 SUGGESTIONS:
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81, Be Aware: It‘s the simplest thing for safety that one can pursue,, rigorously and consciously. By being alert and detecting any signs, of this heinous evil in your immediate surroundings, one can, prevent such events from taking place. Precautions like dressing, appropriately, compliment the need for awareness., 1. Trust your gut: No definition can comprehensively include all, aspects of sexual harassment and it is subjective as well. There, is no bracket formula to determine whether an act, perhaps, bordering on somewhat ‗friendly‘, constitutes an act of sexual, harassment or not. But, for you, anything that puts you in a, discomfort zone, some place that you‘d want to extricate, yourself from is sexual harassment., 2. Say no: The thin line of demarcation between sexual interest, and sexual harassment shouldn‘t be disregarded. A sexual, interest can be doused by a negative reply. Also, just because, the person concerned is a senior, does not mean you cannot, say no. Sometimes, a stinging retort may work wonders;, however, it can worsen the attention-craving situation of the, perpetrator at times., It is essential to remember that these are only the basic, things that one can do to prevent such events from taking place, and the first sign of any kind of serious trouble, should necessitate, a proper complaint at an official level; either within the organization, or before the police under section 354 of the Indian Penal Code, dealing with assault or criminal force to a woman with the intent to, outrage her modesty, section 509 dealing with word, gesture or act, intended to insult the modesty of a woman or section 209 which, deals with obscene acts or songs., Bullying:, Bullying is the common denominator of harassment,, discrimination, prejudice, abuse, persecution, conflict and violence., When the bullying has a focus (eg race or gender) it is expressed, as racial prejudice or harassment, or sexual discrimination and, harassment, and so on. Although bullying often lacks a focus,, bullies are deeply prejudiced but at the same time sufficiently, devious to not reveal their prejudices to the extent that they, contravene laws on harassment and discrimination., Dealing with workplace bullying, Step 1: Regain control, Recognise what is happening to you as bullying, Criticisms and allegations, which are ostensibly about you or, your performance and which sometimes contain a grain of, truth, are not about you or your performance. Do not be
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82, fooled by that grain of truth into believing the criticisms and, allegations have any validity - they do not. The purpose of, criticism is control; it has nothing to do with performance, enhancement., Criticisms and allegations are a projection of the bully's own, weaknesses, shortcomings, failings and incompetence;, every criticism or allegation is an admission by the bully of, their misdeeds and wrongdoing, something they have said or, done - or failed to do., You may be encouraged to feel shame, embarrassment,, guilt and fear - this is a normal reaction, but misplaced and, inappropriate. Guilt and fear are well-known as tactics of, control. This is how all abusers, including child sex abusers,, control and silences their victims., You cannot handle bullying by yourself - bullies use, deception, amoral behaviour and abuse of power. Get help., There is no shame or failure in this - the bully is devious,, deceptive, evasive and manipulative - and cheats., Step 2: plan for action, Find out everything you can about bullying., Overcome all the misperceptions about bullying (that "it's, tough management", etc)., Step 3: Take action, Keep a log (journal, diary) of everything - it's not each, incident that counts, it's the number, regularity and especially, the patterns that reveal bullying. With most forms of mystery,, deception, etc it's the patterns that are important. The bully, can explain individual incidents but cannot explain away the, pattern. It's the pattern which reveals intent., Keep your diary in a safe place, not at work where others, can and will steal it; keep it at home, and keep photocopies, of important documents in a separate location (not at work);, in several cases the bully has rifled the desk drawers of their, target, stolen the diary and then used it as "evidence" of, misconduct., Keep copies of all letters, memos, emails, etc. Get and keep, everything in writing otherwise the bully will deny everything, later., Carry a notepad and pen with you and record everything that, the bully says and does. Also make a note of every, interaction with personnel, management, and anyone else, connected with the bullying. Expect to be accused of, "misconduct" and "unprofessional behaviour" and a few, other things when you do this.
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83, Record everything in writing; when criticisms or allegations, are made, write and ask the bully to substantiate their, criticisms and allegations in writing by providing substantive, and quantifiable evidence.., Denial is everywhere. The person who asserts their right not, to be bullied is often blowing the whistle on another's, incompetence (which the bullying is intended to hide)., Expect the bully to deny everything, expect the bully's, superiors to deny and disbelieve everything, and - as, evidenced by thousands of cases reported to my Advice Line, - expect personnel/human resources to disbelieve you and, deny the bullying, for they will already have been deceived, by the bully into joining in with the bully and getting rid of, you. Click here for more on how and why Human Resources, often don't support targets of bullying., The serial bully likes to play people off against each other so, try to reunite yourself with your employer against the bully., Point out professionally to your HR people that the serial, bully is encouraging the employer and employee to engage, in adversarial interaction and destructive conflict in which, there are no winners, only losers., Night Shifts for Women:, Before the amendment in the Factories Act, under s.66, women were not allowed to work night shifts. However after the, amendment was approved, women are permitted to work between, 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. in sectors including the Special Economic Zone,, IT sector and Textiles subject to the condition that the employers, shall be obligated to perform the duty to protect them. This is, clearly given in the proviso to the section which is as following:, ―provided adequate safeguards in the factory as regards, occupational safety and health, equal opportunity for women, workers, adequate protection of their dignity, honour and safety and, their transportation from the factory premises to the nearest point of, their residence‖., Hence, women can now work night shifts in these sectors. If, you work the night shift, here are some things you have the right to, expect, along with some tips for you:, 1. You can demand that your employer have any or all of the, following: female wardens, proper lighting, secure transport, facility, security at entry and exit points etc., 2. Be extra careful to prevent any mishap by staying alert., 3. Always ensure you have company while going to and from, work.
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84, 4. Keep the contacts of family, friends or relatives who can, quickly be contacted in case of emergency., 5. If possible taking self defense classes., Equal Opportunities for Women:, Not getting equal pay, being denied opportunities for, growth and promotion are some examples of the kind of economic, exploitation that women are subjected to in certain sectors. In spite, of legislation in place (Equal Remuneration Act, 1976) it is widely, observed that women are usually underpaid as compared to their, male counterparts performing the same job. Delhi High Court in, 2005 in its ruling in The Cooperative Store Ltd. (Super Bazar) v., Bimla Devi and other laid down that unequal pay is not only a, violation of the said act but also, of Article 14 of the Constitution,, Right to Equality. Furthermore, India is a signatory to the, International Labour Organisation Convention for the Elimination of, All Forms of Discrimination against Women, to which India is a, signatory, specifically to Article 11 that deals with the elimination of, discrimination in the field of employment., However, in spite of allegiance to an International, Convention, having a specific legislation in force and a High Court, ruling declaring equal pay to be incorporated in fundamental rights,, the stark reality of the situation is different. Women still get, underpaid. What women can do in similarly placed situations? Here, are some tips:, 1. Be Aware and Assertive: when one is aware of her rights, can, one assert the same by approaching the immediate head of the, organization or the concerned authority., 2. Be an efficient and a good worker: The organization will be, reluctant to lose an employee if you have carved out a niche for, yourself and are in the least indispensable., 3. Form a Group: Collective bargaining is powerful, so by, rounding up all the women in the organization who shall in most, probability be facing the same or similar problem and dealing, with the situation collectively is quite effective as well., 4. Seek Help: If things get out of hand, the only solution remaining, is to approach the Courts., Forms of Violence against Women, Violence against women manifests itself as physical, sexual, and/or psychological harm. These categories of violence are not, mutually exclusive, and forms of Violence against women should be
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85, understood broadly to encompass a range of behaviors designed to, exert power and control over women., The UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against, Women classifies three primary forms based on where the acts, occur and the relationship between victim and executor (1) violence, in the family; (2) violence in the community; and (3) violence carried, out by the State., Violence carried out in the family includes domestic violence,, also referred to as intimate-partner violence or spousal abuse to, clarify that the executor and victim have a long-term relationship., Marital rape and child sexual abuse are also types of Violence, against women occurring in the home., Community-based violence includes rape and sexual assault,, sexual harassment in the workplace and in educational institutions,, as well as the exploitation of women and girls through human, trafficking and prostitution., Violence carried out by the State includes the use of rape, during war or by law enforcement, security or military forces both, during armed conflict and in peacetime or by peacekeeping, personnel in non-conflict settings as well as abuse of women in, State custody or under State control. These categories serve as, guidance to understand the scope of Violence against women, but, they should not be adhered to rigidly. Service-providers and, advocates who work with Violence against women survivors often, encounter forms of Violence against women that are not yet wellrecognized by law enforcement and legal systems, such as stalking, or the use of new technologies, the Internet and electronic mail, to, execute cyber violence against women., This compilation sometimes makes use of the term genderbased violence. Gender-based violence (GBV) refers to harm that, is executed against a person (female or male) as a result of power, inequalities that are themselves based on gender roles. Due to, gender discrimination, which places women in vulnerable and, disempowered positions, female victims ―suffer exacerbated, consequences as compared with what men endure.‖, , 2D.4 KINDS OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN, Domestic violence, Violence against women in the family occurs in developed, and developing countries alike. It has long been considered a, private matter by bystanders -- including neighbors, the community, and government. But such private matters have a tendency to, become public tragedies., Traditional practices, In India women fall victim to traditional practices that violate, their human rights. The persistence of the problem has much to do
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86, with the fact that most of these physically and psychologically, harmful customs are deeply rooted in the tradition and culture of, society., Female genital mutilation, According to the World Health Organization, 85 million to, 115 million girls and women in the population have undergone, some form of female genital mutilation and suffer from its adverse, health effects., There is a growing consensus that the best way to eliminate, these practices is through educational campaigns that emphasize, their dangerous health consequences. Several Governments have, been actively promoting such campaigns in their countries., Son preference, Son preference affects women in India. Its consequences, can be anything from foetal or female infanticide to neglect of the, girl child over her brother in terms of such essential needs as, nutrition, basic health care and education., .Dowry-related violence and early marriage, In India, weddings are preceded by the payment of an, agreed-upon dowry by the bride's family. Failure to pay the dowry, can lead to violence. Early marriage, especially without the consent, of the girl, is another form of human rights violation. Early marriage, followed by multiple pregnancies can affect the health of women for, life., Violence in the community, Rape, Rape can occur anywhere, even in the family, where it can, take the form of marital rape or incest. It occurs in the community,, where a woman can fall prey to any abuser. It also occurs in, situations of armed conflict and in refugee camps., Sexual assault within marriage, In India sexual assault by a husband on his wife is not, considered to be a crime: a wife is expected to submit. It is thus, very difficult in practice for a woman to prove that sexual assault, has occurred unless she can demonstrate serious injury., Sexual harassment, Sexual harassment in the workplace is a growing concern for, women. Employers abuse their authority to seek sexual favours, from their female co-workers or subordinates, sometimes promising, promotions or other forms of career advancement or simply, creating an untenable and hostile work environment. Women who
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87, refuse to give in to such unwanted sexual advances often run the, risk of anything from demotion to dismissal., But in recent years more women have been coming forward, to report such practices -- some taking their cases to court., Prostitution and trafficking, Many women are forced into prostitution either by their, parents, husbands or boyfriends -- or as a result of the difficult, economic and social conditions in which they find themselves. They, are also lured into prostitution, sometimes by "mail-order bride", agencies that promise to find them a husband or a job in a foreign, country. As a result, they very often find themselves illegally, confined in brothels in slavery-like conditions where they are, physically abused and their passports withheld., Violence against women migrant workers, Female migrant workers typically leave their countries for, better living conditions and better pay -- but the real benefits accrue, to both the host countries and the countries of origin. But migrant, workers themselves fare badly, and sometimes tragically. Many, become virtual slaves, subject to abuse and rape by their, employers. Working conditions are often appalling, and employers, prevent women from escaping by seizing their passports or identity, papers., Pornography, Another concern highlighted is pornography, which, represents a form of violence against women that "glamorizes the, degradation and maltreatment of women and asserts their, subordinate function as mere receptacles for male lust"., Violence against refugee and displaced women, Women and children form the great majority of refugee, populations all over the world and are especially vulnerable to, violence and exploitation. In refugee camps, they are raped and, abused by military and immigration personnel, bandit groups, male, refugees and rival ethnic groups. They are also forced into, prostitution., , 2D.5 CHALLENGING TRADITIONAL ATTITUDES, The meaning of gender and sexuality and the balance of, power between women and men at all levels of society must be, reviewed. Combating violence against women requires challenging, the way that gender roles and power relations are articulated in, society. In many countries women have a low status. They are
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88, considered as inferior and there is a strong belief that men are, superior to them and even own them., Changing people's attitude and mentality towards women will, take a long time -- at least a generation, many believe, and perhaps, longer. Nevertheless, raising awareness of the issue of violence, against women, and educating boys and men to view women as, valuable partners in life, in the development of a society and in the, attainment of peace are just as important as taking legal steps to, protect women's human rights., It is also important in order to prevent violence that nonviolent means be used to resolve conflict between all members of, society. Breaking the cycle of abuse will require concerted, collaboration and action between governmental and nongovernmental actors, including educators, health-care authorities,, legislators, the judiciary and the mass media, The Declaration provides a definition of gender-based, abuse, calling it "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or, is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or, suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or, arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in, private life"., The definition is amplified in article 2 of the Declaration, which, identifies three areas in which violence commonly takes place:, Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs in, the family, including battering; sexual abuse of female, children in the household; dowry-related violence; marital, rape; female genital mutilation and other traditional practices, harmful to women; non-spousal violence; and violence, related to exploitation;, Physical, sexual and psychological violence that occurs, within the general community, including rape; sexual abuse;, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational, institutions and elsewhere; trafficking in women; and forced, prostitution;, Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or, condoned by the State, wherever it occurs., Finally, women are exploited everywhere even in, developed countries. Women‘s exploitation makes them lose their, morality and responsibility towards their sons and their daughter., Women should be aware of themselves to avoid this kind of, exploitation which invades the societies.
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89, , 2D.6 FRAMEWORK OF GUIDING PRINCIPLES TO, COMBAT VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN, Women’s rights as human rights: A critical strategy for all, advocacy work is to clearly demonstrate that violence against, women is linked to other human rights violations and therefore, States have commitments to exercise due diligence. An important, related principle behind all good practices is that they address the, root causes of violence against women, such as structural, inequalities between men and women, issues of power and control, and gender discrimination., Women themselves at the center: Essential characteristics of all, good practices is that they empower women, economically,, politically or in other ways, to make changes in their lives and in, society. Women survivors, particularly service users, should be, participants in program design, implementation and evaluation., Effective interventions are those that are based on understanding, the needs articulated by women themselves and not on behalf of, women., Men are responsible and also engaged: A guiding principle of, practices addressing violence against women is that they target, men. Programs that address men range from those that, acknowledge men‘s responsibility as executors of violence and, establish appropriate prosecution and treatment measures, to, others that engage non-violent men as positive role models, as, activists in preventing violence against women and as advocates, for gender equality in all spheres., Political commitment and leadership: Good practices are those, that are based on and supported by a clear political will from, national authorities. Leaders at all levels, in political office,, representing religious authorities, from the local community and, even recognized sports figures or celebrities, can influence how, violence against women is perceived and can play a role in, changing societal tolerance for this problem., Evidence-based approaches: All effective interventions are, underpinned by accurate empirical data about the scope of violence, against women, its causes and its consequences for individual, women survivors but also for family members and society at large., Many interventions may have some positive effect on alleviating, violence in general e.g. limiting the depiction of violent acts on, television or in film,but an essential strategy to address violence, against women is acknowledgment and awareness raising of the, specific and underlying causes of this form of violence.
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90, , 2D.7 IDENTIFYING, APPROACHES, , GOOD, , PRACTICES, , AND, , Coordination, co-operation and partnerships: A multi sectoral, approach that coordinates and integrates a wide range of actors is, a principle that guides any work on improving overall response to, violence against women. The specific actors or stakeholders, involved may vary depending on the type of VAW addressed, but, the strategy is the same – to work with a broad range of, professionals and services from the national to the community and, grass-roots level and to forge partnerships across sectors., Sharing of knowledge, skill building and training: The use of, knowledge-exchange and educational programs is a tactic, rather, than a strategy. Nevertheless, it is included here to illustrate the, guiding principle that practitioners who are working on VAW should, regularly and routinely share information and participate in skill, building. As a corollary, training for service providers, law, enforcement, the legal and health sectors, policy makers and any, other key stakeholders should be integrated into routine staff, development and be informed by agreed-upon standards and, guidelines., , 2D.8 STRATEGIES, PRACTICES, , THAT, , UNDERLIE, , GOOD, , Real change toward ending violence against women requires, ―a coordinated and sustained effort on many levels.‖Good practices, are supported by various strategies that determine on which level a, project operates and how it interacts with other programming., Interventions can be viewed along a spectrum from ―micro, level,‖ those that provide for the needs of victims, change societal, attitudes, build awareness of women and men, to ―meso level,‖, those that target local institutions, and lastly ―macro-level,‖ those, that address higher-level policy or legislative change. Put another, way, some interventions can be characterized as short-term, those, that aim for immediate improvement of the situation and others take, a long-term approach; they strive for system change. Determining, how short-term and long-term advocacy interact is an important, part of strategy development that underpins good practices., Although violence against women is a distinct social problem, that should be addressed through targeted initiatives, it also has, important links to other issues of women‘s human rights, health and, development. Therefore, an effective strategy behind good, practices is to approach violence against women not as an isolated, problem. It is an effective practice overall to integrate anti-VAW
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91, messages into programs where there are significant intersections,, for example on HIV/AIDS prevention, reproductive health, family, planning, law reform, micro-enterprise development or land access, and use programs., Prevention, The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the, prevention of violence against women be considered a high priority, for national health, social and legal agendas of both industrialized, and developing countries. The WHO also defines prevention, activities at three levels: primary prevention (stopping violence from, occurring); secondary (immediate responses after violence has, occurred to limit its consequences) and tertiary (longer-term, treatment and support for victims of violence to prevent further, adverse effects). Despite the recognized value of primary, prevention, experts note that there is a significant lack of sustained, and long-term investment in such efforts. Primary prevention can, take a number of forms but at their core they focus on changing, gender-related attitudes and stereotypes at the individual level,, among both men and women, and at the societal level., Awareness Raising Campaigns, Awareness raising is at the core of prevention efforts and, can include working with the general public to change societal, attitudes and tolerance of violence against women, to expose the, public to the magnitude of this problem, to end secrecy about, violence against women and to send a clear message that it should, not be tolerated. Awareness raising activities can also target, specific groups with narrow messages., Included in this resource are examples of innovative, communication methods specific to domestic violence, sexual, assault and harassment, harmful traditional practices, trafficking, and commercial sexual exploitation, mainly in the form of posters, and video clips., Public Awareness, Public awareness raising campaigns can be used to initiate, public debate about violence against women and challenge social, norms. Indeed, some of the more promising awareness campaigns, are those that use mainstream media and common technology to, promote seldom-heard or thought-provoking messages about, violence against women. For example, NGOs have partnered with, mobile phone providers to send anti-violence text messages to their, customers.75 The term ―social marketing‖ describes the use of, techniques from the advertising world used to promote messages, of social significance., Global Campaigns
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92, The UN is currently running several global campaigns to, raise awareness of specific aspects of violence against women and, to call for further action., UNITE to End Violence Against Women (2008-2015) focuses on, global advocacy; strengthened efforts and partnerships at the, national and regional levels; and UN leadership by example. States, are urged to enact or strengthen laws and enforce such laws to end, impunity. The Secretary-General will form a global network of male, leaders to assist in mobilizing men and boys to become involved in, the struggle to end violence against women., Empowering Women, Women themselves are a critical focus of any initiative to, eliminate violence against women. While there are, of course, myriad projects directed to women specifically, many, such as selfhelp groups or telephone hotlines, these are services to assist, women who have already in some way identified themselves as, experiencing or having survived violence. Activists against VAW, point to the fact that some women lack awareness that genderbased violence is not simply an inevitable part of being female but, are a human rights violation and mechanisms exist for redress., Thus, awareness raising that targets women may have some of the, features of awareness rising for the general public, such as, promoting the unacceptability of violence against women. Most, often, however, awareness raising for women takes the form of, outreach which can be directed to women in risk groups, such as, women who are preparing to travel abroad for work or commercial, sex workers, or to specific groups who may have limited access to, information, such as rural women, women who lack education,, women with disabilities, migrant or refugee women. Legal literacy is, a specific form of outreach to provide women with information about, local laws with an aim to improve their understanding of how to, access the legal system to protect one‘s rights. An important, principle behind all awareness raising materials for women is that, they contain messages of empowerment and give women concrete, alternatives to either avoid violence or escape it if it has already, occurred.81 Economic empowerment programs are often, characterized as prevention work, but because they are also, effective components of assistance services for women survivors of, violence., Key Actions, 1. Designate appropriately trained, knowledgeable, and, accountable personnel to be responsible for recruitment and hiring, of employees and consultants. These personnel should be trained, in human resources, knowledgeable about the risks of staff, misconduct with regard to sexual violence, including sexual
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93, exploitation, and must be held accountable for implementing, internationally recognised standards in hiring practices., 2. When recruiting local/national and international staff, including, short-term consultants, interns, and volunteers, careful hiring, practices should include reference checks for all categories of, employee. Reference checks should specifically include questions, seeking information about the candidate related to any prior acts,, personnel actions, or criminal history. Careful reference checks can, filter out those candidates with a history of exploitative behaviour,, particularly those who move from one emergency situation to the, next, or who have criminal records for sexual violence., 3. Do not hire any person with a history of perpetrating any type of, gender-based violence, including sexual exploitation, sexual abuse,, or domestic violence., 4. Coordinate with other organisations to establish systems for, sharing information about (names of) employees terminated for, engaging in sexual exploitation or abuse. Any such system must be, established in accordance with relevant laws governing employers, and employees., 5. Recruit more women employees at all levels., • Sexual exploitation and abuse are grounded in gender inequality;, therefore, activities in emergency situations must be conducted in a, gender-sensitive manner and the views and perspectives of women, and girls must be adequately considered., • Human Resources must endeavour to increase the numbers of, local/national and international women staff hired to work in, emergencies., • Identify, understand, and address obstacles to employing women., Recognise that women, especially if they are local/national, may, have some limits on their access to and availability for work. There, may be low literacy rates among adult females in the population, or, cultural beliefs that limit opportunities for women to work., Implement strategies and employment schemes to accommodate, women and remove obstacles., , , , 2E. SENIOR CITIZENS: EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL, AND PHYSICAL PROBLEMS
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94, , Unit structure:, 2E.0 Objectives, 2E.1 Introduction, 2E.3 Concept of Senior citizens, 2E.4 Problems and issues, 2E.5 Facilities for the senior citizens, 2E.6 Signs and symptoms of depression in the elderly, 2E.7 Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly, 2E.8 Tips for helping a depressed elderly, 2E.9 Ways to combat and prevent depression, 2E.10 Counseling and therapy, 2E.11 Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior Citizens, 2E.12 Action Plan by the Health Ministry, 2E.13 Are senior citizens an asset or liability?, 2E.14 Unit End Exercise, , 2E.0 OBJECTIVES, After reading this unit the student will be able to:, Discuss the problems and issues of Senior citizens., State the facilities for the senior citizens, Describe the Signs and symptoms of depression in the, elderly, List the Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly, Describe Tips for helping a depressed elderly, Suggest Ways to combat and prevent depression, Identify Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior, Citizens, Suggest Action Plan by the Health Ministry, Justify ―Are senior citizens an asset or liability?‖, , 2E.1 INTRODUCTION
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95, Senior citizens provide much needed comfort and wisdom to, their families and communities, but there are also times when they, need assistance. The guidance center can help them with certain, needs. If a senior citizen is struggling to pay his or her rent, a, worker at the guidance center can point him or her to local nonprofit groups that may offer utility vouchers, , 2E.2 CONCEPT OF SENIOR CITIZENS, As we age, a great number of changes occur in our body., Such changes are the root cause for various diseases. Heart, disease is more commonly seen in senior citizens. Most of the, senior citizens do not even know that they are at the risk of heart, disease. As we age, our general activities get reduced. As the body, needs have reduced, the cholesterol or the bad fat gets deposited, in various tissues and even in arteries blocking them or narrowing, them resulting in decreased blood flow to the heart. This situation, finally leads to heart attack due to blockage of blood supply to the, heart., Senior citizens with diabetes are at increased risk for, myocardial infarction. Hence, it is essential to maintain appropriate, sugar levels by regular usage of medications., To avoid the risk of heart attack it is essential to follow, certain practices. They include consuming low fat or zero, cholesterol foods, involving in some sort simple exercises regularly,, quit habits such as smoking and consumption of alcohol. It is, essential to take a healthy nutritious diet rich in fresh fruits and, vegetable. Thus, by knowing the facts of heart disease in senior, citizens, they can easily combat heart attack., , 2E.4 PROBLEMS AND ISSUES, Senior citizens who are living alone have been found, abused, robbed, humiliated, and, in many cities in India, they have, been found murdered., The most important problem senior citizens face today is, loss of independence. All other issues fall under this umbrella of, inconvenience and distress. Whether older persons have financial, hardships, failing health or isolation, Deteriorating health, malnutrition, lack of shelter, fear,, depression, senility, isolation, boredom, non-productivity, and, financial incapacity are the most common problems that senior, citizens all over the world face today. These problems can be
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96, grouped into two categories that relate to the physical and mental, health and the financial capacity of the senior citizen., The rise in the number of those who are ‗non-productive‘ and, who do not generate any ‗hope‘ immediately raises an economic, problem. It is also a social problem: Who is going to provide, support to them and how? Apart from food and shelter, the old, need care and medicines. They also crave love and tender care., They would like to interact, be heard, be visible, and would like a bit, of space of their own and have a constructive and creative role to, play in society. Among the old, the problems of old women, single,, divorced and widowed, are different from those of old men., 1. Physical and mental health, Stability of physical and mental health is a key concern that, senior citizens have to contend with as they go through their, twilight years. The human body is a system that wears out with, long and repetitive use; and quite easily, with neglect and, abuse. Aging is a life-cycle stage where the human capacity to, think, act, relate, and learn starts to falter and deteriorate., Aging breeds illnesses such as loss of memory, immobility,, organ failure, and poor vision. These are critical dysfunctions, that could sideline a senior citizen to a lonely and miserable, life., While a clean and discreet lifestyle in his or her prime could reduce, the susceptibility of a senior citizen to dreaded post-retirement, illnesses, the onset of any dysfunction is one unpredictable, happening even if the person might have had robust financial, health.., 2. Financial capacity, Possessing sustainable financial capacity before, during, and after, the inception of a senior status is both a basic problem and an, elusive dream for most people. This financial dilemma is common, among senior citizens who are usually relegated to an abject, position of economic inactivity. Lack or absence of financial, capacity creates a stressful life and invites the entry of problems, other than physical and mental health issues. For instance,, domestic problems in an extended family system can aggravate the, problem of a financially-destitute senior citizen., A financially secure senior citizen with the same illness,, however, may have a longer life to live because money can give, quick and convenient access to life-giving remedies. Even with, state-of-mind dysfunctions like severe depression, boredom,, nervous breakdown, and self-pity, financial capacity can buy, options to rejuvenate and refresh a financially-capable senior, citizen, through travels, elderly recreation, social renewal, and, continuing education. A poor senior citizen in the same state of
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97, mental degradation cannot afford to do the same; and more so, be, back into the mainstream of society., Ageing marginalized, An overwhelming number of people live in rural areas but, migration from rural to urban areas is substantial, which creates, problems for the ageing at both ends. If children go to urban areas, leaving behind the aged in the rural areas, that creates one set of, problems, and if the old are taken along, it creates another set of, problems. The growth of the urban population has been haphazard,, and there are acute shortages of housing and other facilities. The, health care system is woefully inadequate and there is hardly any, specialised agency focusing on the old. There are no programmes, available to train people taking care of the aged. In other words, the, entire responsibility of taking care of the old continues to be with, the traditional institution of the family., Ageing in urban areas, The entire responsibility of support and care of the ageing, falls on the male children with whom the ageing live. The, composition of the family in urban areas is becoming nuclear and, smaller, as a result of which there are fewer people available in the, house to provide care and comfort to the ageing. Those who are, available are torn apart by the stresses of urban living. Women too, in the urban areas are now working outside the family. They have, fixed schedules of work and have other pressures on them., Children are loaded with their studies, competitive examinations, and concerns for making their careers., The authority that the ageing exercised on their children in, the past as a result of greater experience has almost vanished, and, the aged are now told, ‗You don‘t know‘. There are several reasons, for this admonishment. First, the children of the ageing are not in, the same profession. Second, the quantum of information which, their children claim to have makes the ageing look almost primitive., Third, the whole techno-economic situation has now completely, changed, which leaves the ageing bewildered and redundant., When paucity of accommodation, high cost of living, general stress, and tensions at all levels are added to these, the problems of the, aged are extremely serious., Discussion, In the past, ageing was not a serious issue and societies did, not give it priority. They dealt with it as a natural phenomenon., Family members were responsible for the care and management of, the old. But now the situation is different. The size of the people in, the ageing category is already bulging and it is growing very fast., The problems posed by ageing are by no means accidental and, isolated. They have grown as a result of the development process
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98, itself. At family, community and government levels the problems of, the ageing get no or very low priority. It is taken for granted that the, problem will get solved on its own or that it is a problem of, individual families, with communities and governments having, nothing to do with it. The family, where the ageing is supposed to, get care and comfort, is on the rocks and in any case shrinking., The members of the family are spread around in pursuit of their, careers., The old, on their part, are not getting detached either. They, think that they are going to live for ever and that in any case this is, not the time to quit. They are bored looking after grandchildren,, listening to religious discourses and devotional music, making, rounds of holy places or just sitting before the small screen. They, seek companionship, appropriate creative and constructive roles., In India even systematic thinking as to what should be the policy, towards the ageing has not begun. At this stage the country is, caught up in the whirlpool of market forces and resultant, consumerism. A shift from consumption to conservation, from, individual to community, is bound to take place, which will be in, keeping with the Indian ethos. It is possible to be modern with the, emphasis on conservation and focus on the community. Taking, care of the aged means highlighting the importance of conservation, and humanitarianism. It will also strengthen the community, for the, aged can be best taken care of within the fold of the family, bound, by filial rights, duties and obligations. There is no institution that can, replace the family but there is room to build into it the ideas of, equality, justice and freedom. All this will not happen automatically., The focus has to be human development. That will provide new, strength to the family and further support from the community. Thus, a combination of modern knowledge and intense feeling for those, who are non-productive can provide physical and emotional comfort, to the old., , 2E.5 FACILITIES FOR THE SENIOR CITIZENS, The facilities for the Seniors citizens like retirement homes,, medical aid , free meals, Indoor games and outdoor games, transportation, nursing, healthy, environment ,domestic help Books, & magazines etc. to be provided by the government., Senior Citizens Discounts, Our governments are announcing many schemes every year, for the senior citizens. The Indian Railways and Indian Airlines give, some senior citizen discounts up to 30% but most of the senior, citizens are not in a position to avail the available facilities. All the, Public Sector banks give 0.5 % interest to senior citizens.
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99, , Senior citizens Retirement, The activities of senior citizens increase after the retirement. All the, market and government related work has to be done by these, elderly persons after retirement. There are no senior citizen jobs, available for them., They have social problems &, housing, problems., The government should find some jobs for seniors citizens.., There are groups of aging Senior citizens. These seniors have no, activity to do whole day. These senior people find difficult to spend, the whole day honourably. They need elder care by their own family, members. There are very few Retirement homes. They need, assisted living facilities., These old people have all type of problems after retirement., They have family problems. Their children do not want to live with, them.. They have to travel long distance to collect their pension or, pay the electricity, telephone, water bills. They are living in the, houses bought against home loans, and paying back the home, loans out of pension., Senior citizen’s medical insurance, Senior citizens have health problems. They are getting, injuries every day due to uneven surface of bad roads. No one is, ready to help them .The senior citizens health insurance required is, not affordable., Mental Illnesses, Senior Citizens are susceptible to a variety of mental illnesses., Depression is the most common of these., , 2E.6, , SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF DEPRESSION IN THE, ELDERLY, Sadness, Fatigue, Abandoning or losing interest in hobbies or other pleasurable, pastimes, Social withdrawal and isolation (reluctance to be with friends,, engage in activities, or leave home), Weight loss; loss of appetite, Sleep disturbances (difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep,, oversleeping, or daytime sleepiness)
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100, Loss of self-worth (worries about being a burden, feelings of, worthlessness, self-loathing), Increased use of alcohol or other drugs, Fixation on death; suicidal thoughts or attempts, Unexplained, aggravated aches, pains, , or, and, , Hopelessness, Helplessness, Anxiety and worries, Memory problems, , Loss of feeling of pleasure, Slowed movement, Irritability, Lack of interest in personal, care, (skipping, meals,, forgetting, medications,, neglecting, personal, hygiene), , Lack of interest in activities you enjoyed doing, Sadness or unexplained crying spells, jumpiness or irritability, Loss of memory, inability to concentrate, confusion or, disorientation, Thoughts of death or suicide, Change in appetite and sleep patterns, Persistent fatigue, lethargy, aches and other unexplainable, physical problems, If a senior citizen is depressed, you can make a difference, by offering emotional support. Listen to your loved one with, patience and compassion. Don‘t criticize feelings expressed, but, point out realities and offer hope. You can also help by seeing that, your friend or family member gets and accurate diagnosis and, appropriate treatment. Help your loved one find a good doctor,, accompany him or her to appointments, and offer moral support., Causes and risk factors that contribute to depression in the, elderly:, Loneliness and isolation – Living alone; a dwindling social circle, due to deaths or relocation; decreased mobility due to illness or, loss of driving privileges., Reduced sense of purpose - Feelings of purposelessness or, loss of identity due to retirement or physical limitations on, activities., Health problems – Illness and disability; chronic or severe pain;, cognitive decline; damage to body image due to surgery or, disease.
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101, Medications – Many prescription medications can trigger or, exacerbate depression., Fears – Fear of death or dying; anxiety over financial problems, or health issues., Recent bereavement - The death of friends, family members,, and pets; the loss of a spouse or Helping a depressed friend or, relative, , 2E.7 TIPS FOR HELPING A DEPRESSED ELDERLY:, Invite your loved one out. Depression is less likely when, people‘s bodies and minds remain active. Suggest activities to, do together that your loved one used to enjoy: walks, an art, class, a trip to the museum or the movies—anything that, provides mental or physical stimulation., Schedule regular social activities. Group outings, visits from, friends and family members, or trips to the local senior or, community center can help combat isolation and loneliness. Be, gently insistent if your plans are refused: depressed people, often feel better when they‘re around others., Plan and prepare healthy meals. A poor diet can make, depression worse, so make sure your loved one is eating right,, with plenty of fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and some protein, at every meal., Encourage the person to follow through with treatment., Depression usually recurs when treatment is stopped too soon,, so help your loved one keep up with his or her treatment plan., If it isn‘t helping, look into other medications and therapies., Make sure all medications are taken as instructed. Remind the, person to obey doctor's orders about the use of alcohol while, on medication. Help them remember when to take their dose., Watch for suicide warning signs. Seek immediate professional, help if you suspect that your loved one is thinking about, suicide., , 2E.8 WAYS, TO, DEPRESSION:, , COMBAT, , AND, , PREVENT, , Getting out in to the world – Try not to stay cooped up at home, all day., Connecting to others – Limit the time you‘re alone.
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102, Participating in activities you enjoy – Pursue whatever hobbies, or pastimes bring or used to bring you joy., Volunteering your time – Helping others is one of the best ways, to feel better about yourself and regain perspective., Taking care of a pet – Get a pet to keep you company., Learning a new skill – Pick something that you‘ve always, wanted to learn, or that sparks your imagination and creativity., Enjoying jokes and stories – Laughter provides a mood boost., Maintaining a healthy diet – Avoid eating too much sugar and, junk food. Choose healthy foods that provide nourishment and, energy, and take a daily multivitamin., Exercising – Even if you‘re ill, frail, or disabled, there are many, safe exercises you can do to build your strength and boost your, mood—even from a chair or wheelchair., , 2E.9 COUNSELING AND THERAPY, Studies have found that therapy works just as well as, medication in relieving mild to moderate depression. And unlike, antidepressants, therapy also addresses the underlying causes of, the depression., Supportive counseling includes, counseling. It can help ease, hopelessness of depression., , religious and peer, loneliness and the, , Psychotherapy helps people work through stressful life, changes, heal from losses, and process difficult emotions., Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) helps people change, negative thinking patterns, deal with problems in healthy, ways, and develop better coping skills., Support groups for depression, illness, or bereavement, connect people with others who are going through the same, challenges. They are a safe place to share experiences,, advice, and encouragement., , 2E.10, , CURRENT SITUATION OF THE HEALTH, ISSUES OF SENIOR CITIZENS:, , Every Senior Citizen has to cope up with his health and, associated problems by taking special care by way of proper life, style, exercises, regular walking without talking, yoga-pranayam,, proper diet and keeping busy physically and mentally by keeping in, view the dictum -``Use it or Lose it. ` Number of Senior Citizens
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103, suffering from Hyper Tension, Heart Problems, Diabetes, Arthritis, etc is very large. Facilities to diagnose and treat old age ailments, are very much limited and treatments, whether surgical or by, medicines are very very costly. With limited income and no, affordable health security schemes available to Senior Citizens,, most of the Senior Citizens do not dare to go for any treatment and, leave everything to God‘s grace! Many are not able to travel, independently to Govt./Municipal hospitals, where they have to wait, in long queues and treatment mooted out to them is almost, inhuman! Apart from ward boys, even well educated Doctors taught, to serve all with missionary zeal misbehave with elders and even, insult them. They are not available on their seats for a long time or, remain busy chit-chatting! They along with all medical and para, medical staff in all Public & Private Hospitals should be given, periodical orientation course for treating Senior Citizens in a proper, way. This is envisaged in para 40 of National Policy on Older, Persons, 1999., , 2E.11, , ACTION PLAN BY THE HEALTH MINISTRY, , i) Implement all the provisions of NPOP, 99 in para 33 to 48 by 313-2008., ii) Increase Govt/Municipal Hospitals and provide free treatment to, all Senior Citizens, as done by Maharashtra Govt. Provide specific, number of earmarked beds in each hospital. Raise the image of the, Public hospitals by giving better and humane service., iii) Make it statutorily compulsory to provide separate departments, for Geriatric, Alzheimer, and Hospice Care in each Hospital in, Public as well as Private sector., iv) Fix outer limit of fees by Private Hospitals for treatment,, pathological examination, and consultations of Senior Citizens., v) As many Senior Citizens are not mobile, provide Mobile, Hospitals and make compulsory for each Doctor to visit certain, number of such Senior Citizens at their residence regularly., vi) Provide free medicines to needy Senior Citizens for common, ailments like hyper tension, heart, diabetics, arthritics etc by special, budget provisions, donors etc, vii) Provide user-friendly Medical Security Insurance on lines of, Arogya Kavach of Pimpri (Pune), Sahyadri Scheme of Pune,, Yasashvini of Karnataka., viii) A simple directive of separate queues, which is not, implemented by most of the Hospitals should be monitored., x) Create a Health Welfare Fund. Provide Convalescent Homes,, Holiday Homes, Day Care Centres etc. Provide health care facilities, in Vrudhashrams.
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104, xi) Provide opportunities for second careers, activity centres to, keep them active to utilize and maintain their mental health by, holding competitions by way of Essay writing, Quiz, Brain Storming, Sessions etc at District, State & Centre level periodically on, subjects of social & national interest to get views & guidance from, Think-Tank of the Nation, xii) Crate health awareness literature for preventive measures &, healthy life style and make easily available., xii) Health Ministry must, if necessary by legislation, make it, compulsory for every Corporate Body, Businessman and if, possible, every Employer to provide health facilities to all their, surviving retired employees and their spouses on par with serving, employees. They must be made to raise the pension, where it is, paid, on every revision of pay-scale of the post on which the, employee had retired on the same principle, as envisaged by, Supreme Court., Long lasting proper solution may lie in declaring the Health Care, as a fundamental right for every citizen right from the birth and, insuring everyone, , 2E.12, , ARE SENIOR CITIZENS AN ASSET OR, LIABILITY?, , The tag senior citizen is generally given to a person who is, between 58 and 65 years of age and has superannuated from, active service. This age band fixed for retirement was based on the, old system followed decades ago when longevity was lower than 60, years. With the advance in medical sciences and health supporting, systems, longevity now goes up to 75. Perhaps, the retirement age, needs revision to make use of the services of experienced people, for some more time in the interest of national development., Some senior citizens have the right attitude, take things in, their stride, plan well their post-retirement life and keep their body, and mind in reasonable good trim. They largely have a positive, approach. There are others who take a dim view of life and think of, retirement as something of a punishment. While the optimists keep, themselves busy with productive work, the pessimists become, dejected, feel neglected and find fault with everyone., Family situations and financial position do play a part in, influencing the lives of elders. Some are fortunate to live with their, children or within their reach in the same city/town. They lead a, relatively satisfied life. The longer the distance, the greater their, feeling of insecurity and loneliness. If the children are within the, country, the parents are fairly satisfied — they can visit them or the, children can come home for occasions like marriages and festivals., The pangs of separation and the fear of loneliness, on the other
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105, hand, increase if the children live abroad. Thus the elders' lives are, situation-dependent., The presence of relatives and old-age homes, however, comfortable, cannot provide for emotional needs. Some people, overcome the blues by taking recourse to cultural and social, activities but others suffer silently. Low income and poor health, aggravate the misery., Thus arises the question whether senior citizens are an, asset or liability to the families and society at large. The answer is, they are undoubtedly an asset if they have the right attitude to life., The present-day elders truly represent the generation of the preIndependence era known for a value-based life. They were, accomplished, humble and honest and practiced to a large extent, what was taught. As most senior citizens are highly experienced,, they can contribute tremendously, The present time society needs to give senior citizens, a life of, dignity in their twilight years. Urbanization, migration,, industrialization, women entering in the labor force and many such, social changes has steadily chipped away the joint family system., The result is that senior citizens are now forced to face a life of, despair and loneliness. There are very few mechanisms to look into, the problems of senior citizens., We can solve social problem by the change in social reality and, application of knowledge. Because the root of this problem is lack, of education, so we should provide education to this particular, social group. Educated senior citizen can deal with the problem in a, better way. And finally the family member of these people must, understand that the old person in their home is an asset not liability., The education and the mindset of family member can reduce this, problem form the society, , 2E.13 UNIT END EXERCISE, 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., 9., , Discuss the problems and issues of Senior citizens., State the facilities for the senior citizens, Describe the Signs and symptoms of depression in the elderly, List the Causes and risk factors of depression in the elderly, Describe Tips for helping a depressed elderly, Suggest Ways to combat and prevent depression, Identify Current Situation of the Health Issues of Senior Citizens, Suggest Action Plan by the Health Ministry, Justify ―Are senior citizens an asset or liability?‖
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106, , , , 3, MODULE II, CAREER GUIDANCE WORK & MENTAL, HEALTH, Unit Structure, 3.1., , 3.2, , 3.3, , 3.4, 3.5, , Meaning of work, Compensation and Incentives., 3.1.1 Meaning of work., 3.1.2 Meaning of Compensation, 3.1.3. Meaning of Incentive, Relation between work and leisure, work and incentives, 3.2.1 Work and Leisure, 3.2.2 Work and Incentives, Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health, 3.3.1 Definition and Meaning of Mental Health, 3.3.2 Characteristics of Mental Health, 3.3.3 Need for Mental Health, Role of Guidance Personnel in promoting and preserving, Mental Health, Let us Sum up, , 3.1. MEANING OF WORK, COMPENSATION AND, INCENTIVES, 3.1.1 Meaning of work:, Introduction:Work has evolved a lot since the industrial revolution partly, due to the progress of sciences and technologies. Major
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107, transformations happened in the organizational structure and, culture, with their consequences on the organizations of work, , 3.1.1 Meaning of work:―Work is life, idleness is death‖, With a few exceptions, nearly everyone has to work in order, to make a living. The most obvious reason to work is the sheer, necessity for survival. For those who wish to live a more affluent, life, they work harder and longer to get extra income or overtime, remuneration. Work, then, is equivalent to a higher standard of, living., ―Work is either paid or unpaid. Paid work is what most people, associate with team ‗work‘‖, ―Unpaid work, includes housework and school work. Most, people in full time employment work 5 days a week, although there, has been an increase in the number of people working at weekends, and part time. In recent years the ability to work flexible hours has, grown it‘s importance‖., ―People do not necessarily enjoy work but they all enjoy the, reward of their work and the reward is so tangible and immediate, that no one can fail to appreciate it. Therefore it can be said that the, primary objective of the multitude to work is for survival and for, tangible material reward‖., Major approaches to study of meaning of work:There are three major approaches to the study of the meaning, of work, the definitions of work, the orientations of work and the, coherence of work. As such we can define the meaning of work in, three ways, as illustrated in figure, The significance of work:, The concept of ―meaning of work‖ can be defined as the, significance of the subject attributes to work, his representation of, work, and the importance it has in his life., Work is central in many cultures, although every culture has, its own values and conceptions about it. However, it seems that, work is important and significant for a majority of people, considering the time that individuals devote to work in their lives,, the numerous functions which it accomplishes for them and the fact, that work is closely linked with other important aspects of daily life, such as family, leisure, religion and community life.
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108, The notion of ―work‖ has several definitions but they all share, the idea of a purposeful activity. This notion generally refers to, expanding energy through a set of co-ordinated activities aimed at, producing something useful. Work may be pleasant or unpleasant, and may or may not be associated with monetary exchanges., Moreover it does not necessarily have to be accomplished in the, context of a job., 3.1.2 Meaning of compensationIn financial terms, the salary and wages you pay to your, employees for the work they do, no financial forms of compensation, can also be offered to attract and retain staff., Ask any human resources consultant where financial, compensation ranks in the hierarchy of employee requirements,, and you‘re likely to get a range of answers. Some say it‘s the most, important thing others declare wages are the only important thing., Still others say that while financial compensation isn‘t the most, important thing it‘s important enough that if your paid isn‘t fair, all, the other employee benefits in the world may not be enough to, keep employees on board., Obviously it‘s important to know whether you are paying, enough and how to get the most for what you are paying. In, addition, you have to know how to bolster the actual dollars you lay, out in salary and wages with non financial compensation., You don‘t pay employees in a vaccum. That‘s another way of, saying that the level of compensation that will attract and keep, employees is set primarily by other employers. While there‘s no, formula that will tell you the ideal salary for each position within, your company there are appropriate ranges. Some of the key, sources for determining suitable salary ranges for your employees, are –, 1. Classified advertisement listings for specific positions both in, your daily newspaper and on the internet., 2. Professional and trade organizations for the specific fields in, which you‘re hiring. Most organizations regularly publish salary, data., 3. Human resources consultants., 4. Specialized recruiters in the appropriate fields., While no one can discount the importance of financial, rewards, keep in mind that today‘s job candidates are more, concerned with corporate environment and quality of life issues, than over before. In our executive survey conducted by Robert half., International Corporate Culture rivaled employee benefits are
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109, important for candidates during job interviews. Many small, businesses use this trend as a competitive advantage, offering, such non financial perks as flexible work schedules, casual dress, days, additional vacation time and tele commuting opportunities., The costs of this approach are minimal, particularly when compared, to the value added benefits of improved recruitment, productivity, and retention., Regardless of the monetary and non-monetary ways you, compensate your employees, creating an employee-friendly, environment and determining competitive compensation ranges, take time Both require being flexible and adaptable to changing, workplace trends and local conditions. The investment is worth the, difference between a good company and a great company is its, people., 3.1.3 Meaning of Incentive:A reward for a specific behavior designed to encourage that, behavior also called inducements., Can you motivate employees during a recession with a, successful employee incentive plan?, By stuart Jennings:, Bonus plans Pay for performance programs MBO, programme commission plans stock option stock appreciation, rights., Employee incentive plans go by many different names, you‘ve, undoubtedly seen your share. But, with our economy struggling,, how should you approach your employee incentive plans differently, to reach your organizations goals? Or can an employee incentive, plan actually create the results you need?, , 3.2. RELATION BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE,, WORK AND INCENTIVES:, 3.2.1. Work and leisure, Work – work plays a major role in people‘s like. When you, think of work there are several definitions depending upon your own, experiences and the society in which you live. In western societies,, paid employment is considered to be the most important type of, work. Work is socially defined and needs to be understood in, particular contexts work provides an individual with income, self, identity and status., Leisure :
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110, Leisure is also an important aspect of people‘s lives. Leisure, activities are those associated with the beach, outdoor living and, sport and form an important part of an Australian identity., Leisure can be defined – ―as time not spent working or meeting, the necessaries of life‖. It is also linked to quality of life issues., There is strong relationship between the type of work an individual, does and the way they spend their leisure time., Leisure has become a commodity to be purchased and this, results in the exclusion of some groups in society. Market forces, exclude the unemployed the poor and elderly from participation., Leisure can be divided in active and passive forms., Interrelationship between work and leisure –The differentiation, between work and leisure is basic to all definitions. Generally work, is understood to be remunerative, required by social norms and, necessary for the maintenance of the self and family Leisure is ―non, work i.e. leisure is not remunerative, not required by social, expectations, and not necessary for status or survival. However, all, non work is not considered leisure., The relationship between work and leisure – work is dependent, upon quality of life issues and varies with each individual depending, upon their choice of work. For some groups of people leisure is an, extension of their work activities. Leisure activities are related to job, satisfaction and involvement in work. Work also provides the, financial means with which to participate in leisure, Leisure activities engaged in by individuals are dependent, on the work undertaken and level of education. Professional sports, people engage in leisure activate and also receive monetary, payments. For some people the skills they have also extend into a, means of earning a living. Educational institutions provide, individuals with necessary skills and the means to participate in, meaningful employment. This in turn also influences the types of, leisure activities undertaken and often provides status, control and, a degree of choice about participation in leisure activities. The, media is increasingly influencing leisure activities., 3.2.2. Relationship between work and Incentives-Managing, employee performance is steadily rising to the top of many senior, leaders‘ agendas. The fast pace of business, an ultra-competitive, marketplace and increasing customer demands have made it, difficult for leaders to quickly and effectively respond to everchanging market conditions. Compounded by declining workforce, productivity, escalating employee disengagement and the, forthcoming retirement of 76 million baby boomers, companies are
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111, being forced to finally focus their attention on their most valuable, assets: their employees., Corporations worldwide are scrambling to find effective ways, to attract and retain the best talent, but also to elevate their, performance, productivity and service levels to new heights., Embodied in this quest is the ability to align individual behaviors, with strategic corporate objectives and, importantly, to motivate and, reward those who meet or exceed those objectives. In today‘s, business climate, organizations must achieve maximum return on, investment (ROI) in their people to boost corporate performance, and gain a competitive advantage., The new ‘must have’, Employee performance is everything – it‘s what, distinguishes top performing companies from those who are, struggling. Statistics show that companies who recognize their, people outperform companies that don‘t by 30 to 40 percent., Businesses are beginning to understand the value of investing, resources to establish, market and support improved performance, improvement strategies for one compelling reason: satisfied,, motivated and dedicated individuals are increasingly critical to, corporate survival and imperative for growth., When senior management discusses motivating employees,, the conversation typically turns to 401k plans, health care benefits,, stock options and other compensation vehicles. Recognition and, incentive programs are rarely mentioned in the context of that, conversation, despite the fact that 78 percent of companies have at, least one performance-related program in place. This must change, if leaders expect to take advantage of the full arsenal of tools, available to help them achieve their corporate objectives. Research, is proving that recognition and incentive programs are powerful and, effective vehicles for boosting corporate performance and the, bottom line. Smart Human Resource executives are taking the cue, and expanding their portfolio of solutions to include incentive, programs, as well as recognition programs in that arsenal., Incentives are commonly associated with sales initiatives; so, few professionals outside of the sales arena have fully embraced, them as tried-and-true methods for raising overall employee, productivity. This is a missed opportunity because we have learned, that incentive programs can be used to inspire employees, throughout the enterprise. A recent study found that 88 to 95, percent of all incentive programs reach or exceed their goals, and, that the ROI on non-sales employee programs (200 percent) is, actually greater than the ROI on incentives directed to sales staff, (134 percent).
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112, Exploring the broader use of incentives compliments another, innovative corporate trend – aligning internal and external branding, efforts to maximize customer satisfaction and profitability. Internal, branding is defined as motivating internal audiences (employees) to, deliver the quality service promised by advertising and sales., Research by The Forum for People Performance Management &, Measurement at Northwestern University discovered a direct link, between employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and a, company‘s profitability, even when the employees did not have, direct customer contact., If you want employees to understand the corporate message, and to treat your customers the right way, you have to set the, example by making sure they have that message and they're, treated with the same care and respect you want them to, demonstrate to customers. Internal branding also thrusts motivation, and performance improvement into the C-suite because brand, equity is a C-level priority, giving HR professionals an opportunity to, demonstrate the strategic value of recognition to the CEO., Proven results = C-suite interest, We now have a growing body of compelling research from, credible sources around the world on the positive – and significant, – impact of recognition and incentive programs on a company‘s, financial performance. The research demonstrates that companies, who engage in incentive and recognition programs are significantly, outperforming their competitors (who don't run programs) in bottom, line savings, contributions to the profit line and shareholder return., This is important news for companies seeking every possible, advantage in the marketplace., The research has attracted the attention of business leaders, and helped them to realize that everyone in their company is, affecting the organization‘s ability to compete and thrive. There‘s no, better vehicle for a CEO to communicate what's important to the, company than to recognize and reward people for the behaviors, and results that drive the company towards success. Recognition, programs have proven to be a highly effective means of aligning, the boardroom and the lunchroom and cascading the company‘s, strategic imperatives throughout the organization and into the, hands of the people who can make them a reality…. people who, are often anxious to make a meaningful contribution., Maximizing ROI, Frequently, companies run a number of disparate, recognition and incentive programs that span various departments., A common approach has been to allow each department to, implement a unique program with goals and rewards specific to the, individuals in that unit.
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113, , However, when you have independent programs within an, organization there is often poor accountability for ROI or clear line, of sight to overall results. Most companies don‘t really know how, much they‘re actually spending on programs let alone how much, value they‘re extracting from them. Running a multitude of, disparate programs also undermines the opportunity for creating a, consistent, over-arching performance-based culture throughout the, company. Additionally, there‘s the danger that employees will, perceive that one department is favored over another or that some, managers are offering more generous awards., Companies are consolidating many of their programs to, decrease expenses and increase effectiveness. Multiple programs, are being pulled into one corporate-wide program with numerous, sub-programs and variations to address the specific needs of, different business units or geographical locations. This, consolidation helps strip-out cost and administrative burden while, insuring a unified message and application throughout the, enterprise., Organizations are also becoming much more aware of all the, contributors to corporate success and are implementing, performance and recognition programs to help align and recognize, more employees for their contributions to those successes., Employers have realized that everyone in the company – not just, the sales team – can contribute to revenue growth and operational, efficiencies that help a company prosper. Leaders need to gain the, support and buy-in from everyone who can influence company, results. Keep in mind that if you‘re not actively engaging employees, in your goals, they may be working against your efforts – even if it‘s, done unintentionally and inadvertently., Nowadays, some of those additional participants are likely to, be based around the world. The internet allows us to easily execute, programs across borders and many HR professionals are delighted, to finally be able to offer something better than watered down, versions of their domestic programs to those employees who live, and work beyond the corporate office. Offshore employees are, pushing for these programs as well, unwilling to be bystanders in, the company‘s recognition efforts any longer. Online program, technology does the heavy lifting of language translation, currency, conversions, and creating multiple award catalogs that reflect the, brands and types of awards that will be compelling and relevant in, different countries., Track and measure, Demand is rising steadily for more measurement in, recognition and incentive programs. Companies are looking to
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114, reward the quantifiable, actionable behaviors of their employees, and more metrics are being introduced into programs. There‘s also, a growing interest in tracking program performance throughout its, course, rather than waiting until the end to assess the results., Sales incentive programs have always been focused on, measurement, usually on revenue growth or sales. Traditionally,, recognition programs have been more discretionary: you catch, someone doing something beyond the call of duty and reward, them. Now many recognition programs are also focusing on very, specific corporate goals or initiatives to avoid being viewed as an, entitlement or risking programs being eliminated due to ambiguous, results., Tracking metrics during the program allows you to, quantify the end result and also affect the outcome – you can, intercede if a group is not performing well and provide extra training, or assistance. Or, you can spread the word about a successful, initiative so that everyone can benefit from the example., Inspire – reward – achieve, As workplaces change, employees are asked to adapt,, learn, re-adapt, and re-learn in order to ensure that companies, themselves retain a competitive edge. Recognizing these, employees — for service, achievement or performance — is vital to, corporate health. A well-known veteran of recognition, Herb, Kelleher, former CEO of Southwest Airlines believes that ―anyone, who looks at things solely in terms of factors that can easily be, quantified is missing the heart of the business, which is people.", Herb has it exactly right on a number of levels. First, as, companies have automated their back offices with Enterprise, Resource Planning (ERP) solutions and implemented Customer, Relationship and Supply Chain Management systems (CRM), they, have benefited significantly from the efficiencies and cost savings, of these applications. The next ‗big thing‘ is to focus on, implementing and improving those processes and programs that, manage our people assets. Recognition and incentive programs, are a proven, strategic opportunity to do just that. Few initiatives, can deliver such significant ROI and also advance the company‘s, reputation as a great place to work in the process., Secondly, as people performance is increasingly being, recognized as the means with which companies can gain, competitive edge, people are also identified as the ―method‖ to, achieving those results. As more and more leaders make the shift, to a strategic view of recognition and incentives, and the powerful, dynamics of rewarding those individuals who directly contribute to
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115, the success of the organization, the gap will widen between the, companies who thrive and those that will struggle or disappear., Outdated view: Strategic view:, Employees as expenses Employees as assets and profit, drivers Recognition and incentive programs as a discretionary cost, Recognition and incentive programs as a major source of, shareholder value Recognition and incentive program owners as, administrators Recognition and incentive program owners as, thought leaders, Finally, Herb‘s words remind us that the people we, influence with recognition and incentive programs are busy, spending their day influencing other vital corporate assets –, customers! The link between customer satisfaction and loyalty, and, employee satisfaction and loyalty has been firmly established:, happy customers are a result of happy and engaged employees., That means that putting performance programs to work for you is, far more than a nice idea. It‘s the strategic and profitable thing to, do., Check your Progress, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, Q.4, , Define work, compensation & incentives., Differentiate between compensation and incentives., Relate work with leisure., Relate work with incentives., , 3.3. MEANING, CHARACTERISTICS AND NEED FOR, MENTAL HEALTH, It has always been easier to define mental illnesses than to, define mental health. More recently many have recognized that, mental health is more than the absence of mental illness. Even, though many of us don‘s suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder,
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116, it is clean that some of us are mentally disorder it is clear that some, of us are mentally healthier than others., 3.3.1Definition and Meaning of Mental Health, Mental health is a concept that refers to a human individuals, emotional, psychological and intellectual well being., A branch of medicine that deals with the achievement and, maintenance of psychological well being., , 1. Definition:― A state of emotional & psychological well being in which an, individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional, capabilities function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of, everyday life.‖, 2. Dianne Hales and Robert Hales define mental Health as ― the, capacity to think rationally and logically and to cope with the, transitions, stresses, traumas and losses that occur in all lives, in, ways that allow emotional stability and growth. In general mentally, healthy individuals value themselves, perceive reality as it is,, accept its limitation and possibilities, respond to its challenges carry, out their responsibilities, establish and maintain close relationships,, deal reasonably with others, pursue work that suits their talent and, training and feel sense of fulfillment that makes the efforts of daily, living worthwhile., Definitions of mental health are changing. It used to be that a, person was considered to have good mental health simply if they, showed no signs or symptoms of a mental illness. But in recent, years there has been a shift towards a more holistic approach to, mental health., Today we recognize that good mental health is not just the, absence of mental illness. Nor is it absolute – some people are, more mentally healthy than others, whether you are mentally ill or, not. These realizations are promoting a new kind of focus on, mental health that identifies components of mental wellness and, mental fitness and explore ways to encourage them., It is commonly known in the mental health field that in order to, achieve good mental health, you also need a healthy dose of self, esteem. However what has not been stressed adequately is the, importance and need to nurture such traits such as positive, emotional wellness, optimism, memories and happiness., 3.3.2. Characteristics of mental health:
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117, Ability to enjoy life – The ability to enjoy life is essential to good, mental health, can you live in the moment and appreciate the, ―now‖? Are you able to learn from the past and plan for the future, without dwelling on things you cant change or predict James Taylor, wrote that ― the secret of life is enjoying the passing of time. Any, fool can do it. There ain‘t nothing to it‖ The practice of mindfulness,, meditation is one way to cultivate the ability to enjoy the present., We of course need to plan for the future at times and we also need, to learn from the past. Too often we make ourselves miserable in, the present by worrying about the future., Resilience – The ability to bounce back from adversity has been, referred to as ‗resilience‘. Are you able to bounce back from hard, times. Can you manage the stress of a serious life event without, losing your optimism and a sense of perspective?, It has been long known that some people handle stress, better than others, ‗why do some adults raised in alcoholic families, do well, while others have repeated problems in life? The, Characteristic of resilience‘ is shared by those who cope well with, stress., Balance : Balance in life seems to result in greater mental health., Are you able to juggle the many aspects of your life? Can you, recognize when you might be devoting too much time to one, aspect, at the expense of others? Are you able to make changes to, restore balance when necessary?, We all need to balance time spent socially with time spent, alone. e.g Those who spend all of their time alone may get labeled, as ―loners‖ and they may lose many of their social skills. Extreme, social isolation may even result in a split with reality. Those who, ignore the need for some solitary times also risk such a split., Balance these two needs seems to be the key – although we all, balance these differently., Other areas where balance seems to be important include, the balance between work and play, the balance between sleep, and wakefulness, the balance between rest and exercise, and even, the balance between time spent indoors and time spent outdoors., Flexibility- Do you feel and express a range of emotions? When, problems arise can you change your expectations – of life, others,, yourself to solve the problem and feel better., We all know some people hold very rigid opinions. No amount of, discussion can change their views.
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118, Such people often set themselves up for added stress by the rigid, expectations that they hold working on making our expectations, more flexible can improve our mental health., Mental healthy people experience a range of emotions and, allow themselves to express these feelings. Some people shut off, certain feelings finding them to be unacceptable. This emotional, rigidity may result in other mental health problems., Self actualization – Do you recognize and develop your strengths, so that you can reach your full potential?, What have we made of the gifts that we have been given?, We all know people who have surpassed their potential and others, who seem to have squandered their gifts. We first need to, recognize our gifts, of course, and the process of recognition is part, of the path toward self actualization. Mentally healthy persons are, in the process of actualizing their potential. In order to do this we, must first feel secure., There are just a few of the concepts that are important in, attempting to define mental health. The ability to form healthy, relationships with others is also important., Adult and Adolescent mental health also includes the, concepts of self esteem and healthy sexuality. How we deal with, loss and death to also an important of mental health., Mental Health is more than just the absence of mental, illness. It includes how you feel about yourself and how you adjust, to life events. However, the National Mental Health Association, cites 10 characteristics of people who are mentally healthy., 1. They feel good about themselves, 2. They do not become overwhelmed by emotions such as fear,, anger, love, jealousy, guilt or anxiety, 3. They have lasting and satisfying personal relationships, 4. They feel comfortable with other people, 5. They can laugh at themselves and with others, 6. They have respect for themselves and for others even if there, are differences., 7. They are able to accept life‘s disappointments, 8. They can meet life‘s demands and handle their problems, when they arise., 9. They make their own decisions
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119, 10. They shape their environment whenever possible and adjust, to it when necessary., 3.3.3. Need for Mental Health – Many people are reluctant to use, mental health services because of the stigma of having an, ‗emotional problem‘. Society has a tendency to view mental health, issues differently from medical ones. When someone breaks a leg,, has chest plains, or needs to get a prescription, they‘ll see a doctor., However, when they experience depression, excessive fears, or a, problem with alcohol, they may be embarrassed to seek help. Many, people view these conditions as ‗weaknessess‘ they should handle, themselves, unfortunately, this view prevents them fro getting, professional assistance that may alleviate their problems., To recognize an emotional problem and receive help is not at, all a sign of weakness. Rather, these positive actions are, characteristics of strong individuals. Also, seeing a therapist at a, mental health clinic or student counseling centre is completely, confidential. No information will be released without your, permission except in situations involving child, or elder abuser or, suicidal intent., , 3.4., , ROLE OF GUIDANCE PERSONNEL IN, PROMOTING AND PRESERVING MENTAL, HEALTH., , The main purpose of the Mental Health Act is to provide, authority, criteria and procedures for involuntary admission and, treatment. However, the Act also contains protections to ensure, that these provisions are applied in an appropriate and lawful, manner. Safeguards for the rights of people involuntarily admitted, to a psychiatric facility include rights notification, medical, examinations at specified time periods, second medical opinions on, proposed treatment and access to review panels and the court, guide to the Mental Health Act 2, Most people in British Columbia requiring hospital treatment, for mental disorders are voluntarily admitted to hospital, just like, people with other illnesses. A sizable number of people with serious, mental disorders, however, refuse to accept psychiatric treatment., (In 2003 there were approximately 8,000 involuntary admissions.), Without involuntary admission and treatment made possible by the, Mental Health Act, these seriously mentally ill people would, continue to suffer, causing significant disruption and harm to their, lives and the lives of others., With involuntary hospital admission and treatment, most, people quickly improve to the point that they can continue as
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120, voluntary patients or resume their lives in the community. The, majority of people involuntarily admitted are discharged within one, month., A person can only be admitted as an involuntary patient, under the Mental Health Act to facilities designated by the Minister, of Health. The term ―designated facility‖ in the Act and in this Guide, refers to designated inpatient ―Provincial mental health facilities‖,, ―psychiatric units‖ and ―observation units‖. A list of hospitals and, other facilities designated as psychiatric units, Provincial mental, health facilities (inpatient) and observation units is in Appendix 1., Observation units are short stay units in small hospitals,, where the person is stabilized within a few days and, if continuing, inpatient treatment is necessary, transferred. Section 22(7) of the, Act and Section 2(2) of the Regulation require that a patient, admitted to an observation unit must be transferred to a Provincial, mental health facility or a psychiatric unit within 5 days after a, second Medical Certificate is received by the director of the, observation unit. This transfer requirement applies only to patients, who need further inpatient care and does not apply if the patient is, discharged, or released on extended leave (Section 6.0)., There is no legal authority for a hospital or any other health, care facility that has not been designated as a provincial mental, health facility or a psychiatric unit or observation unit to hold or, admit a person for whom a Medical Certificate has been completed., The hospital or certifying physician may have the patient, transported to the designated facility. It is the mutual obligation of, the closest designated facility and the non-designated hospital to, find a bed for the patient. A non-designated hospital should only, care for the patient while ―in transit‖ to a designated facility. As an, example, it is usually preferable to temporarily admit to hospital, someone awaiting transportation to a psychiatric unit than to hold, them in a jail cell. Non-designated hospitals are advised to develop, protocols with the closest designated facility., The person responsible for the operation of a designated, facility is referred to in the Mental Health Act as the ―director.‖ The, director is responsible for ensuring each patient is provided with, professional service, care and treatment appropriate to the patient‘s, condition (Section 8 of the Act).3 Guide to the Mental Health Act, Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional, response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not, match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker (18). Job, stress can cause poor health and can increase rates of workrelated injuries and accidents.
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121, Some potential causes of work related stress are overwork,, lack of clear instructions, unrealistic deadlines, lack of decisionmaking, job insecurity, isolated working conditions, surveillance,, and inadequate child-care arrangements Although sexual, harassment and discrimination are often excluded from lists of, traditional job stressors, they must be included in any, comprehensive analysis of the causes of workplace stress. Sexual, harassment is a stressor for women in the workplace; and, discrimination is a stronger predictor of health outcomes, including, mental ill-health, for ethnic minorities than traditional job stressors, (20). Some of the many effects of stress include numerous physical, ailments as well as mental health problems such as depression and, increased rates of other possible stress-reducing accommodations, include:, • altering the pace of work;, • lowering the noise level of work;, • providing water, tea or soda and crushed ice to combat a dry, mouth caused by some medications;, • extra encouragement and praise of job performance, but only if, warranted and not obviously excessive;, • while taking steps to reduce stress, avoidance of over-protection, of the employee;, • making sure the employee is treated as a member of the team, and not excluded from social events, business meetings or other, activities relevant to the job., Mental health at work, Should you mention your panic attacks at the interview? Can, you take time off sick with depression? What are the pros and cons, of telling your employer, and what are your rights?, If you have a mental health condition such as depression,, anxiety or bi-polar disorder, you may not feel you want to tell, current or prospective employers. When mental health charity, Rethink surveyed 3,000 mental health service users, half the, respondents said they felt they had to hide their health problems, and 41% were put off applying for jobs in the first place., But it doesn't have to be like that. Good employers realise, that a staff member who has experienced mental illness such as, depression can be an asset. They often have a better, understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses and can help, and support other members of staff with similar problems. And new, legislation currently going through the House of Lords means you, won't have to answer questions about your health before being, offered a job.
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122, , Positive employers, Some employers go out of their way to show their, commitment to equal opportunities. For example, over 590, organisations have signed up to the Mindful Employer Charter for, Employers who are Positive About Mental Health. Jobcentre Plus, awards the 'two ticks' symbol to companies in England, Scotland, and Wales who have shown they are positive about employing, disabled people, which applies to some mental health conditions,, and committed to supporting their needs in the workplace., "Having experience of mental distress does not mean you, cant have a successful career", "This doesn't mean employers who aren't involved in the, scheme can't be supportive," says Emma Mamo, senior policy and, campaigns officer at mental health charity Mind. "The important, thing to remember is that having experience of mental distress, does not mean you can't have a successful career. Many high, achievers have a mental health problem so if you're a career-driven, person, don't let it stop you from pursuing your chosen path.", Support in the workplace, "One in four people experience a mental health problem in, any one year, so it's by no means rare to develop a problem while, you are at work," says Emma. "Telling your employer what you are, going through can help them to support you through tough times., Employers will often work with individuals to make adjustments that, are mutually beneficial, for example support managing your, workload, working from home, or even small things like changing, where your desk is.", "If you qualify for protection under the Disability, Discrimination Act, your employer should make reasonable, adjustments to support you in the workplace. This could include, relaxing absence rules and limits, or allowing you to work flexi, hours to make up the time.", The legal situation, An amendment to the Equality Bill bans employers from asking, applicants about their health until after a job offer has been, made. Under this legislation, you can choose to tell a, prospective employer that you have a mental health condition,, for example if they are part of the 'two ticks' scheme, but they, can't ask about it at the application or interview stage., Information about your mental health is considered to be, 'sensitive personal data' under data protection legislation., Employers should ensure only appropriate access is given to, any information they hold about your mental health.
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123, The main body of legislation concerning unfair treatment in the, workplace is the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, which, covers mental illness and related problems. Your employer has, a duty to ensure the health, safety, and welfare of their, employees, and must not discriminate against mentally, ill/disabled staff or applicants (provided they employ more than, 15 people). If you're worried about your rights or feel you're, experiencing discrimination, you can get advice from your local, Citizens Advice Bureau, your trade union if you belong to one, and charities such as Mind., If you think you have been unfairly dismissed, you can take your, employer to a tribunal, but you must act quickly as there's a, three-month time limit., Directors are appointed by the authority, usually a health, authority (i.e., the Board), operating the designated facility (Section, 3 of the Regulation). The director may authorize specific individuals, or positions to carry out the director functions. For example,, physicians may be authorized to admit and discharge. The senior, nurse on duty in the hospital or the ward or a physician could be, authorized to sign consent forms for involuntary treatment or, warrants after regular business hours. These authorizations should, be in written form, signed by the director., Check your Progress – II, Q.1, Q.2, , Define mental health & state it‘s characteristics., Explain the role of Guidance personnel in promoting and, preserving mental health., , 3.5 LET US SUM UP, The central themes of this monograph were: to address the, importance of work for people with mental health problems; to, discuss the different vocational strategies and programmes for, people with a mental health disorder; and to consider the role of the, workplace in promoting good mental health practices for
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124, employees. Integral to these themes is the identification of good, practices by employers as well as vocational rehabilitation agencies, and professionals. It is clear that there are many factors involved in, addressing the importance of work for people with mental health, problems, as well as identifying effective practices that encourage, employment, re-employment and retention. Social support, systems, mental health professionals and employers all have a, significant role in helping individuals define options, make choices,, learn to manage potentially disabling conditions, and avoid longterm hospitalization. The ultimate goal is for individuals to obtain, and/or return to gainful, worthwhile activity, such as meaningful, work Access to satisfying work remains one of the most soughtafter goals of the adult population of most countries. Employers,, employees and unions are starting to realize that, for this, population, mental health problems are the single most important, cause of disability responsible for a global burden of disease larger, than that due to infections, AIDS, cancer and physical accidents., The impact of mental health problems on absenteeism, productivity, and job satisfaction is only starting. Given the importance of work,, and due to advances made in the prevention, treatment and, rehabilitation of persons with mental health problems, it makes, eminent sense to address all aspects of the mental well-being of, employees. For the same reasons, the disability associated with, severe mental health problems can no longer serve as an excuse, to deny those who so wish reasonable access to competitive, employment., Unit End Exercises:, Q.1, Q.2, , What is work? Explain the relation of work with leisure &, incentives., What is mental health? Why it is necessary? How can you, preserve mental health?, , References:, www.goole.com, , ,
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125, , 4, Module - II, VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, Unit Structure, 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, , 4.7, , Objectives., Introduction., Nature and scope of vocational guidance., 4.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance., 4.2.2 Need and Functions of vocational guidance., Factors affecting vocational choice:, Approaches to career guidance:, Holland‘s theory of career development:, Burnout and career guidance:, 4.6.1 Meaning of burnout:, 4.6.2 Coping with burnout:, Let us sum up., , 4.0, , OBJECTIVES., , 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, , After going through this unit you will be able to:, Describe the concept, need and functions of vocational, guidance., State the factors affecting the vocational choices., Explain the Holland‘s theory of career guidance and its, importance., Define burnout and the guidance strategies used for coping, from career burnout., , 4.1, , INTRODUCTION, , We all will agree that in recent time there are variety of, educational streams as new occupational opportunities are coming, every other day. As there is variety of occupational opportunities
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126, available to the students, it is not always possible for students to, meet the requirements of the available opportunities as all, individual differ in the abilities, interest, attitude and skill from each, other. Thus it is very necessary to know about ones own abilities,, skills etc. To help in this process the role of vocational guidance, becomes very important. In this unit we will discuss about, vocational guidance, and other phenomenon related to the, vocational guidance., , 4.2, , NATURE AND, GUIDANCE:, , SCOPE, , OF, , VOCATIONAL, , 4.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance., Vocational guidance according to DAW is that which have to, be made well before the school leaving stage. Indeed with, comprehensive education potentially offering a greater educational, opportunity a good case for an increasingly important role for, vocational guidance can be made. It is worthwhile to look at some, of the concepts or frames of refences that are fundamental to a, consideration of occupational choice. Crites suggest that there are, five sets of concepts that need to be consider. Firstly, how far is, occupational choice the result of systematic behavior as opposed to, chance? Clearly the practice of vocational guidance is concerned, with systematizing choice. Thus , vocational guidance is not only, adjustment but also achievement and development of the, individuals to the maximum extent to be successful in their chosen, occupations to be satisfied and usefull to the society., Let us discuss the objectives of vocational guidance:, To assist the student to know about the characteristics ,, functions ,duties of the occupations of his choice., To enable him to find out what are the specific criteria as, skills ,abilities, age etc. are required for the occupations of, his choice., To assist the student to know about his skills ,abilities,, interests for making wise choices., To assist the student to acquire the technique of analysis, before making any final choice., To provide opportunity for experiences in school and out of, school this may provide an idea of the work environment to, the student., To help the student, worthwhile., , realize that all honest labour is
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127, The recommendations of Education Commission set up by, Government of India in 1964 indicated the aims and scope of, vocational guidance. These recommendations suggest the, following:, The aim of guidance is not just to help student in making, vocational choices but also be focused on the development, of the child as good citizen., Guidance should be provided in solving learning difficulties,, academic excellence, developing study habits and must be, started at the primary stage itself., Guidance role is very crucial at the college level as at this, stage student faces many problems related to educational, vocational and personal. They should be make aware about, the job market and how to make adjustment in it., Information may be provide about the training, competitive, examinations and scholarships available., Check your progress- I, Q1- Enlists two aims of vocational guidance given by Education, Commission of India., , 4.2.2 NEED AND FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE:, Bringing individuals at par with the demands of the jobs:, As we all know that individual differences exist among all, and no two individuals can have the same abilities, skills and, personalities. We can understand it with an example as a person, can be skilled in doing a desk job while the other can be skilled in, the field job so the skill differs and thus the demand for the job also, different from different individuals. Thus here vocational guidance is, needed for matching the right job with right individual., Assessing the right skill of an individual:, The capabilities and the limitations of an individual should be, known to him e.g. a person may have interest in painting but may, not have the skill to take it as a career. So here the work of
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128, vocational guidance comes to assist the individual in assessing, himself and then accordingly choosing the right kind of job., Expansion of the world of work:, Now a days jobs are available at national as well as, international levels. And it gives rise to many queries as how one, can choose the best from several alternatives? How to know about, the details of the occupation? How to apply? And many more all, these are dealt with the help of vocational guidance., FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE:, Assessment of the individual in terms of his academic, achievement, skills attitude, interest , limitations etc., Assessment of individual‘s present environment such as, financial resources , family background and family expectations, etc., Assessing the suitability of the individual with that of the job, demands., Helping the individual to come at par with the job requirements., Counseling for the adjustment in the job ., Follow-up services in the form of feed back from the individuals, for further modification in the guidance programme if needed., Check your progress : II, Q2. What is the importance of knowing once skill for vocational, guidance?, , 4.3, , FACTORS EFFECTING VOCATIONAL CHOICE:, , 1), , Personal Factors Affecting Career Selection, Aptitudes - What natural abilities do you possess?, Interests inventories - what gives you satisfaction?
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129, Your personality - Do you perform best in low-pressure or, high-pressure working environments?, 2), , Social Influences on Career Opportunities, Demographic trends, •, , Increase in working parents means more demand for, food service and child care., , •, , More leisure time means more interest in health, and, recreation products and services., , •, , Increased demand for further employment training, creates opportunities for teachers and trainers., , Geographic trends, •, 3), , Where jobs are, salaries, and living costs. Economic, Conditions affect career opportunities, , Trends in Industry and Technology affect career, opportunities, •, , Automated production methods have decreased the, need for many entry-level employees in factories., , Check your progress: III, Q3-, , Name the factors responsible for career choice., , 4.4, , APPROACHES TO CAREER GUIDANCE:, , Career guidance refers to services and activities which, assist individuals, of any age and at any point throughout their lives,, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to, manage their careers. Such services may be found in schools,, universities and colleges, in the workplace. It may take place
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130, individually or in group, and may be face-to-face or at a distance. It, include career information provision (in print, ICT-based and other, forms), assessment and self-assessment tools, counseling, interviews, career education programmes.Guidance workers often, encounter individuals having very little idea about the skills which, they have and the career related to the skill. Sometimes, sufficient, time devoted to the early stages of an interview, finding out about, the individual., There are many approaches to career guidance as, Computer-aided guidance. Others are facial expression, especially, glints in the eyes, can be used to know levels of interest in, particular types of work. Often, the client will be interested in more, than one. Individual judgment is required to look at likely, interactions between traits, and selecting the appropriate one., , 4.5, , HOLLAND’S, THEORY, DEVELOPMENT:, , OF, , CAREER, , The Holland Codes represents a set of personality types, described in a theory of careers and vocational choice formulated, by psychologist JOHN L. HOLLAND .Holland's theory argued that, "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that, the six factor typology he articulated could be used to describe both, persons and work environments. His model has been adopted by, the U.S. Department of Labor for categorizing jobs relative to, interests. The Holland Codes are usually referred to by their first, letters: RIASEC. He present his theory graphically as hexagon., The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the, more closely they are related. Holland's (1992) theory of career, guidance is based on four basic assumptions. The first assumption, is that most people can be characterized as one or a combination, of six personality types. Second, the theory assumes that the work, environment can be classified into the same six categories of, personality. Third the theory assumes that people seek out, environments compatible with their personality types. And, fourth,, the theory holds that particular behavioral patterns emitted in any, environment are determined by personality and environmental, types., The six personality and work environment types described, by Holland are as follows:, Realistic- Working with your hands, tools, machines, and, things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical.viz., agriculture, computer engineer, basket ball player, chef,, Gardner, martial arts , pilot etc
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131, Investigative- Working with theory and information,, analytical, intellectual, scientific. Viz. lawyer, statistician,, surgeon., Artistic- Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic,, creative. Viz. actor, writer ,dancer., Social- Cooperative environments, supporting, helping,, healing/nurturing. Viz. psychologist, professor, social worker,, physician., Enterprising- Competitive environments, leadership,, persuading. Viz public relation, administration, journalism,, marketing, management., Conventional- Detail-oriented, organizing, clerical. Viz., proof reader, copy editing, clerk, librarian., Check your progress : IV, Q4-, , What does RIASEC stands for?, , 4.6, , BURNOUT AND CAREER GUIDANCE:, , 4.6.1 Meaning of burnout:, First let us discuss about the concept of burnout. What is the, meaning of the term burnout? Burnout is a psychological term for, the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished interest. It, should not be looked as a disorder but as Problems related to lifemanagement difficulty. The most well-studied measurement of, burnout in the literature is the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Maslach, and her colleague Jackson first identified the construct "burnout" in, the 1970s, and developed a measure that weighs the effects of, emotional exhaustion and reduced sense of personal, accomplishment. This indicator has become the standard tool for, measuring burnout in research on the syndrome. The Maslach, Burnout Inventory uses a three dimensional description of, exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy.
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132, Many theories of burnout include negative outcomes related, to burnout, including job function, health related outcomes, and, mental health problems. The term burnout in psychology was, coined by HERBERT FREUDENBERGER in 1974., Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North gave, 12 phases of burnout, which are not necessarily followed, sequentially:, A compulsion to prove oneself, Working harder, Neglecting one's own needs, Displacement of conflicts (the person does not realize the, root cause of the distress), Revision of values (friends or hobbies are completely, dismissed), Denial of emerging problems (cynicism and aggression, become apparent), Withdrawal (reducing social contacts to a minimum,, becoming walled off; alcohol or other substance abuse may, occur), Behavioral changes become obvious to others, Depersonalization (life becomes a series of mechanical, functions), Inner emptiness, Depression, Burnout syndrome, The signs can vary from individual to individual, but the, following are some universal indicators that one can use to, determine if career burnout is occurring., Depression-Feelings of despair and sadness that last for, weeks or months usually signal that something in your life is, not working like it should and is cause for an investigation, into the cause – potentially your job., Lack of energy-If individual experience constant fatigue, throughout the day., Lack of desire-if an individual find that he just don‘t care if, he is successful or not it‘s a warning that the individual may, have become burned out., Decreased productivity- if the productivity of an individual, is decreased and he is not coming upto the desired expected, result.
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133, Increased absences and/or tardiness- if an individual finds, every opportunity to skip out on work., Boredom-Occasional boredom in one‘s career is, completely normal; however, pervasive feelings of weariness, and dreariness are not and are an indicator of potential, burnout., Anger/resentment in workplace-Frequently lashing out at, coworkers and/or supervisors is unacceptable under any, circumstance. This behavior deserves immediate attention, due to its potentially abusive nature., Sleep problems-Insomnia or occasional fatigue can happen, to anyone but are a cause for concern if they become, constant and a part of your everyday life. Sleep, disturbances are your body‘s way of saying it is overworked., Check your progress : V, Q5-, , Define the term burnout., , 4.6.2 COPING WITH BURNOUT:, There are a variety of ways that both individuals and, organizations can deal with burnout. In his book, Managing stress:, Emotion and power at work (1995), Newton argues that many of, the remedies related to burnout are motivated not from an, employee's perspective, but from the organization's perspective., Let us now discuss some of the common strategies for dealing with, burnout.
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134, ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS:, Employee assistance programs (EAP)- Employee Assistance, Programs were designed to assist employees in dealing with the, primary causes of stress. Some programs included counseling and, psychological services for employees. But now a days it is less, utilized as compared to stress management training (SMT)., Stress management training (SMT).-Stress Management Training, (SMT) is employed by many organizations today as a way to get, employees to either work through stress or to manage their stress, levels; to maintain stress levels below that which might lead to, higher instances of burnout., INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS:, Problem-based coping-Individual can cope with the problems, related to burnout and stress by focusing on the causes of the, stress. This type of coping has successfully been linked to, reductions in individual stress., Appraisal-based coping-Appraisal-based coping strategies deal, with individual interpretations of what is and is not a stress inducing, activity., Check your progress : VI, Q6-, , What do you understand by SMT?, , 4.7, , LET US SUM UP:, , In this unit we have discussed about nature and scope of, vocational guidance, why vocational guidance is needed and how it, helps an individual is discussed under the functions of vocational, guidance. The factors which affect vocational choice as social,, demographic, geographical, personal has also been talked about., An attempt has been made to acquaint you about the Holland‘s, theory of career development, usually referred as RIASEC as it
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135, contains six factor typology, They are Realistic, Investigative,, Artistic Social, Enterprising, Conventional. Meaning and clear, understanding has been made by discussing about burnout and, career guidance and also about the different strategies of coping, with burnout., SUGGESTED READING:, Agarwal, J.C,(1985), Educational Vocational, Counseling, Doaba House, New Delhi., Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational, Counseling,principles, techniques, publication , Delhi., Kochhar, S.K, (1980), Publishers, New Delhi., , Guidance, , Guidance, , And, , Vocational Guidance And, and programmes. Shipra, And, , Councelling,, , Sterling, , Nanda, S.K and Sharma S,(1992) Fundamentals Of Guidance,, Chandigarh., UNIT END EXERCISE, Q1., , What are the objectives of vocational guidance?, , Q2., , Describe the organizational and individual coping strategies, of burnout., , Q3., , Explain the Holland‘s theory of career guidance., , Q4., , Discuss in detail 12 phases of burnout given by Herbert, Freudenberger and Gail North., , REFERENCES, Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational, Counseling,principles, techniques, publication , Delhi., , Vocational Guidance And, and programmes. Shipra, , http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/46051/1/10499.pdf, www.careersteer., www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1693190.html, www.careerstrides.com, wikipedia.org/wiki, ,
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136, , 5, OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION AND, JOB SATISFACTION, Unit Structure, 5.1 Objectives, 5.2 Introduction, 5.3 Need and Sources of Occupational Information, 5.3.1 Concept, 5.3.2 Need and importance, 5.4 Collection, Filing and Classification of Occupational Information, 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information, 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials, 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information, 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information, 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information, 5.5 Dissemination of Occupational information, 5.5.1 Group Techniques, 5.5.2 Individual Techniques, 5.6 Job Satisfaction, 5.6.1 Meaning of job satisfaction, 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction, 5.7 Job Analysis, Job Specifications and Job Profile, 5.8 Let us Sum Up, , 5.1 OBJECTIVES, After going through this unit you will be able to:, Explain the need and importance of occupational information, in the present day, List different sources of occupational information i.e. primary, secondary, international, national and local, List different, information, , methods, , of, , collection, , of, , occupational
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137, Describe various techniques, occupational information, , of, , dissemination, , of, , Identify various factors of job satisfaction, Point out the relationship between job analysis, job, specifications and job profile., , 5.1 INTRODUCTION, Tremendous explosion of knowledge in science and, technology in the modern days has enriched the store house of, information .The scientific and technological advancements have, brought in many changes in social and economic structure of our, country. Among the many challenges faced by our youths today is, the choice of a right career. The occupational information, one of, the important components of guidance programme is basic to, career planning and adjustment., This unit provides you an overview of meaning, need and, sources of occupational information, methods of collection,, classification and filing of occupational information, and techniques, of dissemination of occupational information. It also familiarizes you, with factors affecting jobsatisfation, job analysis, job specifications, and job profile., , 5.3, , CONCEPT AND, INFORMATION, , NEEDS OF OCCUPATIONAL, , 5.3.1 Concept:, Occupational information is information about the ‗world of, work‘. Occupational information covers pertinent and reliable, information relating to various occupations e.g. job contents,, training and preparation for the occupation, entry in to occupation,, working conditions, salaries, emoluments, employment outlooks, and prospects etc., 5.3.2 Need and Importance:, Occupational information service is one of the important, guidance services. The need and importance of occupational, information is as follows., Career Planning:, Due to vastness of educational and occupational, opportunities available today the student needs accurate reliable, and useful information. Occupational information is one of the, essential aspects of career planning.
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138, Career Development:, Occupational information is also essential for career, development of students. The individual‘s appropriate skills,, attitudes, interests, abilities, values and self concept depend upon, accurate information about specific jobs., Vocational thinking:, In the early stage i.e elementary stage, occupational, information helps to widen the vocational thinking .This helps them, to explore the vocational world., Changing Perceptions:, Occupational information helps to check the pre conceived, distorted notion of individual regarding some job., Placement:, As the student gets reliable and accurate information about, the job, through occupational information it helps in placement. The, student gets information about personality traits required for a, particular job, which helps in getting the job., Apart from this, occupational information has important role, in preparation of selection tests for jobs, upgradation of skills of, employed manpower and international comparison of occupational, data., , 5.4 COLLECTION, FILING AND CLASSIFICATION OF, OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION, 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information:, There is array of sources for bringing occupational, information materials in different forms for use by teachers,, counselors and students. These sources can be classified on the, basis of nature and scope of information., On the basis of nature of the source of, occupational, information it is classified as Primary and Secondary, source of information, On the basis of the scope of information it is classified as, International, National and Local, Primary and Secondary Sources: The primary source is the, original or direct source from here we get the relevant occupational, information. The information collected from the employer,, employee/worker, and government bodies/agencies are example, of primary sources.
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139, The secondary sources of information are those which use, information collected or published by the original sources. These, are also called indirect sources., International, National, Local Sources: Many international,, national and state/local level organizations/agencies n bring out, publications related to occupations. Some of the International,, national and state/local level sources are given below., Different agencies:, Level, International, , Organisation / Agencies, a)United Nations Organization, United Nations Educational, Scientific and, Association(UNESCO),Paris(www.unesco.org), United, Nations, Industrial, Organizations(UNIDO) www.unido.org, , Cultural, , Development, , International Labour Organisation(ILO), National, , Directorate General of Employment and, Training(DGE&T),New Delhi, www.dget.nic.in, Directorate of Audio Visual Publicity(DAVP) ,New Delhi, www.davp.nic.in, Union Public Service Commission(UPSC) , New Delhi, www.upsc.gov.nic.in, National Council of Educational Research and, Training(NCERT) , New Delhi, www.ncert.nic.in, All India Council of Technical Education(AICTE) New, Delhi, www.aicte.ernet.in, University Grants Commission(UGC) New Delhi, www.ugc.ac.in, Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU) ,New Delhi, www.ignou.ac.in, National Institute of Rural Development(NIRD),Hyderabad, National Institute of Health and Family Welfare(NIHFW),, New Delhi, , State/Local, , State Guidance Bureaus, SCERTs/SIEs, State government departments (Revenue,, Industry, Labour, Social Welfare, Mining etc), , Health,, , State /District employment offices, Non Government Organisations, University Employment Information Cells and Guidance, Bureaus
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140, 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials:, The materials prepared by different agencies, institutions for, occupational information broadly classified in to three types‘ i.e print, material, audiovisual materials and electronic materials, Print Materials, Occupational Monographs, Employment News, News Paper and Magazines, Recruitment Literatures, Occupational reviews, , Audio/Visual, Career films, Career photographs, Posters and charts, Audio Recording, , Electronic, Radio, Television, Computers, , Before using any material, you need to evaluate the, accuracy, relevance, format and usefulness of the information., 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information:, How can you collect occupational information? The, occupational information can be collected through various methods, i.e follow up surveys, community occupational survey, community, educational survey and want ad survey., Follow up Survey:, The follow up survey can be conducted to find out career, adjustments of school leavers. These provide information about, educational and employment opportunities in the community. The, occupational facts provided by the survey help the school students, to plan their career realistically., Community Occupational Survey:, The community educational survey is an enumeration and, description of jobs in a geographically defined area. The survey, provides an overview of occupational information about community, specific occupations, man power trends and requirements. If you, want to conduct a community occupational survey, you have to visit, with your colleagues to a near by office/agency/industry and obtain, relevant information on name and address of the organization,, existing occupations, man power requirements i.e. job openings,, eligibility, requirements and salary., Community Educational Survey:, A community educational survey is conducted to collect, detailed information about educational institutions in a particular, geographical area. This survey covers all types of educational, institutions such as schools, colleges(medical, engineering,, vocational) ,distance education centers etc. Relevant information, collected on courses offered, number of seats, procedure of
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141, admission ,fees,hostel,scholarship etc will give insight .The, prospectus, information bulletin of different institutions can be, studied and analyzed to compare educational facilities., Want –Ad Survey:, This is the simplest and least expensive survey. It is a, periodic (weekly, monthly, quarterly) tabulation of the job openings, as advertised in news papers. Here two types of advertisements i.e., ―help want ads‖ and ‗situation vacant ad‘ appearing in local news, papers or neighbuoring metropolitan news papers are used. While, the first type advertisement provides information regarding job, openings the second type of ads provide data of supply of workers, for possible job openings. The tabulation of data in this survey may, be done according to broad group of classification (NCO), based on, interst, curricular streams etc. Want ad surveys are of great value, to metropolitan and small cities., 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information:, Collection of a lot of occupational information necessitates, storing it in a systematic manner so that that can be used by others, with out difficulty whenever required. For a meaningful storage of, occupational information we have to know different ways of, classifying information. Occupational information can be classified, in a number of ways such as by occupation, industry, socioeconomic status, interests, and educational levels etc.All these, classification schemes have their own merits and limitations. Some, of the Classification schemes are discussed below., Classification by Occupation:, National Classification of Occupation (NCO-2004), As per the NCO-2004 occupations have been classified into, the following nine divisions and skill levels., Division, Title, 1. Legislatures,, Senior, Officials, and, Managers, 2. Professionals, 3. Technicians and Associate professionals, 4. Clerks, 5. Service workers and shop, market sales, workers, 6. Skilled agricultural and fishery workers, 7. Craft and related trade workers, 8. Plant and machine operators and, assemblers, 9. Elementary Occupations, , Skill Level, Not defined, IV, II, II, II, II, II, I
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142, NCO-2004 groups together 2945 occupations, each, occupations has been assigned a six digit code, a distinct title and, a definition. The occupations have been first assigned to ten, occupational divisions (identified by the initial digit in the code, number) that are comprised of 30 sub-divisions (identified by first, two digit of the code number).The subdivisions have 116 groups, (identified by first three digit of the code number), Classification by Industry:, National Industrial Classification-2004(NIC-2004), The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) has developed the, NIC-2004 in India . It has 17 sections, 62 Divisions, 161 groups,, 310 classes and 1191 subclasses. The 17 sections are listed by, one letter alpha code from A to Q as below., A. Agriculture, hunting and forestry, B. Fishing, C. Mining and quarrying, D. Manufacturing, E. Electricity, gas and water supply, F. Construction, G. Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles, motor, cycles and personal and household goods, H. Hotels and restaurants, I. Transport ,storage and communication, J. Financial intermediation, K. Real estate, renting and business activities, L. Public administration and defence;compulsory social security, M. Education, N. Health and social work, O. Other community, Social and personal service activities, P. Activities of private households as employers, undifferentiated production activities of households, , and, , Q. Extraterritorial organizations and bodies, The NIC-2004 adopts a five digit classification where the first, 2 digits indicate Division, the first three digits represent Group, and, four digits indicate Class. The subclasses (if exists) are indicated by, all the five numbers. The NIC-2004 has been used in the country, for population census, industrial survey etc.
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143, Classification Based on Interest:, In this classification scheme, occupations are categorized, according to interest areas .Comprehensive Interest Schedule by, Vohra (1993) lists eight interest areas i.e. influential, venturous,, artistic, scientific, analytical, social, nature and clerical. The type of, occupation related to interests are administrative and enterprising, (Influential), Defence and Sports (venturous), Creative and, performing (Artistic), Medical and technical (Scientific), Expressive, and computational (analytical), Humanitarian and education, (social)., 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information:, In school situation educational/occupational information may, be available in both bound and unbound form. The unbound, materials may include leaflets, folders, news paper clippings,, notice etc. Similarly the bound materials include proseptus, hand, book, information brochures etc. Some popular filing plans for, unbound information materials are alphabetic Plan, Classification, based upon educational level , based on academic subjects or, Curricular stream and geographical files etc., Alphabetic Plan:, In this system, occupational information is classified, according to the first alphabet of each occupation. Here, occupational headings to be used are collected from occupational, or industrial classification., Classification based upon Educational Level:, Various Levels of education i.e. elementary school,, secondary school, higher secondary school, post school diploma, certificate, graduation, post graduation and M.Phil/Doctorate., Classification based on academic subjects or Curricular, Stream, Specific requirement of subjects of study for particular, occupation is the basis of this classification., Geographical Files, Occupational information can also be filed geographically by, city or state, Characteristics of a good filing system:, In order to select a filing system for the school, the guidance, worker should examine all the classification system available .Then
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144, a filing plan needs to be selected suitable to the requirements of the, school. Following are the characteristics of a good filing system, suggested by Hoppock (1976, 1.63):, It should provide a safe place for housing written and printed, documents, clippings from newspapers and magazines,, posters, pictures, films taperecordings, pamplates, books, and anything else that may contain useful occupational, information., It should provide one and only one designated location for, each item to be filed,so that there may be no confusion, where to file an item or where to find it., It should be easy to use, so that all who use it can find what, they want with a minimum time and effort., It should bring together as many as possible of the materials, on any one occupation or industry or employer., It should bring together related occupations or industries or, employers, It should provide some means of quickly finding material in, omnibus books and other publications which describe, several different occupations., It should be expandable, so that it can grow as the collection, grows., It should provide for filing and finding related materials, such, as the results of follow up studies and community, occupational surveys., Check your Progress-I, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, , What is occupational information? State the various sources, of occupational information., What are the different types of occupational information?, How can you collect & classify it?, What is filling of occupation? Explain the characteristics of a, good felling system.
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145, , 5.5, , DISSEMINATION OF OCCUPATIONAL, INFORMATION, , Dissemination of occupational information about various, educational and occupational opportunities and their requirements, is necessary to give exposure to students. The dissemination of, occupational information helps student to be informed about, different careers, to make an appropriate career choice and to, apply the information to solve various career related problems., Occupational information can be effectively disseminated to, students through group as well as individual techniques., 5.5.1 Group Techniques:, In school much of the information on career in general is, disseminated through group activities. Group techniques are used, in guidance to help the normal individuals to understand, themselves, acquire information and learn to analyse problems in, order to make realistic educational and vocational choices., Following are some of the group techniques of dissemination of, occupational information., Career Talk: It is a popular technique of dissemination of career, information. As per students needs professionals, school alumni, can be invited to deliver career talk in regular classroom. The topic, of the career talk should be carefully decided keeping in view the, age group, interest and educational level. Generally a career talk, contains the following1. Introduction about the occupation, 2. General and specific nature of work, 3. Work conditions, 4. Earnings, 5. Qualifications required[age,education,skills/aptitude], 6. Methods of entering the job, 7. Advancement/Promotions, 8. Employment outlook, 9. Sources of Further information, Group Discussion: In group discussion the group of members, share information collected by each one of them and gain insight, about a particular occupation. The group discussion should start, with prior information to the group about the occupation to be, discussed, initiative by group leader, interaction among students, [groups] and reflection of discussion.
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146, Field Trips: Field trips provide a pragmatic, interesting, enjoyable, and extremely useful method of learning and imparting, occupational information (Joneja, 1997).The students get relevant, information about different occupation by visiting industries and, offices. While selecting the industry/organization/place the, objective/purpose must be taken into account. Such places may be, selected where ex students are working, because they will be able, to provide more information and help in making the tour/trip, effective. It requires a lot of planning and preparation. After the trip, group wise presentation needs to be organized., Career Exhibition: It is one of the important techniques of, disseminating occupational information. A great variety of career, information materials are available from various sources. Exhibition, of career information materials may be arranged by the, teacher/counselor in the school library, guidance room, hall, and, corridor or in classroom or at any other place where all students, can see them., School Assemblies: School assemblies being a regular feature of, secondary and senior secondary schools, can provide opportunities, for effective dissemination of occupational information which may, be of interest to most of the school students., Subject Teaching: There is also scope for dissemination of, Occupational information in secondary school through subject, teaching. In Language, social science, mathematics, science there, is maximum scope for diffusion of occupational information. The, dissemination of occupational/career information by subject, teachers motivate the students to learn the subject matter with, interest and to explore further information(NCERT,2008)., Publications: The educational institution may publish ―Guidance, Newsletter‖ periodically for teachers and students of the institution., 5.5.2 Individual Techniques:, Individual methods of dissemination of occupational, information are used to help different types of student to develop an, understanding of themselves, and make career related decisions, and adjustments .Individual counseling sessions are helpful for, dissemination of occupational know how. However, as this needs, one to one interaction professional expertise is essential on the part, of teacher to disseminate career information. Group techniques are, more useful and economic.
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147, , 5.6 JOB SATISFACTION, 5.6.1 Meaning of Job Satisfaction:, Job satisfaction is a person‘s attitude towards the job., Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction, where as negative attitude are equivalent to job dissatisfaction. Job, satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his/r her job., The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are, said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation, although, it is clearly linked., For the first time in 1935 ,the concept of job satisfaction, gained momentum through the publication by Hoppock on ―job, satisfaction‘‘.Hoppock in his monograph has defined job satisfaction, as any combination of psychological, physiological and, environmental circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say, ―I am satisfied with my job‘., Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable, emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‘s job (Locke,, 1976) an affective reaction to one‘s job (Cranny, Smith & Stone,, 1992) and an attitude towards one‘s job (Brief, 1998). Weiss (2002), argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that, researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive, evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours. This, definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by, taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors., Job satisfaction may also be defined as summation of, employee‘s feelings in four important areas., 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction:, Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors,, e.g. the quality of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality, of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment, in their work, etc. Numerous research results show that there are, many factors affecting the job satisfaction., There are particular demographic traits (age, education, level, tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours, worked per week) of employees that significantly affect their job, satisfaction., Motivating factors are achievement, recognition, the job, conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factors related to the, job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the
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148, working environment result in the job satisfaction of the person, while protective ones dissatisfy him/her., Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's, sense of satisfaction with the maintenance of the classified needs., These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting, etc.),, security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love, (good relations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love, and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-confidence, recognition,, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of selfactualization (maximization of the latent [potential] power and, capacity, development of abilities, etc). Insufficient education,, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of, communications, lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction, negatively. It has been asserted that participating in the, management, having the decision making power, independence on, the job and the unit where the individual works, have positive, impact upon the job satisfaction., The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and, recognition at work result in satisfaction while the management, policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result in, dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using, talents, creativity, responsibility, recognition have influence on the, job satisfaction., Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies, conducted in five different countries prove that the elder workers, are more satisfied. The role people play and the status they enjoy, are all too often determined by age. Besides other things, age is, also an important consideration in determining a person‘s, promotion or his/her failure to receive it. Length of service is also a, factor affecting job satisfaction., Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an, influence on job satisfaction. Besides. Job satisfaction and devotion, to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have great, impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors, affecting performance are economical, technical, socio-political,, cultural and demographical ones. However, most efforts to improve, performance seem to center on improving the conditions, surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually, result only in short-term improvements in attitudes and productivity,, and the situation often returns quickly to normal.
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149, , 5.7 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB SPECIFICATIONS AND JOB, PROFILE, 5.7.1 Job Analysis:, Job analysis is the process of objectively determining the, specific duties, responsibilities and working conditions associated, with a specific job, as well as the personal skills and qualifications, required to perform that job satisfactorily. It is the process of getting, information about the job. Thus, the purpose of job analysis is to, establish and document the ‗job relatedness of employment, procedures. It investigates exactly:, What the worker does in a particular job?, How s/he does that particular job?, Why s/he does it ?and, How much skill is required to do it ?, What are the physical demands, environmental conditions, associated with this specific job?, Some of the methods of job analysis are:, 1. Review of job classification system, 2. Interviews: Incubement interviews, interview, , and supervisor, , 3. expert panel, 4. observation, 5. Incubement work logs, Advantages of Job analysis:, 1. Job analysis helps the personnel manager at time of recruitment, and selection of right personnel in right job, 2. Understanding the extent and scope of training required in the, field, 3. It helps in chalking out the compensation plan for employees, 4. It helps the personnel in performance appraisal of employees., , These may be used individually or in combination. Job, analysis can be done in two ways: job description and job, specifications., , 5.7.2 Job Specifications:
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150, , Job specification is a statement which tells us minimum, acceptable human qualities which helps to perform a job. It helps in, selecting an appropriate person for an appropriate position. The, components covered under job specifications are:, 1. job title and designation, 2. educational qualification for that title, 3. physical and other related attributes, 4. Mental Health, 5. Special attributes and abilities, 6. maturity and dependability, 7. Relationship of that job with other jobs, Advantages of Job Specifications, 1., 2., 3., 4., , It is helpful in preliminary screening in selection procedures, It helps in giving due justifications to each job, It helps in designing training and development programmes, It helps the supervisors for counseling and monitoring, performance of employees, 5. It helps in job evaluation, 6. It helps the management to take decisions regarding promotions,, transfer and giving extra benefits to employees., , 5.7.3 Job Profile:, Job Profile is a breakdown of the duties and tasks required, of and performed by a person for a specific title. Job profile or the, Key Result Areas indicate a list of activities that you are doing or, will be doing in any job. It defines your job responsibilities (the, activities you are autorized to do in any job). Whenever you wish to, switch to new job, your existing and previous experience is counted, on the basis of your job profile and that is why job opportunities, depend on the job profile., Job profiles list a general description of the work position, including required duties, position goals and departmental, placement. Also, job profiles list candidate educational and, experience requirements. For example, the candidate "must have, three years of sales experience." Many job profiles also list the, position's salary or hourly wage., A job profile presents a clear picture of the position to the, candidate. After reading the job profile, job seekers can make an, informed decision as to whether the job is right for them. For, applicants, a well-written job profile serves as a valuable interview, preparation tool.
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151, , Check your Progress, Q.1 Write short notes on the following :, a) Job analysis, b) Job satisfaction, c) Job profile, d) Advantages of job analysis, e) Advantages of job specifications., , 5.8 LET US SUM UP, Occupational information, one of the essential guidance, services is helpful for career development, career adjustment,, vocational thinking and changing perceptions of students., Occupational information is collected from primary and secondary, sources. Agencies / organisations working at international, national, and state/local level bring publications pertaining to occupations, from time to time. Occupations are classified based upon, Occupation, Industry, educational level, interest etc. Different, methods like follow up survey, community occupation survey,, community education survey and want on ad are used to collect, relevant data on occupational information., Occupational information is disseminated by individual and, group techniques. Job satisfaction is related to many factors like, motivation, demographic factors, gender etc. There is relationship, between Job analysis, job specification and job profile., , UNIT END EXERCISES
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152, 1. What is occupational information? Discuss the need and, importance of occupational information., 2. Prepare a list of national level organizations/agencies, working for publication and dissemination of occupational, information., 3. What are different types of, occupational information, materials available? Discuss with example any five forms of, each type of material., 4. What is the classification scheme of NCO-2004, 5. Discuss various factors responsible for job satisfaction, 6. Write short notes on a)Job Profile(b)Job Specifications, , SUGGESTED READINGS, Joneja,G.K(1997).Occupational Information in Guidance.National, Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, Locke (1976).Cited in Brief,A.P ;Weiss,H.M(2001).Organizational, Behaviuor ,Annual Review of Psychology,53,279-307,p282, Weiss,H.M(2002).Deconstructing, Job, Satisfaction:Separating, evaluatuions,beliefs and affective experiences.Human Resource, Managementb Review,12,173-194, Vohra,S(1993).Comprehensive, Services,New Delhi, , Interest, , Schedule, , .PSY-COM, , NCERT(2008).Career Information in Guidance,Module-5 and 12,, National Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, Hoppock,R(1935). Job Satisfaction, Harper and Bros,New York., ,
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153, , 6, PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS AND, TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND, COUNSELLING – QUANTITATIVE, TECHNIQUES, Unit Structure :, 6.0, 6.1, 6.2, , Introduction, Objectives, Psychological Tests, 6.2.1 Intelligence Test, 6.2.2 Interest Inventories, 6.2.3 Aptitude Test, 6.2.4 Achievement Test, 6.2.5 Attitude Scale, 6.2.6 Personality Test, Let us sum up, , 6.3, , 6.0 OBJECTIVES :, After completion of this unit, you would be able to :, , , Describe the meaning and uses of different psychological, tests in guidance and counseling, , , , , , , , Intelligence Test, Interest Inventories, Aptitude Test, Achievement Test, Attitude Scale, Personality Test, , 6.1 INTRODUCTION :
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154, The goal of assessment is to help counselors to develop an, understanding of the client or an individual. By using assessment, and appraisal procedures, you will be able to gain understanding of, the individual and in turn foster individual‘s understanding himself, or herself. In this sense, you will appreciate that assessment and, appraisal processes and procedures are the means of obtaining, comprehensive understanding of students thereby fulfilling the goal, of counseling., It is essential that, you need to be familiar with the major, tools and techniques of assessment, the purpose for which they are, used and how the information provided by these can be used in, understanding the individual. Psychological testing is one of the, ways of assessment., The selection of any tool whether quantitative or qualitative, depends on the type of information the counselor is interested in, gathering. In most cases both are required to be used for holistic, assessment an appraisal. In this unit, you will read about, psychological tests, which are the tools for quantitative, assessment., , 6.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS :, Psychological tests are designed to assess the, characteristics of people such as their abilities, attitudes,, motivations, interests, needs and values and so on. Psychological, test can be defined as a sample of an individual‘s, behaviour,, obtaining under standard conditions and scored according to a, fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score (Anastasi, 2003)., In a standardized test, individual scores are compared with a, norm or standard arrived at on the basis of performance of sample, of individuals of the same age or grade level from around the, country who took the same test when it was first developed. Good, standardized tests are the result of years of research. Tests may, take many forms. Usually, they comprise of a series of items /, questions with well-defined correct answers such as in case of tests, of intelligence or achievement, while others such as personality, inventories, do not have right or wrong answers, but are designed, to assess person‘s pre-dispositions, tendencies and preferences., Tests can be used to compare the same individual on two or, more traits and also compare two or more individuals on the same, trait. Such an assessment is usually quantitative. Although most of, the psychological tests provide relatively objective and quantifiable, scores such as tests of intelligence abilities / aptitudes. Some other
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155, tests may also provide descriptive and qualitative interpretations., You will learn about these in Unit 7., A standard test has a manual which provides complete, information of how the test was developed, evidence of its, consistency, accuracy and objectivity. It also consists of detailed, instructions for administering, scoring, interpreting the test, its uses, and possible misuses. The test manual thus, provides you the, requisite information to allow you to make an informed judgement, as to whether the test is suitable for your use. Besides, the, requirement to select the appropriate psychological test, a, counselor needs to develop various skills in test administration,, scoring, interpretation and communicating results to clients., The following section will describe some type of tests and, the purpose for which they are used., Psychological tests are classified into different types, depending on their content and the way they are administered., Tests vary in their content depending on the aspect of behaviour, that is assessed, for example, some tests are designed to assess, abilities, others assess motivation, personality characteristics etc., Psychological tests are also classified into individual and group, tests, verbal tests and non-verbal tests and performance tests. Let, us discuss one by one quantitative methods and techniques., 6.2.1 Intelligence Tests :, Intelligence has been one of the most popular psychological, terms used in identifying individual differences. It has helped to, explain that people differ from each other in their ability to, understand complex ideas or to learn from experience. Different, theorists have tried to explain intelligence in different ways following, different approaches. Theories by Binet, Weschler Spearman and, Thustone are based on the psychometric approach where, intelligence is considered as an aggregate of abilities. It is, expressed in terms of a single index of abilities. Howard Gardener‘s, theory of multiple intelligences puts forth that intelligence is not a, single entity and there exists multiple intelligences, each distinct, from others. According to him, there are nine distinct intelligences, that are relatively independent of each other. These different types, of intelligences interact and work together to provide a solution of a, problem. The nine types of intelligences proposed by Gardener are, briefly discussed below., 1. Linguistic Intelligence : The capacity to use language fluently, and flexibly, to express one‘s thinking and understanding others., Used in reading a book, writing a paper, a novel or a poem; and
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156, understanding spoken words. Poets and writers exhibit this, ability., 2. Logical Mathematical Intelligence : Thinking logically, critically,, using abstract reasoning to manipulate symbols and solve, mathematical problems., 3. Spatial Intelligence : Abilities involved in forming, using and, transforming mental images. Used in getting from one place to, another, in reading a map, and is packing suitcase in the trunk, of a car so that they all fit into a compact space. Pilots, sailors,, interior decorators, surgeons, fashion designers generally, exhibit this ability., 4. Musical Intelligence : Capacity to produce, create and, manipulate musical patterns. Used in singing a song,, composing a sonata, playing a trumpet or even appreciating the, structure of a piece of music., 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence : Ability to use one‘s body and, muscle structure in a coordinated planned way. Used in, dancing, playing basket ball, running a mile or throwing a, javeline. Athletes, dancers, actors, gymnasts, sports person,, surgeon exhibit this more than others., 6. Interpersonal Intelligence : Used in relating to other people,, such as when we try to understand another person‘s, behaviour, motives or emotions, counselors, psychologists,, politicians, social workers, religious leaders are shown to be, high on this ability., 7., , Intrapersonal Intelligence : Knowledge of one‘s internal, strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to relate to, others., , 8., , Naturalistic Intelligence : Complete awareness to our, relationship with the natural world, useful in recognizing the, beauty of different species of flora and fauna and making a, distinction in the natural world., , 9. Existential Intelligence : Can be defined as the ability to be, sensitive to, or have the capacity for, conceptualizing or, tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence,, such as the meaning of life, why are we born, why do you die,, what is consciousness or how did we get here., The multiple intelligences approach focuses on ways in, which people can be intelligent.
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157, Theorists have also tried to explain intelligence in terms of, information processing approach wherein the focus is on how an, intelligent person thinks, acts and solves problems. Sternberg‘s, information processing approach focuses on how solutions are, arrived. According to Sternberg, the critical aspect of what, constitutes intelligence is not necessarily the speed with which one, arrives at a solution but the processes one uses. Processing, information quickly does not mean it was done accurately or, correctly. A relative rather than an impulsive style of problem, solving has been associated with higher ability to solve problems., Jumping to conclusions without adequate reflection can lead to, erroneous thinking. The notion of emotional intelligence broadens, the concept of intelligence and involves ;, i) perceiving or sensing emotions,, ii) using emotion to assist thoughts,, iii) understanding emotions, and, iv) managing emotions., The concept of IQ dominated intelligence testing for a long, time. With the emerging view of intelligence as multifaceted, the, concept of intelligence as a single unitary ability or a composite of, scores on different abilities is not considered valid. The concept of, IQ has been found to be misleading. As counselors, the focus, should be on a holistic assessment focusing on strengths and, weaknesses of the client. This would help to plan remedial, measures for intervention. The multiple intelligences approach is an, alternative approach to assessment of intelligence. It emphasizes a, variety of abilities and skills (and not just an aggregate of mental, abilities), which are required for success in life situations., As the meaning of intelligence differs from one culture to, another there is a need to understand the cultural context for, measuring intelligence. Even though tests of intelligence assist, counselors and other personnel in providing a view of the clients, abilities, the scores of these tests need to be used with caution., 6.2.2 Interest Inventories :, In order to help students make, vocational and & educational, choices, the counselor needs to, know his/her interest for activities., The study of interest would help, you as counselor to better, understand the students in terms of, his/her likes and dislikes. In this, section, you will learn about the, concept of interest and its assessment.
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158, , You might have observed in your class that some students, show more inclination to mathematics, while others in, computers, some in literary activities, in paining etc., Interest is an expression of our likes and dislikes or our, attractions or aversions. An individual chooses the most, acceptable, suitable alternative out of many, go after, preferred objectives, activities etc. and consequently, desires satisfaction, success and happiness out of the, activities selected. It is because of his or her natural, liking fro these activities over others. Interest refers to, activities that on individual likes to engage in enjoys., , Types of Interest :, , Interest can be classified in, different ways. Supper (1990) classified interest as, (i) expressed (ii) manifest or observed and (iii) measure, or tested., , Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose such, as :, , , , To provide teachers and counselors with information, regarding the students preference and aversions which, will help then acquire better understanding of students and, their problems., , , , To enable teachers, counselors and parents to assist the, testes to prepare his educational and vocational terms, consistent with his interest., , , , To help in the selection of the right person for the right, work, and thus same frustration, unhappiness and, disappointment in the live of the individuals and increase, productive capacity of individual., , Methods of Assisting Interests
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159, We can use (i) formal assessment techniques and (ii), informal assessment techniques to discover a student’s, interest., i), , Formal Assessment Techniques :, , Interest inventories are formal techniques for measuring, interests. They are considered more reliable at, discovering on individuals interest than interviews as, the inventories address a large number of questions, representing a broad range of carriers. There are many, inventories now in use and majority of them deal with, occupational interest., , Interest Inventories, , The Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIS) and Kuder, preference Record (KPR) are significant milestones in, the area of interest measurement and a number of, revisions of the original forms have been undertaken., Both the interest inventories however better in terms of, approaches in construction and purpose for which they, are used., The SVIB is based on the assumption that a person who has, the interest typical of successful people in a given, occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that, occupation., , The KPR constructed by G. Frederic Kuder, assets preferences, for specific activities. Each item contains three choices., The subject has to select one of the three choices as his, first choice, and another as his third choice., , An example of the choices given in an item are :, Build bird houses, Write articles about birds, Drawn sketches of birds.
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160, This particular item aims to test three types of interests,, namely mechanical, literacy and an artistic., , The main difference in the two types of inventories is that in, Kuder preference record the subject is forced to say, which one of the three activities he likes best and which, one he likes least, even though he may not like any of, the that, hence it is called forced choice pattern type. In, Strong Vocational Interest blank, the subject has to, differentiate between L (like), I (indifferent) or D (dislike)., Hence it is called category-response type of, assessment. As counselor if you want a description of a, persons so that inferences could be done regarding, suitability for one of the very large number of jobs,, Kuder Preference Record is your preferable tool of, interest assessment. On the other hand if the purpose is, to appraise the individually interest for a limited number, of specific jobs, then strong Vocational Interest Blank is, more useful. It is important to remember that the SVIB, and KPR tell nothing about the ability or aptitude of an, individual. These to be assessed by other methods., , Results of interest inventories or tests are particularly useful, to the counselor as :, , , , The items of interest inventories are non-threatening and, so the student is more likely to respond honestly., , , , The student, with the assistance of the counselor, is, helped to see the discrepancy, if any, between his/her view, of one’s interests and those assessed by the interest, inventories., , , , It also provides the counsellor a view into whether the, clients expressed interests are shifted to what s/he is, pursuing., , You have read about two distinct types of interest, inventories. Besides, these two, some tools are available and, used by the counselor and the individual her / himself.
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161, Informal Assessment Techniques :, , It includes client’s expression of, interests and observation. The clients, interviews regarding his/her interests, provide the counselor a good beginning, for understanding the client. For, example, the books s/he reads, and the, amount of time spent on reading, provides on indication of clients, interests on the kind of reading s/he, does., As, counselors, you, can, supplement this information by using, qualitative techniques of assessment such as observation of, the activities a client participates in or information gathered, from anecdotal records and written works as sources informal, information regarding client interests., , Cautions on the use of Interest inventories, , As counselor, you should keep in the following cautions, in mind while using the results of interest inventories., , , Interest data of an individual provides a profile of the, pattern of their interests (what they like doing) and, should not be taken as the strength of the individual)., , , , Interest results tell us only about the likelihood of an, individual finding enjoyment in a particular type of, activity or occupation and not s/he is capable of., , , , A high score on an interest inventory so should not be, considered analogues to success in a career., , You have read in the above section that assessment of, interest indicates of a simple level what a person likes to do and, enjoy. It is important to remember interests indicate the clients and, not his or her strength. The emphasis of interest inventories is on, self-exploration. One should know about one self and be able to, relate this information to what one is doing. Thus the results of, interest inventories should not be seen in an isolate manner but, should be supplemented with information from other techniques, such as observation, interview, informal talk etc. interest results are, of little value themselves. They should be considered with
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162, achievement and aptitude scores to help individuals make, educational and career choices., 6.2.3 Aptitude Tests :, Aptitude is thought of as a natural tendency, special, ability, or capacity or cluster of abilities. Often these natural, abilities are looked at in relationship to a person’s readiness, to learn or their suitability for a particular career. For example,, in order to be successful architect, one must possess the, cluster of abilities such as a keen sense of observation, a, sense of aesthetic visual memory, abstract reasoning, and an, ability to sketch free hand. So, aptitude may be defined as a, trait that characterizes an individual’s ability to perform in an, area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in a, given area. It presumes an inherent or native ability that can, be developed to its maximum through learning or other, experiences. However, it can not be expanded beyond a, certain point, even by learning. Although that may be a, debatable concept, it is stated here as a basis on which, aptitude tests are developed. In theory, then, an aptitude test, measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or, to learn to achieve in that activity., , Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counselors, and others because., , , , They may identify potential abilities of which the, individual is not aware;, , , , They may encourage the development of special or, potential abilities of a given individual., , , , They may provide information to assist on individual in, making educational and career decisions or other, choices between competing alternatives;, , , , They may serve as an aid in predicting the level of, academic or vocational success on individual might, anticipate; and, , , , They may be useful in grouping individuals with similar, aptitudes for development and other educational, purposes., , Types of Aptitude Tests :
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163, , There are different types of aptitude tests. Some of them are, single aptitude tests like tests of mechanical aptitude,, clerical aptitude, teaching aptitude, musical aptitude and, so on. Such tests covering a group of related abilities, are necessary for performing in an occupation like, becoming a mechanic, clerk, teacher, musician etc., Another type of aptitude test is work sample aptitude, test. It requires the individual to perform all or part of a, given job under the conditions that exist on the job. An, example of a work sample test for the job of automobile, mechanic is to repair a faulty carburetor. Besides this,, there are differential tests Batteries as well. A commonly, know Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett,, Seashore and Wesman (1984) battery consists of eight, subtests of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning, clerical speed and, accuracy, mechanical reasoning, language usage,, spelling, grammar, combination of such abilities is, required for success in different occupations. Such test, batteries can give comprehensive information about the, relative picture of the students specific abilities., Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in, terms of time but one can make selective use of certain, sub tests. For example, a student trying to explore, whether s/he will have the required aptitude to go to, engineering, may not be required to take tests like, clerical speed, language usage, grammatical or verbal, reasoning tests but may be required to take numerical, abstract and spatial reasoning tests. Most of the, batteries of tests available for assessment of aptitude at, school stage are in the form of test batteries consisting, of the underlying abilities required for success in, different occupations rather than direct assessment of, job aptitudes., , Caution in the use of Aptitude Test Data :, , , , It is important that counselors select and use aptitude, tests carefully, keeping in view the student’s/clients needs., If aptitude test data must be used, it should be used along, with previous achievement data, present interests, leisure, time activities and work habits etc. in order to guide the, students into various occupational possibilities.
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164, , , The aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual, and helps to find what he/she can do now and how well it, can be done further. On the basis of present performance,, estimate of his/her future achievement is inferred which is, in terms of probability only., , , , It may also be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only, provide leads or suggestions or to help in career planning, and do not automatically match individuals to suitable, courses or studies, and occupations. These are factors, like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or one’s, success in a career which are not measured by aptitude, tests., , Check your Progress-I, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, , What is Psychological Tests? State the name of different, types of Psychological., What is intrest inventories? What cautions you should take, while using it?, Explain various types of Test., , 6.2.4 Achievement Tests :, Achievement is what one successfully accomplishes in an, area of study / activity / domain. In the case of students, it may be, conceptualized as successful learning of the assigned educational, material. Such learning is usually demonstrated to teachers and
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165, others either through a verbal presentation or a written, examination., , An achievement test measures knowledge and skills, attained by the student in a particular area, usually acquired after, classroom teaching or training. In an educational system,, achievement test scores are often used to determine the level of, instruction for which a student is prepared, to indicate academic, strengths and weakness, and to indicate the relative standing of the, student in a group/class. Achievement test data, in combination, with other data, is used to help guidance counselors plan students, future educational programmes., , Types of Achievement Test :, Achievement tests are of different kinds, each scoring a, different purpose and providing different information on students‘, academic proficiency. These have been classified in various ways,, and understanding of which helps the counselor to understand their, functions., Formative and Summative Tests : Formative tests are used to, measure progress made in knowledge and skills before and during, instruction. Summative achievement tests are given at the end of, course instruction, so as to assess the outcome of the instruction., Progonostic tests : Readiness or prognostic tests are used to, predict how well an individual is expected to profit from training., Diagnostic Test : Diagnostic achievement tests provide, information on performance of the students in different subjects and, indicate their strengths and weakness in reading, arithmetic and, language usage., Achievement test can be either criterion referenced (CRT) or, norm referenced (NRT). The two tests differ in their intended, purposes, the way in which content is selected, and the scoring, process which defines how the test results must be interpreted., Norm Referenced Tests (NRTs) are designed to highlight, achievement differences between and among students and provide, a rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from, high achievers to low achievers. These types of tests are used to, help counselors/ teachers to clarify students for remedial or gifted, programmes. Criterion-reference tests (CRTs) determine the
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166, strengths of the test taker i.e. what they can do and what they, know, not how they compare to others. They report how well, students are doing relative to a predetermined performance level, on an specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in, the school curriculum., , An achievement test is designed to measure how much a, person knows about a specific topic or area such as math,, geography or science. Achievement tests can be standardized test, or teacher-made tests., , Uses of Achievement Test Data, Data from standard achievement tests can be used for, promoting,, , classifying,, , diagnosing, , or, , evaluating, , students., , Counselors can also use the achievement tests for :, Helping clients in decision making. A counselor can use the, achievement test scores to initiate decision on taking appropriate, choices for a career., Assisting in diagnosis counselors can make use of achievement, test data to diagnose problems faced by the students in different, subject areas. Accordingly corrective remediation can be, planned and carried out., Encouraging self-study. The student through achievement data,, is able to gain insight into his/her strengths and weakness in, different subjects which can motivate him/her to put in the desire, effort., Achievement test are used as learning measures of (1) the, amount of learning, (2) the rate of learning (3) comparisons with, others or with achievement of self in other areas, (4) level of, learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and workers in a subject, matter area because of their extensive use and relatively easy, task of identifying appropriate context measures., Achievement tests of both kinds i.e. standardized and, teacher –made tests are based on the content taught and are, considered valid. These are used to assess the level of overall, proficiency to meet the entry requirements to certain/ programmes, or the proficiency in a particular subject. The informal classroom, achievement test is suited to a select performance of a group of, students. It is flexible and accommodates testing students on a
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167, local curriculum. The two types of tests can be used in a, complementary manner., 6.2.5 Attitude Scale :, Attitudes are expressions of how much we like or dislike, various things. We tend to approach and seek out to be associated, with things we like, we avoid, shun or reject things we do not like., Attitude represent our evaluations and performance towards a wide, variety of objects, events, persons, and situations. The defining, characteristics of attitudes is that they express evaluations along, the lines of liking-disliking, pro-anti, favouring – disfavouring or, positive – negative (Petty and Cacippo, 1981). By restricting the, term attitude to evaluation, we distinguish attitudes from beliefs or, opinions. Attitude includes certain aspects of personality as, interests, appreciations and social conduct. Attitudes are learnt,, they are adopted. They have aspects as directions, intensity etc. In, the following section we will know how attitudes tested., Types of Attitude Scales :, Attitudes need to be tested because our social life depends, on some desirable attitudes. The success in certain vocations also, depends on some attitudes. Attitudes can be tested through, various techniques. Various scaling techniques have led to the, development of different types of attitude scales which provide, quick and convenient measure of attitudes. However, the ‗method, of equal appearing intervals‘ and ‗method of summative ratings‘, have been extensively used in attitude or opinion research. The, attitude scales which are developed using these scaling techniques, consists of a number of carefully edited and selected items called, ‗statements‘., The method of ‗equal – appearing intervals‘ was originally, developed by Thurstone and Chave. The attitude score of an, individual obtained by this method has an absolute interpretation in, terms of the psychological continuum of scale value of the, statements making up the scale. If this score falls in the middle, range of the psychological continuum, the attitude of the individual, is described as ―neutral‖. If it falls towards the favourable end of the, continuum, it is described as ―favourable‖ and if it falls towards the, unfavourable ends, it is described as ―unfavourable‖., In the ―method‖ of summated ratings developed by Likert,, the item score is obtained by assigning arbitrary weights of 5, 4, 3,, 2 and 1 for Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U),, Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) for the statements, favouring a point of view. On the other hand, the scoring weights of, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used for the respective responses for
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168, statements opposing this point of view. An individual‘s score on a, particular attitude scale is the sum of his rating on all the items., In addition to the above two scales, there some more, techniques, such as, Error Choice Technique, Free Response, Technique, Paired Comparisons, Opinion Polling or Surveying,, diaries, auto-biographic etc. are used for testing attitude., Attitude scales are used to measure the degree of positive or, negative feeling associated with any slogan, person, institution,, religion, political party etc. Attitude scales are also used in publicopinion surveys in order to make some important and crucial, decisions. Educationists, for example, conduct opinion surveys to, find out how people feel about educational issues., 6.2.6 Personality Test :, Often by persons use the term personality to indicate the, physical make up of an individual. The term ―Personality‖ however,, signifies much more than simply the physical looks of a person and, has a very broad meaning. It includes the emotional, motivational,, inter-personal, attitudinal and even moral aspects of a person., some researchers have included intelligence also as part of, personality. Personality refers to a unique combination of, characteristics of an individual, which pre-disposes the person to, behave in a particular and consistent way. Personality testing is, necessary to achieve the following purposes., , , It helps the students in proper educational and vocational, choice. Personality plays an important role in an individual,, personal, educational and vocational adjustment and success., It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individual‘s, personality pattern to see whether he posses the traits which, are likely to contribute significantly to his adjustment to the, course or career he is choosing., , , , It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts., Personality diagnosis becomes essential when the difficulty the, individual encounters in making proper adjustment with the, educational and occupational choices, lies in emotional conflict, about which the client has no knowledge. When the cause of, the mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be possible for him to, solve his problem in his own way., , , , It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can, use personality assessments to help choose the best therapy, for his clients. Thus, personality assessment is important for, educational, career, personal and social counseling., , Techniques of Testing Personality :
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169, A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The, techniques are :, , , , , , , , , , , , Interview, Observation, Self-report Measures, Checklists, Rating Scales, Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests, Projective Techniques, Anecdotal Records, Autobiography, The Daily Diary, , Here we can discuss some of the techniques of assessment, of personality like self-report measures, projective techniques and, behavioral assessment., Self-Report Measures : Self-report measures are personality, scales that ask individuals to answer a series of questions /, statements about their characteristic behaviour. When you respond, to a self-report personality inventory, you endorse statements as, true or false as applied to you. You indicate how often you behave, in a particular way or you rate yourself with respect to certain, qualities. The logic underlying this approach is simple. Who know, you better than you do ? A variety of personal characteristics can, be measured through self-report inventories., Projective Technique : Projective techniques, focus on a composite picture of the personality, as a whole. This method, is called the projective, techniques because the, individual is stimulated to, project his personality, into the test exercises., The stimuli used in, projective, techniques, An Illustration of Rorschach Inkblot, , attempt, to, arouse, An Illustration showing the Drawing of a, responses that are a projection of the innerself, Card of TAT, or motives and personality traits that are, usually hidden and often even unsuspected by the individual, himself. The subject may be asked to respond to series of picture,, inkblots or similarly ambiguous stimuli. The interpretation of, responses requires a long period of training and should be done, only by those who are specially qualified. The most popularly, known projective technique is the Rorschach Inkbolts Test and, Thematic Apperception Test (TA).
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170, , Behavioural Assessment : The manner in which a student / client, behaves in different situations can provide you with meaningful, information about his / her personality. Observation of behaviour,, teacher reports, interviews, ratings and situations tests serve as the, basis of behavioural analysis., The choice of a specific personality test is difficult but, extremely relevant as different tests yield somewhat different, yet, overlapping types of information. Some provide limited information, while other provides a lot of information, some of which is very, technical to understand. Of course, the more the information, available, you may be able to help in more domains. You should, choose a test that is relevant to clients. The test must have norms, available. You should also be aware of the limitations of the test,, particularly the conditions in which it may mislead the respondents, or you. Even when a test is used the counselor may interpret and, use the test scores along with non-test information, keeping in mind, the age, gender, social group, culture, language of the client., Check your Progress-II, Q.1, a), b), c), d), , Write short notes on the following :, Types of achievement tests., Uses of achievement test data, Techniques of testing personality, Types of attitude scale., , 6.3, , LET US SUM UP :, , Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure, of a sample of behaviour. Tests are used for selection,, classification, diagnosis and prediction. School counselors,, teachers and administrators use test data for different purposes., The essential characteristics of standardized psychological test are, : objectivity, reliability, validity and norms. Counselors need to, develop skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation of test
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171, results, and communicating results to their clients. General, considerations for counselors in the appraisal process relate to, being in good psychological health, developing sensitivity for the, client, showing open mindedness, respecting the client, having, attentiveness and showing empathy towards the client., Tests and testing have been criticized because of their, misuse and issues like labeling, inaccuracy, culture bias, invading, privacy, encouraging competition. There is a need for, standardization of all procedures and scoring of psychological tests, for accuracy in results. Counselors need to take cautions in using, psychological tests like interest inventories, aptitude tests,, achievement tests, intelligence tests, attitude scale, personality, tests., SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES :, 1., , Explain the meaning of a psychological test, , 2., , Name three types of aptitude test, , 3., , How does the notion of intelligence changed over the years., , 4., , List five techniques for testing personality, , 5., , State the four key abilities of Emotional Intelligence, , Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises :, 1., , Elaborate on the following points, Define psychological test, Covers both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of, measurements., , 3., , Elaborate on the fact that a good IQ and scholastic record are, not the only indicators of intelligence in a student, but the, concept today has broadened to include multiple and, emotional intelligence. As is sometimes seen, on, academically bright person may be facing a lot of problems, in inter-personal relationships., , 5., , Elaborate on the following points :, Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion, Emotional facilitation of thinking, Understanding and analyzing emotions; employing emotional, knowledge
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172, Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and, intellectual growth, SUGGESTED READINGS :, Benett, G.K., Seashore, H.G. & Wesman, A.G., 1984, Differential Aptitude Tests : Technical Supplement, Psychological, Corporation, New York, Educational Testing Services (ETS), New Jersey, Shertzer, B. & Linlen, J.D. 1979. Fundamentals of individual, Appraisal : Assessment techniques for counselors. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind : The Theory of Multiple, Intelligence. Basic Book, New York., Sternberg R.J., 2007. Cognitive Psychology (4th ed.) Yale, University, Indian Edition., Cervone, D. and Shoda, Y. 1999. The Coherence of Personality., Gilford, New York., Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, I, NCERT, New Delhi, Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, II, NCERT, New Delhi, Kochar, S.K. (1985) : Educational Guidance and Counselling., ,
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173, , , , 6A, , QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND, COUNSELLING, Unit Structure :, 6A.0 Objectives, 6A.1 Introduction, 6A.2 Qualitative Assessment Test and Tools, 6A.2.1 Socio-metric Technique, 6A.2.2 Case Study, 6A.2.3 Cumulative Record Card, 6A.2.4 Autobiography, 6A.2.5 Observation, 6A.2.6 Interviews, 6A.2.7 Homevisits, 6A.3 Ethical basis in the use of Psychological Tests and Tools, 6A.4 Let us sum up, 6A.5 Self-Evaluation Exercises, 6A.6 Suggested Readings, , 6A.0 OBJECTIVES :, After completion of this unit, you will be able to :, Describe the important characteristics of seven qualitative, methods, Sociometric Technique, Case Study, Cumulative Record Card, Autobiography, Observation, Interviews, Use qualitative methods to develop a holistic understanding of, the client, Describe ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools
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174, , 6A.1 INTRODUCTION :, You have read in the previous unit about the uses of, psychological tests which are the tools for quantitative assessment, of an individual / client. As you know, tests provide a score related, to a particular area of the individual. This score in itself does not tell, everything about the individual. To enhance your understanding, about an individual / client, you will need to use other assessment, techniques that provide explanations of both the why and how of a, particular situations or incident. This is the basis of the qualitative, assessment. The focus of qualitative enquiry is not on highlighting, differences among the individuals but on the uniqueness of, individuals. Qualitative assessment helps to understand an, individual‘s behaviour in relation to the context and situation., In this unit, you will read about qualitative assessment tools., There are a number of standard techniques used to form a, qualitative assessment. Observation, interviews, sociometry, case, study, analysis of documents, informal talks, artifacts, rating scales,, checklists, self-descriptions etc. are all sources of data in, qualitative. You will study in this unit how the techniques of, sociometry, case study, cumulative record card, autobiography,, observation, interviews and home visits are used for qualitative, assessment to develop a holistic view of the client. You will also, read about ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools., , 6A.2 QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES :, Qualitative assessment techniques are commonly employed, for various settings. These techniques provide a broader, variable, and more subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation, for human assessment. There are different types of qualitative, assessment, techniques used by the guidance worker and, counselors. We shall now discuss various qualitative assessment, techniques for guidance and counseling., 6A.2.1 Sociometry Techniques :, The purpose of this technique is to study the nature of social, relationship of individual within a group. It offers on opportunity to, identify personality problems, especially in isolates and the rejects., The technique is a useful source of information for appraisal of, social behaviour of students., Various aspects of personal-social development of the client, can be more effectively evaluated by using sociometric technique., You too may have observed that in certain areas like leadership
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175, ability, concern for others, or effectiveness in doing group work etc., peers often know each others strengths and weakness better than, the teacher or the counsellor. The intimate interactions that occur in, the give-and-take of peer relations seldom fully visible to an outside, observer. Hence peer appraisal is important to build an, understanding of the client. You shall now learn about sociometry, which can be effectively used with clients and their peers., Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of, the client or individual student. It also provides information on the, social structure of a group or class of which client is apart. It, provides information relating to how each individual is perceived by, the group/class. Students are required to give their choices of, companions for some group situation or activity. In the example, given below children‘s acceptance is assessed for choices of sitting, companions, work companions and play companions., Example :, Name _______________________ Date, Some new arrangements will be made for, sitting, working in small groups, and playing group, games. I would like to know the names of those, children you would like to sit with, to play with you and, to work with you. You may choose anyone in your, class you wish, including those students who are, absent. Your choices will not be seen by any one, else. Make the choices carefully so that the groups, can be arranged the way you really want them. At, times it is not possible to give everyone their first, choice so make sure you give three choices for each, question. I would choose to sit with those children., I would choose to sit with these children., 1._____________________2._______________, 3.___________________, I would choose to work with these children., 1._____________________2._______________, 3.___________________, I would choose to play with these children., 1._____________________2._______________, 3.___________________
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176, As you may have observed, that given example illustrates, some important principles of sociometric choice, these are :, i), , The choices should be real choices that are natural part of, classroom activities., , ii), , The basis of choice and restrictions on the choices made, should be indicated clearly., , iii), , All students should be equally free to participate in the activity., , iv), , Choices made by the students should be kept confidential., , Although some differences in choice can be from one, situation to another, a large element of social acceptance runs, through all the choices. It is suggested by sociometric experts that, negative choices should be avoided unless absolutely essential., Questions such as ―Whom they would not want as comparison may, disturb both the group morale and the emotional development of, students / client., It is important to keep in mind that the number of choices, made by the student is restricted. Two or three choices for each, activity is considered as a suitable number for children otherwise, they find it difficult to discriminate when number of choices is large., The sociometric data is provided in the form of a sociogram, which shows attractions and repulsions within a group and helps, the teacher and the counsellor in discovering the problems of, students in relation to the group., , Use of Sociometric Results, Counsellors and teachers can use sociometric results for :, , Organising classroom groups,, Improving individual students social adjustment,, Improving groups social structure,, and Evaluating the influence of school practices on students social, relations., 6A.2.2 Case Study :, A case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of, an individual or the client. The focus in case study is on factors
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177, contributing to the development of particular personality patterns, and /or problems. The case study employs all possible tools and, techniques that seem appropriate to understand an individual (e.g.,, observation, interview, self-reports, teacher‘s ratings, checklist,, sociometry, document analysis, anti-biographics etc.). It gives, detailed information regarding different perspectives that can not be, attained by any other methods. Case study is the most, comprehensive of all analytical techniques because it makes use of, all other assessment techniques., Case study as an assessment technique is used by, counselors to provide a means of integrating and summarizing all, available information about the client in order to determine what, further steps should be taken to enhance his or her development., Remember that collection of case study data is not simple, stockpiling of information. Rather, the purpose of a case study is to, present the client as a fully functioning totality‖ within his her, environment. Therefore, a case may be selected to understand the, mechanism by which problems accrue or a case study may attempt, to achieve a better understanding of the problems of a child. For, example, a case study may be conducted on student who has a, problem in reading or in arithmetic. We employ case study method, to study the whole individual (in her dynamic developmental, process) so that we may better understand his concerns, the, reasons for his actions and behaviours and plan the course of, action, which is appropriate for him., Therefore we may say case study is a synthesis and, interpretation of information about the client and his/her, relationships to his / her environment. As counselors it would help, you to understand the nature and cases of the client‘s behaviour,, personality trends and difficulties in adjustment. Then the question, arises how to conduct a good case study? You will now learn about, the characteristics of a good case study, types of information used,, how a case study is organized and how to report a case study., , Characteristics of a Good Case Study :, , , A good case study is concerned with the individuals‘ past,, present and future. The data colleted from different sources, at, different times through various tools and techniques, should be, analyzed synthesized and presented in a manner to present a, complete view of the individual/ clients life.
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178, , , A good case study is dynamic and longitudinal and not static, and cross sectional., , , , The focus of the case study may be the whole individual or a, small part. The focus of the study varies widely and depends on, the age of the client, the purpose of assessment, the working, situation and the experience of the counselor., , Types of information used in a Case Study :, You have learnt that the aim of gathering information about a, person is to develop a holistic perspective, to be able to understand, him / her and provide proper guidance and counseling. The various, kinds of information used in a case study are gathered from all, reliable sources. Cumulative records, observations, interviews, self, reports, tests, peer appraisal data, teaches perceptions, from, parents, friends, relatives., , Organization of a Case Study :, The organization of case study depends on two major, factors :, , , , The purpose for which the case study is being prepared. This, depends upon the heads of the client, counselor, parents,, referral agency or purpose of study., , , , The competencies and skill of the counselor/researcher in, collecting, organizing and using information., , Organization involves providing an outline or format and, developing and executing a logical plan such as to present the, information in an integrated manner., , An Outline for a Case Study Report :, An exemple of, , proforma for reporting a case study of a, , client is given below :, , i), , Identification of data : should consist of, , Name of the Client, , :, , Sex, , :, , Male / Female
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179, Father‘s Name, , :, , Mother‘s Name, , :, , Father‘s occupation, , :, , Date of Birth, , :, , Class, , :, , School, , :, , Language used at home, , :, , Present and permanent address :, , ii), , Referral Source, , Personal history, , :, , Date of assessment, Duration, , :, , Nature of problem, , Opinion of parents:, , Onset and teachers, , :, , Seriousness, , :, , Frequency of occurrence of problem:, iii), , Educational History and Record, , Cumulative record card/ancetotal record :, Is there any change school with reason., iv), , Health background, , v), , Home and family background and neighbourhood, , vi), , Friends and acquaintance, , The steps in developing a case study are given below., Recognition and determination of the status of the problem to, be investigated., Collection of data relating to the factors and circumstances, associated with the given problem., Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for, remedial or developmental treatment., Application of remedial or adjustment measures.
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180, Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the, treatment., , Caution in using Case Study :, A counselor may guard against errors which creep in unknowingly., , , The case study should penetrate into the problems under, study. It should not be superficial., , , , Parents should be contacted. Medical opinion should be, sought. All those who come into contact with the individual, should be approached. The study not be one sided., , , , All possible details should be gathered and not even the, slightest detail should be over looked., , 6A.2.3 Cumulative Record Card :, Cumulative record cards, personal data cards and, permanent data cards are some of the synonyms to denote a, record system which gives us a picture of the student from many, different sources. It is progressively developed and maintained over, a longer period of time, and gives a summarized ―growth record‖, indicating the direction and rate of development. It shifts the, emphasis from one-time or once a year performance in a few, academic subjects to the full development regarding all the, important aspects of education and general, physical, social and, mental development over a longer period of time. Essentially, meaningful and functionally adequate information is collected from, various sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case, study and the like, is assembled in a summary form on a, cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the student, needs our advice for the solution of some educational or vocational, problem., The cumulative record has been defined as ―a method of, recording, filing and using information essential for the guidance of, students. A cumulative record and supplies information on points, such as the following., a), , Personal : (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place and evidence, of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour (vi) residence, , b), , Home : (i) Names of parents, (ii) occupation of the parents,, (iii) parents live or dead (iv) economic status, (vI) number of, siblings, older or younger, (vi) language spoken in the house.
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181, c), , Test Scores (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (ii), other test scores, (iv) personality traits., , d), , School Attendance : (i) days present or absent each year,, (ii) schools attend with data., , e), , Health : record physical disabilities, vaccination record,, diseases suffered from., , f), , Miscellaneous : (i) vocational plans (ii)extra curricular, activities,(iii) counselors note., , If we analyze the items recorded on a cumulative record, card, we find that only such items are included as are recorded in a, case study. Data collected through non-standardized techniques, like check lists, questionnaires, autobiographies do not find a place, in the record card file. It must be remembered that recording and, filing of information are not so important as using the information., , Need and Importance of Cumulative Record :, The cumulative records about students provide useful, information to teachers, counselors and administrators. The need, and importance of cumulative records in guidance are given below :, , Importance in Guidance :, The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into, consideration the individual differences. Cumulative records reveal, such individual differences and indicate the nature and amount of, professional assistance needed by individual students of various, stages of their development., It is useful in analyzing the future needs of the individual, student and proper educational and occupational guidance can be, offered on the basis of his needs., , Importance in Teaching :, , , The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in, classifying students in accordance with scholastic attitudes and, mental abilities., , , , They are diagnostic tools to analyze a behaviour problem or an, educational one. For example, why is a student backward in, the class? What steps can be taken to remove his / her, backwardness?, , , , Cumulative record indicate the students who had special help, and adjust the teaching accordingly.
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182, , Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record :, The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record., 1., , Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive, and adequate so that valid inferences may be drawn., , 2., , Information recorded should be true and valid. Like other, tools of measurement, a cumulative record can be valid only, when it measures what it intends to measure., , 3., , Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of, teachers and then pooled., , , A cumulative record should be reevaluated from time-totime., , , , A cumulative record should be objective and free from, personal opinions and prejudices., , , , It should be usable. A cumulative record may be card, types, folder type or booklet type., Check your progress-I, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, , Uses of socionetric techniques, Cautions in using case-study., Characteristics of a good cumulative Recordcaud., , 6A.2.4 Autobiography :
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183, You might have read a number of autobiographies of great, personalities, some of the common are ―My Experiments with, Truth‖ by Mahatma Gandhi, autobiography of an unknown Indian by, Niral C. Choudhury. An autobiography is a description of an, individual in his own words. As a guidance technique for studying, the individual, it gives a valuable information about the individual‘s, interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes,, dislikes, etc. In guidance, structured autobiographic items are given, to the individual and he is asked to write them out. The, autobiographical material is verified by various other means. Since, feelings, values and attitude can not be measured by any other, technique, autobiography appears to be the one technique for, appraising these characteristics., 6A.2.5 Observation :, Observation is the most direct method of learning about the, development of children. Since it requires focus on the child‘s, behaviour, observation allows the counselor to know the child as a, unique individual, rather than as a member of a group. One of the, most accurate ways to learn about children is to observe them in, their daily activities. It requires systematic and rigorous observation,, which involves far more than just being present and looking around., To understand fully the complexities of many situations, direct, participation and observation of the student/client is considered one, of the best approaches., , What to Observe :, Observation is often used by teachers to understand the, cognitive, affective, and motor development of children. What kind, of individual actions are important for a counselor to observe and, record, what has to be observed would depend a lot on the problem, faced by the client, no exclusive list of indicators can be given., , How to Observe :, Systematic and objective observation requires preparation, and training. Training includes how to write descriptively, recording
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184, field notes, using method for validating observations. Preparation, for observation has mental, physical, intellectual and psychological, dimensions. The quality of information gathered from observation, can be increased with training in the observer‘s skills. The observer, must know what to look for, how to record desired information and, how to explain the behaviour. The accuracy, validity and reliability, of observations can be improved through rigorous training and, careful preparation., It is important to remember that the purpose of observational data, is to describe., , , , , , the setting that was observed,, the activities/behaviour that took place in the given setting,, the people who performed the behaviour or participated in, the activities, and, the meaning of what was observed from the perspective of, those observed., , As counselors you can make use of different sources for, collection of observational, data. These sources could be, documents (such as personal diaries, registers, or memos, etc.), interviews, informal talks, physical settings (how space is used,, lighting etc.), social settings (communication pattern, how decisions, are taken etc.), non-verbal cues, or unobstructie indicators, (equipment in the laboratory, books used in the library, conditions, of carpets etc.)., , Variations in, Observation :, Counsellors, can, , make, , observations, , in, , a
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185, number of settings such as homes, schools, classrooms,, communities and organizations depending on the needs of the, student. Variations occur due to a number of factors associated, with nature of counselors participation, extent of involvement,, duration of observation, duration and focus of observation (Patton,, 1990) these five factors can cause variations in an observation., , Nature of Participation :, Observation can be made by being part of clients setting i.e., full participant or it can be made by observing from distance i.e. as, a spectator. The extent to which the counselor or observer, participates in the setting /case being studied can also cause, variations in observation. A counselor can start as a spectator and, gradually become a full participant or vice versa., , Portrayed of Observer Role :, The observations made can be overt i.e. purpose of making, observation is not revealed to the client or it can be covert i.e.,, clients know that observations are being made., , Duration of Observation :, Observations can vary from one hour to one year. However,, all the observations should last long enough to get the answers to, client‘s problem., , Focus of Observation :, The focus of observation could be to gain holistic view of the, client, therefore, all the necessary aspects of the client have to be, considered, or on the other hand, one single aspect can be studied., , Methods of Recording Observation :
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186, After having learned about what and how to observe, you, now read to learn about the technique to record observations i.e., field note taking., , Field Note :, Field notes contain the description of what has been, observed. They are descriptive, should be dated, should contain, basic information about when and where the observation took, place, who was present, what the physical setting was like, what, activities took place, and what social interactions occurred. It, should permit the counselor, as observer, to experience the activity, observed while reading the observation and analyzing the data, collected. There are a number of ways for developing field notes., Anecdotes records and critical event records are two examples of, field notes., , Guidelines for Observation :, There are a few rules to follow when making observations as, part of a qualitative enquiry., , , Be descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical, incidents)., , , , Gather information from different perspectives (client, peers,, parents, and teachers etc)., , , , Cross-validate and triangulate by using data from different, sources; observation, interview and documents, etc. and using, more than one investigator., , , , Present the views of the people, their experiences in their own, words., , , , Separate description from interpretation and judgement., , 6A.2.6 Interviews :
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187, The purpose of interviewing is to know what going on in a, person‘s mind. You interview people to find out from them those, things you can‘t directly observe such as feelings, intentions and, thoughts. You can not observe things that happened in the past, or, the meanings attached to things or incidents going on around. To, obtain information about these you have to ask questions. This, helps you to know another‘s perspective., In-depth, open-ended interviewing aims to capture the, clients‘ experiences and perspectives on their problem in their own, terms. Open-ended interviewing is based on the assumption that, other‘s perspective is meaningful. It is important to remember that, skillful interviewing involves much more than asking questions., Now, you will learn about the types of interviews content of, interview, and guidelines on how to question to conduct an, interview with the client., , Types of Interviews :, You will now read about the different types of interviews., , Informal Conversational Interview :, It relies on spontaneous questioning which may take place, as part of the counsellor‘s participant-observation. Over the course, of an informal talk, the client may not even realize that she / he is, being interviewed. In such interviews, the data gathered would be, on aspects that differ for each client depending on the issues that, emerge from the conservation. The major advantage is that the, interview is highly individualized to the client and produces, information or insights that the counselor/ interviewer may not have, anticipated. This type of interview requires the counselor to be, experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skill., , Interview Guide Approach :, It involves deciding before the interview, the issues that are, to be explored with the client i.e., identifies topics, but not actual
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188, wording of questions, thereby offering flexibility. These identified, issues are used to guide the interview and keep it on track and, ensure that they are covered. This kind of interview is focused and, hence the data collected are more systematic and comprehensive, than informal conversational interview., , Standardized Open-ended Interview :, This interview consists of set of questions arranged in a, sequence, which are asked to each client. It minimizes the variation, in the questions passed to the client at the same time provides, scope to the client to give responses that are open-ended. This, reduces the possibility of biases that come from having different, types of interviews with different people. Data obtained from such, interviews are systematic and thorough for each client but it, reduces flexibility and spontaneity because the questions are, predetermined thus leaving little scope for issues that may emerge, during the course of the interview. The advantage of these type of, interview is that it is the most structured and efficient of the, qualitative interviewing techniques., , The Focus Group Interview :, In the interview the counselor becomes a facilitator among, the interviewees in a group setting where they hear and react to, one another‘s responses. Focus groups can be used by counselors, to assess the needs of a student group, obtain general background, information about a topic or diagnose the potential problems of a, group of students. In this type of interview the counsellor‘s role is of, a moderator, directing the interaction and inquiry in a manner that, the purpose of interview is served.
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189, The common characteristic of all qualitative approaches to, interviewing is that the people being interviewed respond in their, own words and provide own personal perspectives., Content of Interviews :, Before an interview is conducted it is important to plan the, type of interview whether it will be the informal consersation, the, interviewing, , guide, , approach,, , the, , standardized, , open-ended, , interview or the focus group. Then it is important to know about the, different kinds of questions that could be asked while interview the, client. The counselor must decide what questions are to be asked,, the sequence of questions, the details required, time of the, interview and how to word the actual questions. The different kinds, of questions that could be asked by the counselor are behaviour /, experiential questions, opinion/ values questions, feeling questions,, knowledge questions, sensory questions, demographic questions., How to Question :, The way the question is worded is important. There are no, fixed rules of sequencing questions for an interview. Informal, conversational interviews are flexible and, therefore, fixed schedule, is not required. However, standardized open-ended interviews must, have a sequence because of their structural formed., General Principle of Interview :, The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful., , , The counsellor should feel the need of interview and, counseling., , , , The counselor should have all relevant data about the client, before he starts counseling., , , , A rapport should be established between the counselor and, the counselee. It is a sort of personal relationship of mental
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190, trust and respect based on the feelings of confidence and, security., , , Discussion should be restricted to issue at hand., , , , When the counselee expresses himself he should be, accepted. The counselor will gain nothing by antagonizing or, embarrassing the counselee., , , , The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making, decisions., , , , The interview should end with a constructive note., , , , Interview is an art and a skill that is developed with practice., , 6A.3, , ETHICAL, BASIS, IN, THE, USE, PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND TOOLS :, , OF, , Guidance like other professions has its own ethics, the core, of which is respect for the individual. Every counselee is equal in, the eyes of the counselor. Further the action of the counselor is, governed by the belief that every individual possesses certain, strengths. A good counselor helps to facilitate the strengths of the, individual and overcome his / her weaknesses. Another important, aspect of guidance ethics is that the counselor regards all, information or data about the individual as strictly confidential and, never tries to misuse the data. The counselee confides everything, to the counselor, and it is the moral duty of the counselor to, maintain confidentiality. Besides, the counselor should never use, the counseling session for the purpose of indoctrination or for the, satisfaction of his own needs. He must always respect the freedom, and dignity of the counselee. It is also important for the counselors, to adhere to the ethical norms in the use of psychological test, scores., Check your progress-II, 1.
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191, , 6A.4 LET US SUM UP :, Qualitative assessment provides an in-depth understanding, and a holistic perspective about a client., The qualitative approach differs from a quantitative approach, in its methodology of studying people. In fact, they provide answer, to different questions., Qualitative approach is known to be descriptive, flexible,, subjective, in-depth, interpretive and holistic in nature. The focus is, on the uniqueness of an individual. One way to strengthen, qualitative analysis is to use triangulation i.e. use of several, methods to study the same behaviour / phenomena., Observation and open-ended interview are two important, tools of qualitative inquiry. Systematic and objective observation, requires preparation and training. The observer must know what to, look for, how to record the obtain information and how to explain., Interviews help to obtain the client perspective. Those are, different approaches to collect qualitative data through open-ended, interviewing. Before conducting interview, it is important to decide, the kind of questions to be asked, their sequence, thinking and, wording them., Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social, acceptance of individual students and the social structure of a, group i.e. how each individual in a group is perceived., Case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of, each and every pertinent aspect of an individual or phenomenon., Case study method is used for summarizing and integrating, assessment information. The information used in a case study, gathered from all reliable sources, cumulative records,, observations, interview, task, peer appraisals, home visit and, teacher‘s perception etc. Ethical codes and standards have been, developed for proper use of psychological test. It is important for, the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms while using the tools., UNIT END EXERCISES :
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192, 1., , How can be inaccuracies in observations be reduced ?, , 2., , What are the characteristics of a good case study ?, , 3., , Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in, teaching., , 4., , List any five qualitative assessment techniques you would like, to use in your school., , 5., , Fill in the blanks with appropriate answer given below., a) Sociometry is a method for evaluating the ____________, of an individual and the ______________ of a group., b) Peer appraisal technique life sociometric procedures are, especially useful in evaluating___________ development., c) Sociometry is based on student‘s ___________ of, comparisons for some activity., d) In order to organize and classroom groups, teachers can, make use of _____________ technique to know this group, structure., , (a) Sociometric (b) Personal – Social (c) Social acceptance, social, structure (d) Choices, Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises :, 1. By being descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records,, critical incidents), , , By gathering information from different perspectives (client,, peer, parents, teachers etc.), , , , By cross validating and triangulating data from different sources, such as observation, interview, documents etc. and by using, more than one investigator., , , , By presenting the views of the people, their experiences in their, own words., , , , By separating description from interpretation and judgement., , 2. Elaborate on the following points, , , A good case study is always concerned with the individual‘s, past, present and future i.e. it should provide complete view of, an clients life., , , , A case study should be dynamic and longitudinal and not static, or cross-sectional. It should provide all the necessary, information to plan remediation and it should provide scope to, review the effects of remediation programme.
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193, , , The focus of case study should vary widely i.e. it may focus on, whole individual or small selected segment of an individual or, client such as aggressive behaviour of the individual or client., , 3. Indicate the relationship scholastic attainment and the mental, abilities, , , In classifying pupils in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and, mental abilities., , , , Help in identification of students who need individual attention,, remedial teaching, enrichment teaching etc., , , , Helps the teachers in writing reports about individual students., , 5., , a), , -, , c, , b), , -, , b, , c), , -, , d, , d), , -, , a, , SUGGESTED READINGS :, Stake, R.E., 1995. The Art of Case Study Research. Sage, London, Wragg, E.C., 1994. An Introduction to Classroom Observations., Routledge, London, Manual for Guidance Counsellor, NCERT, New Delhi, Anastasi, A. 2003. Psychological Testing (5th ed.), Mc. Millan, New, York, Hood A.B. and Johnson, R.W., 1997. Assessment in Counselling, (2nd ed.). American Counselling Association, Alexandria, VA, Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, I, NCERT, New Delhi, Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, II, NCERT, New Delhi, Kochar, S.K. (1985). Educational Guidance and Counselling, , , , ,
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194, , 7, CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING, Unit Structure:, 7.0 Objectives, 7.1 Introduction, 7.2. Concept of Counselling, 7.2.1 Meaning of Counselling, 7.2.2 Characteristics of Counselling, 7.2.3 Functions of Counselling, 7.3 Principles of Counselling, 7.4 Goals of Counselling, 7.5 Types of Counselling, 7.5.1 Directive Counselling, 7.5.2 Non directive Counselling, 7.5.3 Eclectic Counselling, 7.5.4 Online Counselling, 7.6 Process of Counselling, 7.6.1 Stages of Counselling, 7.6.2 Skills of Counselling, 7.7 Characteristics & skills of a counsellor, 7.8 Role & Functions of counsellor, 7.9 Let us sum up, , 7.0, , OBJECTIVES, After reading this unit, students will be able to:, Explain the concept of counselling, State the types of counselling, Explain the process of counselling, Explain the characteristics & skills of counsellor, Describes the role & functions of a counsellor
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195, , 7.1, , INTRODUCTION, , In the first unit, you have read about guidance. Sometimes, you may be confused about the two terms ‗guidance‘ & counselling., In this unit, we will discuss about the concept of counselling, its, meaning, principles & goals. We will also know about the process, of counselling & role & functions of a counsellor. Counselling is the, central aspect of the whole guidance programme. All the activities, and Services of the guidance programme leads to and help in the, Counselling process. Counselling is aimed at helping the individual, in solving problems in future and also enhancing personal, social,, emotional, educational and vocational development. Counselling, has Remedial, Preventive and Developmental value., , 7.2, , THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING, , ―Counselling the intimate and vital part of entire guidance., Webster‘s Dictionary defines Counselling as ―consultation, mutual, interchange of opinions, deliberating together.‘, Wren says, ―counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two, people who approach a mutually defined problem with mutual, consideration for each other to the end that the younger or less, mature, or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined, resolution of his problem.‖, ―Counselling is helping a person to come to see who he, really is, what he has and does not have, what he can do easily,, what he can do with difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a, close sharing of a human relationship with one who has for him a, high regard; one who can offer him unconditional acceptance, but, one who has no guarantees, no answers.‖, Counselling is a process that occurs between two, individuals…counsellor and counselee (client), It. takes place within a professional setting., It is initiated and maintained as a means of facilitating changes in, the behaviour of the client., It is a professional task for, professionally trained people., 7.2.1 MEANING OF COUNSELLING
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196, Though the term guidance and counselling is used, interchangeably, both the terms have different meaning. We have, studied about guidance, now we will know about counselling. In, everyday life, we find counselling goes on at many levels. In a, family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients,, lawyers to clients and teachers to students. There is no limitation to, the problems or counsellors in providing counselling, so, let us, know what counselling is., According to Webster dictionary counselling is defined as, ―Consultation, mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating, together.‖, ―Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship, between two people who approach a mutually defined problem,, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the younger, or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self, determined resolution to his problem‖ - Wren―Counselling is an interaction process which facilitates, meaningful understanding of self and environment and results in, the establishment and or clarification of goals and values for future, behaviors‖ -Shertzer and Stone.―Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in, which clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them,, to define precise behaviour goals, to acquire the essential social, skills and to develop the courage and self confidence to implement, desired new behaviour‖- Merle M. Ohlsen.―Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client), is helped to tell and behave in a more personally satisfying manner, through interaction with an uninvolved person (counsellor) who, provides information and reactions which stimulate the client to, develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with, himself and his environment.‖ -Edwin Lewis.If all the definitions are analyzed we can come to the, following conclusions., Counselling is a two way process., It involves two individuals., There is mutual relationships between the two individuals., It helps an individuals to gain self understanding self, acceptance and self realization
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197, It helps an individual to become happier more creative and, better adjusted., Let us now discuss what Counselling is not., Counselling is a process which included a number of, activities like giving information, advice & counselling etc. But it is, not an individual activity like giving information / advice / suggestion, / recommendation only., , IAC-, , From this it is clear that what counselling is., Counselling constitutes the three activities like Informing, Advising and, Counselling, , Informing:, Here the role of the counsellor is to give appropriate and, correct information to the clients. For example you are a student, and you need counselling to select your course for the future. Here, the role of the counsellor is to give you information about the, availability of different courses & its future prospects., Advising:, In this stage the counsellor suggests appropriate courses of, action. Here the counsellor will offer you several options and, recommends one according to your aim or interest. For example if, your aim is to be an engineer, the counsellor will suggest you a, course related to applied mathematics., Counselling:, In this stage counsellor helps the students to clarify his, needs, feelings or motivations so that he can make the appropriate, decision for himself., For example if you will tell, you have no aim or you can not, decide what you will do in the future. So the counsellor will ask you, if you are not sure about what to do in future but you must want to, do something interesting so describe about your idea. Like this the, counsellor can motivate you to find out your idea & can recommend, you the course according to your interest., So counselling is student dependent rather than knowledge, dependent. As a counsellor or a person needs skill rather than, knowledge it needs high level of interpersonal skills. So counselling
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198, is a process which constitutes information, advising and, counselling. You can think of these three activities as a continuous, spectrum of areas which merge into each other., , 7.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING:, The concept of Counselling will be clear to you by knowing, it‘s meaning, characteristics & functions., Counselling involves two individuals - one seeking help and the, other, a professionally trained person, who can help the first., There should be a relationship of mutual respect between, the two. The counsellor should be friendly and cooperative and the, counselee should have trust and confidence in the counsellor. The, aim of counselling is to help a student form a decision, make a, choice or seek direction. It helps a counselee to acquire, independence and develop a sense of responsibility, explore and, utilize his potentialities., It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through, the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself rather, than through solutions offered by the counsellor., Its function is to produce changes in the individual that will, enable him to extricate himself from his difficulties., Emotional rather than purely intellectual attitudes are the raw, material of the counselling process. It helps an individual to know, himself better, gives him confidence, encourages his selfdirectedness and provides him with new vision to grow., Check Your Progress, 1. Define Counselling., 2. Explain the characteristics of Counselling., , 7.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLING:
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199, Like guidance, counselling has also three fold functions, adjust mental, oriental and developmental., , Adjustmental Functions:, Rapid social change brought about by industrialization and, urbanization has led to several perplexing problems. The pace of, this change is ever on the increase, thus making adjustment a, continuous process of grappling way with new situations., Counselling helps the student in making the best possible, adjustment to the current situations be it in educational institution,, occupational world, in the home & in the community. Professional, and individualized aid is given in making immediate & suitable, adjustment at problem points., Oriental function:, Oriental function means to orient the person about his, environmental constraints & resources and her personal constraints, & resources by giving information and awareness in problems of, career planning, educational programming etc., Awareness of the need to plan in the context of the, complexity of the world of work is an essential pre-requisite of going, through education and preparation for after education. So oriental, function is the important function in the counselling process. It is a, link between adjustment and development function. If the person is, properly oriented, he can develop his plan properly & adjust, suitable with himself and society., Developmental function, Developmental function means not only to help the students, having problems but also to help the students before the problems, arise. For example, we are giving vaccination to the child as a, preventive measure. Even then when the child suffers from a, particular disease we take the help of special doctor to cure it. So, both the processes are coming under health development. Likewise, in the counselling process the function of counselling is to prevent, emergence & maladjustment and cure the person having, maladjustment to adjust with the problem situation. Therefore the, development function helps in., Self-development, Self-realization
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200, Development of society and, National development, So we can say that counselling has not only it‘s functions, towards the individual but to the society & nation also., , 7.3 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING, We have already discussed the meaning and principles of, guidance. Now we will discuss the principles of counselling., The principles on which the process of counselling is based, areIt involves a face-to-face relationship between two persons., It is emotional rather than purely intellectual attitude., It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through, the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself., It involves solution of immediate problem as well as the, future decision of the individual., The counsellor should follow the above principles while, counselling to make the process of counselling effective. It is not an, easy task. To make the process successful the counsellor should, also follow certain principles in his own self to develop his skills. He, should follow the principles as given below during counselling., Warmth:, The Counsellor should communicate personal warmth and, make the client feel welcome valued as individuals., Acceptance:, The Counsellor should accept the person & his feelings for, what he is without criticizing him. He should also accept the person, irrespective of age, race, sex, etc., Genuineness:, The counsellor should be very honest with himself and with, client he should be very open, friendly and undefensive., Empathy:, Instead of showing sympathy to the person having problem,, the counsellor should show empathy, which means to sense the, feelings and experience of another person.
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201, In order to make good relationship the above qualities, should be acquired by a counsellor. He should imbibe these, qualities to follow the principles of counselling properly., , Check you progress - III, Q.1 Write the full form of I A C, which constitutes the meaning of, counselling., Q.2 The function which helps in self-realization is the …………, function of counselling., Q.3 Write the meaning of empathy., , 7.4 GOALS OF COUNSELLING:, ―WELCOME TO THE COUNSELLOR‘S CABIN‖, When you enter ―The Cabin‖ you will be greeted by a warm, and friendly atmosphere that invites you ―Come on in and make, yourself at home‖., Prominently displayed a copy of ―The Serenity Prayer‖, which, serves as both counselling mantra and mission statement. It reads, as follows:, GOD GRANT ME THE SERENITY, TO ACCEPT THE THINGS I CANNOT CHANGE,, COURAGE TO CHANGE THE THINGS I CAN, AND, WISDOM TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE., SERENITY is an acronym use to explain the major components of, counselling program to help you determine if you would benefit, from engaging in this process.
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202, Spirituality-associated, meaning/purpose, , with, , wholeness/wellness;, , a, , sense, , of, , Evaluation - assess the problem by taking it apart and putting it, back together, Relationships-Your relationships define and represent who you are., Emotions - What are you feeling right now? It‘s important to know., Needs - Identify your needs; they are directly related to what you, are feeling., Interpersonal skills - Life is a series of conversations. What is you, style?, Treatment - Your personal plan of thinking, feeling, and acting, differently., You - Since you are the expert on you, you are the key to your, success., As a counsellor you should focus on wellness and personal growth, and work extensively on helping people to enhance the quality of, their relationships., Many of clients are in search of meaning and direction in various, life settings including school, family, and career… all of which, involve relationships., Empowerment over life comes through thinking clearly and making, wise choices. Unfortunately, problems can become so, overwhelming it is difficult to accomplish either one of these., Counselling will equip you with life strategies to help you think, feel,, and act differently in order to enhance the quality of your life., If you read the above statements of Dr. Sacky‘s Cabin, one of the, counsellor‘s cabin you will understand the goals of counselling. The, acronym serenity is the goals of counselling.
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203, , 7.5 THE TYPES OF COUNSELLING, Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role, of the counsellor, the following are the three types of counselling, Types of Counselling, , Directive Counselling, -WILLIAMSON, , Non-Directive counselling, -CARL ROGERS, , Eclectic Counselling, -BORDIN, , 7.5.1 DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING:, B. G. Williamson is the chief exponent., The counsellor assumes the major responsibility of solving, the problem., Counsellor identifies, defines, diagnoses and provides a, solution to the problem., Counsellor directs thinking by informing explaining,, interpreting and advising., Counsellor-oriented., Emphasis is on the problem., Steps: Role of the Counsellor, Analysis- collecting data from various sources to understand, the client‘s problem., Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal, students assets, liabilities, adjustments etc., Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem., Prognosis-predicting the future development of the problem., Counselling - taking steps to bring about adjustment, Follow up- helping with recurrence or new patterns., Merits, Time saving and economical, Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to, this problem.
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204, Emphasis is on the intellectual rather than the emotional, aspect., Demerits, Kills the initiative, Makes him helpless, Does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident, Undemocratic, Made dependent, 7.5.2, , NON DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING (Client-oriented /, Centered Counselling):, Chief exponent - Carl Rogers, Counselee is allowed free expression, Counsellor only directs and guides, Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the, solution of the problem., Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem, with the help of the counsellor and arrives at the decision, and action to be taken, Counsellor‘s role is passive, Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than, the solution, Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which, the counselee can work out his own understanding, Emotional aspect rather than the intellectual aspect is, stressed, Counselling relationship is the establishment of a warm,, permissive and accepting climate which helps the client to, express his self structure., , Merits, Freedom of the individual, Relieves tensions due to catharsis, Moves toward acceptance of himself, Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened, Demerits, Time consuming, Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon, All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking
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205, , 7.5.3 ECLECTIC COUNSELLING :, Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome), Counselling may be evaluated along a continuum from, directive to non directive to directive, Eclectic is a continuation and synthesis of directive and nondirective counselling, Both counsellor and counselee are active and cooperative, Both do the talking in turn, The problem is solved jointly, The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the, client and then selects the technique (appropriate). Begins with, directive but switches over to non-directive or vice versa as, demanded by the situation., Steps, Initial interview, Develops rapport and does structuring so that client, understands what to expect from the counselling, Tentative diagnosis and plan of counselling is formulated, Gathers information about the client and the client needs to, be helped to assimilate this information, Client achieves emotional release and gains insights,, modifies perceptions/attitudes about himself and situations, Check Your Progress-IV, 1., Name the types of counselling with their exponents., 2., Differentiate, between, Directive, and, Non-Directive, counselling., 3., Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Nondirective counselling?, , 7.5.4 ON LINE COUNSELLING:
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206, Online counselling refers to the provision of professional, mental health counselling services concerns via the internet., Services are typically offered via email, real time chat and video, conferencing. Some clients use online counselling in conjunction, with traditional psychotherapy, and others use it as an occasional, check-in tool for their lives., Online Counselling:, Online counselling is simply communicating with a qualified,, professional counsellor/therapist by email or chat through, your computer, Instead of having to make a visit to your, counsellor‘s office; you can receive the same professional care in, the comfort of your own home. If you have a microphone, we can, speak to each other through the computer., Whether you choose only a few email exchanges or on, ongoing dialogue with the counsellor over time, you have the, opportunity to share your concerns, pose questions, and gain, further insight into the problems you are addressing., Advantages of using Online Counselling, Convenient - any time, any place, whatever suits you, Flexible - you control everything, receive help when you, want it, Can deal with embarrassing issues without having to see, anyone, Your anonymity is protected, Get to the root of the problem quicker as writing lets you get, in touch with your feelings, More cost and time effective as you can deal with more, issues in a session, No need to take time off work, Receive specialized help no matter where you live in the, world., Why choose online counselling?, Easy access to a professional counsellor or therapist though, email or live chat, Select an experienced professional from many qualified to, deal with your problem, You can select a counsellor who lives anywhere in the world, Convenience - takes place in your home or wherever you, are 24 hours a day 7 days a week
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207, Cheaper than regular counselling, Anonymity and security, Flexibility - either you can get quick answers or guidance to, problems or you can schedule regular sessions, Live Chat, The first few minutes of all Live chat sessions are, completely free of charge., Since payment starts only when you choose to hire the, counsellor, you have the opportunity to discuss you, questions and/or concerns, negotiate a price that suits your, budget and ensure that you feel comfortable with this, specific counsellor., Email, Email counselling is another form of online counselling that may, suit your needs., You may find that expressing concerns and questions in, writing helps organize and focus on your problem, It is an extremely convenient way for you to communicate, with a counsellor, The benefits of online counselling with Live person, Liveperson is one of the best and most well known online, counselling specialists, You will have an enormous choice of professionals you can, seek help from - (experts in over 600 categories), You will find Liveperson very user-friendly, You can consuit with professionals in real time via Live chat, and email., You will find Liveperson is reliable, very easy to use and, enables you to get instant answers to your most urgent, questions., I full recommend this service to you because so many, people have benefited from it., Disadvantages of Counselling or Therapy by Email, Remote counselling via email carries many disadvantages as, well as advantages in comparison to traditional, face-to-face, counselling., Communication and the Counselling Relationship
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208, Communicating only introduces particular challenges for creating, and sustaining a working relationship., , Lack of Visual and Verbal Cues, It can be difficult enough to understand exactly what, someone is saying in a face-to-face setting, but stripped of the, kinds of visual and auditory verbal cues which we take for granted, when communicating in person the struggle to understand takes on, a whole new dimension. Part of the beauty of the English, lenaguage is that the same statement an take on a whole range of, subtle meanings: but without that grin or frown that raised eyebrow,, that softened voice or dead-pan delivery, figuring out which, meaning a person intends can be a real challenge., The lack of visual cues is also especially important for clients, who would like to discuss a visible physical disability and would like, their counsellor to be able to see exactly what they are talking, about., Lack of Physical Presence, The lack of a physical presence of another person in the, same room may make some people feel less emotionally intimate, and less comforted in times of distress., Asynchronous Nature of Email, It can be frustrating to have to wait for the counsellor to reply, when using email and other forms of communication that are, asynchronous (meaning that two people are writing at different, times, as opposed to conversing in real time)., Urgency, In a similar vein, the inevitable time delay associated with, email exchanges precludes the kind of urgent attention (or even, emergency response) which is possible in a face-to-face setting, No Regular Appointment Times, Just as the freedom to work without fixed appointment times, can be an advantage for some clients, the absence of the structure, which fixed appointments provide can be a disadvantage for others., Many clients prefer the structure of having to attend a session at, the same time every week.
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209, , Computer concerns, Relying on computers as a communications medium can, bring technology into the foreground of the counselling process as, an unwelcome participant., Equipment and Internet Service Failures, Hardware or software failure or internet service failure can, impact the online availability of both counsellor and client. Ideally,, the technology becomes ‗transparent‘, so it simply serves as a tool, for communication, without requiring attention in and of itself. In, practice, however, even the best technological tools sometimes, require attention, and it can be frustrating it this occurs during a, counselling exchange., Confidentiality and Privacy in Shared Environments, Using computers at work, in an internet cafe or public library,, or any other environment where other people have access to the, same equipment introduces particular pitfalls for confidentiality and, privacy in email counselling., Of course, there are thins that the face to face counselling, covers that the e-therapy lacks. We are talking of the Non-verbal, communication that is missing when the screen separates people., Also, it may happen that a person needs to be physically comforted, when being in a counselling session and we can not do that on-line., Being aware of those disadvantages, we as professionals, face our, role with all our heart and seriousness so as to make the best out of, all the strengths of the online counselling., , 7.6, , THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING, , Counselling is a process. It means that Counselling involves, a sequence of identifiable events spread over a period of time. The, time taken, the sequence of events, and dynamics involved, the, nature and extent of exploration, differ from individual to individual., However there are certain basic stages, which form the essentials, of counselling processes. The process of counselling comprises of, certain concepts, they are as follows:
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210, Readiness:, The counselee are of two types i.e. one who seeks, assistance voluntarily and the other who are referred. The, Counselling presupposes a desire on the part of the counselee that, makes him come for the assistance. This desire is referred to as, readiness., Counter Will:, People experience difficulty in asking for help and accepting, it, because they are reluctant to face the consequences of change, or an admission of inadequacy of failure. The negative feeling that, holds back one from seeking help is referred to, as counter will., Case History:, Case History is a systematic collection of facts about the, counselee‘s past and present life. However focus of attention varies, from case to case., Rapport :, It is a warm friendly and understanding atmosphere created, by the counsellor, which is catalytical in the formation of an, effective counselling relationship. Warmth of relationship and, feeling of trust, which grows out of unconditional acceptance are, important in contributing to the establishment of rapport., Transference:, It refers to the counsellor transferring amotions originally felt, toward someone early in life. The counselee is encouraged to, express his/her feelings and emotions freely. The counsellor, acknowledges these feelings and handles in a therapeutic way., Counter Transference:, This occurs when counsellor project their unresolved, conflicts upon the counselee. When counsellor feels uncomfortable, and experience feelings of anger, resentment or become, overemotional. This is unhealthy., Resistance:, It refers to counselee‘s move to oppose the counsellor‘s, attempt to work towards set goals. This influences counselling, outcome positively. Resistance ranges from open hostility to, passively resistant behavior like being late for an appointment, 7.6.1 STAGES OF THE COUNSELLING PROCESS:
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211, A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place, over time e.g. Process of human development from birth to death., The First Stage: Initial Disclosure:, Initially the client expresses two sets of feelings i.e., i) I know I need help, ii) I wish I weren‘t here., Therefore central task of the counsellor in this stage is to, allay the client‘s fears and encourage self-disclosure., Attending paying careful attention to the client‘s words and, actions., Counsellor observes clients behavior for indications of, content and feeling not expressed in verbal message. It is the first, contact between the client and the counsellor, but it remains, important throughout the counselling process., In this stage, clients are helped to articulate their personal, concerns and to place those concerns in a context so that the, counsellor can understand the personal meanings and significance, the client attaches to them., The main aim of this stage is promote trust in the client., Following characteristics describe the helping relationship., Empathy - Understanding others experience as if it were, yours., Genuineness - Being natural, consistent in behavior and, dependable in the relationship., Unconditional positive regard - Caring without condition, Concreteness - Using clear language to describe the client‘s, situation., The Second Stage: In-depth Exploration, Client begins to formulate a new sense of hope and direction., Counsellor at first discusses the diagnostic impressions of, the client‘s dynamic and coping behavior., As the relationship becomes more secure, the counsellor, begins to confront the client with observations about his/her, goals or behavior. This will help the client arrive at newly, challenged and refined views of self.
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212, Immediacy - is referred to in 3 ways., i) General discussions about the progress of counselling, relationship., ii) Immediate response to the client‘s statement disclosing, current thoughts about counselling., Iii) Counsellor‘s personal response to a client in the present, This stage becomes emotionally stressful, because client, faces the inadequacy of habitual behaviors. In this stage client and, counsellor come to a mutually acceptable diagnosis of the problem., The Third Stage: commitment to Action:, How to accomplish goals that have emerged in the previous, two stages. Client relates his behaviour to accomplish goals., This stage includes identifying possible alternative courses, of actions (decisions) the client might choose., Once an action decision is made the client tries some new, behaviors. The counsellor supports and reinforces the trying of new, behaviors., 7.6.2 THE SKILLS OF COUNSELLING:, Listening - It is the process of hearing the other person., a), , During listening it is important to show that the counsellor is, listening through the ‗minimal prompts‘ such as head nods,, yes, no etc. They indicate that ‗I am with you‘. Overuse of, these should be avoided., , b), , Behavioural aspects of listening - (SOLER), S - Sit squarely, O - Openness, L - Leaning, E - Eye contact, R - Relax, , Aspects of Listening, Linguistic aspects - words, phrases, figures of speech
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213, Paralinguistic aspects - timing, volume, tone pitch, ‗ums‘ and ‗errs‘,, fluency, Non-Verbal aspects: facial expression, gestures, touch, body, position, and proximity to the counsellor, body movement and eye, contact., Attending and showing receptiveness, It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves, consciously making ourselves aware of what the other person is, saying and of what they are trying to communicate to us., Observing Body Messages, Non-verbal aspects of communication refer to body, language. The way the client expresses through the use of their, body. They offer clues about the client‘s internal status beyond the, words. Morris calls it ‗Man Watching‘. Body language depends on, context in which it occurs, the nature of the relationship, individual‘s, personal style, personality of the person. Therefore avoid assuming, what person is saying with their body languages., Listening Blocks, Attraction: Attention is focused on what you are feeling, rather than what client is saying., Physical condition: Sick/tired, without realizing it you tune out, certain things client is saying., Concerns: Preoccupied with you own concerns., Over-eagerness: Listen to only a part and respond., Similarity of Problems: Same as your own problem. Your, mind wanders., Differences: Different experiences of yours and client., Distracting., Effective Listening:, Attention focuses outward, Suspension of judgment, Attention to the behavioral aspects (SOLER), Avoidance of interpretation, Development of free-floating attention, Communicating:
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214, It is the exchange of ideas and opinions between two or, more people through speech, writing or signs. The communication, included physical setting as well as psychological predispositions of, the receiver., Communication = thoughts and feelings, Factors Involved in the communication, Purpose: Specific, Distribution:, Environment, Timing, Feedback, Follow-up, Causes of Communication Breakdown, Lack of consideration of the other person‘s feelings and, personality, Use of technical language, Not thinking about other, how they get affected (networking, missing), Lose human factor (envy, jealousy), Clarification: To get definite information through this to help clarify, the client‘s thinking without pressurizing., Concreteness: Using clear language to describe the client‘s life, situation. It promotes clear insight in clients life and provides, counsellor with a fuller sense of the uniqueness of the clients, experiences., Restatement: Enables the counsellor to let the counselee realize, that he is being fully understood and accepted. Counsellor exactly, repeats as said by the client. Client thus gets a rest and a chance, to collect his thoughts before going forward., Paraphrasing: The counsellor summarises. He chooses/selects, those ideas and feelings which seem most important and relevant, and feeds them back to the client in a more organized form., Ways to Impede Communication, Counsellor‘s predispositions, Premature advice giving, Lecturing
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215, Excessive questioning, Story telling, Questioning:, What it is?, Questions are used to draw out information from others., How to use it?, There are several types of question. Choose the most appropriate:, Open-ended questions:, Open questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking., They are useful to help the other person to start talking about a, topic, outline a situation, give a broad description of what happened, and how he or she reacted., There are three broad types of open question:, Clarifying question, ―What specifically does that mean to you?‖, ―Can I make sure I understand that…?‖, ―If I hear correctly, what you are saying is…‖, Creative questions, ―How have you seen others handle similar situations?‖, ―What do you think about…?‖, ―Would you like to talk more about it?‖, I‘d be interested in hearing more‖, ―What would be your approach if there were no constraints?‖, Process questions, ―What would you like to get from this session?‖, ―What do I need to communicate to ensure everyone, understands your role?‖, ―What authority do you think you need to complete this, task?‖, Follow-up or probing questions, The purpose of follow-up questions is to get information,, broaden decisions and understand reasons and motivations. Do not, over use ‗why‘. It causes people to become defensive., ―In what way would this help achieve greater customer, satisfaction?‖
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216, ―What other aspects of this should be considered?‖, ―How would you involve others in accomplishing this plan?‖, Follow-up questions are useful for probing - getting to the, heart of a topic, checking information and filling in detail., A particular type of follow-up question is the reflective, question, useful for gaining a clearer understanding, revealing more, information or uncovering feelings., ―You say you were pleased….‖, ―Incompetent….‖, ―You say he reacted to this How did he react….?‖, Closed questions, Closed questions are those that lead to either ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘., They are useful in checking facts quickly but can lead to a onesided conversation. Examples are:, ‗Have you been shopping recently?‘, ‗Is there enough money in the bank?‘, ‗Have you done this sort of work before?‘, A closed question can be useful lead into open questions, once an area to explore has been identified., Less useful questions, Certain types of questions are less useful. Try not to use, them - these include:, Leading questions (―I assume you…‖), Hypothetical questions (―If you were in my place….‖), Multiple questions., , 7.7 CHARACTERISTICS & SKILLS OF A, COUNSELLOR, A good counsellor should be:, A good listener & good communicator, Respectful to other person‘s feelings & point of view., Kind, caring and understanding, Non-prdgemental, Trustworthy & respectful of people‘s confidentiality, Relaxed and calm
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217, Warm & approachable, The ability to motivate & inspire clients., , 7.8, , ROLE & FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLOR, , Counsellor is a specialist in education. Counsellor‘s, responsibilities can be classified into a) Diagnostic, b) therapeutic, c) Evaluation and Research with specialized services and skills. A, counsellor is selected by virtue of interest, training, experience and, competence., The specific functions of a counsellor are:, Orientation of Students, Student appraisal, Educational and Occupational information service, Holding counselling interviews, Placement, Research and Evaluation, The Counsellor:, Design and initiate a comprehensive career development, programme, Involve teachers, students, parents, community resources., Plans students competencies for use in the classroom, Include Para professionals, Assist students in career selection, prepare them and, progress in it., The counsellor acts as a facilitator. The Counsellor need to keep, up-to-date information regarding new career trends and to, participate in professional experiences to improve their skills., Check Your Progress-V, 1) Teacher can be called a counsellor at home. Explain., 2) Why counsellor is called a facilitator?
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218, , 7.9, , LET US SUM UP:, , In this unit we have discussed, The concept of counselling, The Principles, goals, processor, stages & skills of, counselling., Various types of counselling like:, Directive counselling, Nondirective counselling &, Online counselling, The characteristics, skills, Roles and functions of a, counsellor., This unit gives you an outline of counselling process. An, analysis of different types of counselling and it‘s uses & misuses, gives an idea of using different types of counselling for different, purposes in different situations. In short, this unit is an attempt to, describe the counselling process & role & functions of the, counsellors for effective counselling., Unit End Exercises:, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, , ―Counselling is remedial, preventive and developments‖, justify., What is counselling. Explain the skills of counselling., What is online counselling? How can it help you?, , References:, Kochhar, S. K. (1990) Educational and vocational Guidance in, Secondary Schools‖. Sterling publisher, New Delhi., Bengalee, Mehro D. (1990) ― Guidane & Counselling,‖ Sheth, Publication, Mumbai., Gibson & Michel (1986) ―Introduction to Counselling and guidance.‖, Mac Milan Publishing Company., www.google.com
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219, , , , 8, COUNSELLING APPROACHES, Unit Structure :, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, , 8.5, 8.6, , Objectives, Introduction, Cognitively Oriented counseling approaches, 8.2.1 Trait and factor oriented counselling approaches, Affectively oriented counselling approaches, 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic approach to counselling, Conditions influencing counselling, 8.4.1 Physical setting, 8.4.2 Privacy, 8.4.3 Recording, Legal and ethical considerations in counselling, Let us Sum up, , 8.0, , OBJECTIVES, , 8.3, 8.4, , After reading this unit you will be able to :, State the approaches to counselling, Explain cognitive oriented counselling approach and, afftective oriented counselling approach, Describe the factors influencing counselling, Discuss the legal and ethical considerations in counselling, , 8.1, , INTRODUCTION, , In the previous chapter, you have studied about the concept, of counselling , types of counselling and the role and functions of a, counsellor. You may observe that the perspective of counselling, changes from counsellor to counsellor. There are differences in, training, Clients and settings and even goals. But the basic
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220, perspective of counselling remains the same with different, emphasis. Along with differences it is worth to note the, commonalites. Common to all these perspectives are the notions, that:, Counselling is aimed at helping people make choices and, act on them., Counselling is a learning process and, Counselling enables personality development., Therefore prospective counselors should be aware of major, approaches to counselling so as to enable them to acquire a sound, basis for developing their own personal brand of counselling. The, current trends in this area are broadly classified into three, approaches. They are :, Cognitive approaches, Affective approaches and, Behavioural approaches., The approaches are closely paraller with the three aspects, of personality- cognition,affectiona and co-nation i.e. knowing,, feeling and doing . In this unit we will discuss the cognitive and, affective approaches to counselling., , 8.2, , COGNITIVELY, APPROACHES, , ORIENTED, , COUNSELLING, , Cognitive Approaches, As Feorge and Cristiani (1981) have pointed out, in the, cognitive approaches, the process of counseling is the curing of, unreason by reason; i.e., to help clients eliminate most emotional, disturbances by learning to think rationally, to help them get rid of, illogical, irrational ideas and attitudes and substitute logical, rational, ideas and attitudes. It is believed that this process helps the client, to attain rational behaviour, happiness, and self-actualization. For, example Transactional Analysis (TA) aims at the internal dialogues, of individuals, which occurs between, a. counseling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on, them,, b. counselling is a learning process, and, c. counselling enables personality development, A recent and much accepted definition is :
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221, ―Counseling denotes a professional relationship between a, trained counselor and client. This relationship is usually person-toperson, although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It, is designed to help clients to understand and their self determined, goals through meaningful resolution of problems of an emotional or, interpersonal nature‖(Burks and Stefflre,1979)., The merit of the definition by Burks and Steffler is that it is, sufficiently theoretilcal, and at the same time reasonably, operational., Theory and Practice of Counselling:, Theory and practice should go hand in hand. Many trained, counselors initially adhere to the theory while starting their career, as counsellor. However, even those who are fanatically tied down, to one theory appear to change over time. This is because the, client is a human being and he is the link between the theory and, practice of the counsellor. Rigid theories, like the Procrustean bed,, repel the human psyche. When the man does not fit into the theory, the counselor its compelled to change his theory. This is one of the, most demanding challenges of counselling., Counselors should keep their minds more receptive and, flexible. The psychological concept of individual difference must be, understood thoroughly. Individual clients differing in their, personalities come with dissimilar problems, goals and aspirations., To believe that all those clients would benefit from one kind of, theory is unrealistic. It is useful to know that all the well-known, theories have emerged from the practice of individual counselor‘s, personal experience with counselees. This is why we have different, theories and practices. Trying to know theories as old and new, broadens our perspective. But what would be ultimately useful is, the one that is carved out from the counselor‘s experience with the, various ego states and the struggles between the real parts of their, behaviour (whether the same is productive or counter productive), and the behaviour of others by identifying which ego state is in, power at any given time. TA thus gives the clients information about, the various types of transactions that occur among individuals and, to help them identify the kinds of behavior in which they are, involved. The goal of TA is to help clients review their past, decisions and make new decisions about their present behaviour. It, is assumed that this would change their life direction into, developing an autonomous life style characterized by awareness,, spontaneity. This, it s believed that would, eliminate a life style, characterized by manipulative game- playing a self- defeating, neurotic tendencies.
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222, Directive teaching is the core in all the cognitive approaches., For example in Rational Emotive Therapy(RET) the counselor, takes up an active teaching role to educate clients. The RET, counselor makes the client understand that the latter‘s, internationalized sentences are quite illogical and especially the, current illogical thinking are self-defeating verbalizations of the, client. The success if the counselor lies in bringing illogical thinking, forcefully to the client‘s attention. He must also show to the, counselee how these thoughts are maintaining his unhappiness, and how a rethinking and maintenance of logically and rationality, make him happy and contented. In reality therapy, the meaning of, reality and the necessity to act responsibly are taught by the, counselor., 8.2.1 Trait and Factor Oriented counselling approaches:, The trait- factor approach has developed from a marriage of, differential psychology‘s research and theories to Parson‘s, vocational guidance concepts. The approach was born at the, Minnesota Employment Stabilization Research Institute and the, University of Minnesota Test Bureau as a practical response to, educational and vocational adjustment problems of the unemployed, and students. It is still closely identified with educational and, vocational counseling. The approach has placed heavy reliance on, the scientific method by attempting systematically to observe and, measure individuals. Traits are categories that are used for, describing individual differences in behavior, and statistical, methods of factor analysis are used to ascertain how many factors, are sufficient to account for similarities and difference in individuals., Trait- factorists have relied heavily on empirical objective data for a, logical problem –solving approach to client problems. Thus, the, approach may be placed in the constellation of theories that are, more cognitively than affectively oriented. Its basic model of, analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up, is a structured, stepwise attempt to help the client become selfcounseled. The major component of the model is the integration of, objective test data with client subjective data to arrive at a, differential diagnosis., As it has evolved, the trait-factor approach has become, more developmental, dynamic, process-oriented, and eclectic. It, has moved to a person times environment fit approach, which is, seen not as static but as reciprocal and dynamic (Martin & SwartzKulstad,2000). Vocational counseling, in particular, is not seen as, fixed but as a continuing experience with definable stages. The, contemporary approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in, cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and, behavioral approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in, cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and
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223, behavioural approaches. The logical basis of the approach relies, heavily on a mentoring and teaching role by the counselor to, influence and change the irrational thinking and behavior of the, client. A great deal of knowledge, experience, and expertise is, assumed of the counselor. Trait-factor counseling is most, commonly founding school, employment, and rehabilitation, counseling., By including a broader diagnostic scheme, more advanced, information-processing concepts, and a more adaptive counseling, style, the person times environment fit approach has matured, beyond the old trait-factor model. The person times environment, model includes these elements by organizing personal constructs,, the world of work, person times environment interactions and then, applying them in a problem-solving seque3nce. Including current, concepts of problem solving, information processing, and attitude, change has reinvigorated a venerable approach to career, counseling (Chartrand, 1991)., Frank Parsons’ Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational, Choice:, People perform best when they are in jobs best suited to, their abilities Frank parsons is regarded as the founder of the, vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent- matching, approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor, Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons‘ theory is, the concept of matching. He states that occupational decision, making occurs when people have achieved., An accurate understanding of their, (aptitudes, interests, personal abilities ), , individual, , traits, , A knowledge of jobs and the labour market, Rational and objective judgement about the relationship, between their individual traits, and the labour market., This three-part theory still governs most current practice., The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it, is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes, required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be, matched to an occupation that‘s a good fit . Parsons suggests that, when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they, perform best and their productivity is highest., In his book, ‗Choosing a Vocation‘ Parsons maintains that, personal counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular,
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224, he notes seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with, clients:, 1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person,, remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the, vocational problem., 2. Self-analysis :a self-examination is done in private and under the, instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might, impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded ., 3. The client‘s own choice and decision : this may show itself in the, first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of, vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as, guide., 4. Counsellor‘s analysis: the counsellor tests the client‘s decision to, see if it is in line with the ―main quest‖., 5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar, with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of, industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and, apprenticeships., 6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with, logical and clear reasoning are critical at this stage., 7. General helpfulness : the counsellor help[s the client to fit into, the chosen work, and to reflect on the decision., Much of Parsons ‖work still guides career counselling today,, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of, stability within the labour market. However, the reality is that the, markets volatility means individuals must be prepared to change, and adapt to their circumstances., It has been criticized for being overly cognitive and, reductionistic. That is, relying on objective measurements of traits, may lead to an oversimplified view of the human condition. Further,, the very existence of valid and reliable objective tests, and of stable, traits, remains highly questionable. Trait-factor counseling is also, limited insofar as it only seeks to describe a client‘s potential rather, than help him achieve it. E.G, Williamson (1965) was the only traitfactor theorist to address this question: he argued that the, counselor has the responsibility to promote the self-actualization of, his client, rather than just measuring it. Behavioral therapy, like, trait-factor counseling, is firmly grounded in the scientific method,, and it is committed to bringing experimental findings into clinical, practice in order to change clients‘ behavior and resolve personal
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225, and social problems (Corey, 1986). Behaviorism has its roots in, Pavlov‘s (1927)., Trait-factor counseling is the only counseling method which, has its root in vocational counseling. It dates back to 1908, when, Frank Parsons founded the Boston Vocational Bureau and stated, his conviction that in order to choose the best career, one had to, understand oneself, the characteristics of different job, environments, and the relationship between these variables. Traitfactor theory was further developed during the testing movement in, the U.S./during the 1930‘s by psychologists like E.G. Williamson,, John Darley, and Donald G. Paterson (Downing, 1975)., Trait-factor counseling is an extremely cognitive approach, based on the scientific method and the theory of individual, differences. Its major underlying assumptions include the following:, 1. Each person has a unique pattern of traits (i.e. interests,, abilities, and characteristics) that are relatively stable and rarely, change after adolescence., 2. These traits are measurable, Check your progress-1, 1) Explain cognitive approach of counseling., 2) Explain Trait-factor oriented counseling., , 8.3, , AFFECTIVELY, APPROACHES, , ORIENTED, , COUNSELLING, , As the term suggests the affective approaches in counseling, focus their attention to what is going on inside the individual, and, particularly what the individual is experiencing at a given time., Client- centered counseling of Rogers is perhaps the most, well-defined technique in the affective approaches. It also highlights, an issue in counseling; namely, how much responsibility can be, placed on the client for his own problem solving?
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226, Rogers believed that when the individual perceived himself, as behaving in manner consistent with his ‗picture‘ of himself, he, generally experiences feelings of adequacy, security, and worth. If, on the other hand, he acts in a manner different from the way he, defines himself, he experiences what is known as ―threat‖ and feels, insecure, inadequate, or worthless. Under pressure and with no, other alternative, he may then defend himself against this threat, using one or more of the commonly described ―defense, mechanisms‖ Unless counseling eliminates this defensive chain, reaction and strengthens his self-concept, the defensive behaviour, would increase vulnerability to further threat, guilt, thereby creating, more distortion and more self-defeating mechanisms. The role of, the therapist is not just eliminating the defense mechanisms., Rogers highlights the importance of ‗ Congruence‘. It means the, close ‗matching of awareness and experience‘. In this context, the, client centered counselors emphasizes the importance of accurate, communication. If a client is aware of communicating a feeling, which he is genuinely experiencing, his behavior is said to be, congruent or integrated. In incongruent communication the, awareness and experience of the client are two different if not, opposing things. So also the recipient may experience an, awareness of phony communication. The implication here for the, counselor is that the counselor should help client to face, courageously the incongruence between awareness and, experience so that communication of his real experiences is in full, awareness and not distorted with defense mechanisms and, neurotic constrictions., The ‗self-theory‘ of Rogers also assumes a perspective, called ‗phenomenology‘. According to this perspective, people‘s, ‗reality‘ is that which they perceive. The way to understand, individuals is to infer the ‗phenomenological field‘ from their, behavior. In other words, the ‗internal frame of reference ‗ of the, client is used in counseling with the implication that counselors, must attempt to perceive client‘s perceptual worlds as closely as, they can. This is known as the empathic skill of the counselor., Individual client‘s need to strive for wholeness is the focus in, Gestalt therapy and counseling. This school of counseling gives, importance to the internal world of the individual. Striving for the, gestalt or the wholeness is actually a striving for an integration of, thinking, feeling, and behaving. The key concept here is, awareness. It is believed that the counselors help the clients work, toward a total awareness of his experiences. Gestalt psychologists, po0ilnt out that such awareness permits self-regulation and selfcontrol in the direction of increased integration and creativity., Recently, one of the major forces that have come to occupy, an important place in psychology is ‗Existentialism‘. Unlike
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227, Psychoanalysis, existentialism is a temperamental way of looking at, life . It is basically a philosophy of experiences which need not, necessarily be categorized into cognitive compartments. Man is, essentially an emotional being rather than a rational animal! The, existence of man is unique because he is the only being who reacts, to the fact of his existence. The awareness of one‘s own existence, and the possibility of non-existence alters the inner world or the, phenomenology. These new premises create new experiences and, needs that are yet to be known. The predicament of human beings, is such that it includes the individual‘s capacity for increased selfawareness, the search for unique meaning in a meaningless world,, being alone and being in relation with others, freedom to choose, one‘s fate, responsibility, anxiety, finiteness and death, and a basic, urge for self-actualization. As a theory existentialism is sound and, appealing, but the practice of counseling on the basis of this theory, is difficult. However, the existential counselor tries to understand, the client as ‗a being‘ and as‘ a being in the world‘ Counselors are, supposed to expose his own inner reality and at the same time be, human. This according to existentialists enables clients to become, aware of similar conditions and qualities in themselves. It is, pointed out that through his process clients come to recognize their, potentialities and achieve self-growth by accepting it as their, respo0nsibility. In a nut shell, it can be said that making the client, accept responsibility for him selfish the aim of existential counseling, The three basic approaches (Cognitive, Affective, and, Conative) with their differing foundations vary in their theory and, practice of counselling By about 1973, Patterson began to think in, terms of commonalities among the approaches. Fortunately most of, the controversies existed only as academic gymnastics at a, theoretical level. The practicing counselors were undergoing, transformation as the clients were not interested in theories and, their subtleties but were interested only in immediate problem, solving. This demand of the client to the counsellor had made many, counselors to abandon their dogmatic approach. Orientation of the, counselors started changing towards a pragmatic approach. The, client and his needs became more important than the counselor‘s, theory and dogma. This was how ‗personal theory‘ emerged., Here it is absolutely necessary to point out that training in, some known approach is better than no training. Corey(19977), recommends the eclectic approach as a framework to begin with ., However, George and Cristiani (1981) point out that although, beginning counselors need a firm understanding of all the major, approaches, they should start first with a thorough grounding in, one theoretical approach to counselling. It is further pointed out that, judicious integration and assimilation of techniques from other, approaches could be done with experience.
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228, 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic Approach to Counselling:, The original so called ―taking therapy‖ involves analyzing the, root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious, mind and the conscious mind & relation of it. Many theories and, therapies have evolved from the original Freudian psychoanalysis, which utilizes free association, dreams and transference, as well, other strategies to help the client know the functions of their own, minds., ‗Psychoanalysis‘ was developed in the late 19 th century by, Sigmund Friend. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a, mind understood to consists of three parts. The hedonistic id, the, rational ego and the moral superego, Frend maintained that the, condition of the unconscious mind is profoundly influenced by, childhood experiences. So in addition to dealing with the defense, mechanisms used by an overburdened ego, his therapy addresses, fixations and other issues by probing deeply into client‘s youth., Psychoanalysis has three main components:, 1. a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks., 2. a systematized set of theories about human behaviour., 3. a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness., Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis, there are at least, 22 theoritical orientations regarding human mentation and, development. The various approaches in treatment called, ‗psychoanalysis‘ vary as much as the theories do. The term also, refers to a method of studying child development., Psychoanalytical counselling is concerned with how we, deceive ourselves as to our intentions, desires and beliefs and how, these deceptions creates conflict between our expressed goals and, our actions. It also give rises to psychodynamic counselling. The, term psychodynamic means pertaining to the laws of mental action, and its use pre-supposes that there are some principles that, determine the relationship between mind and action and that these, can be formulated as a basis for therapeutic intervention., Traditionally, the principles underlying psychodynamic counselling, as presented as derivations of the psychoanalytic school founded, by Sigmund Fend. But current psychodynamic counselling draws, from a much wider range of theoritical influences. One of the most, fundamental tenets is that we are unaware of many of our motives, and that if these are known to us we are able to make better, less, conflicted choices. However, we are often resistant to or defended, against recognizing these hidden motives termed unconscious by, most psychodynamic theorists and hence are unable to changeindeed we seem to have a compulsion to repeat past behaviour., These repetitions are thought to arise because of earlier experience
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229, where our behaviour successfully enabled us to cope by ignoring or, repressing difficult feelings. Psychodynamic counselling this has, theory of why we are enable to change, how this inutility arises and, how it affects our lives., Psychoanalysis is an intensive process, whereas, psychoanalytic therapy is based upon psychoanalysis but is less, intensive. Psychodynamic counselling evolve from psychoanalytic, theory, however it tends to focus on more immediate problems, be, more practically based and shorter term than psychoanalytic, theory., Goals of the psychoanalytic approach:, The goal of psychoanalytic approach are:, To make the unconscious conscious, To strive to probe into the deeper part of the psyche., To get the issues that were not resolved during cognitive, development., To understand and experience the issues and to bring change, in the character., Principles of psychoanalytic theory:, The general principles are:, Help the person to tell his or her story., Establish a solid working alliance, Deal with resistance, Gather background information and history., Select the problem or issue to be worked on explore the, precipitating events., Collaborate with the client to form a diagnosis and treatment, plan., Increase the client‘s awareness regarding defensiveness., Revirit resistance to interventions., Explore the client‘s transference., Examine how the past is impacting the present., Help the client behave more effectively., Provide feedback and confront discrepancies., Negotiate with the client regarding home work assignments.
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230, Remind the client of the termination date., End therapy as agreed upon with the client., Schedule follow up as needed., , Check your progress- 2, 1) What is affective oriented counselling approach?, 2) Explain the concept of psychoanalytic approach of counselling., , 8.4 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING COUNSELLING, The counselling process is influenced by several, characteristics that help it become a productive time for the client, and counsellor. Not all characteristics apply to all situations, but, generally, the following help to bring about positive results., Structure, Setting, Client qualities, Counsellor‘s qualities, 8.4.1 Physical setting, Counselling can happen any where, but the professional, generally works in a place the provides:, Privacy, Confidentiality, Quiet and, Certain comfort, When working with a client, you want to send a message that, you are listening. This can be done by being attentive both verbally
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231, & non-verbally. The following SOLAR acronym will remind you, about your physical setting which gives confidence to your client, that you are listening., S: Face the client Squarely, that is, adopt a posture that indicates, involvement., O: Adopt an Open posture sit with both feet on the ground to begin, with your hands folded, one over the other., L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be aware of, their space needs., E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down seems that you, are bored or ashamed of what the client is saying. Looking at, the person suggests that you are interested and concerned., R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending listening, skills, relax., 8.4.2 Privacy, Trust is an essential component in the development of, helping relationships. Counselors regard the promise of, confidentiality to be essential for the development of client trust., Most individuals seeking counseling services assume that what, they divulge counseling will be kept in confidence by their, counselor, with limited exceptions (Glosoff, Herlihy & Spence,, 2000). This is most likely true for children and adolescents as well, as adults. Managing confidentiality when counseling minors,, however, is more complex than when counseling adults. School, counselors must balance their ethical and legal responsibilities to, their clients, clients‘ parents and school systems. This complex, balancing act is one reason that the topic issues in school, counseling. In attempting to weigh their legal and ethical, obligations, it is helpful for school counselors to clearly identify, those they consider to be ―clients.‖ School counselors are part of an, educational community. As such, they consult with teachers,, administrators and parents. It is important for school counselors to, clarify that their consultation is on behalf of students and that only, the students are their clients (except if school counselors offer, counseling to students‘ families)., The Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice of the, American Counseling Association (ACA, 1995) and the Ethical, Standards for School Counselors of the American School, Counselor Association (ASCA, 1998) are two resources available to, help school counselors manage privacy and confidentiality in their, counseling relationships. School counselors can also look to moral
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232, principles or ―shared beliefs or agreed upon assumptions that guide, the ethical reasoning of helping professionals‖ (Remley & Herlihy,, 2001, p.3) upon which the codes of ethics are based. The moral, principles most often cited in relation to ethical practices of, counselors include the following :, Veracity or telling truth, Justice or fairness, Nonmaleficence or doing no harm, Beneficence or doing good, Autonomy or respecting free choice, Fidelity or keeping promises, The moral principle of beneficence refers to the responsibility, to help clients gain something positive from engaging in counseling., It also includes counselors‘ duty to ―help society in general and, people who are potential clients‖ (Welfel, 2002, p.34). Autonomy, refers to respecting the freedom of clients to choose their own, directions and make their own choices within the counseling, relationship. Respecting a clients‘ autonomy does not mean that, counselors encourage clients to make decisions independent of, significant others (e.g. parents) in their lives or regardless of, community and cultural implications. It does mean that ―counselors, refrain from imposing goals, avoid being judgmental and are, accepting of different values‖ (Herlihy & Corey, 1996,p.4)., Applying moral principles to situations involved in respecting, the rights of minor clients served in school settings is not always, easy. To be effective advocates for their clients‘ rights, school, counselors must have a good grasp of issues related to the, following concepts: the legal status of minors and the legality and, ethics of privacy, confidentiality, privileged communication, and, informed consent. Each of these are reviewed along with relevant, ethical standards and factors that complicate school counselors‘, ability to maintain a relationship based on student‘s confidence that, they can speak freely and without fear of disclosure. Finally,, implications for the practice of school counselors is presented., The Legal Status of Minors, The ACA (1995) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice, specifically references the term minor twice, both in relation to, matters of consent. The Ethical Standards for School Counselors, (ASCA, 1998) include standards specific to counseling minors, throughout the entire document. Neither setoff ethical guidelines,, however, defines the term minor. Typically, 18 is considered the, legal age of majority, unless otherwise designated. Minors,, therefore, can legally be defined as those persons under the age of
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233, 18. Amendment XXVI (1971) to the U.S. Constitution established, the right of 18-year-old citizens to vote and by extension has, influenced the generally accepted age at which minors are, extended other adult rights. For example, 18 is cited in the Family, Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) as the age at which, the transfer of rights from parents to students occurs (FERPA,, 1974). School counselors, therefore are faced with 18 as the age at, which their clients are legally assumed to be mature, to have full, ownership and controlof their privacy rights., The legal concept of the age of majority has implications for, minor clients‘ rights to make choices about entering into counseling, as well as their rights to privacy and confidentiality. Overall,, although monor clients have ―an ethical right to privacy and, confidentiality in the counseling relationship… [the] privacy rights of, minor legally being to their parents or guardians ‖ (Remley &, Herlihy, 2001,p. 184). Isaacs and Stone (1999) noted that the, Supreme Court has upheld parents‘ legal right to make critical, decisions about their children. (The term parents refers to all who, function in the parental role and have the legal rights of parents.), Many people consider the decision to enter into counseling to be an, example of a critical decision. Further, because counsellingis, considered tobe a contractual relationship, ―minors cannot legally, agree to be counseled on their own‖ (Remley & Herlihy,p.179)., There are some exceptions to this. For example, many states have, enacted laws allowing for individuals younger than 18 to receive, counseling or medical services without parental consent., Additionally, most states have laws that allow minors to be declared, ―legally emancipated‖ from their parents and a few states allow to, be deemed a mature minor and capable of understanding the, ramifications of counselling., 8.4.3 Record Keeping, Counsellor‘s record keeping practices are increasingly, governed by legislation. In some provinces, new Freedom of, Information and Protection of Privacy legislation and Personal, Health Information acts have given counselors new guidelines, about the way they keep records. The federal Youth Criminal, Justice Act will also influence counselors‘ practices on record, keeping. For school counselors, legislation regarding the, administration of public schools adds other imperatives. Some, provinces have synthesized these various legislative requirements, into policy statements that provide counselors with a guide for the, management of their counseling records., In schools, pupil records are typically held in three areas: the, cumulative file in the main office; the young offender file if one, exists, held in a secure location by the principal and the counseling
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234, or special education files normally maintained by the counselor and, resource teacher., The cumulative file component includes things such as, identification information, parent/guardian information, citizenship,, school history, relevant health information, academic information on, marks, attendance, awards and correspondence & legal, documents. Some counseling information, such as results of, psycho educational assessments that may inform programming, decisions can also be included in this file., The counseling and special education files typically included, additional such as: special education or resource information;, clinician reports and meeting notes; referrals to other agencies;, diagnostic testing results and reports from service providers outside, of the school such as hospitals and treatment facilities., The Youth Criminal Justice Act component contains, information about a young offender that may be used; to ensure, compliance with a court order; to ensure the safety of staff,, students and others; and to assist in the rehabilitation of the young, offender., Most legislation is in agreement that there are certain, conditions under which a person may be refused access to, information in a file. They are: if disclosure might cause an invasion, of the privacy of a third party; if disclosure could be detrimental to, the education of the pupil; if disclosure could cause physical or, emotional harm to someone; or if disclosure could interfere with an, enactment or investigation., Personal Health Information legislation. (Manitoba‘s for, example), adds additional conditions under which access may be, refused. These include: if disclosure may endanger the mental or, physical health or safety of a person; if disclosure may reveal, information about person who has not consented to disclosure; if, disclosure could identify a third party who supplied the info in, confidence under circumstances where confidence could be, expected; or if the information was compiled for legal purposes., The Youth Criminal Justice Act demands that the offender‘s, file must be kept separate from any other record or the young, person; that on other person has access to the information except if, authorized under the Act; and that the record be destroyed when, the information is no longer required for the purpose for which it, was disclosed., In cases of divorced or separated parents, the Divorce Act of, Canada states that, ―Unless the court orders otherwise, a spouse, who is granted access to a child of the marriage has the right to
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235, make inquiries, and to be given information as to the health,, education and welfare of the child.‖ Provincial family law usually, supports this notion as in Manitoba‘s legislation, for example, which, states: ―Unless a court otherwise orders, the non-custodial parent, retains the same right as the parent granted custody to receive, school, medical, psychological, dental and other reports affecting, the child‖. (Family Maintenance Act Manitoba), While the legislation described about is very similar from, province to province, it is important to check on the specific wording, of these kinds of acts in your own jurisdiction., Counselors are often concerned about transferring, information when a student transfers to a new school. Generally,, both the cumulative file and the counseling or special education file, must go to the new school. A strategy that will help give counselors, some sense of security is to retain the counselling records, themselves, and place a notice in the cumulative file to the effect, that counseling information exists on this student and may be, obtained by contacting the counsellor directly. In this way, the, records can go form professional to professional, and their security, and privacy be ensured. Many schools have the parents or, students, (if they are the age of majority) , sign a release from to, allow the transfer of these records., Lawyer, Robert Solomon and Consultant, Dennis Lucas, have each offered suggestion about effective record keeping., These ideas include:, Keeping all entries in chronological order;, Recording information while it‘s fresh., Making any alterations with a straight line, dated and, initialed;, Sticking to behaviors and concise description, Staying away from diagnosis & interpretation, Limiting records only to directly relevant info;, Including record keeping information in your informed, consent form, Record ingredients may include:, Name and date:, Presenting issue:, Past history of issue (if described in an earlier record);, Current status of issue changes since last visit:, Treatment/goals/homework/actions;, Check-back date/time;
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236, Referral info: To whom, where, when, what was said;, Administrative info: timetable, credits, etc., To ensure the protection of your students and yourself, it is, important to check your employer‘s policies on access to, information, the CCA Standards of Practice on record keeping, and, the privacy legislation in your province. If no workplace policy, exists, it is critical that such a policy on record keeping be created., In some provinces, requests for information can be referred, to the individual appointed as Privacy and Access Coordinator for, your school hoard. This individual can, with input from you, decide, to release the whole record, release parts of it, or deny access, altogether. Parents then have the right of appeal to a provincial, privacy adjudicator such as the provincial ombudsman in provinces, where these procedures are not mandated, it is important to follow, the CCA policy that school counselors should make every effort to, ensure that there is a school-based procedure in place to, adjudicate any requests from parents or guardians for access to, counseling records., As a proactive step to avoid misunderstanding with students, and parents, it is essential to have a good informed consent form in, place. A consent form used in a school setting may say something, like this:, ―In all discussions between us you have a right to expect that, anything we talk about will remain confidential. We will respect and, guard your right to confidentially very carefully, but you need to, know that are a few cases where are a few cases where that may, not apply. These are the situations where information may by, shared with someone else:, 1), , if you ask me to speak with someone else for you or give, them information you wish them to have, , 2), , If I feel that you or someone else may being danger or in, need or protection,, , 3), , If a court orders the release of information,, , 4), , If required by law, as in cases of child abuse., , 5), , To consult with another professional person in confidence to, try to find solutions or answers for you., , Check your Progress III, 1), , Write short note on, a) Privacy in counselling, b) Record keeping in Counselling
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237, c) Importance of physical setting in counselling., , 8.5 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN, COUNSELLING, Counselors like all professionals have ethical, responsibilities and obligations. The principal rule supporting ethical, obligations is that the counselor must act with full recognition of the, importance of client‘s rights, the ethics of the profession., Counseling is not a value free or neutral activity (Grant 1992). ―It is, a profession based on values, which are orienting beliefs about, what is good and how that good should be achieved‖. (Bergin, 1985), the relationship of moral standards and values, individual or, cultural, in the life of that client., Professional bodies of counselling have development, ethical standards for which they have made available to the, practitioners. Professional organizations for practicing counselling, and psychotherapy are :, American Psychological Association (APA), British Association for Counselling (BAC) and, American Counselling Association (ACA), Need for ethical codes:, Ethical codes help professionalize and Protect an, association by government and promote stability within the, profession. The need for ethical cods are:, To control internal disagreement., To protect practitioners from the public, To protect client from incompetent counselors., Especially in mal practice issues. Clients can also use codes, to evaluate questionable treatment from the counselors., Ethical Issues:
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238, Ethical codes are not set in stone. They serve as principles, upon which to guide practice., There are two dimensions to ethical decision making:, o Principle ethics: Overt ethical obligations that must be, addressed., o Virtue ethics: Above and beyond the obligatory ethics, and are idealistic., , Ethical Issues:, Ethical codes and standards of practice for counselors, have been formulated by the American Counseling, Association, (ACA), and, American, Psychological, Association (APA)., Ethical codes are guidelines for what counselors can and, cannot do., Each counselling situation is unique and sometimes the, counselor must interpret the code., Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice, Client Welfare: Client needs come before counselor needs, and the counselor needs to act in the clients best interest., Informed Consent Counselors need to inform clients as to, the nature of counseling and answer questions so that the, client can make an informed decision., Confidentiality: Clients must be able to feel safe within the, therapeutic relationship for counseling to be most effective., What the client says stays in the session unless the client, is threatening harm to self or others., Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice, Dual Relationships: When a counselor has more than one, relationship with a client (e.g. The counselor is a friend and, the counselor)., Sexual Relationships: Professional organizations strongly, prohibit sexual relationships with clients and in some states, it is a criminal offense.
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239, Privileged Communication, It is legal protection of the client which prevents a, counselor from disclosing what was said within the, counseling sessions(s)., This right belongs to the client and not counselor., Laws concerning privileged communication vary from state, to state., , When to break confidentiality, Tara off is Board of Regents of the University of California., A landmark case with the end result being that counselors, have a ―duty to warn‖ if a client threatens another person‘s, life or with significant bodily harm., When a child under the age of 18 is being sexually abused., If the counselor, hospitalization., , determines, , the, , client, , needs, , If the information is involved in a court action., Privileged Communication Doesn’t Apply, When a counselor is performing a court ordered, evaluation., When the client is suicidal., When the client sues the counselor., When the client uses a mental disorder as a legal defense., When an underage child is being abused., When a client discloses an intent to commit a crime or is, dangerous to others., When a client needs hospitalization., Legal Issues and Managed Care, Counselors have the duty to appeal adverse decisions, regarding their client‘s., Counselors have a duty to disclose to clients regarding the, limitations of managed care and the limits of confidentiality, under managed care.
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240, Counselors have a duty to continue treatment and are not, supposed to ―abandon‖ a client just because the client, does not have the financial means to pay for services., Malpractice, When a counselor fails to provide reasonable care or skill, that is generally provided by other professionals and it, results in injury to the client., Four conditions must exist:, o The counselor has duty to client., o The duty of care was not met., o The client was injured in the process., o There was a close causal relationship between the, counselor‘s failure to provide reasonable care and, the clients injury., Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice, Precounseling: Make sure to cover all information counselling:, The financial costs of counselling., Any special arrangements., The competencies of the counselor., Avoid dual relationships., Clearly indicate if a treatment is experimental., Identify limits to confidentiality., Help the client make an informed choice., Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice (Continued), Ongoing Counseling:, Maintain confidentiality., Seek consultation when necessary., Maintain good client records., Take proper action when a client poses a clear and, imminent danger to themselves or others., Comply with the laws regarding child abuse and neglect., Termination of Counselling:
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241, Be sensitive to the client‘s feelings regarding termination., Initiate termination when the client is not benefiting from, services., Address the clients post-terminations concerns., Evaluate the efficacy of the counseling services., An Ethical-Legal Decision Making Mode:, Determine if an ethical-legal issue needs to be addressed., Address contextual issues such as culture and personal, bias., Formulate an ethical-legal course of action., Implement an action plan., Counselor Competence, Counselors need to accurately represent their credentials, and qualifications., Counselors need to continue their education., Counselors need to only provide services for which they, are qualified., Counselors need to keep up on current information of the, field and especially in specialty areas., Counselors need to seek counselling when they have, personal issues., Ethical and Legal concerns:, Major areas related to ethical 8 legal issues must focus on, the following major areas:, Informed consent, Confidentiality, Duty to warn/duty to protect, Pertinent Legal and Ethical issues:, Any appropriate course of action must be determined on a, case by case basis., Any policy requiring automatic dismissal or withdrawal of a, student who expresses disturbing behaviour is legally, vulnerable., The issue is often about assessing risk., A significant risk constitutes a high probability of, substantial harm not just a slightly increased, or remote, risk.
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242, Any assessment must be based on a reasonable onedical, judgement relying on the most current medical knowledge, and the best available objective evidence., If you analyse all the legal & ethical issues concerned with, counselling you can conclude it in the words of mark Twain that a to, be good is noble, but to teach others to be good is nobler and less, trouble., , Governance of professional practice by Ethics and Law:, Law is created by legislature and courts. It governs citizens, of federal, country and state., Whereas Ethics rooted in philosophy crated by Professional, associations like APA & ACA. It govern members of profession &, guide practice., How can you consider an issue as legal or ethical? We can, consider an issue as legal if –, Lowers are involved, Matter has come to court, The counselor may be in danger of being accused of, misconduct., Check your progress-4, 1), , Explain the different ethical issues to be taken into, consideration in counselling., , 8.6 LET US SUM UP, In this unit we have discussed about counselling, approaches. There are three approaches to counselling like:, Cognitive approach, Affective approach &, Behavioral approach
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243, But in this unit we have discussed only two approaches like, cognitive & affective approaches. Under cognitive approach we, have also discussed the trait & factor approach of counselling with, special reference to Frank Person‘s Trait & factor approach to, occupational choice. In affective approach we have discussed, Psychoanalytic approach & it‘s goals & principles we have also go, through physical setting, Privacy & recording as conditions which, comes as the influential factors in counselling. As in other, professions legal & ethical issues are important, so it is also, necessary in counselling process., , 8.7 UNIT END EXERCISES, 1. What are the different types of approaches in counselling., Explain cognitive approaches to counselling., 2. What is affective oriented counselling approach. Explain the, psychoanalytic approach to counselling., 3. What are different conditions which influence counselling., Explain the importance of recording in counselling., 4. What is your opinion regarding considerations of legal & ethical, issues in counselling Justify your opinion., , Bibliography:, www. Google.com, ,
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244, , 1, MODULE 1 :, GUIDANCE : CONCEPT AND NEEDS, Concept of Guidance, Unit Structure :, 1.0, Introduction, 1.1, Objectives, 1.2, Meaning and Principles of Guidance, 1.2.4 Meaning of Guidance, 1.2.5 Guidance and Education : Guidance and Counseling, 1.2.6 Principles of Guidance, 1.3, Need and Importance of Guidance, 1.4, Scope of Guidance: Guidance Services, 1.7, Implications of Areas Guidance in Global Context., 1.5.1 Educational, 1.5.2 Vocational, 1.5.3 A vocational, 1.5.4 Social, 1.5.5 Moral, 1.5.6 Health, 1.8, Let us sum up, 1.9, Check your progress, 1.10 Suggested readings, , 1.0, , INTRODUCTION, , We are social beings and, so in a some way or other we, need help and guidance of others. Mother, father, grant parents,, teachers and other elders, home, school and society guide, youngsters for successful living. Due to explosion of knowledge,, industrialization and changes in socio-economic set up the need of, professional guidance is felt in the present day society.
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245, In this unit you will be familiarized with concept, principles,, need of guidance and implications of areas of guidance on global, context., , 1.2, , OBJECTIVES, , After going through this unit you will be able to:, Define the meaning of guidance, Describe the need for guidance, State the principles of guidance, Explain different areas of guidance, , 1.2, , MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE, , 1.2.1 Meaning of Guidance:, Literally guidance means ‗to direct‘, ‗to point out‘, to show the, path‘. It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced, person to a less experiences person to solve certain major, problems of the individual (less experienced) i.e. educational,, vocational, personal etc., Guidance is a concept as well as a process. As a concept, guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the, individual. As a process guidance helps the individual in self, understanding (understanding one‘s strengths, limitations, and, other resources0 and in self-direction (ability to solve problems,, make choices and decision on one‘s own)., 1.4.2 Guidance and Education; Guidance and Counselling,, Guidance and Education :, The aim of education is to achieve the fullest possible, realization of possibilities inherent in the individual. Education, fosters all aspects of an individual‘s personality. Guidance is an, integral part of education and helps in achieving the goals of, education. Guidance is quite essential for the development of, individual which is the main objective of education. The Education, Commission (EC-1964-66) observes ―Guidance should be regarded, as an integral part of education and not as a special, psychological, or social service which is peripheral to educational purposes. It is, ―meant for all students not just for those who deviate from the norm, in one direction or the other‖.
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246, Jone, A.J., pointing out the relationship between guidance, and education observes, ‗All guidance is education but some, aspects of education are not guidance. Their objectives are the, some the development of the individual but methods used in, education are by no means the same as those used in guidance‖., Guidance and Counseling :, The terms ‗guidance‘ and ‗counselling‘ have been loosely or, interchangeably used. Guidance is a term which is broader than, counseling and it includes counseling as one of its services. Butter, makes a logical separation of the counseling process i.e. (i), adjustive and (ii) disbibutive phase in the adjustive phase, the, emphasis is on social, personal and emotional problems of the, individual, in the distributive phase the focus is upon educational,, vocational and occupational problems. The ‗distributive phase‘ can, be most aptly described as ‗guidance‘ while the ‗adjustive‘ phase, can be considered as description of ‗counselling‘., 1.2.3 Principles of Guidance, Guidance is based upon the following principles., (vi), Holistic development of individual : Guidance needs to be, provided in the context of total development of, personality., (vii) Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each, individual is different from every other individual. Each, individual is the combination of characteristics which, provides uniqueness to each person. Similarly human, beings have an immense potential. The dignity of the, individual is supreme., (viii) Acceptance of individual needs: Guidance is based upon, individual needs i.e. freedom, respect, dignity., (ix), The individual needs a continuous guidance process, from early childhood throughout adulthood., (x), Guidance involves using skills to communicate love,, regard, respect for others., , 1.5, , NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE, , Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need, and importance of guidance are as follows., Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in, understanding one‘s strength, limitations and other, resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to, solve problems and take decisions., Optimum development of individual, Solving different problem of the individual
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247, Academic growth and development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational, adjustments, Social personal adjustment, Better family life, Good citizenship, For conservation and proper utilization of human resources, For national development, Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an, educational institution but also to the parents ,administrators,, planners and community members., , 1.6, , DIFFERENT SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES, , The school is expected to provide more than just teaching, and instruction. A school guidance programme includes all those, activities other than instructional which are carried out to render, assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal, development and adjustment. The fundamental aim of guidance, programme being the maximum development of the child, all, guidance programme must be geared toward attainment of the, goal. Guidance services can assist the pupils in knowing, themselves-their potentialities and limitations, making appropriate, choices in educational, vocational and other fields. Some of the, important guidance services are;, The orientation services, Student inventory services, Career Information services, Counseling services, Group guidance services, Placement services, Research and evaluation service, , 1.5, , IMPLICATIONS OF AREAS OF GUIDANCE IN, GLOBAL CONTEXT, , The students life is getting complex day by day. Students in, the twenty-first century have facing many perplex and difficult, situations i.e. to make wise curricular and other curricular choices,, to acquire basic study skills for optimum achievement, adjustment, with peers etc. In its beginning guidance was concentrated on, problems relating to vocations. It was largely concerned with getting
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248, jobs for young people. Now guidance has gone for beyond this. It is, now concerned with the entire individual in all aspects., The areas of guidance are very vast. The following are some, of the important areas of guidance., 1.5.1 Personal, Students face many personal problems related to, themselves, their parents and family, friends and teachers, etc., They often have memories related to home or family which creates, feeling of disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too, much of them it leaves them with a feeling of incompetence and, insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem. The, objectives of personal guidance are to help the individual in his/her, physical, emotional, social, rural and spiritual development., The aims and objectives of personal guidance are :, To assist the individual in understanding himself/herself., To assist the individual involving the personal problems., To assist the individual is talking independent decisions and, judgement., To assist the individual to view the world and the social, environment in right perspective., To assist the individual in making sound adjustments to, different problems confronted in life., Personal guidance is necessary at all stages of life. At the, elementary school stage opportunities should be given to students, for their self expression. Personal guidance at this stage deals with, the problems related to feeling of insecurity, social acceptance,, discipline etc., At the secondary stage, the students have more intricate, personal problems. During the secondary stage adolescent, students due to peculiar physical, emotional and social, developments undergo noticeable changes in their attitude and, behaviour. Personal guidance at this stage should therefore focus, on personal and social adjustment., Personal guidance at the tertiary stage aims at helping them view, life in relation to reality. The scope of personal guidance at this, stage is very wider., 1.5.2 Educational Guidance, If one closely examines the problems of young pupils in, schools and colleges, one would exactly realize the need of
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249, educational guidance. Educational problems head the needs of, students‘ problems. So education is an important guidance area., Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education, school / colleges, the curriculum, the methods of instruction, other, curricular activities, disciplines etc. Educational guidance is the, assistance given to the individual (i) to understand his/her, potentialities (ii) have a clear cut idea of the different educational, opportunities and their requirements (iii) to make wise choices as, regards to school, colleges, the course : curricular and curricular., Some of the aims and objectives of educational guidance are:, To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to, understand his/her potentialities, strength and limitations., To help the child make educational plans consist with, his/her abilities, interests and goals., To enable the student to know detail about the subject and, courses offered., To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in, various school/ college subjects., To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules,, regulations, social life connected with it., To help the child in developing good study habits., To help the child to participate in out of class educational, activities in which he can develop leadership and other, social qualities., At the elementary stage guidance programme must help the, children to make good beginning, to plan intelligently, to get the, best out of their education and prepare them for secondary schools., Educational guidance needs to be used in diagnosing difficulties, in, identifying the special needs of children., At the secondary stage educational guidance should help, the pupils to understand themselves better, to understand different, aspects of the school, to select appropriate courses to get, information about different educational opportunities, to develop, good study habits. The students should be helped to be acquainted, with the vocational implications of various school subjects., Educational guidance at the tertiary stages must oriented, students about purpose and scope of higher studies and helps, them to stimulate their studies. Each college/ university must have, a guidance unit with due provision of guidance services.
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250, 1.5.3 Vocational Guidance:, You know that ‗bread and butter aims‖ is one of the main, aims of education. Due to advancement in science and technology, and consequent charges in industry and occupations have been, emerged. There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In, this context, there is a great need for vocational guidance., Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual, to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress, in it. It is concerned primarily with helping individuals make, decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a, career. The purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare,, enter and progress in a vocation is the optimum growth of the, individual., Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:, Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to feet, them into general requirements of the occupation under, consideration., Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that, will dignify whatever type of occupation s/he may wish to enter., Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of, occupations and to learn a technique for analyzing information, about vocations., Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the, facilities offered by various educational institutions engaging in, vocational training., At the elementary stage, although no formal guidance, programmes are needed, the orientation to vocation can be, initiated at this stage. At this stage some qualities and skills, which have grater vocational significance viz. love and respect, for manual work (ii) training in use of hands (iii) spirit of, cooperative work (iii) sharing (vi) appreciation for all works (vii), good interpersonal relationship are to be developed., At the secondary stage vocational guidance should help the, students to know themselves, to know the world of work, to develop, employment readiness to develop decision making rules., At the higher education stages should be more formal one., The objectives of guidance at this stage are to help the students to, get information about different career, training facilities,, apprenticeship etc., 1.5.4 Avocational Guidance:
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251, , The individual student spends only a small portion of his time, i.e. 4 t0 6 hours per day in school. The rest of the time needs to be, effectively managed and utilized by the child for his/her progress, and development. Avocational guidance helps the child to, judiciously utilize the leisure time. The other curricular activities play, an important role in all-round development of the child .But many, parents, Teachers and children put secondary importance to these, activities. The students need to be properly guided for effective, participation in varied types of avocational pursuits so that they are, able to shape their interpersonal behavior in desirable direction and, widen their outlook., 1.5.5 Social Guidance, We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a, problem area for most of the students. School/educational, institution is a miniature society and pupil from different socioeconomic status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read, there.Students some time may face problems in adjustment and, social relationship. It is very important that the students to be, helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the, group;in developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant, towards others. This is the task of social guidance. Formally social, guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal, guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media, etc., 1.5.6 Moral Guidance, Moral values occupy an important place in our life.Some, times due to influence of diverse factors students tell lies and, indulge in undesirable practices. Moral guidance helps in bringing, these students in to proper track and help in their all round, development., 1.5.7 Health Guidance, Health is regarded as the wealth.Total health i.e. preventive and, curative is the goal of health guidance.The health guidance may be, a cooperative effort of Principal, Doctors, Counsellor/psychologist,, Teachers, Students and parents. For promoting preventive care the, conditions of school hostel, canteen needs to be checked. Similarly, health education through formal classes and information is, essential in school education stages. In the present day the, concern of health guidance also pertains to guidance in HIV/AIDs., , 1.7, , LET US SUM UP
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252, , Guidance is a concept as well as a process. Guidance is, different from education and counseling.Guidance is based upon, the principles of holistic development of individual, recognition of, individual differences and dignity and acceptance of individual, needs .Guidance is needed wherever there are problems., Guidance helps in optimum development of individual, Solving, different problem of the individual, Academic growth and, development, Vocational maturity, vocational choices and, vocational adjustments, Social personal adjustment., Better family, life, for conservation and proper utilization of human resources, and, national development. Guidance is helpful not only for student and, teacher in an educational institution but also to the parents,, administrators, planners and community members. A school, guidance programme includes all those activities other than, instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in, their educational, vocational, personal development and, adjustment. The areas of guidance are very vast. Some of the, important areas of guidance are personal, educational, vocational,, avocational, health, social etc., , 1.8, , CHECK YOUR PROGRESS, , 1. What is guidance? Discuss the need and importance of, guidance., 2. Discuss the principles upon which guidance is based., 3. State the importance of educational guidance and vocational, guidance., 4. Write short notes on:, a) Personal guidance, b) Guidance and education, c) Guidance and Counselling, , 1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS, Agrawal,R(2006), Educational,Vocational, Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication, , Guidance, , and, , Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A, theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House, Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel, work,New Y ork,MiGraw Hill
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253, Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in, Secondary, Schools,New, Delhi,Strling, Publisher, NCERT(20080.Introduction to Guidance,Module -1,DEPFE,New, Delhi, , , , 3, MODULE II :- CAREER GUIDANCE, WORK & MENTAL HEALTH, Unit Structure, 3.1., , 3.2, , 3.3, , 3.4, , Meaning of work, Compensation and Incentives., 3.1.1 Meaning of work., 3.1.2 Meaning of Compensation, 3.1.3. Meaning of Incentive, Relation between work and leisure, work and incentives, 3.2.1 Work and Leisure, 3.2.2 Work and Incentives, Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health, 3.3.1 Definition and Meaning of Mental Health, 3.3.2 Characteristics of Mental Health, 3.3.3 Need for Mental Health, Role of Guidance Personnel in promoting and preserving, Mental Health, , 3.1. MEANING OF WORK, COMPENSATION AND, INCENTIVES, 3.1.1 Meaning of work:, Introduction:-
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254, Work has evolved a lot since the industrial revolution partly, due to the progress of sciences and technologies major, transformations happened in the organizational structure and, culture, with their consequences on the organizations of work, , 3.1.1 Meaning of work:―Work is life, idleness is death‖, With a few exceptions, nearly everyone has to work in order, to make a living. The most obvious reason to work is the sheer, necessity for survival. For those who wish to live a more affluent, life, they work harder and longer to get extra income or overtime, remuneration. Work, then, is equivalent to a higher standard of, living., , * Work is either paid or unpaid. Paid work is what most people, associate with team ‗work‘, *Unpaid work, includes housework and school work. Most, people in full time employment work 5 days a week, although there, has been an increase in the number of people working at weekends, and part time. In recent years the ability to work flexible hours has, grown it‘s importance., *People do not necessarily enjoy work but they all enjoy the, reward of their work and the reward is so tangible and immediate, that no one can fail to appreciate it. Therefore it can be said that the, primary objective of the multitude to work is for survival and for, tangible material reward., Major approaches to study of meaning of work:There are three major approaches to the study of the meaning, of work, the definitions of work, the orientations of work and the, coherence of work. As such we can define the meaning of work in, three ways, as illustrated in figure, The significance of work:, The concept of ―meaning of work‖ can be defined as the, significance of the subject attributes to work, his representation of, work, and the importance it has in his life., *Work is central in many cultures, although every culture has its, own values and conceptions about it. However, it seems that work
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255, is important and significant for a majority of people considering the, time that individuals devote to work in their lives, the numerous, functions which it accomplishes for them and the fact that work is, closely linked with other important aspects of daily life such as, family, leisure, religion and community life., The notion of ―work‖ has several definitions but they all share, the idea of a purposeful activity. This notion generally refers to, expanding energy through a set of co-ordinated activities aimed at, producing something useful. Work may be pleasant or unpleasant, and may or may not be associated with monetary exchanges., Moreover it does not Necessarily have to be accomplished in the, context of a job., 3.1.2 Meaning of compensationIn financial terms, the salary and wages you pay to your, employees for the work they do, no financial forms of compensation, can also be offered to attract and retain staff., Ask any human resources consultant where financial, compensation ranks in the hierarchy of employee requirements,, and you‘re likely to get a range of answers. Some say it‘s the most, important thing others declare wages are the only important thing., Still others say that while financial compensation isn‘t the most, important thing it‘s important enough that if your paid isn‘t fair, all, the other employee benefits in the world may not be enough to, keep employees on board., Obviously it‘s important to know whether you are paying, enough and how to get the most for what you are paying. In, addition, you have to know how to bolster the actual dollars you lay, out in salary and wages with non financial compensation., You don‘t pay employees in a vacuum. That‘s another way of, saying that the level of compensation that will attract and keep, employees is set primarily by other employers. While there‘s no, formula that will tell you the ideal salary for each position within, your company there are appropriate ranges. Some of the key, sources for determining suitable salary ranges for your employees, are –, 1. Classified adv. listings for specific positions both in your daily, newspaper and on the internet., 2. Professional and trade organizations for the specific fields in, which you‘re hiring. Most organizations regularly publish salary, data., 3. Human resources consultants.
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256, , 4. Specialized recruiters in the appropriate fields., While no one can discount the importance of financial, rewards, keep in mind that today‘s job candidates are more, concerned with corporate environment and quality of life issues, than over before. In our executive survey conducted by Robert half., International Corporate Culture rivaled employee benefits are, important for candidates during job interviews. Many small, businesses use this trend as a competitive advantage, offering, such non financial perks as flexible work schedules, casual dress, days, additional vacation time and tele commuting opportunities., The costs of this approach are minimal, particularly when compared, to the value added benefits of improved recruitment, productivity, and retention., Regardless of the monetary and non-monetary ways you, compensate your employees, creating an employee-friendly, environment and determining competitive compensation ranges, take time Both require being flexible and adaptable to changing, workplace trends and local conditions. The investment is worth itthe difference between a good company and a great company is its, people., 3.1.3 Meaning of Incentive:A reward for a specific behavior designed to encourage that, behavior also called inducements., Can you motivate employees during a recession with a successful, employee incentive plan?, By stuart Jennings:, Bonus plans Pay for performance programs MBO programme, commission plans stock option stock appreciation rights., Employee incentive plans go by many different names, you‘ve, undoubtedly seen your share. But, with our economy struggling,, how should you approach your employee incentive plans differently, to reach your organizations goals? Or can an employee incentive, plan actually create the results you need?, , 3.2. RELATION BETWEEN WORK AND LEISURE,, WORK AND INCENTIVES:, 3.2.1. Work and leisure, Work – work plays a major role in people‘s like. When you, think of work there are several definitions depending upon your own, experiences and the society in which you live. In western societies,
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257, paid employment is considered to be the most important type of, work. Work is socially defined and needs to be understood in, particular contexts work provides an individual with income, self, identity and status., Leisure :, Leisure is also an important aspect of people‘s lives. Leisure, activities are those associated with the beach, outdoor living and, sport and form an important part of an Australian identity., Leisure can be defined – ―as time not spent working or meeting, the necessaries of life‖. It is also linked to quality of life issues., There is strong relationship between the type of work an individual, does and the way they spend their leisure time., Leisure has become a commodity to be purchased and this, results in the exclusion of some groups in society. Market forces, exclude the unemployed the poor and elderly from participation., Leisure can be divided in active and passive forms., Interrelationship between work and leisure –The differentiation, between work and leisure is basic to all definitions. Generally work, is understood to be remunerative, required by social norms and, necessary for the maintenance of the self and family leisure is ―non, work i.e. leisure is not remunerative, not required by social, expectations, and not necessary for status or survival. However, all, non work is not considered leisure., The relationship between work and leisure – work is dependent, upon quality of life issues and varies with each individual depending, upon their choice of work. For some groups of people leisure is an, extension of their work activities. Leisure activities are related to job, satisfaction and involvement in work. Work also provides the, financial means with which to participate in leisure, Leisure activities engaged in by individuals are dependent, on the work undertaken and level of education. Professional sports, people engage in leisure activate and also receive monetary, payments. For some people the skills they have also extend into a, means of earning a living. Educational institutions provide, individuals with necessary skills and the means to participate in, meaningful employment. This in turn also influences the types of, leisure activities undertaken and often provides status, control and, a degree of choice about participation in leisure activities. The, media is increasingly influencing leisure activities., 3.2.2. Relationship between work and Incentives-Managing, employee performance is steadily rising to the top of many senior, leaders‘ agendas. The fast pace of business, an ultra-competitive
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258, marketplace and increasing customer demands have made it, difficult for leaders to quickly and effectively respond to everchanging market conditions. Compounded by declining workforce, productivity, escalating employee disengagement and the, forthcoming retirement of 76 million baby boomers, companies are, being forced to finally focus their attention on their most valuable, assets: their employees., Corporations worldwide are scrambling to find effective ways, to attract and retain the best talent, but also to elevate their, performance, productivity and service levels to new heights., Embodied in this quest is the ability to align individual behaviors, with strategic corporate objectives and, importantly, to motivate and, reward those who meet or exceed those objectives. In today‘s, business climate, organizations must achieve maximum return on, investment (ROI) in their people to boost corporate performance, and gain a competitive advantage., The new ‘must have’, Employee performance is everything – it‘s what, distinguishes top performing companies from those who are, struggling. Statistics show that companies who recognize their, people outperform companies that don‘t by 30 to 40 percent., Businesses are beginning to understand the value of investing, resources to establish, market and support improved performance, improvement strategies for one compelling reason: satisfied,, motivated and dedicated individuals are increasingly critical to, corporate survival and imperative for growth., When senior management discusses motivating employees,, the conversation typically turns to 401k plans, health care benefits,, stock options and other compensation vehicles. Recognition and, incentive programs are rarely mentioned in the context of that, conversation, despite the fact that 78 percent of companies have at, least one performance-related program in place. This must change, if leaders expect to take advantage of the full arsenal of tools, available to help them achieve their corporate objectives. Research, is proving that recognition and incentive programs are powerful and, effective vehicles for boosting corporate performance and the, bottom line. Smart Human Resource executives are taking the cue, and expanding their portfolio of solutions to include incentive, programs, as well as recognition programs in that arsenal., Incentives are commonly associated with sales initiatives; so, few professionals outside of the sales arena have fully embraced, them as tried-and-true methods for raising overall employee, productivity. This is a missed opportunity because we have learned, that incentive programs can be used to inspire employees, throughout the enterprise. A recent study found that 88 to 95
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259, percent of all incentive programs reach or exceed their goals, and, that the ROI on non-sales employee programs (200 percent) is, actually greater than the ROI on incentives directed to sales staff, (134 percent)., Exploring the broader use of incentives compliments another, innovative corporate trend – aligning internal and external branding, efforts to maximize customer satisfaction and profitability. Internal, branding is defined as motivating internal audiences (employees) to, deliver the quality service promised by advertising and sales., Research by The Forum for People Performance Management &, Measurement at Northwestern University discovered a direct link, between employee satisfaction, customer satisfaction, and a, company‘s profitability, even when the employees did not have, direct customer contact., If you want employees to understand the corporate message, and to treat your customers the right way, you have to set the, example by making sure they have that message and they're, treated with the same care and respect you want them to, demonstrate to customers. Internal branding also thrusts motivation, and performance improvement into the C-suite because brand, equity is a C-level priority, giving HR professionals an opportunity to, demonstrate the strategic value of recognition to the CEO., Proven results = C-suite interest, We now have a growing body of compelling research from, credible sources around the world on the positive – and significant, – impact of recognition and incentive programs on a company‘s, financial performance. The research demonstrates that companies, who engage in incentive and recognition programs are significantly, outperforming their competitors (who don't run programs) in bottom, line savings, contributions to the profit line and shareholder return., This is important news for companies seeking every possible, advantage in the marketplace., The research has attracted the attention of business leaders, and helped them to realize that everyone in their company is, affecting the organization‘s ability to compete and thrive. There‘s no, better vehicle for a CEO to communicate what's important to the, company than to recognize and reward people for the behaviors, and results that drive the company towards success. Recognition, programs have proven to be a highly effective means of aligning, the boardroom and the lunchroom and cascading the company‘s, strategic imperatives throughout the organization and into the, hands of the people who can make them a reality…. people who, are often anxious to make a meaningful contribution., Maximizing ROI
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260, Frequently, companies run a number of disparate, recognition and incentive programs that span various departments., A common approach has been to allow each department to, implement a unique program with goals and rewards specific to the, individuals in that unit., However, when you have independent programs within an, organization there is often poor accountability for ROI or clear line, of sight to overall results. Most companies don‘t really know how, much they‘re actually spending on programs let alone how much, value they‘re extracting from them. Running a multitude of, disparate programs also undermines the opportunity for creating a, consistent, over-arching performance-based culture throughout the, company. Additionally, there‘s the danger that employees will, perceive that one department is favored over another or that some, managers are offering more generous awards., Companies are consolidating many of their programs to, decrease expenses and increase effectiveness. Multiple programs, are being pulled into one corporate-wide program with numerous, sub-programs and variations to address the specific needs of, different business units or geographical locations. This, consolidation helps strip-out cost and administrative burden while, insuring a unified message and application throughout the, enterprise., Organizations are also becoming much more aware of all the, contributors to corporate success and are implementing, performance and recognition programs to help align and recognize, more employees for their contributions to those successes., Employers have realized that everyone in the company – not just, the sales team – can contribute to revenue growth and operational, efficiencies that help a company prosper. Leaders need to gain the, support and buy-in from everyone who can influence company, results. Keep in mind that if you‘re not actively engaging employees, in your goals, they may be working against your efforts – even if it‘s, done unintentionally and inadvertently., Nowadays, some of those additional participants are likely to, be based around the world. The internet allows us to easily execute, programs across borders and many HR professionals are delighted, to finally be able to offer something better than watered down, versions of their domestic programs to those employees who live, and work beyond the corporate office. Offshore employees are, pushing for these programs as well, unwilling to be bystanders in, the company‘s recognition efforts any longer. Online program, technology does the heavy lifting of language translation, currency, conversions, and creating multiple award catalogs that reflect the
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261, brands and types of awards that will be compelling and relevant in, different countries., Track and measure, Demand is rising steadily for more measurement in, recognition and incentive programs. Companies are looking to, reward the quantifiable, actionable behaviors of their employees, and more metrics are being introduced into programs. There‘s also, a growing interest in tracking program performance throughout its, course, rather than waiting until the end to assess the results., Sales incentive programs have always been focused on, measurement, usually on revenue growth or sales. Traditionally,, recognition programs have been more discretionary: you catch, someone doing something beyond the call of duty and reward, them. Now many recognition programs are also focusing on very, specific corporate goals or initiatives to avoid being viewed as an, entitlement or risking programs being eliminated due to ambiguous, results., Tracking metrics during the program allows you to, quantify the end result and also affect the outcome – you can, intercede if a group is not performing well and provide extra training, or assistance. Or, you can spread the word about a successful, initiative so that everyone can benefit from the example., Inspire – reward – achieve, As workplaces change, employees are asked to adapt,, learn, re-adapt, and re-learn in order to ensure that companies, themselves retain a competitive edge. Recognizing these, employees — for service, achievement or performance — is vital to, corporate health. A well-known veteran of recognition, Herb, Kelleher, former CEO of Southwest Airlines believes that ―anyone, who looks at things solely in terms of factors that can easily be, quantified is missing the heart of the business, which is people.", Herb has it exactly right on a number of levels. First, as, companies have automated their back offices with Enterprise, Resource Planning (ERP) solutions and implemented Customer, Relationship and Supply Chain Management systems (CRM), they, have benefited significantly from the efficiencies and cost savings, of these applications. The next ‗big thing‘ is to focus on, implementing and improving those processes and programs that, manage our people assets. Recognition and incentive programs, are a proven, strategic opportunity to do just that. Few initiatives, can deliver such significant ROI and also advance the company‘s, reputation as a great place to work in the process.
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262, Secondly, as people performance is increasingly being, recognized as the means with which companies can gain, competitive edge, people are also identified as the ―method‖ to, achieving those results. As more and more leaders make the shift, to a strategic view of recognition and incentives, and the powerful, dynamics of rewarding those individuals who directly contribute to, the success of the organization, the gap will widen between the, companies who thrive and those that will struggle or disappear., Outdated view: Strategic view:, Employees as expenses Employees as assets and profit, drivers Recognition and incentive programs as a discretionary cost, Recognition and incentive programs as a major source of, shareholder value Recognition and incentive program owners as, administrators Recognition and incentive program owners as, thought leaders, Finally, Herb‘s words remind us that the people we, influence with recognition and incentive programs are busy, spending their day influencing other vital corporate assets –, customers! The link between customer satisfaction and loyalty, and, employee satisfaction and loyalty has been firmly established:, happy customers are a result of happy and engaged employees., That means that putting performance programs to work for you is, far more than a nice idea. It‘s the strategic and profitable thing to, do., 3.3.Meaning, Characteristics and need for Mental Health, It has always been easier to define mental illnesses than to, define mental health. More recently many have recognized that, mental health is more than the absence of mental illness. Even, though many of us don‘s suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder,, it is clean that some of us are mentally disorder it is clear that some, of us are mentally healthier than others., 3.3.1Definition and Meaning of Mental Health, Mental health is a concept that refers to a human individuals, emotional, psychological and intellectual well being., A branch of medicine that deals with the achievement and, maintenance of psychological well being., 1. Definition:― A state of emotional & psychological well being in which an, individual is able to use his or her cognitive and emotional, capabilities function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of, everyday life.‖
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263, 2. Dianne Hales and Robert Hales define mental Health as ― the, capacity to think rationally and logically and to cope with the, transitions, stresses, traumas and losses that occur in all lives, in, ways that allow emotional stability and growth. In general mentally, healthy individuals value themselves, perceive reality as it is, a, accept its limitation and possibilities, respond to its challenges carry, out their responsibilities, establish and maintain close relationships,, deal reasonably with others, pursue work that suits their talent and, training and feel sense of fulfillment that makes the efforts of daily, living worthwhile., Definitions of mental health are changing. It used to be that a, person was considered to have good mental health simply if they, showed no signs or symptoms of a mental illness. But in recent, years there has been a shift towards a more holistic approach to, mental health., Today we recognize that good mental health is not just the, absence of mental illness. Nor is it absolute – some people are, more mentally healthy than others, whether you are mentally ill or, not. These realizations are promoting a new kind of focus on, mental health that identifies components of mental wellness and, mental fitness and explore ways to encourage them., It is commonly known in the mental health field that in order to, achieve good mental health, you also need a healthy dose of self, esteem. However what has not been stressed adequately is the, importance and need to nurture such traits such as positive, emotional wellness, optimism, memories and happiness., 3.3.2. Characteristics of mental health:, * Ability to enjoy life – The ability to enjoy life is essential to good, mental health, can you live in the moment and appreciate the, ―now‖? Are you able to learn from the past and plan for the future, without dwelling on things you cant change or predictJames Taylor, wrote that ― the secret of life is enjoying the passing of time. Any, fool can do it. There ain‘t nothing to it‖ The practice of mindfulness,, meditation is one way to cultivate the ability to enjoy the present., We of course need to plan for the future at times and we also need, to learn from the past. Too often we make ourselves miserable in, the present by worrying about the future., * Resilience – The ability to bounce back from adversity has been, referred to as ‗resilience‘. Are you able to bounce back from hard, times. Can you manage the stress of a serious life event without, losing your optimism and a sense of perspective?, It has been long known that some people handle stress, better than others, ‗why do some adults raised in alcoholic families
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264, do well, while others have repeated problems in life? The, Characteristic of resilience‘ is shared by those who cope well with, stress., *.Balance : Balance in life seems to result in greater mental health., Are you able to juggle the many aspects of your life? Can you, recognize when you might be devoting too much time to one, aspect, at the expense of others? Are you able to make changes to, restore balance when necessary?, We all need to balance time spent socially with time spent, alone. E.g Those who spend all of their time alone may get labeled, as ―loners‖ and they may lose many of their social skills. Extreme, social isolation may even result in a split with reality. Those who, ignore the need for some solitary times also risk such a split., Balance these two needs seems to be the key – although we all, balance these differently., Other areas where balance seems to be important include, the balance between work and play, the balance between sleep, and wakefulness, the balance between rest and exercise, and even, the balance between time spent indoors and time spent outdoors., Flexibility- Do you feel and express a range of emotions? When, problems arise can you change your expectations – of life, others,, yourself to solve the problem and feel better., We all know some people hold very rigid opinions. No amount of, discussion can change their views., Such people often set themselves up for added stress by the rigid, expectations that they hold working on making our expectations, more flexible can improve our mental health., Mental healthy people experience a range of emotions and, allow themselves to express these feelings. Some people shut off, certain feelings finding them to be unacceptable. This emotional, rigidity may result in other mental health problems., *.Self actualization – Do you recognize and develop your, strengths so that you can reach your full potential?, What have we made of the gifts that we have been given?, We all know people who have surpassed their potential and others, who seem to have squandered their gifts. We first need to, recognize our gifts, of course, and the process of recognition is part, of the path toward self actualization. Mentally healthy persons are, in the process of actualizing their potential. In order to do this we, must first feel secure.
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265, , There are just a few of the concepts that are important in, attempting to define mental health. The ability to form healthy, relationships with others is also important., Adult and Adolescent mental health also includes the, concepts of self esteem and healthy sexuality. How we deal with, loss and death to also an important of mental health., Mental Health is more than just the absence of mental, illness. It includes how you feel about yourself and how you adjust, to life events. However, the National Mental Health Association, cites 10 characteristics of people who are mentally healthy., 11. They feel good about themselves, 12. They do not become overwhelmed by emotions such as fear,, anger, love, jealousy, guilt or anxiety, 13. They have lasting and satisfying personal relationships, 14. They feel comfortable with other people, 15. They can laugh at themselves and with others, 16. They have respect for themselves and for others even if there, are differences., 17. They are able to accept life‘s disappointments, 18. They can meet life‘s demands and handle their problems, when they arise., 19. They make their own decisions, 20. They shape their environment whenever possible and adjust, to it when necessary., 3.3.3. NEED for Mental Health – Many people are reluctant to use, mental health services because of the stigma of having an, ‗emotional problem‘. Society has a tendency to view mental health, issues differently from medical ones. When someone breaks a leg,, has chest plains, or needs to get a prescription, they‘ll see a doctor., However, when they experience depression, excessive fears, or a, problem with alcohol, they may be embarrassed to seek help. Many, people view these conditions as ‗weaknessess‘ they should handle, themselves, unfortunately, this view prevents them fro getting, professional assistance that may alleviate their problems., To recognize an emotional problem and receive help is not at, all a sign of weakness. Rather, these positive actions are, characteristics of strong individuals. Also, seeing a therapist at a, mental health clinic or student counseling centre is completely, confidential. No information will be released without your
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266, permission except in situations involving child, or elder abuser or, suicidal intent., , 3.4., , ROLE OF GUIDANCE PERSONNEL IN, PROMOTING AND PRESERVING MENTAL, HEALTH., , The main purpose of the Mental Health Act is to provide, authority, criteria and procedures for involuntary admission and, treatment. However, the Act also contains protections to ensure, that these provisions are applied in an appropriate and lawful, manner. Safeguards for the rights of people involuntarily admitted, to a psychiatric facility include rights notification, medical, examinations at specified time periods, second medical opinions on, proposed treatment and access to review panels and the court., Guide to the Mental Health Act 2, Most people in British Columbia requiring hospital treatment, for mental disorders are voluntarily admitted to hospital, just like, people with other illnesses. A sizable number of people with serious, mental disorders, however, refuse to accept psychiatric treatment., (In 2003 there were approximately 8,000 involuntary admissions.), Without involuntary admission and treatment made possible by the, Mental Health Act, these seriously mentally ill people would, continue to suffer, causing significant disruption and harm to their, lives and the lives of others., With involuntary hospital admission and treatment, most, people quickly improve to the point that they can continue as, voluntary patients or resume their lives in the community. The, majority of people involuntarily admitted are discharged within one, month., A person can only be admitted as an involuntary patient, under the Mental Health Act to facilities designated by the Minister, of Health. The term ―designated facility‖ in the Act and in this Guide, refers to designated inpatient ―Provincial mental health facilities‖,, ―psychiatric units‖ and ―observation units‖. A list of hospitals and, other facilities designated as psychiatric units, Provincial mental, health facilities (inpatient) and observation units is in Appendix 1., Observation units are short stay units in small hospitals,, where the person is stabilized within a few days and, if continuing, inpatient treatment is necessary, transferred. Section 22(7) of the, Act and Section 2(2) of the Regulation require that a patient, admitted to an observation unit must be transferred to a Provincial, mental health facility or a psychiatric unit within 5 days after a, second Medical Certificate is received by the director of the
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267, observation unit. This transfer requirement applies only to patients, who need further inpatient care and does not apply if the patient is, discharged, or released on extended leave (Section 6.0)., There is no legal authority for a hospital or any other health, care facility that has not been designated as a provincial mental, health facility or a psychiatric unit or observation unit to hold or, admit a person for whom a Medical Certificate has been completed., The hospital or certifying physician may have the patient, transported to the designated facility. It is the mutual obligation of, the closest designated facility and the non-designated hospital to, find a bed for the patient. A non-designated hospital should only, care for the patient while ―in transit‖ to a designated facility. As an, example, it is usually preferable to temporarily admit to hospital, someone awaiting transportation to a psychiatric unit than to hold, them in a jail cell. Non-designated hospitals are advised to develop, protocols with the closest designated facility., The person responsible for the operation of a designated, facility is referred to in the Mental Health Act as the ―director.‖ The, director is responsible for ensuring each patient is provided with, professional service, care and treatment appropriate to the patient‘s, condition (Section 8 of the Act).3 Guide to the Mental Health Act, Job stress can be defined as the harmful physical and emotional, response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not, match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker (18). Job, stress can cause poor health and can increase rates of workrelated injuries and accidents., Some potential causes of work related stress are overwork,, lack of clear instructions, unrealistic deadlines, lack of decisionmaking, job insecurity, isolated working conditions, surveillance,, and inadequate child-care arrangements Although sexual, harassment and discrimination are often excluded from lists of, traditional job stressors, they must be included in any, comprehensive analysis of the causes of workplace stress. Sexual, harassment is a stressor for women in the workplace; and, discrimination is a stronger predictor of health outcomes, including, mental ill-health, for ethnic minorities than traditional job stressors, (20). Some of the many effects of stress include numerous physical, ailments as well as mental health problems such as depression and, increased rates of Other possible stress-reducing accommodations, include:, • altering the pace of work;, • lowering the noise level of work;, • providing water, tea or soda and crushed ice to combat a dry, mouth caused by some medications;
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268, • extra encouragement and praise of job performance, but only if, warranted and not obviously excessive;, • while taking steps to reduce stress, avoidance of over-protection, of the employee;, • making sure the employee is treated as a member of the team, and not excluded from social events, business meetings or other, activities relevant to the job., , Mental health at work, Should you mention your panic attacks at the interview? Can, you take time off sick with depression? What are the pros and cons, of telling your employer, and what are your rights?, If you have a mental health condition such as depression,, anxiety or bi-polar disorder, you may not feel you want to tell, current or prospective employers. When mental health charity, Rethink surveyed 3,000 mental health service users, half the, respondents said they felt they had to hide their health problems, and 41% were put off applying for jobs in the first place., But it doesn't have to be like that. Good employers realise, that a staff member who has experienced mental illness such as, depression can be an asset. They often have a better, understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses and can help, and support other members of staff with similar problems. And new, legislation currently going through the House of Lords means you, won't have to answer questions about your health before being, offered a job., Positive employers, Some employers go out of their way to show their, commitment to equal opportunities. For example, over 590, organisations have signed up to the Mindful Employer Charter for, Employers who are Positive About Mental Health. Jobcentre Plus, awards the 'two ticks' symbol to companies in England, Scotland, and Wales who have shown they are positive about employing, disabled people, which applies to some mental health conditions,, and committed to supporting their needs in the workplace., "Having experience of mental distress does not mean you, cant have a successful career", "This doesn't mean employers who aren't involved in the, scheme can't be supportive," says Emma Mamo, senior policy and, campaigns officer at mental health charity Mind. "The important, thing to remember is that having experience of mental distress, does not mean you can't have a successful career. Many high
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269, achievers have a mental health problem so if you're a career-driven, person, don't let it stop you from pursuing your chosen path.", Support in the workplace, "One in four people experience a mental health problem in, any one year, so it's by no means rare to develop a problem while, you are at work," says Emma. "Telling your employer what you are, going through can help them to support you through tough times., Employers will often work with individuals to make adjustments that, are mutually beneficial, for example support managing your, workload, working from home, or even small things like changing, where your desk is.", "If you qualify for protection under the Disability, Discrimination Act, your employer should make reasonable, adjustments to support you in the workplace. This could include, relaxing absence rules and limits, or allowing you to work flexi, hours to make up the time.", The legal situation, An amendment to the Equality Bill bans employers from, asking applicants about their health until after a job offer has, been made. Under this legislation, you can choose to tell a, prospective employer that you have a mental health, condition, for example if they are part of the 'two ticks', scheme, but they can't ask about it at the application or, interview stage., Information about your mental health is considered to be, 'sensitive personal data' under data protection legislation., Employers should ensure only appropriate access is given to, any information they hold about your mental health., The main body of legislation concerning unfair treatment in, the workplace is the Disability Discrimination Act 1995,, which covers mental illness and related problems. Your, employer has a duty to ensure the health, safety, and, welfare of their employees, and must not discriminate, against mentally ill/disabled staff or applicants (provided they, employ more than 15 people). If you're worried about your, rights or feel you're experiencing discrimination, you can get, advice from your local Citizens Advice Bureau, your trade, union if you belong to one and charities such as Mind., If you think you have been unfairly dismissed, you can take, your employer to a tribunal, but you must act quickly as, there's a three-month time limit.
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270, Directors are appointed by the authority, usually a health, authority (i.e., the Board), operating the designated facility (Section, 3 of the Regulation). The director may authorize specific individuals, or positions to carry out the director functions. For example,, physicians may be authorized to admit and discharge. The senior, nurse on duty in the hospital or the ward or a physician could be, authorized to sign consent forms for involuntary treatment or, warrants after regular business hours. These authorizations should, be in written form, signed by the director., , CONCLUSIONS, The central themes of this monograph were: to address the, importance of work for people with mental health problems; to, discuss the different vocational strategies and programmes for, people with a mental health disorder; and to consider the role of the, workplace in promoting good mental health practices for, employees. Integral to these themes is the identification of good, practices by employers as well as vocational rehabilitation agencies, and professionals. It is clear that there are many factors involved in, addressing the importance of work for people with mental health, problems, as well as identifying effective practices that encourage, employment, re-employment and retention. Social support, systems, mental health professionals and employers all have a, significant role in helping individuals define options, make choices,, learn to manage potentially disabling conditions, and avoid longterm hospitalization. The ultimate goal is for individuals to obtain, and/or return to gainful, worthwhile activity, such as meaningful, work Access to satisfying work remains one of the most soughtafter goals of the adult population of most countries. Employers,, employees and unions are starting to realize that, for this, population, mental health problems are the single most important, cause of disability responsible for a global burden of disease larger, than that due to infections, AIDS, cancer and physical accidents., The impact of mental health problems on absenteeism, productivity, and job satisfaction is only starting. Given the importance of work,, and due to advances made in the prevention, treatment and, rehabilitation of persons with mental health problems, it makes, eminent sense to address all aspects of the mental well-being of, employees. For the same reasons, the disability associated with, severe mental health problems can no longer serve as an excuse, to deny those who so wish reasonable access to competitive, employment., ,
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272, , 7A.1 INTRODUCTION, In the first unit, you have read about guidance. Sometimes, you may be confused about the two terms ‗guidance‘ & counselling., In this unit, we will discuss about the concept of counselling, its, meaning, principles & goals. We will also know about the process, of counselling & role & functions of a counsellor. Counselling is the, central aspect of the whole guidance programme. All the activities, and Services of the guidance programme leads to and help in the, Counselling process. Counselling is aimed at helping the individual, in solving problems in future and also enhancing personal, social,, emotional, educational and vocational development. Counselling, has Remedial, Preventive and Developmental value., , 7A.2 THE CONCEPT OF COUNSELLING, ―Counselling the intimate and vital part of entire guidance., Webster‘s Dictionary defines Counselling as ―consultation, mutual, interchange of opinions, deliberating together.‘, Wren says, ―counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two, people who approach a mutually defined problem with mutual, consideration for each other to the end that the younger or less, mature, or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined, resolution of his problem.‖, ―Counselling is helping a person to come to see who he, really is, what he has and does not have, what he can do easily,, what he can do with difficulty and what he cannot do at all. It is a, close sharing of a human relationship with one who has for him a, high regard; one who can offer him unconditional acceptance, but, one who has no guarantees, no answers.‖, Counselling is a process that occurs between two, individuals…counsellor and counselee (client), It. takes place within a professional setting., It is initiated and maintained as a means of facilitating changes in, the behaviour of the client., It is a professional task for, professionally trained people., 7A.2.1 MEANING OF COUNSELLING
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273, Though the term guidance and counselling is used, interchangeably, both the terms have different meaning. We have, studied about guidance, now we will know about counselling. In, everyday life, we find counselling goes on at many levels. In a, family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients,, lawyers to clients and teachers to students. There is no limitation to, the problems or counsellors in providing counselling, so, let us, know what counselling is., According to Webster dictionary counselling is defined as, ―Consultation, mutual interchange of opinions, deliberating, together.‖, ―Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship, between two people who approach a mutually defined problem,, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the younger, or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self, determined resolution to his problem‖ - Wren―Counselling is an interaction process which facilitates, meaningful understanding of self and environment and results in, the establishment and or clarification of goals and values for future, behaviors‖ -Shertzer and Stone.―Counselling is an accepting, trusting and safe relationship in, which clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them,, to define precise behaviour goals, to acquire the essential social, skills and to develop the courage and self confidence to implement, desired new behaviour‖- Merle M. Ohlsen.―Counselling is a process by which a troubled person (client), is helped to tell and behave in a more personally satisfying manner, through interaction with an uninvolved person (counsellor) who, provides information and reactions which stimulate the client to, develop behaviour which enable him to deal more effectively with, himself and his environment.‖ -Edwin Lewis.If all the definitions are analyzed we can come to the, following conclusions., Counselling is a two way process., It involves two individuals., There is mutual relationships between the two individuals., It helps an individuals to gain self understanding self, acceptance and self realization
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274, It helps an individual to become happier more creative and, better adjusted., Let us now discuss what Counselling is not., Counselling is a process which included a number of, activities like giving information, advice & counselling etc. But it is, not an individual activity like giving information / advice / suggestion, / recommendation only., , IAC-, , From this it is clear that what counselling is., Counselling constitutes the three activities like Informing, Advising and, Counselling, , Informing:, Here the role of the counsellor is to give appropriate and, correct information to the clients. For example you are a student, and you need counselling to select your course for the future. Here, the role of the counsellor is to give you information about the, availability of different courses & its future prospects., Advising:, In this stage the counsellor suggests appropriate courses of, action. Here the counsellor will offer you several options and, recommends one according to your aim or interest. For example if, your aim is to be an engineer, the counsellor will suggest you a, course related to applied mathematics., Counselling:, In this stage counsellor helps the students to clarify his, needs, feelings or motivations so that he can make the appropriate, decision for himself., For example if you will tell, you have no aim or you can not, decide what you will do in the future. So the counsellor will ask you, if you are not sure about what to do in future but you must want to, do something interesting so describe about your idea. Like this the, counsellor can motivate you to find out your idea & can recommend, you the course according to your interest., So counselling is student dependent rather than knowledge, dependent. As a counsellor or a person needs skill rather than, knowledge it needs high level of interpersonal skills. So counselling
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275, is a process which constitutes information, advising and, counselling. You can think of these three activities as a continuous, spectrum of areas which merge into each other., , 7A.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING:, The concept of Counselling will be clear to you by knowing, it‘s meaning, characteristics & functions., Counselling involves two individuals - one seeking help and the, other, a professionally trained person, who can help the first., There should be a relationship of mutual respect between, the two. The counsellor should be friendly and cooperative and the, counselee should have trust and confidence in the counsellor. The, aim of counselling is to help a student form a decision, make a, choice or seek direction. It helps a counselee to acquire, independence and develop a sense of responsibility, explore and, utilize his potentialities., It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through, the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself rather, than through solutions offered by the counsellor., Its function is to produce changes in the individual that will, enable him to extricate himself from his difficulties., Emotional rather than purely intellectual attitudes are the raw, material of the counselling process. It helps an individual to know, himself better, gives him confidence, encourages his selfdirectedness and provides him with new vision to grow., Check Your Progress, 1. Define Counselling., 2. Explain the characteristics of Counselling., , 7A.2.3 FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLING:
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276, Like guidance, counselling has also three fold functions, adjust mental, oriental and developmental., , Adjustmental Functions:, Rapid social change brought about by industrialization and, urbanization has led to several perplexing problems. The pace of, this change is ever on the increase, thus making adjustment a, continuous process of grappling way with new situations., Counselling helps the student in making the best possible, adjustment to the current situations be it in educational institution,, occupational world, in the home & in the community. Professional, and individualized aid is given in making immediate & suitable, adjustment at problem points., Oriental function:, Oriental function means to orient the person about his, environmental constraints & resources and her personal constraints, & resources by giving information and awareness in problems of, career planning, educational programming etc., Awareness of the need to plan in the context of the, complexity of the world of work is an essential pre-requisite of going, through education and preparation for after education. So oriental, function is the important function in the counselling process. It is a, link between adjustment and development function. If the person is, properly oriented, he can develop his plan properly & adjust, suitable with himself and society., Developmental function, Developmental function means not only to help the students, having problems but also to help the students before the problems, arise. For example, we are giving vaccination to the child as a, preventive measure. Even then when the child suffers from a, particular disease we take the help of special doctor to cure it. So, both the processes are coming under health development. Likewise, in the counselling process the function of counselling is to prevent, emergence & maladjustment and cure the person having, maladjustment to adjust with the problem situation. Therefore the, development function helps in., Self-development, Self-realization
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277, Development of society and, National development, So we can say that counselling has not only it‘s functions, towards the individual but to the society & nation also., , 7.A.3 PRINCIPLES OF COUNSELLING, We have already discussed the meaning and principles of, guidance. Now we will discuss the principles of counselling., The principles on which the process of counselling is based, areIt involves a face-to-face relationship between two persons., It is emotional rather than purely intellectual attitude., It is more than advice giving. The progress comes through, the thinking that a person with a problem does for himself., It involves solution of immediate problem as well as the, future decision of the individual., The counsellor should follow the above principles while, counselling to make the process of counselling effective. It is not an, easy task. To make the process successful the counsellor should, also follow certain principles in his own self to develop his skills. He, should follow the principles as given below during counselling., Warmth:, The Counsellor should communicate personal warmth and, make the client feel welcome valued as individuals., Acceptance:, The Counsellor should accept the person & his feelings for, what he is without criticizing him. He should also accept the person, irrespective of age, race, sex, etc., Genuineness:, The counsellor should be very honest with himself and with, client he should be very open, friendly and undefensive., Empathy:, Instead of showing sympathy to the person having problem,, the counsellor should show empathy, which means to sense the, feelings and experience of another person.
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278, In order to make good relationship the above qualities, should be acquired by a counsellor. He should imbibe these, qualities to follow the principles of counselling properly., , Check you progress - III, Q.1 Write the full form of I A C, which constitutes the meaning of, counselling., Q.2 The function which helps in self-realization is the …………, function of counselling., Q.3 Write the meaning of empathy., , 7A.4 GOALS OF COUNSELLING:, ―WELCOME TO THE COUNSELLOR‘S CABIN‖, When you enter ―The Cabin‖ you will be greeted by a warm, and friendly atmosphere that invites you ―Come on in and make, yourself at home‖., Prominently displayed a copy of ―The Serenity Prayer‖, which, serves as both counselling mantra and mission statement. It reads, as follows:, GOD GRANT ME THE SERENITY, TO ACCEPT THE THINGS I CANNOT CHANGE,, COURAGE TO CHANGE THE THINGS I CAN, AND, WISDOM TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE., SERENITY is an acronym use to explain the major components of, counselling program to help you determine if you would benefit, from engaging in this process.
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279, Spirituality-associated, meaning/purpose, , with, , wholeness/wellness;, , a, , sense, , of, , Evaluation - assess the problem by taking it apart and putting it, back together, Relationships-Your relationships define and represent who you are., Emotions - What are you feeling right now? It‘s important to know., Needs - Identify your needs; they are directly related to what you, are feeling., Interpersonal skills - Life is a series of conversations. What is you, style?, Treatment - Your personal plan of thinking, feeling, and acting, differently., You - Since you are the expert on you, you are the key to your, success., As a counsellor you should focus on wellness and personal growth, and work extensively on helping people to enhance the quality of, their relationships., Many of clients are in search of meaning and direction in various, life settings including school, family, and career… all of which, involve relationships., Empowerment over life comes through thinking clearly and making, wise choices. Unfortunately, problems can become so, overwhelming it is difficult to accomplish either one of these., Counselling will equip you with life strategies to help you think, feel,, and act differently in order to enhance the quality of your life., If you read the above statements of Dr. Sacky‘s Cabin, one of the, counsellor‘s cabin you will understand the goals of counselling. The, acronym serenity is the goals of counselling.
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280, , 7A.5 THE TYPES OF COUNSELLING, Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role, of the counsellor, the following are the three types of counselling, Types of Counselling, , Directive Counselling, -WILLIAMSON, , Non-Directive counselling, -CARL ROGERS, , Eclectic Counselling, -BORDIN, , 7A.5.1 DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING:, B. G. Williamson is the chief exponent., The counsellor assumes the major responsibility of solving, the problem., Counsellor identifies, defines, diagnoses and provides a, solution to the problem., Counsellor directs thinking by informing explaining,, interpreting and advising., Counsellor-oriented., Emphasis is on the problem., Steps: Role of the Counsellor, Analysis- collecting data from various sources to understand, the client‘s problem., Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal, students assets, liabilities, adjustments etc., Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem., Prognosis-predicting the future development of the problem., Counselling - taking steps to bring about adjustment, Follow up- helping with recurrence or new patterns., Merits, Time saving and economical, Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to, this problem.
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281, Emphasis is on the intellectual rather than the emotional, aspect., Demerits, Kills the initiative, Makes him helpless, Does not guide counselee to be efficient and confident, Undemocratic, Made dependent, 7A.5.2 NON DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING (Client-oriented /, Centered Counselling):, Chief exponent - Carl Rogers, Counselee is allowed free expression, Counsellor only directs and guides, Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the, solution of the problem., Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem, with the help of the counsellor and arrives at the decision, and action to be taken, Counsellor‘s role is passive, Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than, the solution, Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which, the counselee can work out his own understanding, Emotional aspect rather than the intellectual aspect is, stressed, Counselling relationship is the establishment of a warm,, permissive and accepting climate which helps the client to, express his self structure., Merits, Freedom of the individual, Relieves tensions due to catharsis, Moves toward acceptance of himself, Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened, Demerits, Time consuming, Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon, All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking
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282, , 7A.5.3 ECLECTIC COUNSELLING :, Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome), Counselling may be evaluated along a continuum from, directive to non directive to directive, Eclectic is a continuation and synthesis of directive and nondirective counselling, Both counsellor and counselee are active and cooperative, Both do the talking in turn, The problem is solved jointly, The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the, client and then selects the technique (appropriate). Begins with, directive but switches over to non-directive or vice versa as, demanded by the situation., Steps, Initial interview, Develops rapport and does structuring so that client, understands what to expect from the counselling, Tentative diagnosis and plan of counselling is formulated, Gathers information about the client and the client needs to, be helped to assimilate this information, Client achieves emotional release and gains insights,, modifies perceptions/attitudes about himself and situations, Check Your Progress, 1., Name the types of counselling with their exponents., 2., Differentiate, between, Directive, and, Non-Directive, counselling., 3., Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Nondirective counselling?, , 7A.5.4 ON LINE COUNSELLING:
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283, Online counselling refers to the provision of professional, mental health counselling services concerns via the internet., Services are typically offered via email, real time chat and video, conferencing. Some clients use online counselling in conjunction, with traditional psychotherapy, and others use it as an occasional, check-in tool for their lives., Online Counselling:, Online counselling is simply communicating with a qualified,, professional counsellor/therapist by email or chat through, your computer, Instead of having to make a visit to your, counsellor‘s office; you can receive the same professional care in, the comfort of your own home. If you have a microphone, we can, speak to each other through the computer., Whether you choose only a few email exchanges or on, ongoing dialogue with the counsellor over time, you have the, opportunity to share your concerns, pose questions, and gain, further insight into the problems you are addressing., Advantages of using Online Counselling, Convenient - any time, any place, whatever suits you, Flexible - you control everything, receive help when you, want it, Can deal with embarrassing issues without having to see, anyone, Your anonymity is protected, Get to the root of the problem quicker as writing lets you get, in touch with your feelings, More cost and time effective as you can deal with more, issues in a session, No need to take time off work, Receive specialized help no matter where you live in the, world., Why choose online counselling?, Easy access to a professional counsellor or therapist though, email or live chat, Select an experienced professional from many qualified to, deal with your problem, You can select a counsellor who lives anywhere in the world, Convenience - takes place in your home or wherever you, are 24 hours a day 7 days a week
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284, Cheaper than regular counselling, Anonymity and security, Flexibility - either you can get quick answers or guidance to, problems or you can schedule regular sessions, Live Chat, The first few minutes of all Live chat sessions are, completely free of charge., Since payment starts only when you choose to hire the, counsellor, you have the opportunity to discuss you, questions and/or concerns, negotiate a price that suits your, budget and ensure that you feel comfortable with this, specific counsellor., Email, Email counselling is another form of online counselling that may, suit your needs., You may find that expressing concerns and questions in, writing helps organize and focus on your problem, It is an extremely convenient way for you to communicate, with a counsellor, The benefits of online counselling with Live person, Liveperson is one of the best and most well known online, counselling specialists, You will have an enormous choice of professionals you can, seek help from - (experts in over 600 categories), You will find Liveperson very user-friendly, You can consuit with professionals in real time via Live chat, and email., You will find Liveperson is reliable, very easy to use and, enables you to get instant answers to your most urgent, questions., I full recommend this service to you because so many, people have benefited from it Click now to get started, Disadvantages of Counselling or Therapy by Email, Remote counselling via email carries many disadvantages as, well as advantages in comparison to traditional, face-to-face, counselling., Communication and the Counselling Relationship
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285, Communicating only introduces particular challenges for creating, and sustaining a working relationship., , Lack of Visual and Verbal Cues, It can be difficult enough to understand exactly what, someone is saying in a face-to-face setting, but stripped of the, kinds of visual and auditory verbal cues which we take for granted, when communicating in person the struggle to understand takes on, a whole new dimension. Part of the beauty of the English, lenaguage is that the same statement an take on a whole range of, subtle meanings: but without that grin or frown that raised eyebrow,, that softened voice or dead-pan delivery, figuring out which, meaning a person intends can be a real challenge., The lack of visual cues is also especially important for clients, who would like to discuss a visible physical disability and would like, their counsellor to be able to see exactly what they are talking, about., Lack of Physical Presence, The lack of a physical presence of another person in the, same room may make some people feel less emotionally intimate, and less comforted in times of distress., Asynchronous Nature of Email, It can be frustrating to have to wait for the counsellor to reply, when using email and other forms of communication that are, asynchronous (meaning that two people are writing at different, times, as opposed to conversing in real time)., Urgency, In a similar vein, the inevitable time delay associated with, email exchanges precludes the kind of urgent attention (or even, emergency response) which is possible in a face-to-face setting, No Regular Appointment Times, Just as the freedom to work without fixed appointment times, can be an advantage for some clients, the absence of the structure, which fixed appointments provide can be a disadvantage for others., Many clients prefer the structure of having to attend a session at, the same time every week.
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286, , Computer concerns, Relying on computers as a communications medium can, bring technology into the foreground of the counselling process as, an unwelcome participant., Equipment and Internet Service Failures, Hardware or software failure or internet service failure can, impact the online availability of both counsellor and client. Ideally,, the technology becomes ‗transparent‘, so it simply serves as a tool, for communication, without requiring attention in and of itself. In, practice, however, even the best technological tools sometimes, require attention, and it can be frustrating it this occurs during a, counselling exchange., Confidentiality and Privacy in Shared Environments, Using computers at work, in an internet cafe or public library,, or any other environment where other people have access to the, same equipment introduces particular pitfalls for confidentiality and, privacy in email counselling., Of course, there are thins that the face to face counselling, covers that the e-therapy lacks. We are talking of the Non-verbal, communication that is missing when the screen separates people., Also, it may happen that a person needs to be physically comforted, when being in a counselling session and we can not do that on-line., Being aware of those disadvantages, we as professionals, face our, role with all our heart and seriousness so as to make the best out of, all the strengths of the online counselling., , 7A.6 THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING, Counselling is a process. It means that Counselling involves, a sequence of identifiable events spread over a period of time. The, time taken, the sequence of events, and dynamics involved, the, nature and extent of exploration, differ from individual to individual., However there are certain basic stages, which form the essentials, of counselling processes. The process of counselling comprises of, certain concepts, they are as follows:
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287, Readiness:, The counselee are of two types i.e. one who seeks, assistance voluntarily and the other who are referred. The, Counselling presupposes a desire on the part of the counselee that, makes him come for the assistance. This desire is referred to as, readiness., Counter Will:, People experience difficulty in asking for help and accepting, it, because they are reluctant to face the consequences of change, or an admission of inadequacy of failure. The negative feeling that, holds back one from seeking help is referred to, as counter will., Case History:, Case History is a systematic collection of facts about the, counselee‘s past and present life. However focus of attention varies, from case to case., Rapport :, It is a warm friendly and understanding atmosphere created, by the counsellor, which is catalytical in the formation of an, effective counselling relationship. Warmth of relationship and, feeling of trust, which grows out of unconditional acceptance are, important in contributing to the establishment of rapport., Transference:, It refers to the counsellor transferring amotions originally felt, toward someone early in life. The counselee is encouraged to, express his/her feelings and emotions freely. The counsellor, acknowledges these feelings and handles in a therapeutic way., Counter Transference:, This occurs when counsellor project their unresolved, conflicts upon the counselee. When counsellor feels uncomfortable, and experience feelings of anger, resentment or become, overemotional. This is unhealthy., Resistance:, It refers to counselee‘s move to oppose the counsellor‘s, attempt to work towards set goals. This influences counselling, outcome positively. Resistance ranges from open hostility to, passively resistant behavior like being late for an appointment, 7A.6.1 STAGES OF THE COUNSELLING PROCESS:
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288, A process is an identifiable sequence of events taking place, over time e.g. Process of human development from birth to death., The First Stage: Initial Disclosure:, Initially the client expresses two sets of feelings i.e., i) I know I need help, ii) I wish I weren‘t here., Therefore central task of the counsellor in this stage is to, allay the client‘s fears and encourage self-disclosure., Attending paying careful attention to the client‘s words and, actions., Counsellor observes clients behavior for indications of, content and feeling not expressed in verbal message. It is the first, contact between the client and the counsellor, but it remains, important throughout the counselling process., In this stage, clients are helped to articulate their personal, concerns and to place those concerns in a context so that the, counsellor can understand the personal meanings and significance, the client attaches to them., The main aim of this stage is promote trust in the client., Following characteristics describe the helping relationship., Empathy - Understanding others experience as if it were, yours., Genuineness - Being natural, consistent in behavior and, dependable in the relationship., Unconditional positive regard - Caring without condition, Concreteness - Using clear language to describe the client‘s, situation., The Second Stage: In-depth Exploration, Client begins to formulate a new sense of hope and direction., Counsellor at first discusses the diagnostic impressions of, the client‘s dynamic and coping behavior., As the relationship becomes more secure, the counsellor, begins to confront the client with observations about his/her, goals or behavior. This will help the client arrive at newly, challenged and refined views of self.
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289, Immediacy - is referred to in 3 ways., i) General discussions about the progress of counselling, relationship., ii) Immediate response to the client‘s statement disclosing, current thoughts about counselling., Iii) Counsellor‘s personal response to a client in the present, This stage becomes emotionally stressful, because client, faces the inadequacy of habitual behaviors. In this stage client and, counsellor come to a mutually acceptable diagnosis of the problem., The Third Stage: commitment to Action:, How to accomplish goals that have emerged in the previous, two stages. Client relates his behaviour to accomplish goals., This stage includes identifying possible alternative courses, of actions (decisions) the client might choose., Once an action decision is made the client tries some new, behaviors. The counsellor supports and reinforces the trying of new, behaviors., 7A.6.2 THE SKILLS OF COUNSELLING:, Listening - It is the process of hearing the other person., a), , During listening it is important to show that the counsellor is, listening through the ‗minimal prompts‘ such as head nods,, yes, no etc. They indicate that ‗I am with you‘. Overuse of, these should be avoided., , b), , Behavioural aspects of listening - (SOLER), S - Sit squarely, O - Openness, L - Leaning, E - Eye contact, R - Relax, , Aspects of Listening, Linguistic aspects - words, phrases, figures of speech
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290, Paralinguistic aspects - timing, volume, tone pitch, ‗ums‘ and ‗errs‘,, fluency, Non-Verbal aspects: facial expression, gestures, touch, body, position, and proximity to the counsellor, body movement and eye, contact., Attending and showing receptiveness, It is the act of truly focusing on the other person. It involves, consciously making ourselves aware of what the other person is, saying and of what they are trying to communicate to us., Observing Body Messages, Non-verbal aspects of communication refer to body, language. The way the client expresses through the use of their, body. They offer clues about the client‘s internal status beyond the, words. Morris calls it ‗Man Watching‘. Body language depends on, context in which it occurs, the nature of the relationship, individual‘s, personal style, personality of the person. Therefore avoid assuming, what person is saying with their body languages., Listening Blocks, Attraction: Attention is focused on what you are feeling, rather than what client is saying., Physical condition: Sick/tired, without realizing it you tune out, certain things client is saying., Concerns: Preoccupied with you own concerns., Over-eagerness: Listen to only a part and respond., Similarity of Problems: Same as your own problem. Your, mind wanders., Differences: Different experiences of yours and client., Distracting., Effective Listening:, Attention focuses outward, Suspension of judgment, Attention to the behavioral aspects (SOLER), Avoidance of interpretation, Development of free-floating attention, Communicating:
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291, It is the exchange of ideas and opinions between two or, more people through speech, writing or signs. The communication, included physical setting as well as psychological predispositions of, the receiver., Communication = thoughts and feelings, Factors Involved in the communication, Purpose: Specific, Distribution:, Environment, Timing, Feedback, Follow-up, Causes of Communication Breakdown, Lack of consideration of the other person‘s feelings and, personality, Use of technical language, Not thinking about other, how they get affected (networking, missing), Lose human factor (envy, jealousy), Clarification: To get definite information through this to help clarify, the client‘s thinking without pressurizing., Concreteness: Using clear language to describe the client‘s life, situation. It promotes clear insight in clients life and provides, counsellor with a fuller sense of the uniqueness of the clients, experiences., Restatement: Enables the counsellor to let the counselee realize, that he is being fully understood and accepted. Counsellor exactly, repeats as said by the client. Client thus gets a rest and a chance, to collect his thoughts before going forward., Paraphrasing: The counsellor summarises. He chooses/selects, those ideas and feelings which seem most important and relevant, and feeds them back to the client in a more organized form., Ways to Impede Communication, Counsellor‘s predispositions, Premature advice giving, Lecturing
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292, Excessive questioning, Story telling, Questioning:, What it is?, Questions are used to draw out information from others., How to use it?, There are several types of question. Choose the most appropriate:, Open-ended questions:, Open questions promote discovery and stimulate thinking., They are useful to help the other person to start talking about a, topic, outline a situation, give a broad description of what happened, and how he or she reacted., There are three broad types of open question:, Clarifying question, ―What specifically does that mean to you?‖, ―Can I make sure I understand that…?‖, ―If I hear correctly, what you are saying is…‖, Creative questions, ―How have you seen others handle similar situations?‖, ―What do you think about…?‖, ―Would you like to talk more about it?‖, I‘d be interested in hearing more‖, ―What would be your approach if there were no constraints?‖, Process questions, ―What would you like to get from this session?‖, ―What do I need to communicate to ensure everyone, understands your role?‖, ―What authority do you think you need to complete this, task?‖, Follow-up or probing questions, The purpose of follow-up questions is to get information,, broaden decisions and understand reasons and motivations. Do not, over use ‗why‘. It causes people to become defensive., ―In what way would this help achieve greater customer, satisfaction?‖
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293, ―What other aspects of this should be considered?‖, ―How would you involve others in accomplishing this plan?‖, Follow-up questions are useful for probing - getting to the, heart of a topic, checking information and filling in detail., A particular type of follow-up question is the reflective, question, useful for gaining a clearer understanding, revealing more, information or uncovering feelings., ―You say you were pleased….‖, ―Incompetent….‖, ―You say he reacted to this How did he react….?‖, Closed questions, Closed questions are those that lead to either ‗yes‘ or ‗no‘., They are useful in checking facts quickly but can lead to a onesided conversation. Examples are:, ‗Have you been shopping recently?‘, ‗Is there enough money in the bank?‘, ‗Have you done this sort of work before?‘, A closed question can be useful lead into open questions, once an area to explore has been identified., Less useful questions, Certain types of questions are less useful. Try not to use, them - these include:, Leading questions (―I assume you…‖), Hypothetical questions (―If you were in my place….‖), Multiple questions., , 7A.7 CHARACTERISTICS & SKILLS OF A, COUNSELLOR, A good counsellor should be:, A good listener & good communicator, Respectful to other person‘s feelings & point of view., Kind, caring and understanding, Non-prdgemental, Trustworthy & respectful of people‘s confidentiality, Relaxed and calm
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294, Warm & approachable, The ability to motivate & inspire clients., , 7A.8 ROLE & FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLOR, Counsellor is a specialist in education. Counsellor‘s, responsibilities can be classified into a) Diagnostic, b) therapeutic, c) Evaluation and Research with specialized services and skills. A, counsellor is selected by virtue of interest, training, experience and, competence., The specific functions of a counsellor are:, Orientation of Students, Student appraisal, Educational and Occupational information service, Holding counselling interviews, Placement, Research and Evaluation, The Counsellor:, Design and initiate a comprehensive career development, programme, Involve teachers, students, parents, community resources., Plans students competencies for use in the classroom, Include Para professionals, Assist students in career selection, prepare them and, progress in it., The counsellor acts as a facilitator. The Counsellor need to keep, up-to-date information regarding new career trends and to, participate in professional experiences to improve their skills., Check Your Progress, 1) Teacher can be called a counsellor at home. Explain., 2) Why counsellor is called a facilitator?
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295, , 7A.9 LET US SUM UP:, In this unit we have discussed, The concept of counselling, The Principles, goals, processor, stages & skills of, counselling., Various types of counselling like:, Directive counselling, Nondirective counselling &, Online counselling, The characteristics, skills, Roles and functions of a, counsellor., This unit gives you an outline of counselling process. An, analysis of different types of counselling and it‘s uses & misuses, gives an idea of using different types of counselling for different, purposes in different situations. In short, this unit is an attempt to, describe the counselling process & role & functions of the, counsellors for effective counselling., Unit End Exercises:, Q.1, Q.2, Q.3, , ―Counselling is remedial, preventive and developments‖, justify., What is counselling. Explain the skills of counselling., What is online counselling? How can it help you?, , References:, Kochhar, S. K. (1990) Educational and vocational Guidance in, Secondary Schools‖. Sterling publisher, New Delhi., Bengalee, Mehro D. (1990) ― Guidane & Counselling,‖ Sheth, Publication, Mumbai., Gibson & Michel (1986) ―Introduction to Counselling and guidance.‖, Mac Milan Publishing Company., www.google.com
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296, , , , 8, COUNSELLING APPROACHES, Unit Structure :, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, , 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, , Objectives, Introduction, Cognitively Oriented counseling approaches, 8.2.1 Trait and factor oriented counselling approaches, Affectively oriented counselling approaches, 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic approach to counselling, Conditions influencing counselling, 8.4.1 Physical setting, 8.4.2 Privacy, 8.4.3 Recording, Legal and ethical considerations in counselling, Let us Sum up, Unit End Exercise, , 8.0, , OBJECTIVES, , 8.3, 8.4, , After reading this unit you will be able to :, State the approaches to counselling, Explain cognitive oriented counselling approach and, afftective oriented counselling approach, Describe the factors influencing counselling, Discuss the legal and ethical considerations in counselling, , 8.1, , INTRODUCTION, , In the previous chapter, you have studied about the concept, of counselling , types of counselling and the role and functions of a
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297, counsellor. You may observe that the perspective of counselling, changes from counsellor to counsellor. There are differences in, training, Clients and settings and even goals. But the basic, perspective of counselling remains the same with different, emphasis. Along with differences it is worth to note the, commonalites. Common to all these perspectives are the notions, that:, Counselling is aimed at helping people make choices and, act on them., Counselling is a learning process and, Counselling enables personality development., Therefore prospective counselors should be aware of major, approaches to counselling so as to enable them to acquire a sound, basis for developing their own personal brand of counselling. The, current trends in this area are broadly classified into three, approaches. They are :, Cognitive approaches, Affective approaches and, Behavioural approaches., The approaches are closely paraller with the three aspects, of personality- cognition,affectiona and co-nation i.e. knowing,, feeling and doing . In this unit we will discuss the cognitive and, affective approaches to counselling., , 8.2, , COGNITIVELY, APPROACHES, , ORIENTED, , COUNSELLING, , Cognitive Approaches, As Feorge and Cristiani (1981) have pointed out, in the, cognitive approaches, the process of counseling is the curing of, unreason by reason; i.e., to help clients eliminate most emotional, disturbances by learning to think rationally, to help them get rid of, illogical, irrational ideas and attitudes and substitute logical, rational, ideas and attitudes. It is believed that this process helps the client, to attain rational behaviour, happiness, and self-actualization. For, example Transactional Analysis (TA) aims at the internal dialogues, of individuals, which occurs between, a. counseling is aimed at helping people make choices and act on, them,, b. counselling is a learning process, and, c. counselling enables personality development
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298, A recent and much accepted definition is :, ―Counseling denotes a professional relationship between a, trained counselor and client. This relationship is usually person-toperson, although it may sometimes involve more than two people. It, is designed to help clients to understand and their self determined, goals through meaningful resolution of problems of an emotional or, interpersonal nature‖(Burks and Stefflre,1979)., The merit of the definition by Burks and Steffler is that it is, sufficiently theoretilcal, and at the same time reasonably, operational., Theory and Practice of Counselling:, Theory and practice should go hand in hand. Many trained, counselors initially adhere to the theory while starting their career, as counsellor. However, even those who are fanatically tied down, to one theory appear to change over time. This is because the, client is a human being and he is the link between the theory and, practice of the counsellor. Rigid theories, like the Procrustean bed,, repel the human psyche. When the man does not fit into the theory, the counselor its compelled to change his theory. This is one of the, most demanding challenges of counselling., Counselors should keep their minds more receptive and, flexible. The psychological concept of individual difference must be, understood thoroughly. Individual clients differing in their, personalities come with dissimilar problems, goals and aspirations., To believe that all those clients would benefit from one kind of, theory is unrealistic. It is useful to know that all the well-known, theories have emerged from the practice of individual counselor‘s, personal experience with counselees. This is why we have different, theories and practices. Trying to know theories as old and new, broadens our perspective. But what would be ultimately useful is, the one that is carved out from the counselor‘s experience with the, various ego states and the struggles between the real parts of their, behaviour (whether the same is productive or counter productive), and the behaviour of others by identifying which ego state is in, power at any given time. TA thus gives the clients information about, the various types of transactions that occur among individuals and, to help them identify the kinds of behavior in which they are, involved. The goal of TA is to help clients review their past, decisions and make new decisions about their present behaviour. It, is assumed that this would change their life direction into, developing an autonomous life style characterized by awareness,, spontaneity. This, it s believed that would, eliminate a life style, characterized by manipulative game- playing a self- defeating, neurotic tendencies.
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299, Directive teaching is the core in all the cognitive approaches., For example in Rational Emotive Therapy(RET) the counselor, takes up an active teaching role to educate clients. The RET, counselor makes the client understand that the latter‘s, internationalized sentences are quite illogical and especially the, current illogical thinking are self-defeating verbalizations of the, client. The success if the counselor lies in bringing illogical thinking, forcefully to the client‘s attention. He must also show to the, counselee how these thoughts are maintaining his unhappiness, and how a rethinking and maintenance of logically and rationality, make him happy and contented. In reality therapy, the meaning of, reality and the necessity to act responsibly are taught by the, counselor., 8.2.1 Trait and Factor Oriented counselling approaches:, The trait- factor approach has developed from a marriage of, differential psychology‘s research and theories to Parson‘s, vocational guidance concepts. The approach was born at the, Minnesota Employment Stabilization Research Institute and the, University of Minnesota Test Bureau as a practical response to, educational and vocational adjustment problems of the unemployed, and students. It is still closely identified with educational and, vocational counseling. The approach has placed heavy reliance on, the scientific method by attempting systematically to observe and, measure individuals. Traits are categories that are used for, describing individual differences in behavior, and statistical, methods of factor analysis are used to ascertain how many factors, are sufficient to account for similarities and difference in individuals., Trait- factorists have relied heavily on empirical objective data for a, logical problem –solving approach to client problems. Thus, the, approach may be placed in the constellation of theories that are, more cognitively than affectively oriented. Its basic model of, analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up, is a structured, stepwise attempt to help the client become selfcounseled. The major component of the model is the integration of, objective test data with client subjective data to arrive at a, differential diagnosis., As it has evolved, the trait-factor approach has become, more developmental, dynamic, process-oriented, and eclectic. It, has moved to a person times environment fit approach, which is, seen not as static but as reciprocal and dynamic (Martin & SwartzKulstad,2000). Vocational counseling, in particular, is not seen as, fixed but as a continuing experience with definable stages. The, contemporary approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in, cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and, behavioral approach is eclectic in that it sees merit and utility in, cognitive therapies such as the reality, rational-emotive, and
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300, behavioural approaches. The logical basis of the approach relies, heavily on a mentoring and teaching role by the counselor to, influence and change the irrational thinking and behavior of the, client. A great deal of knowledge, experience, and expertise is, assumed of the counselor. Trait-factor counseling is most, commonly founding school, employment, and rehabilitation, counseling., By including a broader diagnostic scheme, more advanced, information-processing concepts, and a more adaptive counseling, style, the person times environment fit approach has matured, beyond the old trait-factor model. The person times environment, model includes these elements by organizing personal constructs,, the world of work, person times environment interactions and then, applying them in a problem-solving seque3nce. Including current, concepts of problem solving, information processing, and attitude, change has reinvigorated a venerable approach to career, counseling (Chartrand, 1991)., Frank Parsons’ Trait and Factor Theory of Occupational, Choice:, People perform best when they are in jobs best suited to, their abilities Frank parsons is regarded as the founder of the, vocational guidance movement. He developed the talent- matching, approach, which was later developed into the Trait and Factor, Theory of Occupational Choice. At the centre of Parsons‘ theory is, the concept of matching. He states that occupational decision, making occurs when people have achieved., An accurate understanding of their, (aptitudes, interests, personal abilities ), , individual, , traits, , A knowledge of jobs and the labour market, Rational and objective judgement about the relationship, between their individual traits, and the labour market., This three-part theory still governs most current practice., The trait and factor theory operates under the premise that it, is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes, required in particular jobs. It also assumes that people may be, matched to an occupation that‘s a good fit . Parsons suggests that, when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities they, perform best and their productivity is highest., In his book, ‗Choosing a Vocation‘ Parsons maintains that, personal counsel is fundamental to the career search. In particular,
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301, he notes seven stages for a career counsellor to work through with, clients:, 1. Personal data: create a statement of key facts about the person,, remembering to include every fact that has bearing on the, vocational problem., 2. Self-analysis :a self-examination is done in private and under the, instruction of the counsellor. Every tendency and interest that might, impact on the choice of a life work should be recorded ., 3. The client‘s own choice and decision : this may show itself in the, first two stages. The counsellor must bear in mind that the choice of, vocation should be made by the client, with the counsellor acting as, guide., 4. Counsellor‘s analysis: the counsellor tests the client‘s decision to, see if it is in line with the ―main quest‖., 5. Outlook on the vocational field: the counsellor should be familiar, with industrial knowledge such as lists and classifications of, industries and vocations, in addition to locations of training and, apprenticeships., 6. Induction and advice: a broad-minded attitude coupled with, logical and clear reasoning are critical at this stage., 7. General helpfulness : the counsellor help[s the client to fit into, the chosen work, and to reflect on the decision., Much of Parsons ‖work still guides career counselling today,, though it is not without criticism. Matching assumes a degree of, stability within the labour market. However, the reality is that the, markets volatility means individuals must be prepared to change, and adapt to their circumstances., It has been criticized for being overly cognitive and, reductionistic. That is, relying on objective measurements of traits, may lead to an oversimplified view of the human condition. Further,, the very existence of valid and reliable objective tests, and of stable, traits, remains highly questionable. Trait-factor counseling is also, limited insofar as it only seeks to describe a client‘s potential rather, than help him achieve it. E.G, Williamson (1965) was the only traitfactor theorist to address this question: he argued that the, counselor has the responsibility to promote the self-actualization of, his client, rather than just measuring it. Behavioral therapy, like, trait-factor counseling, is firmly grounded in the scientific method,, and it is committed to bringing experimental findings into clinical, practice in order to change clients‘ behavior and resolve personal
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302, and social problems (Corey, 1986). Behaviorism has its roots in, Pavlov‘s (1927)., Trait-factor counseling is the only counseling method which, has its root in vocational counseling. It dates back to 1908, when, Frank Parsons founded the Boston Vocational Bureau and stated, his conviction that in order to choose the best career, one had to, understand oneself, the characteristics of different job, environments, and the relationship between these variables. Traitfactor theory was further developed during the testing movement in, the U.S./during the 1930‘s by psychologists like E.G. Williamson,, John Darley, and Donald G. Paterson (Downing, 1975)., Trait-factor counseling is an extremely cognitive approach, based on the scientific method and the theory of individual, differences. Its major underlying assumptions include the following:, 1. Each person has a unique pattern of traits (i.e. interests,, abilities, and characteristics) that are relatively stable and rarely, change after adolescence., 2. These traits are measurable, Check your progress-1, 1) Explain cognitive approach of counseling., 2) Explain Trait-factor oriented counseling., , 8.3, , AFFECTIVELY, APPROACHES, , ORIENTED, , COUNSELLING, , As the term suggests the affective approaches in counseling, focus their attention to what is going on inside the individual, and, particularly what the individual is experiencing at a given time., Client- centered counseling of Rogers is perhaps the most, well-defined technique in the affective approaches. It also highlights, an issue in counseling; namely, how much responsibility can be, placed on the client for his own problem solving?
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303, Rogers believed that when the individual perceived himself, as behaving in manner consistent with his ‗picture‘ of himself, he, generally experiences feelings of adequacy, security, and worth. If, on the other hand, he acts in a manner different from the way he, defines himself, he experiences what is known as ―threat‖ and feels, insecure, inadequate, or worthless. Under pressure and with no, other alternative, he may then defend himself against this threat, using one or more of the commonly described ―defense, mechanisms‖ Unless counseling eliminates this defensive chain, reaction and strengthens his self-concept, the defensive behaviour, would increase vulnerability to further threat, guilt, thereby creating, more distortion and more self-defeating mechanisms. The role of, the therapist is not just eliminating the defense mechanisms., Rogers highlights the importance of ‗ Congruence‘. It means the, close ‗matching of awareness and experience‘. In this context, the, client centered counselors emphasizes the importance of accurate, communication. If a client is aware of communicating a feeling, which he is genuinely experiencing, his behavior is said to be, congruent or integrated. In incongruent communication the, awareness and experience of the client are two different if not, opposing things. So also the recipient may experience an, awareness of phony communication. The implication here for the, counselor is that the counselor should help client to face, courageously the incongruence between awareness and, experience so that communication of his real experiences is in full, awareness and not distorted with defense mechanisms and, neurotic constrictions., The ‗self-theory‘ of Rogers also assumes a perspective, called ‗phenomenology‘. According to this perspective, people‘s, ‗reality‘ is that which they perceive. The way to understand, individuals is to infer the ‗phenomenological field‘ from their, behavior. In other words, the ‗internal frame of reference ‗ of the, client is used in counseling with the implication that counselors, must attempt to perceive client‘s perceptual worlds as closely as, they can. This is known as the empathic skill of the counselor., Individual client‘s need to strive for wholeness is the focus in, Gestalt therapy and counseling. This school of counseling gives, importance to the internal world of the individual. Striving for the, gestalt or the wholeness is actually a striving for an integration of, thinking, feeling, and behaving. The key concept here is, awareness. It is believed that the counselors help the clients work, toward a total awareness of his experiences. Gestalt psychologists, po0ilnt out that such awareness permits self-regulation and selfcontrol in the direction of increased integration and creativity., Recently, one of the major forces that have come to occupy, an important place in psychology is ‗Existentialism‘. Unlike
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304, Psychoanalysis, existentialism is a temperamental way of looking at, life . It is basically a philosophy of experiences which need not, necessarily be categorized into cognitive compartments. Man is, essentially an emotional being rather than a rational animal! The, existence of man is unique because he is the only being who reacts, to the fact of his existence. The awareness of one‘s own existence, and the possibility of non-existence alters the inner world or the, phenomenology. These new premises create new experiences and, needs that are yet to be known. The predicament of human beings, is such that it includes the individual‘s capacity for increased selfawareness, the search for unique meaning in a meaningless world,, being alone and being in relation with others, freedom to choose, one‘s fate, responsibility, anxiety, finiteness and death, and a basic, urge for self-actualization. As a theory existentialism is sound and, appealing, but the practice of counseling on the basis of this theory, is difficult. However, the existential counselor tries to understand, the client as ‗a being‘ and as‘ a being in the world‘ Counselors are, supposed to expose his own inner reality and at the same time be, human. This according to existentialists enables clients to become, aware of similar conditions and qualities in themselves. It is, pointed out that through his process clients come to recognize their, potentialities and achieve self-growth by accepting it as their, respo0nsibility. In a nut shell, it can be said that making the client, accept responsibility for him selfish the aim of existential counseling, The three basic approaches (Cognitive, Affective, and, Conative) with their differing foundations vary in their theory and, practice of counselling By about 1973, Patterson began to think in, terms of commonalities among the approaches. Fortunately most of, the controversies existed only as academic gymnastics at a, theoretical level. The practicing counselors were undergoing, transformation as the clients were not interested in theories and, their subtleties but were interested only in immediate problem, solving. This demand of the client to the counsellor had made many, counselors to abandon their dogmatic approach. Orientation of the, counselors started changing towards a pragmatic approach. The, client and his needs became more important than the counselor‘s, theory and dogma. This was how ‗personal theory‘ emerged., Here it is absolutely necessary to point out that training in, some known approach is better than no training. Corey(19977), recommends the eclectic approach as a framework to begin with ., However, George and Cristiani (1981) point out that although, beginning counselors need a firm understanding of all the major, approaches, they should start first with a thorough grounding in, one theoretical approach to counselling. It is further pointed out that, judicious integration and assimilation of techniques from other, approaches could be done with experience.
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305, 8.3.1 Psychoanalytic Approach to Counselling:, The original so called ―taking therapy‖ involves analyzing the, root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious, mind and the conscious mind & relation of it. Many theories and, therapies have evolved from the original Freudian psychoanalysis, which utilizes free association, dreams and transference, as well, other strategies to help the client know the functions of their own, minds., ‗Psychoanalysis‘ was developed in the late 19 th century by, Sigmund Friend. His therapy explores the dynamic workings of a, mind understood to consists of three parts. The hedonistic id, the, rational ego and the moral superego, Frend maintained that the, condition of the unconscious mind is profoundly influenced by, childhood experiences. So in addition to dealing with the defense, mechanisms used by an overburdened ego, his therapy addresses, fixations and other issues by probing deeply into client‘s youth., Psychoanalysis has three main components:, 1. a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks., 2. a systematized set of theories about human behaviour., 3. a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness., Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis, there are at least, 22 theoritical orientations regarding human mentation and, development. The various approaches in treatment called, ‗psychoanalysis‘ vary as much as the theories do. The term also, refers to a method of studying child development., Psychoanalytical counselling is concerned with how we, deceive ourselves as to our intentions, desires and beliefs and how, these deceptions creates conflict between our expressed goals and, our actions. It also give rises to psychodynamic counselling. The, term psychodynamic means pertaining to the laws of mental action, and its use pre-supposes that there are some principles that, determine the relationship between mind and action and that these, can be formulated as a basis for therapeutic intervention., Traditionally, the principles underlying psychodynamic counselling, as presented as derivations of the psychoanalytic school founded, by Sigmund Fend. But current psychodynamic counselling draws, from a much wider range of theoritical influences. One of the most, fundamental tenets is that we are unaware of many of our motives, and that if these are known to us we are able to make better, less, conflicted choices. However, we are often resistant to or defended, against recognizing these hidden motives termed unconscious by, most psychodynamic theorists and hence are unable to changeindeed we seem to have a compulsion to repeat past behaviour., These repetitions are thought to arise because of earlier experience
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306, where our behaviour successfully enabled us to cope by ignoring or, repressing difficult feelings. Psychodynamic counselling this has, theory of why we are enable to change, how this inutility arises and, how it affects our lives., Psychoanalysis is an intensive process, whereas, psychoanalytic therapy is based upon psychoanalysis but is less, intensive. Psychodynamic counselling evolve from psychoanalytic, theory, however it tends to focus on more immediate problems, be, more practically based and shorter term than psychoanalytic, theory., Goals of the psychoanalytic approach:, The goal of psychoanalytic approach are:, To make the unconscious conscious, To strive to probe into the deeper part of the psyche., To get the issues that were not resolved during cognitive, development., To understand and experience the issues and to bring change, in the character., Principles of psychoanalytic theory:, The general principles are:, Help the person to tell his or her story., Establish a solid working alliance, Deal with resistance, Gather background information and history., Select the problem or issue to be worked on explore the, precipitating events., Collaborate with the client to form a diagnosis and treatment, plan., Increase the client‘s awareness regarding defensiveness., Revirit resistance to interventions., Explore the client‘s transference., Examine how the past is impacting the present., Help the client behave more effectively., Provide feedback and confront discrepancies., Negotiate with the client regarding home work assignments.
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307, Remind the client of the termination date., End therapy as agreed upon with the client., Schedule follow up as needed., , Check your progress- 2, 1) What is affective oriented counselling approach?, 2) Explain the concept of psychoanalytic approach of counselling., , 8.4 CONDITIONS INFLUENCING COUNSELLING, The counselling process is influenced by several, characteristics that help it become a productive time for the client, and counsellor. Not all characteristics apply to all situations, but, generally, the following help to bring about positive results., Structure, Setting, Client qualities, Counsellor‘s qualities, 8.4.1 Physical setting, Counselling can happen any where, but the professional, generally works in a place the provides:, Privacy, Confidentiality, Quiet and, Certain comfort, When working with a client, you want to send a message that, you are listening. This can be done by being attentive both verbally
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308, & non-verbally. The following SOLAR acronym will remind you, about your physical setting which gives confidence to your client, that you are listening., S: Face the client Squarely, that is, adopt a posture that indicates, involvement., O: Adopt an Open posture sit with both feet on the ground to begin, with your hands folded, one over the other., L: As you face your client, lean toward him or her. Be aware of, their space needs., E: Maintain eye contact. Looking away or down seems that you, are bored or ashamed of what the client is saying. Looking at, the person suggests that you are interested and concerned., R: As you incorporate these skills into your attending listening, skills, relax., 8.4.2 Privacy, Trust is an essential component in the development of, helping relationships. Counselors regard the promise of, confidentiality to be essential for the development of client trust., Most individuals seeking counseling services assume that what, they divulge counseling will be kept in confidence by their, counselor, with limited exceptions (Glosoff, Herlihy & Spence,, 2000). This is most likely true for children and adolescents as well, as adults. Managing confidentiality when counseling minors,, however, is more complex than when counseling adults. School, counselors must balance their ethical and legal responsibilities to, their clients, clients‘ parents and school systems. This complex, balancing act is one reason that the topic issues in school, counseling. In attempting to weigh their legal and ethical, obligations, it is helpful for school counselors to clearly identify, those they consider to be ―clients.‖ School counselors are part of an, educational community. As such, they consult with teachers,, administrators and parents. It is important for school counselors to, clarify that their consultation is on behalf of students and that only, the students are their clients (except if school counselors offer, counseling to students‘ families)., The Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice of the, American Counseling Association (ACA, 1995) and the Ethical, Standards for School Counselors of the American School, Counselor Association (ASCA, 1998) are two resources available to, help school counselors manage privacy and confidentiality in their, counseling relationships. School counselors can also look to moral
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309, principles or ―shared beliefs or agreed upon assumptions that guide, the ethical reasoning of helping professionals‖ (Remley & Herlihy,, 2001, p.3) upon which the codes of ethics are based. The moral, principles most often cited in relation to ethical practices of, counselors include the following :, Veracity or telling truth, Justice or fairness, Nonmaleficence or doing no harm, Beneficence or doing good, Autonomy or respecting free choice, Fidelity or keeping promises, The moral principle of beneficence refers to the responsibility, to help clients gain something positive from engaging in counseling., It also includes counselors‘ duty to ―help society in general and, people who are potential clients‖ (Welfel, 2002, p.34). Autonomy, refers to respecting the freedom of clients to choose their own, directions and make their own choices within the counseling, relationship. Respecting a clients‘ autonomy does not mean that, counselors encourage clients to make decisions independent of, significant others (e.g. parents) in their lives or regardless of, community and cultural implications. It does mean that ―counselors, refrain from imposing goals, avoid being judgmental and are, accepting of different values‖ (Herlihy & Corey, 1996,p.4)., Applying moral principles to situations involved in respecting, the rights of minor clients served in school settings is not always, easy. To be effective advocates for their clients‘ rights, school, counselors must have a good grasp of issues related to the, following concepts: the legal status of minors and the legality and, ethics of privacy, confidentiality, privileged communication, and, informed consent. Each of these are reviewed along with relevant, ethical standards and factors that complicate school counselors‘, ability to maintain a relationship based on student‘s confidence that, they can speak freely and without fear of disclosure. Finally,, implications for the practice of school counselors is presented., The Legal Status of Minors, The ACA (1995) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice, specifically references the term minor twice, both in relation to, matters of consent. The Ethical Standards for School Counselors, (ASCA, 1998) include standards specific to counseling minors, throughout the entire document. Neither setoff ethical guidelines,, however, defines the term minor. Typically, 18 is considered the, legal age of majority, unless otherwise designated. Minors,, therefore, can legally be defined as those persons under the age of
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310, 18. Amendment XXVI (1971) to the U.S. Constitution established, the right of 18-year-old citizens to vote and by extension has, influenced the generally accepted age at which minors are, extended other adult rights. For example, 18 is cited in the Family, Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) as the age at which, the transfer of rights from parents to students occurs (FERPA,, 1974). School counselors, therefore are faced with 18 as the age at, which their clients are legally assumed to be mature, to have full, ownership and controlof their privacy rights., The legal concept of the age of majority has implications for, minor clients‘ rights to make choices about entering into counseling, as well as their rights to privacy and confidentiality. Overall,, although monor clients have ―an ethical right to privacy and, confidentiality in the counseling relationship… [the] privacy rights of, minor legally being to their parents or guardians ‖ (Remley &, Herlihy, 2001,p. 184). Isaacs and Stone (1999) noted that the, Supreme Court has upheld parents‘ legal right to make critical, decisions about their children. (The term parents refers to all who, function in the parental role and have the legal rights of parents.), Many people consider the decision to enter into counseling to be an, example of a critical decision. Further, because counsellingis, considered tobe a contractual relationship, ―minors cannot legally, agree to be counseled on their own‖ (Remley & Herlihy,p.179)., There are some exceptions to this. For example, many states have, enacted laws allowing for individuals younger than 18 to receive, counseling or medical services without parental consent., Additionally, most states have laws that allow minors to be declared, ―legally emancipated‖ from their parents and a few states allow to, be deemed a mature minor and capable of understanding the, ramifications of counselling., 8.4.3 Record Keeping, Counsellor‘s record keeping practices are increasingly, governed by legislation. In some provinces, new Freedom of, Information and Protection of Privacy legislation and Personal, Health Information acts have given counselors new guidelines, about the way they keep records. The federal Youth Criminal, Justice Act will also influence counselors‘ practices on record, keeping. For school counselors, legislation regarding the, administration of public schools adds other imperatives. Some, provinces have synthesized these various legislative requirements, into policy statements that provide counselors with a guide for the, management of their counseling records., In schools, pupil records are typically held in three areas: the, cumulative file in the main office; the young offender file if one, exists, held in a secure location by the principal and the counseling
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311, or special education files normally maintained by the counselor and, resource teacher., The cumulative file component includes things such as, identification information, parent/guardian information, citizenship,, school history, relevant health information, academic information on, marks, attendance, awards and correspondence & legal, documents. Some counseling information, such as results of, psycho educational assessments that may inform programming, decisions can also be included in this file., The counseling and special education files typically included, additional such as: special education or resource information;, clinician reports and meeting notes; referrals to other agencies;, diagnostic testing results and reports from service providers outside, of the school such as hospitals and treatment facilities., The Youth Criminal Justice Act component contains, information about a young offender that may be used; to ensure, compliance with a court order; to ensure the safety of staff,, students and others; and to assist in the rehabilitation of the young, offender., Most legislation is in agreement that there are certain, conditions under which a person may be refused access to, information in a file. They are: if disclosure might cause an invasion, of the privacy of a third party; if disclosure could be detrimental to, the education of the pupil; if disclosure could cause physical or, emotional harm to someone; or if disclosure could interfere with an, enactment or investigation., Personal Health Information legislation. (Manitoba‘s for, example), adds additional conditions under which access may be, refused. These include: if disclosure may endanger the mental or, physical health or safety of a person; if disclosure may reveal, information about person who has not consented to disclosure; if, disclosure could identify a third party who supplied the info in, confidence under circumstances where confidence could be, expected; or if the information was compiled for legal purposes., The Youth Criminal Justice Act demands that the offender‘s, file must be kept separate from any other record or the young, person; that on other person has access to the information except if, authorized under the Act; and that the record be destroyed when, the information is no longer required for the purpose for which it, was disclosed., In cases of divorced or separated parents, the Divorce Act of, Canada states that, ―Unless the court orders otherwise, a spouse, who is granted access to a child of the marriage has the right to
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312, make inquiries, and to be given information as to the health,, education and welfare of the child.‖ Provincial family law usually, supports this notion as in Manitoba‘s legislation, for example, which, states: ―Unless a court otherwise orders, the non-custodial parent, retains the same right as the parent granted custody to receive, school, medical, psychological, dental and other reports affecting, the child‖. (Family Maintenance Act Manitoba), While the legislation described about is very similar from, province to province, it is important to check on the specific wording, of these kinds of acts in your own jurisdiction., Counselors are often concerned about transferring, information when a student transfers to a new school. Generally,, both the cumulative file and the counseling or special education file, must go to the new school. A strategy that will help give counselors, some sense of security is to retain the counselling records, themselves, and place a notice in the cumulative file to the effect, that counseling information exists on this student and may be, obtained by contacting the counsellor directly. In this way, the, records can go form professional to professional, and their security, and privacy be ensured. Many schools have the parents or, students, (if they are the age of majority) , sign a release from to, allow the transfer of these records., Lawyer, Robert Solomon and Consultant, Dennis Lucas, have each offered suggestion about effective record keeping., These ideas include:, Keeping all entries in chronological order;, Recording information while it‘s fresh., Making any alterations with a straight line, dated and, initialed;, Sticking to behaviors and concise description, Staying away from diagnosis & interpretation, Limiting records only to directly relevant info;, Including record keeping information in your informed, consent form, Record ingredients may include:, Name and date:, Presenting issue:, Past history of issue (if described in an earlier record);, Current status of issue changes since last visit:, Treatment/goals/homework/actions;, Check-back date/time;
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313, Referral info: To whom, where, when, what was said;, Administrative info: timetable, credits, etc., To ensure the protection of your students and yourself, it is, important to check your employer‘s policies on access to, information, the CCA Standards of Practice on record keeping, and, the privacy legislation in your province. If no workplace policy, exists, it is critical that such a policy on record keeping be created., In some provinces, requests for information can be referred, to the individual appointed as Privacy and Access Coordinator for, your school hoard. This individual can, with input from you, decide, to release the whole record, release parts of it, or deny access, altogether. Parents then have the right of appeal to a provincial, privacy adjudicator such as the provincial ombudsman in provinces, where these procedures are not mandated, it is important to follow, the CCA policy that school counselors should make every effort to, ensure that there is a school-based procedure in place to, adjudicate any requests from parents or guardians for access to, counseling records., As a proactive step to avoid misunderstanding with students, and parents, it is essential to have a good informed consent form in, place. A consent form used in a school setting may say something, like this:, ―In all discussions between us you have a right to expect that, anything we talk about will remain confidential. We will respect and, guard your right to confidentially very carefully, but you need to, know that are a few cases where are a few cases where that may, not apply. These are the situations where information may by, shared with someone else:, 1), , if you ask me to speak with someone else for you or give, them information you wish them to have, , 2), , If I feel that you or someone else may being danger or in, need or protection,, , 3), , If a court orders the release of information,, , 4), , If required by law, as in cases of child abuse., , 5), , To consult with another professional person in confidence to, try to find solutions or answers for you., , Check your Progress III, 1), , Write short note son, a) Privacy in counselling, b) Record keeping in Counselling
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314, c) Importance of physical setting in counselling., , 8.5 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN, COUNSELLING, Counselors like all professionals have ethical, responsibilities and obligations. The principal rule supporting ethical, obligations is that the counselor must act with full recognition of the, importance of client‘s rights, the ethics of the profession., Counseling is not a value free or neutral activity (Grant 1992). ―It is, a profession based on values, which are orienting beliefs about, what is good and how that good should be achieved‖. (Bergin, 1985), the relationship of moral standards and values, individual or, cultural, in the life of that client., Professional bodies of counselling have development, ethical standards for which they have made available to the, practitioners. Professional organizations for practicing counselling, and psychotherapy are :, American Psychological Association (APA), British Association for Counselling (BAC) and, American Counselling Association (ACA), Need for ethical codes:, Ethical codes help professionalize and Protect an, association by government and promote stability within the, profession. The need for ethical cods are:, To control internal disagreement., To protect practitioners from the public, To protect client from incompetent counselors., Especially in mal practice issues. Clients can also use codes, to evaluate questionable treatment from the counselors., Ethical Issues:
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315, Ethical codes are not set in stone. They serve as principles, upon which to guide practice., There are two dimensions to ethical decision making:, o Principle ethics: Overt ethical obligations that must be, addressed., o Virtue ethics: Above and beyond the obligatory ethics, and are idealistic., , Ethical Issues:, Ethical codes and standards of practice for counselors, have been formulated by the American Counseling, Association, (ACA), and, American, Psychological, Association (APA)., Ethical codes are guidelines for what counselors can and, cannot do., Each counselling situation is unique and sometimes the, counselor must interpret the code., Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice, Client Welfare: Client needs come before counselor needs, and the counselor needs to act in the clients best interest., Informed Consent Counselors need to inform clients as to, the nature of counseling and answer questions so that the, client can make an informed decision., Confidentiality: Clients must be able to feel safe within the, therapeutic relationship for counseling to be most effective., What the client says stays in the session unless the client, is threatening harm to self or others., Ethical Issues that influence Clinical Practice, Dual Relationships: When a counselor has more than one, relationship with a client (e.g. The counselor is a friend and, the counselor)., Sexual Relationships: Professional organizations strongly, prohibit sexual relationships with clients and in some states, it is a criminal offense.
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316, Privileged Communication, It is legal protection of the client which prevents a, counselor from disclosing what was said within the, counseling sessions(s)., This right belongs to the client and not counselor., Laws concerning privileged communication vary from state, to state., , When to break confidentiality, Tara off is Board of Regents of the University of California., A landmark case with the end result being that counselors, have a ―duty to warn‖ if a client threatens another person‘s, life or with significant bodily harm., When a child under the age of 18 is being sexually abused., If the counselor, hospitalization., , determines, , the, , client, , needs, , If the information is involved in a court action., Privileged Communication Doesn’t Apply, When a counselor is performing a court ordered, evaluation., When the client is suicidal., When the client sues the counselor., When the client uses a mental disorder as a legal defense., When an underage child is being abused., When a client discloses an intent to commit a crime or is, dangerous to others., When a client needs hospitalization., Legal Issues and Managed Care, Counselors have the duty to appeal adverse decisions, regarding their client‘s., Counselors have a duty to disclose to clients regarding the, limitations of managed care and the limits of confidentiality, under managed care.
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317, Counselors have a duty to continue treatment and are not, supposed to ―abandon‖ a client just because the client, does not have the financial means to pay for services., Malpractice, When a counselor fails to provide reasonable care or skill, that is generally provided by other professionals and it, results in injury to the client., Four conditions must exist:, o The counselor has duty to client., o The duty of care was not met., o The client was injured in the process., o There was a close causal relationship between the, counselor‘s failure to provide reasonable care and, the clients injury., Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice, Precounseling: Make sure to cover all information counselling:, The financial costs of counselling., Any special arrangements., The competencies of the counselor., Avoid dual relationships., Clearly indicate if a treatment is experimental., Identify limits to confidentiality., Help the client make an informed choice., Suggestions on Avoiding Malpractice (Continued), Ongoing Counseling:, Maintain confidentiality., Seek consultation when necessary., Maintain good client records., Take proper action when a client poses a clear and, imminent danger to themselves or others., Comply with the laws regarding child abuse and neglect., Termination of Counselling:
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318, Be sensitive to the client‘s feelings regarding termination., Initiate termination when the client is not benefiting from, services., Address the clients post-terminations concerns., Evaluate the efficacy of the counseling services., An Ethical-Legal Decision Making Mode:, Determine if an ethical-legal issue needs to be addressed., Address contextual issues such as culture and personal, bias., Formulate an ethical-legal course of action., Implement an action plan., Counselor Competence, Counselors need to accurately represent their credentials, and qualifications., Counselors need to continue their education., Counselors need to only provide services for which they, are qualified., Counselors need to keep up on current information of the, field and especially in specialty areas., Counselors need to seek counselling when they have, personal issues., Ethical and Legal concerns:, Major areas related to ethical 8 legal issues must focus on, the following major areas:, Informed consent, Confidentiality, Duty to warn/duty to protect, Pertinent Legal and Ethical issues:, Any appropriate course of action must be determined on a, case by case basis., Any policy requiring automatic dismissal or withdrawal of a, student who expresses disturbing behaviour is legally, vulnerable., The issue is often about assessing risk., A significant risk constitutes a high probability of, substantial harm not just a slightly increased, or remote, risk.
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319, Any assessment must be based on a reasonable onedical, judgement relying on the most current medical knowledge, and the best available objective evidence., If you analyse all the legal & ethical issues concerned with, counselling you can conclude it in the words of mark Twain that a to, be good is noble, but to teach others to be good is nobler and less, trouble., , Governance of professional practice by Ethics and Law:, Law is created by legislature and courts. It governs citizens, of federal, country and state., Whereas Ethics rooted in philosophy crated by Professional, associations like APA & ACA. It govern members of profession &, guide practice., How can you consider an issue as legal or ethical? We can, consider an issue as legal if –, Lowers are involved, Matter has come to court, The counselor may be in danger of being accused of, misconduct., Check your progress-4, 1), , Explain the different ethical issues to be taken into, consideration in counselling., , 8.6 LET US SUM UP, In this unit we have discussed about counselling, approaches. There are three approaches to counselling like:, Cognitive approach, Affective approach &, Behavioral approach
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320, But in this unit we have discussed only two approaches like, cognitive & affective approaches. Under cognitive approach we, have also discussed the trait & factor approach of counselling with, special reference to Frank Person‘s Trait & factor approach to, occupational choice. In affective approach we have discussed, Psychoanalytic approach & it‘s goals & principles we have also go, through physical setting, Privacy & recording as conditions which, comes as the influential factors in counselling. As in other, professions legal & ethical issues are important, so it is also, necessary in counselling process., , 8.7 UNIT END EXERCISES, 1. What are the different types of approaches in counselling., Explain cognitive approaches to counselling., 2. What is affective oriented counselling approach. Explain the, psychoanalytic approach to counselling., 3. What are different conditions which influence counselling., Explain the importance of recording in counselling., 4. What is your opinion regarding considerations of legal & ethical, issues in counselling Justify your opinion., , Bibliography:, www. Google.com, , , , 2, Module -2, TYPES AND AGENCIES OF GUIDANCE
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321, , 2.0 Introduction, 2.1 Objectives, 2.2 Types of Guidance: Individual and Group, 2.2.1 Individual guidance, 2.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance, 2.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance activities, 2.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance, 2.2.5 Advantages of Group Guidance, 2.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance, 2.3 Agencies of Guidance at Different Levels, 2.3.1 International Level Agencies, 2.3.2 National Level Agencies, 2.3.3 State Level Agencies, 2.3.4 Local Level Agencies, 2.4 Let us Sum up, 2.5 Check your Progress, 2.6 Suggested Readings, , 2.0 INTRODUCTION, In the previous unit you have learnt about meaning,, importance and areas of guidance. You have also learnt about, different school guidance services. One of the services is group, guidance service .From the organization point of view guidance can, be of two types‘ i.e. individual and group. Many, institutions/organizations work in the area of guidance and, counseling. In this unit you will learn about importance of group, guidance and international, national and state level agencies of, guidance., , 2.1 OBJECTIVES, After going through this unit, you should be able to:, define group guidance, aware of the need and importance of group guidance, know the practical consideration of organization of group, guidance activities;
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322, understand the limitations of group guidance activities; and, deal effectively with the problems of organization of such, group guidance activities, state the role and functions of different agencies at, international, national and state levels., , 2.2 TYPES OF GUIDANCE: INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP, 2.2.1 Individual guidance:, Individual guidance is tailored to an individual. It is advice,, strategy or planning designed for a singular person or thing and, their unique situation. This is in contrast to general guidance which, is frequently based on demographic information such as age or, income or meant for the general population. The most common, reference to individual guidance is in reference to children or, students. This is ideally the role of guidance, educational or, careerhttp://www.ehow.com/careers/ counselors., Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice,, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their, unique circumstances. This could include legal services, career, counseling, financial planning, medical or psychological advice or a, number of other areas where a trained professional is looked to for, direction in a given area., 2.2.2 Group Guidance: Concept, Need and Significance:, Group refers to collection of people, interaction between, individuals, development of shared perceptions, the development of, affective ties and the development of interdependence of roles. For, example many students and teacher/teachers at one school may, gather together to form a group., Group guidance encompasses those activities of guidance, which are carried on in a group situation to assist its members to, have experiences desirable or even necessary for making appropriate decisions in the prevailing contexts. In a more specific, term, it is guiding the individual in a group situation. Group could be, of any type ,but for guidance purposes a group should have a, common goal. Just collection of individual may not be called a, group for organizing guidance activities. Selection of group, members will have to depend on sharing a common problem,, volunteering to be members and willingness to group activities., Jones, A.J(1951)define group guidance ‗as any group, enterprise or activity in which the primary purpose is to assist each
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323, individual in the group to solve his problems and to make his, adjustment‘., Group guidance is used to address the developmental needs, of a functional group consisting of a number of students to, implement programme that would benefit them at all time.Students, in group with common problems and concerns are helped in groups, i.e. small or large. In other words, if guidance is to be available to, all, it should be planned in groups., Some of the objectives of group guidance are:, 5. To help people in identifying common problems, analyse, them and find relevant solutions, 6. To place a wide range of information before people with, common problems which could be useful for them for finding, solutions?, 7. To provide a platform where people with common problems, could interact with each other and could be benefited by, each other‘s perspectives, ideas and experiences, 8. To help in creating an atmosphere where people could get, an opportunity to express themselves and in the process, analyze themselves., 2.2.3 Organization of Group Guidance Activities:, Planning of group guidance activity may focus the following points., 6. Need Assessment: The need assessment must be done to, find out the common problems of individuals in the group., This can be done by administering questionnaire, checklists, and interview., 7. Determining size of the group and time, venue for group, activities: Depending upon the group activity the size of the, group should be fixed. The size should be approachable and, manageable. The venue should be selected taking in to, account the group selected for activity., 8. Selection of members and role specifications: The, participants selection for group guidance activity is also very, important. The students for example should be communicated, about their roles in group activities., 9. Orientation of Members: The group goals should be, clarified. It should be stated in clear, objective and, measurable terms.
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324, 10. Monitoring of activities and evaluation of outcomes: If we, want to conduct the activities purposefully, it should be, properly monitored taking into account the goal/s.Feedback, about activity needs to be collected from participants., Some of the common group guidance activities are: Class, talk, career talk, displays and exhibitions., 2.2.4 Techniques of Group Guidance, A number of techniques are used in organizing group guidance., Group Discussion: For example at senior secondary stage, students should have knowledge about different career.A group, discussion may be organized in the school. For organization of the, group discussion proper room/hall, group and relevant topic and, expert/resource person should be selected. The group discussion, will be useful only if the members participate effectively without the, fear and all the members have the opportunity to participate. But, the effectiveness of the groupm discussion depends upon the, facilitator and the group selected., Problemsolving: For solving individual as well as common, problems, problem solving can be applied as a technique. It, comprises of the following steps;, Existence of common problem, Focused description of the problem, Initiation of action for solving problem based on relevant, facts, Analysis of problem in the light of data collected, Listing of possible solutions and Evaluation of them, Acceptance of degree of acceptance of solution in the group, Role play: In small group role playing can be adopted as a, technique of guidance. Role playing is a method where real life, situations are simulated by group members/participants. This, provide new insight, intuitions, skills and understanding of opposing, viewpoints. The role playing may comprise of the following steps;, Existence of common problem, Orientation of group to role playing and the problem, Assigning of roles
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325, Preparation, intelligently, , of, , other, , members/audience, , to, , observe, , Assessing the role play, Concluding session and feedback, Other methods like case study and sociometric technique, can be used as group guidance technique., 2.2.5 Advantages of Group guidance:, We have discussed about different activities and approaches, of group guidance. Some of the advantages of group guidance are, as follows:, Inspires learning and understanding: Interaction in group, setting inspires learning and understanding of students. The, student learns from other member of group., Saves time and effort: Group guidance technique can save, time and effort of both the counselor and students. The time, saved can be used for the more, difficult and complex, problems of students., Improvement of student’s attitude and behavior, Development of wholesome and helpful awareness of, unrecognized needs and problems of student/s, 2.2.6 Limitations of Group Guidance:, Group guidance though serves a useful purpose, but they, cannot be taken as a substitute for individual counseling. Group, activities serve many of the objectives of the school guidance, programme, but not all of these. Further students may feel hesitant, to come out with their personal problems in the group. So, in these, cases group guidance cannot be of help., Group guidance activities serve useful purposes specially, saving in time and effort. While organizing these activities, some, problems that a counsellor may face are mentioned below:, A rigid type of administration is often a major cause of, trouble. Generally, when the counselor asks for time in the time, table for conducting these guidance activities, he/she may get a, discouraging reply, the time table is already full. No periods are, free. So the counsellor is left with no other choice than to take the, substitute management period.
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326, Lack of cooperation on part of the administration as well as, the staff members may also create problems in organizing such, activities. Teacher may feel this as an addition burden. Lack of, adequate funds is another problem., 2.3 Agencies of Guidance at Different Levels:, Different agencies i.e. government and private at, international, national and regional level have been doing, significant works in the area of guidance. These agencies are, working in training /orientation, career guidance services or, development of materials for guidance workers/functionaries., 2.3.1 International Level:, International Association of Educational and Vocational, Guidance (IAEVG)is a worldwide guidance and counselling, organization, whose mission is to promote the development and, quality of educational and vocational guidance. IAEVG‘ s mission is, also to ensure that all citizens who need and want educational and, vocational guidance and counselling can receive this counselling, from a competent and recognized professional.The objectives of, the organization are as follows, To promote communication among persons and organizations, active in educational and vocational guidance., To encourage the continuing development of ideas, practice, and research in the field of guidance and counselling on each, level, national and international, in developing and developed, countries., To advise government and national or international, organizations on the development of guidance systems and, further the exchange of professionals and experts., To collect and disseminate information of interest in the field, of educational and vocational guidance practice, study and, research, The Mission of IAEVG is to:, advocate that all citizens who need and want educational and, vocational guidance and counselling can receive this, counselling from a competent and recognized professional, recommend the basic nature and quality of service that, should typify the service provided to students and adults, recommend the essential training and other qualifications that, all counsellors in educational and vocational guidance should, have
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327, urge governments to enhance, facilitate or establish an, agency, institution, or office with responsibility to develop and, maintain, policies governing the provision of educational and vocaitonal, guidance, the provision of training and continuing education programs, for counselling and guidance practitioners, the development and provision of appropriate and effective, methods and materials for guidance, the conduct of research and development to create new,, more comprehensive, and better ways of conducting, educational and vocational guidance, the development of appropriate methods of evaluation af, counselling and guidance, The Association publishes a newsletter three times a year., Furthermore IAEVG publishes the International Journal for, Educational and Vocational Guidance which is a refereed journal, publishing articles in relation to work and leisure, career, development, career counseling and guidance and career, education. The website can be found at www.iaevg.org/, Cedefop, the European Agency to promote the development, of vocational education and training, is the European Union‘s centre, of expertise to support the development of VET and evidencebased policy-making. One important task for Cedefop is to provide, guidance practitioners with advice, research, analysis and, information. On Cedefop‘s website European Training Village, (ETV)there is an area with information on lifelong guidance, (Choose lifelong guidance in the left menu). Here you will find, information on European guidance projects, links to publications, and research results, examples of good guidance strategies and, practices and a live network for all the actors who have an interest, in, the, field., The, website, can, be, found, at, www.cedefop.europa.eu/, FEDORA is an organisation for those involved in student, guidance in institutions of higher education in Europe. The, FEDORA network has especially the focus on the higher student, mobility across Europe and the challenges that gives to the, guidance practitioners. FEDORA contributes to the further, development of the guidance practitioners‘ competencies so they, can better support, inform and guide the students on mobility, issues. FEDORA organizes congresses, conferences and summer, universities and each event takes place every three years. All types, of events take place in different countries in the FEDORA member
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328, states each year., The website, fedora.plexus.leidenuniv.nl/, , can, , be, , found, , at, , IAC (International Association for Counselling) wishes to, encourage the exchange of ideas, research findings and personal, experience in the field of counselling and guidance. This happens,, among others, through organising conferences and publishing the, International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling. The, website can be found at www.iac-irtac.org/, The International Centre for Career Development and, Public Policy, ICCDPP, has the task to facilitate international, sharing of knowledge and information concerning public policy and, career development issues. ICCDPP has a base for knowledge and, information which contains proceedings from international, symposia, and reports and news provided to the site by the users, and by other international contacts. ICCDPP is supported by, OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commission etc. The, website can be found at www.iccdpp.org, The Nordic Association of Educational and Vocational, Guidance is a coalition of national associations for education and, vocational guidance in the Nordic countries and the self-governing, areas of Aaland Islands and Faeroe Islands. The aim of NFUE is to, strengthen professional educational and vocational guidance in, Nordic countries., NAEVG organizes seminars and conferences and develops, cooperation with the Baltic countries. The website can be found at, www.nfsy.org, The European Lifelong Guidance Policy Network aims to, assist the European Union Member States and the Commission in, moving European cooperation on lifelong guidance forward in both, the education and the employment sectors. The purpose is to, promote cooperation at Member State level on lifelong guidance, and to propose appropriate structures and support mechanisms in, implementing the priorities identified in the Resolution on Lifelong, Guidance (2004). The ELGPN was established by the Member, States and the Commission has foreseen to support the activities of, the network in 2007-2008 under the Lifelong Learning Programme., The website can be found at ktl.jyu.fi/ktl/elgpn/, International Labour Organization(ILO):, The ILO is the international organization responsible for, drawing up and overseeing international labour standards. It is the, only 'tripartite' United Nations agency that brings together, representatives of governments, employers and workers to jointly
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329, shape policies and programmes promoting Decent Work for all., This unique arrangement gives the ILO an edge in incorporating, 'real world' knowledge about employment and work.The, organization publishes the results of research related to changing, nature of work and employment which is important for policy, makers and other users., 2.3.2 National Level Agencies:, At national level the following organizations work in the area, of guidance and counseling., National, Council, of, Educational, Research, and, Training(NCERT):The Department of Psychology and Foundation, of Education(DEPFE), a Department under NCERT,New Delhi and, Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central Institute of Vocational, Education(PSSCIVE) ,Bhopal a constituent of NCERT organize, programme on guidance and Counselling.Some of the functions of, PSSCIVE are:, To advise and assist the Ministry of Human Resource, Development, State Governments and Union Territory, Administration in the implementation of the Vocational, Education and Work Experience Programme., To function as the technical wing of the Joint Council of, Vocational Education on all matters relating to Vocational, Education Programme (VEP)., To promote, supervise and guide the establishment of a, comprehensive management system for VEP., To serve as a resource institution for both formal and nonformal VEP., To orient and train various key functionaries of VEP,, including teachers., To evaluate and monitor VEP in States/UTs., To ensure uniformity and maintain quality standards in, vocational teaching and learning., To provide guidance and counseling on, Education and Training to the people at large., , Vocational, , DEPFE is the department of NCERT which coordinates guidance, activities in the country. The department runs an International, Diploma Course in Guidance and Counseling in collaboration, with Commonwealth of Learning, Canada. This course is offered, at the Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations
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330, of Education (DEPFE), NCERT New Delhi as well as five, Regional Institutes of Education located at Bhubaneswar, Bhopal, Mysore, Shillong, and Ajmer. Besides the department, conducts training programme in the field of guidance and, counseling., Central Institute for Research and Training in Employment, Service (CIRTES) was established in October, 1964 under the, aegis of Directorate General of Employment & Training (DGE&T),, Ministry of Labour, Government of India. Later, in 1970 and in, 1987, the Institute was expanded with the added responsibilities of, developing career literature and to provide guidance for the, promotion of self-employment. The Objectives of CIRTES are:, Planning and conducting training programmes for, Employment Service Personnel at State, National and, International Levels., Conducting research into problems, activities of the Employment Service., , concerning, , the, , Development and publication of career literature and audiovisual aids for use in Vocational Guidance and Career, Literature Programmes., Development of motivational material for promotion of selfemployment., There are four divisions of, CIRTES i.e. training, division,research division ,career study, center and self, employment guidance cell., 1.TRAINING DIVISION, Training Division caters to the training needs of all the, Employment Officers of the country in placement, vocational, guidance, employment market information, self-employment, promotional activities and other related matters. Instructional, materials and training aids are devised and developed to assist, the States in organizing training programmes for the staff of their, employment exchanges. Besides, special training programmes for, the employment officers of foreign countries under various ILO, bilateral programmes are organized on request basis. The, Division also associates with other training organisations for, imparting training in the field of vocational guidance and selfemployment., 2. RESEARCH DIVISION
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331, Research Division conducts studies on organizational,, operational and procedural aspects of NES, labour market, conditions and other related matters. Development of various, tools and techniques and evaluation of various programmes of, NES inter alia come under its purview., 3. CAREER STUDY CENTRE (CSC), CSC develops and publishes the career literature in the, shape of bookelets and pamphlets/folders on various, careers/occupations covering their job content, educational, preparatory requirements, employment and self-employment, opportunities, as a reference tool to meet the career planning, needs of students, job seekers, Vocational Guidance, Officers/Counsellors and others. These publications are, disseminated to Employment Exchanges, University Employment, Information & Guidance Bureaux (UEIGBx), Coaching-cumGuidance Centre for SC/ST, colleges, schools and also to other, agencies engaged in vocational guidance activities, through, Employment Exchanges as per their jurisdiction., 4. SELF-EMPLOYMENT GUIDANCE CELL (SEGC), SEGC prepares informative and motivational material to, assist Employment Officers in guiding and confidence building, among job seekers for adopting self-employment ventures. It also, provides training to the Employment Officers on self-employment, promotional related activities., Directorate, General, of, Employment, Training(DGE&T),under Ministry of Labour evolves, and standards for vocational guidance activities, employment exchanges., , and, policy, through, , Other, organizations, like, University, Grants, Commission(UGC),All, India, Council, of, Technical, Education(AICTE) also works on guidance and counseling., 2.3.3 State Level Agencies of Guidance:, At state level SCERT,Bureau of Educational and, Vocational Guidance,Directorates of Employment work for, guidance of students., SCERT/State Guidance Bureaus coordinates guidance services, at the state leThey organize state level training./orientation for, guidance personnel., State Directorates of Employment coordinates vocational, guidance programme through employment exchanges in
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332, states.They also develop publication on occupational information., Universities; In university employment bureaus facilities are, provided for students., 2.3.4 Local Level:, At the local level some district employment exchanges,, private agencies and institutional level organizations work for, guidance and counseling., The role of NGOs at different level for providing guidance, activities is also very important., , 2.4 LET US SUM UP, Individual guidance can be used to refer to any advice,, usually professional advice, given to a person based on their, unique circumstances. Group guidance is used to address the, developmental needs of a functional group consisting of a number, of students to implement programme that would benefit them at all, time Organization of Group Guidance Activities should focus on, Need Assessment, Determining size of the group and time, venue, for group activities, Selection of members and role specifications,, Orientation of Members, Monitoring of activities and evaluation of, outcomes. Problem solving, role play, group discussion, case, study and sociometric are some of the important techniques of, group guidance., At international level IAEVG, Cedefop, ILO, Nordic, Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance work in the, area of guidance.At the national level NCERT, CIRTES and, DGE&T are important organizations in the field of guidance., Check your Progress, 1. Explain the term group guidance, 2. Discuss any two group guidance activities which are carried, out in school., 3. Discuss various techniques of group guidance with suitable, examples., 4. Prepare a list of national and international agencies of guidance, listing their works., , 2.6 SUGGESTED READINGS
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333, Agrawal,R(2006), Educational,Vocational, Counselling,New Delhi,Sipra Publication, , Guidance, , and, , Bhatnagar,A AND Gupta,N(1999).Guidance and Counselling:A, theoretical Approach(Ed),New Delhi,Vikash Publishing House, Jones, A.J.(19510.Principles of Guidance and Pupil Personnel, work,New York,MiGraw Hill, Kochhar, S.K., (1985): Educational and Vocational Guidance in, Secondary Schools,New Delhi,Strling Publisher, ,
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334, , 5, OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION AND, JOB SATISFACTION, Unit Structure, 5.1 Objectives, 5.2 Introduction, 5.3 Need and Sources of Occupational Information, 5.3.1 Concept, 5.3.2 Need and importance, 5.4 Collection, Filing and Classification of Occupational Information, 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information, 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials, 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information, 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information, 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information, 5.5 Dissemination of Occupational information, 5.5.1 Group Techniques, 5.5.2 Individual Techniques, 5.6 Job Satisfaction, 5.6.1 Meaning of job satisfaction, 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction, 5.7 Job Analysis, Job Specifications and Job Profile, 5.8 Let us Sum Up, 5.9 Unit End Exercise, 5.10 Suggested Readings, , 5.1 OBJECTIVES, After going through this unit you will be able to:, Explain the need and importance of occupational information, in the present day, List different sources of occupational information i.e., primary-secondary,international,national and local
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335, List different, information, , methods, , of, , collection, , Describe various techniques, occupational information, , of, , of, , occupational;, , dissemination, , of, , Identify various factors of job satisfaction, Point out the relationship between job analysis, job, specifications and job profile., , 5.1 INTRODUCTION, Tremendous explosion of knowledge in science and, technology in the modern days has enriched the store house of, information .The scientific and technological advancements have, brought in many changes in social and economic structure of our, country. Among the many challenges faced by our youths today is, the choice of a right career. The occupational information, one of, the important components of guidance programme is basic to, career planning and adjustment., This unit provides you an overview of meaning, need and, sources of occupational information, methods of collection,, classification and filing of occupational information, and techniques, of dissemination of occupational information. It also familiarizes you, with factors affecting jobsatisfation, job analysis, job specifications, and job profile., , 5.3, , CONCEPT AND, INFORMATION, , NEEDS OF OCCUPATIONAL, , 5.3.1 Concept:, Occupational information is information about the ‗world of, work‘. Occupational information covers pertinent and reliable, information relating to various occupations e.g. job contents,, training and preparation for the occupation, entry in to occupation,, working conditions, salaries, emoluments, employment outlooks, and prospects etc., 5.3.2 Need and Importance:, Occupational information service is one of the important, guidance services. The need and importance of occupational, information is as follows., Career Planning:, Due to vastness of educational and occupational, opportunities available today the student needs accurate reliable
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336, and useful information. Occupational information is one of the, essential aspects of career planning., , Career Development:, Occupational information is also essential for career, development of students. The individual‘s appropriate skills,, attitudes, interests, abilities, values and self concept depend upon, accurate information about specific jobs., Vocational thinking:, In, the early stage i.e elementary stage, occupational, information helps to widen the vocational thinking .This helps them, to explore the vocational world., Changing Perceptions:, Occupational information helps to check the pre conceived, distorted notion of individual regarding some job., Placement:, As the student gets reliable and accurate information about, the job, through occupational information it helps in placement. The, student gets information about personality traits required for a, particular job, which helps in getting the job., Apart from this, occupational information has important role, in preparation of selection tests for jobs, upgradarion of skills of, employed manpower and international comparison of occupational, data., , 5.4 COLLECTION, FILING AND CLASSIFICATION OF, OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION, 5.4.1 Sources of Occupational Information:, There is array of sources for bringing occupational, information materials in different forms for use by teachers,, counselors and students. These sources can be classified on the, basis of nature and scope of information., On the basis of nature of the source of, occupational, information it is classified as Primary and Secondary, source of information, On the basis of the scope of information it is classified as, International, National and Local, Primary and Secondary Sources: The primary source is the, original or direct source from here we get the relevant occupational
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337, information. The information collected from the employer,, employee/worker, and government bodies/agencies are example, of primary sources., The secondary sources of information are those which use, information collected or published by the original sources. These, are also called indirect sources., International, National, Local Sources: Many international,, national and state/local level organizations/agencies n bring out, publications related to occupations. Some of the International,, national and state/local level sources are given below., Different agencies:, Level, International, , Organisation / Agencies, a)United Nations Organization, United Nations Educational, Scientific and, Association(UNESCO),Paris(www.unesco.org), United, Nations, Industrial, Organizations(UNIDO) www.unido.org, , Cultural, , Development, , International Labour Organisation(ILO), National, , Directorate General of Employment and, Training(DGE&T),New Delhi, www.dget.nic.in, Directorate of Audio Visual Publicity(DAVP) ,New Delhi, www.davp.nic.in, Union Public Service Commission(UPSC) , New Delhi, www.upsc.gov.nic.in, National Council of Educational Research and, Training(NCERT) , New Delhi, www.ncert.nic.in, All India Council of Technical Education(AICTE) New, Delhi, www.aicte.ernet.in, University Grants Commission(UGC) New Delhi, www.ugc.ac.in, Indira Gandhi National Open University(IGNOU) ,New Delhi, www.ignou.ac.in, National Institute of Rural Development(NIRD),Hyderabad, National Institute of Health and Family Welfare(NIHFW),, New Delhi
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338, State/Local, , State Guidance Bureaus, SCERTs/SIEs, State government departments (Revenue,, Industry, Labour, Social Welfare, Mining etc), , Health,, , State /District employment offices, Non Government Organisations, University Employment Information Cells and Guidance, Bureaus, , 5.4.2 Types of Occupational Information Materials:, The materials prepared by different agencies, institutions for, occupational information broadly classified in to three types‘ i.e print, material, audiovisual materials and electronic materials, Print Materials, Occupational Monographs, Employment News, News Paper and Magazines, Recruitment Literatures, Occupational reviews, , Audio/Visual, Career films, Career photographs, Posters and charts, Audio Recording, , Electronic, Radio, Television, Computers, , Before using any material, you need to evaluate the, accuracy, relevance, format and usefulness of the information., 5.4.3 Methods of Collection of Occupational Information:, How can you collect occupational information? The, occupational information can be collected through various methods, i.e follow up surveys, community occupational survey, community, educational survey and want ad survey., Follow up Survey:, The follow up survey can be conducted to find out career, adjustments of school leavers. These provide information about, educational and employment opportunities in the community. The, occupational facts provided by the survey help the school students, to plan their career realistically., Community Occupational Survey:, The community educational survey is an enumeration and, description of jobs in a geographically defined area. The survey, provides an overview of occupational information about community, specific occupations, man power trends and requirements. If you, want to conduct a community occupational survey, you have to visit, with your colleagues to a near by office/agency/industry and obtain
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339, relevant information on name and address of the organization,, existing occupations, man power requirements i.e. job openings,, eligibility, requirements and salary., Community Educational Survey:, A community educational survey is conducted to collect, detailed information about educational institutions in a particular, geographical area. This survey covers all types of educational, institutions such as schools, colleges(medical, engineering,, vocational) ,distance education centers etc. Relevant information, collected on courses offered, number of seats, procedure of, admission ,fees,hostel,scholarship etc will give insight .The, prospectus, information bulletin of different institutions can be, studied and analyzed to compare educational facilities., Want –Ad Survey:, This is the simplest and least expensive survey. It is a, periodic (weekly, monthly, quarterly) tabulation of the job openings, as advertised in news papers. Here two types of advertisements i.e., ―help want ads‖ and ‗situation vacant ad‘ appearing in local news, papers or neighboring metropolitan news papers are used. While, the first type advertisement, provides information regarding job, openings the second type of ads provide data of supply of workers, for possible job openings. The tabulation of data in this survey may, be done according to broad group of classification (NCO), based on, interst, curricular streams etc.Want ad surveys are of great value to, metropolitan and small cities., 5.4.4 Classification of Occupational Information:, Collection of a lot of occupational information necessitates, storing it in a systematic manner so that that can be used by others, with out difficulty whenever required. For a meaningful storage of, occupational information we have to know different ways of, classifying information. Occupational information can be classified, in a number of ways such as by occupation, industry, socioeconomic status, interests, and educational levels etc.All these, classification schemes have their own merits and limitations. Some, of the Classification schemes are discussed below., Classification by Occupation:, National Classification of Occupation (NCO-2004), As per the NCO-2004 occupations have been classified into, the following nine divisions and skill levels.
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340, Division, Title, 10. Legislatures, Senior Officials and, Managers, 11. Professionals, 12. Technicians, and, Associate, professionals, 13. Clerks, 14. Service workers and shop, market sales, workers, 15. Skilled agricultural and fishery workers, 16. Craft and related trade workers, 17. Plant and machine operators and, assemblers, 18. Elementary Occupations, , Skill Level, Not defined, IV, II, II, II, II, II, I, , NCO-2004 groups together 2945 occupations, each, occupations has been assigned a six digit code, a distinct title and, a definition. The occupations have been first assigned to ten, occupational divisions (identified by the initial digit in the code, number) that are comprised of 30 sub-divisions (identified by first, two digit of the code number).The subdivisions have 116 groups, (identified by first three digit of the code number), Classification by Industry:, National Industrial Classification-2004(NIC-2004), The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) has developed the, NIC-2004 in India . It has 17 sections, 62 Divisions, 161 groups,, 310 classes and 1191 subclasses. The 17 sections are listed by, one letter alpha code from A to Q as below., R. Agriculture, hunting and forestry, S. Fishing, T. Mining and quarrying, U. Manufacturing, V. Electricity, gas and water supply, W. Construction, X. Wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles, motor, cycles and personal and household goods, Y. Hotels and restaurants, Z. Transport ,storage and communication, AA., , Financial intermediation
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341, BB., , Real estate, renting and business activities, , CC. Public administration and defence;compulsory, security, DD., , Education, , EE., , Health and social work, , social, , FF.Other community, Social and personal service activities, GG. Activities of private households as employers, undifferentiated production activities of households, HH., , and, , Extraterritorial organizations and bodies, , The NIC-2004 adopts a five digit classification where the first, 2 digits indicate Division, the first three digits represent Group, and, four digits indicate Class. The subclasses (if exists) are indicated by, all the five numbers. The NIC-2004 has been used in the country, for population census, industrial survey etc., Classification Based on Interest:, In this classification scheme, occupations are categorized, according to interest areas .Comprehensive Interest Schedule by, Vohra (1993) lists eight interest areas i.e. influential, venturous,, artistic, scientific, analytical, social, nature and clerical. The type of, occupation related to interests are Administrative and enterprising, (Influential), Defence and Sports (venturous), Creative and, performing (Artistic), Medical and technical (Scientific), Expressive, and computational (analytical), Humanitarian and education, (social)., 5.4.5 Filing of Occupational Information:, In school situation educational/occupational information may, be available in both bound and unbound form. The unbound, materials may include lesflets,folders,news paper clippings, notice, etc.Similarly the bound materials include proseptus,hand book,, information brochures etc.Some popular filing plans for unbound, information materials are Alphabetic Plan, Classification based, upon Educational Level , based on academic subjects or Curricular, Stream and geographical files etc., Alphabetic Plan:, In this system, occupational information is classified, according to the first alphabet of each occupation. Here, occupational headings to be used are collected from occupational, or industrial classification., Classification based upon Educational Level:
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342, , Various Levels of education i.e. elementary school,, secondary school, higher secondary school, post school diploma, certificate, graduation, post graduation and M.Phil/Doctorate., Classification based on academic subjects or Curricular, Stream, Specific requirement of subjects of study for particular occupation is, the basis of this classification., , Geographical Files, Occupational information can also be filed geographically by, city or state, Characteristics of a good filing system:, In order to select a filing system for the school, the guidance, worker should examine all the classification system available .Then, a filing plan needs to be selected suitable to the requirements of the, school. Following are the characteristics of a good filing system, suggested by Hoppock (1976, 1.63):, It should provide a safe place for housing written and printed, documents, clippings from newspapers and magazines,, posters, pictures, films.tape recordings, pamplates, books, and anything else that may contain useful occupational, information., It should provide one and only one designated location for, each item to be filed,so that there may be no confusion, where to file an item or where to find it., It should be easy to use, so that all who use it can find what, they want with a minimum time and effort., It should bring together as many as possible of the materials, on any one occupation or industry or employer., It should bring together related occupations or industries or, employers, It should provide some means of quickly finding material in, omnibus books and other publications which describe, several different occupations., It should be expandable, so that it can grow as the collection, grows., It should provide for filing and finding related materials, such, as the results of follow up studies and community, occupational surveys.
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343, , 5.5, , DISSEMINATION, INFORMATION, , OF, , OCCUPATIONAL, , Dissemination of occupational information about various, educational and occupational opportunities and their requirements, is necessary to give exposure to students. The dissemination of, occupational information helps student to be informed about, different careers, to make an appropriate career choice and to, apply the information to solve various career related problems., Occupational information can be effectively disseminated, to, students through group as well as individual techniques., 5.5.1 Group Techniques:, In school much of the information on career in general is, disseminated through group activities. Group techniques are used, in guidance to help the normal individuals to understand, themselves, acquire information and learn to analyse problems in, order to make realistic educational and vocational choices., Following are some of the group techniques of dissemination of, occupational information., Career Talk: It is a popular technique of dissemination of career, information. As per students needs professionals, school alumni, can be invited to deliver career talk in regular classroom. The topic, of the career talk should be carefully decided keeping in view the, age group, interest and educational level. Generally a career talk, contains the following10. Introduction about the occupation, 11. General and specific nature of work, 12. Work conditions, 13. Earnings, 14. Qualifications required[age,education,skills/aptitude], 15. Methods of entering the job, 16. Advancement/Promotions, 17. Employment outlook, 18. Sources of Further information, Group Discussion: In group discussion the group of members, share information collected by each one of them and gain insight, about a particular occupation. The group discussion should start, with prior information to the group about the occupation to be
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344, discussed, initiative by group leader, interaction among students, [groups] and reflection of discussion., Field Trips: Field trips provide a pragmatic, interesting, enjoyable, and extremely useful method of learning and imparting, occupational information (Joneja, 1997).The students get relevant, information about different occupation by visiting industries and, offices. While selecting the industry/organization/place the, objective/purpose must be taken into account. Such places may be, selected where ex students are working, because they will be able, to provide more information and help in making the tour/trip, effective. It requires a lot of planning and preparation. After the trip, group wise presentation needs to be organized., Career Exhibition: It is one of the important techniques of, disseminating occupational information. A great variety of career, information materials are available from various sources. Exhibition, of career information materials may be arranged by the, teacher/counselor in the school library, guidance room, hall, and, corridor or in classroom or at any other place where alls students, can see them., School Assemblies: School assemblies being a regular feature of, secondary and senior secondary schools, can provide opportunities, for effective dissemination of occupational information which may, be of interest to most of the school students., Subject Teaching: There is also scope for dissemination of, Occupational information in secondary school through subject, teaching. In Language, social science, mathematics, science there, is maximum scope for diffusion of occupational information. The, dissemination of occupational/career information by subject, teachers motivate the students to learn the subject matter with, interest and to explore further information(NCERT,2008)., Publications: The educational institution may publish ―Guidance, Newsletter‖ periodically for teachers and students of the institution., 5.5.2 Individual Techniques:, Individual methods of dissemination of occupational, information are used to help different types of student to develop an, understanding of themselves, and make career related decisions, and adjustments .Individual counseling sessions are helpful for, dissemination of occupational know how. However, as this needs, one to one interaction professional expertise is essential on the part, of teacher to disseminate career information. Group techniques are, more useful and economic.
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345, , 5.6 JOB SATISFACTION, 5.6.1 Meaning of Job Satisfaction:, Job satisfaction is a person‘s attitude towards the job., Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction, where as negative attitude are equivalent to job dissatisfaction. Job, satisfaction describes how content an individual is with his/r her job., The happier people are within their job, the more satisfied they are, said to be. Job satisfaction is not the same as motivation, although, it is clearly linked., For the first time in 1935 ,the concept of job satisfaction, gained momentum through the publication by Hoppock on ―job, satisfaction‘‘.Hoppock in his monograph has defined job satisfaction, as any combination of psychological, physiological and, environmental circumstances that causes a person truthfully to say, ―I am satisfied with my job‘., Job satisfaction has been defined as a pleasurable, emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‘s job (Locke,, 1976) an affective reaction to one‘s job (Cranny, Smith & Stone,, 1992) and an attitude towards one‘s job (Brief, 1998). Weiss (2002), argued that job satisfaction is an attitude but points out that, researchers should clearly distinguish the objects of cognitive, evaluation which are affect (emotion), beliefs and behaviours This, definition suggests that we form attitudes towards our jobs by, taking into account our feelings, our beliefs, and our behaviors, Job satisfaction may also be defined as summation of, employee‘s feelings in four important areas., 5.6.2 Factors of Job satisfaction:, Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors,, e.g. the quality of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality, of the physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment, in their work, etc. Numerous research results show that there are, many factors affecting the job satisfaction., There are particular demographic traits (age, education, level, tenure, position, marital status, years in service, and hours, worked per week) of employees that significantly affect their job, satisfaction., Motivating factors are achievement, recognition, the job, conducted, responsibility, promotion and the factors related to the, job itself for personal development. Motivating factors in the
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346, working environment result in the job satisfaction of the person, while protective ones dissatisfy him/her., Maslow connects the creation of the existence of people's, sense of satisfaction with the maintenance of the classified needs., These are: physiological needs (eating, drinking, resting, etc.),, security needs (pension, health insurance, etc.), the need to love, (good relations with the environment, friendship, fellowship, to love, and to be loved), need to self-esteem (self-confidence, recognition,, adoration, to be given importance, status, etc.) need of selfactualization (maximization of the latent [potential] power and, capacity, development of abilities, etc). Insufficient education,, inability to select qualified workers for the job, lack of, communications, lack of job definitions, all affect job satisfaction, negatively. It has been asserted that participating in the, management, having the decision making power, independence on, the job and the unit where the individual works, have positive, impact upon the job satisfaction., The job itself (the work conducted), and achievement and, recognition at work result in satisfaction while the management, policy, relations with the managers and colleagues result in, dissatisfaction. Factors related to the job itself such as using, talents, creativity, responsibility, recognition have influence on the, job satisfaction., Age is one of the factors affecting job satisfaction. Studies, conducted in five different countries prove that the elder workers, are more satisfied. The role people play and the status they enjoy, are all too often determined by age. Besides other things, age is, also an important consideration in determining a person‘s, promotion or his/her failure to receive it. Length of service is also a, factor affecting job satisfaction., Similarly, by some researchers, sex is also found to have an, influence on job satisfaction. Besides. Job satisfaction and devotion, to the job, affected each other reciprocally, and they have great, impact upon performance. The most significant of the factors, affecting performance are economical, technical, socio-political,, cultural and demographical ones. However, most efforts to improve, performance seem to center on improving the conditions, surrounding the work. These are worthwhile efforts, but they usually, result only in short-term improvements in attitudes and productivity,, and the situation often returns quickly to normal., , 5.7 JOB ANALYSIS, JOB SPECIFICATIONS AND JOB, PROFILE
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347, 5.7.1 Job Analysis:, Job analysis is the process of objectively determining the, specific duties, responsibilities and working conditions associated, with a specific job, as well as the personal skills and qualifications, required to perform that job satisfactorily. It is the process of getting, information about the job. Thus, the purpose of job analysis is to, establish and document the ‗job relatedness of employment, procedures. It investigates exactly:, What the worker does in a particular job?, How s/he does that particular job?, Why s/he does it ?and, How much skill is required to do it ?, What are the physical demands, environmental conditions, associated with this specific job?, Some of the methods of job analysis are:, 1. Review of job classification system, 2. Interviews: Incubement interviews, interview, , and supervisor, , 3. expert panel, 4. observation, 5. Incubement work logs, Advantages of Job analysis:, 5. Job analysis helps the personnel manager at time of recruitment, and selection of right personnel in right job, 6. Understanding the extent and scope of training required in the, field, 7. It helps in chalking out the compensation plan for employees, 8. It helps the personnel in performance appraisal of employees., , These may be used individually or in combination. Job, analysis can be done in two ways: job description and job, specifications, 5.7.2 Job Specifications:, Job specification is a statement which tells us minimum, acceptable human qualities which helps to perform a job. It helps in, selecting a appropriate person for an appropriate position. The, components covered under job specifications are, 8. job title and designation
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348, 9. educational qualification for that title, 10. physical and other related attributes, 11. Mental Health, 12. Special attributes and abilities, 13. maturity and dependability, 14. Relationship of that job with other jobs, Advantages of Job Specifications, 7. It is helpful in preliminary screening in selection procedures, 8. It helps in giving due justifications to each job, 9. It helps in designing training and development programmes, 10. It helps the supervisors for counseling and monitoring, performance of employees, 11. It helps in job evaluation, 12. It helps the management to take decisions regarding promotions,, transfer and giving extra benefits to employees., , 5.7.3 Job Profile:, Job Profile is a breakdown of the duties and tasks required, of and performed by a person for a specific title. Job profile or the, Key Result Areas indicate a list of activities that you are doing or, will be doing in any job. It defines your job responsibilities (the, activities you are autorized to do in any job). Whenever you wish to, switch to new job, your existing and previous experience is counted, on the basis of your job profile and that is why job opportunities, depend on the job profile., Job profiles list a general description of the work position, including required duties, position goals and departmental, placement. Also, job profiles list candidate educational and, experience requirements. For example, the candidate "must have, three years of sales experience." Many job profiles also list the, position's salary or hourly wage., A job profile presents a clear picture of the position to the, candidate. After reading the job profile, job seekers can make an, informed decision as to whether the job is right for them. For, applicants, a well-written job profile serves as a valuable interview, preparation tool., , 5.8 LET US SUM UP, Occupational information, one of the essential guidance, services is helpful for career development, career adjustment,, vocational thinking and changing perceptions of students., Occupational information is collected from primary and secondary, sources. Agencies/organisations working at international, national
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349, and state/local level bring publications pertaining to occupations, from time to time. Occupations are classified based upon, Occupation, Industry, Educational Level, interest etc. Different, methods like follow up survey, community occupation survey,, community education survey and want on ad are used to collect, relevant data on occupational information., Occupational information is disseminated by individual and group, techniques. Job satisfaction is related to many factors like, motivation, demographic factors, gender etc. There is relationship, between Job analysis, job specification and job profile., , 5.9 UNIT END EXERCISE, 7. What is occupational information? Discuss the need and, importance of occupational information., 8. Prepare a list of national level organizations/agencies, working for publication and dissemination of occupational, information., 9. What are different types of, occupational information, materials available? Discuss with example any five forms of, each type of material., 10. What is the classification scheme of NCO-2004, 11. Discuss various factors responsible for job satisfaction, 12. Write short notes on a)Job Profile(b)Job Specifications, , 5.10 SUGGESTED READINGS, Joneja,G.K(1997).Occupational Information in Guidance.National, Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, Locke (1976).Cited in Brief,A.P ;Weiss,H.M(2001).Organizational, Behaviuor ,Annual Review of Psychology,53,279-307,p282, Weiss,H.M(2002).Deconstructing, Job, Satisfaction:Separating, evaluatuions,beliefs and affective experiences.Human Resource, Managementb Review,12,173-194, Vohra,S(1993).Comprehensive, Services,New Delhi, , Interest, , Schedule, , .PSY-COM, , NCERT(2008).Career Information in Guidance,Module-5 and 12,, National Council Of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi, Hoppock,R(1935). Job Satisfaction, Harper and Bros,New York.
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350, , , , 6, PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS AND, TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND, COUNSELLING – QUANTITATIVE, TECHNIQUES, Unit Structure :, 7.0, 6.3, 6.4, , 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, , Introduction, Objectives, Psychological Tests, 6.2.7 Intelligence Test, 6.2.8 Interest Inventories, 6.2.9 Aptitude Tests, 6.2.10 Achievement Tests, 6.2.11 Attitude Scale, 6.2.12 Personality Test, Let us sum up, Self-evaluation Exercises, Suggested Readings, , INTRODUCTION :, The goal of assessment is to help counselors develop an, understanding of the client or an individual. By using assessment, and appraisal procedures, you will be able to gain understanding of, the individual and in turn foster individual‘s understanding himself, or herself. In this sense, you will appreciate that assessment and, appraisal processes and procedures are the means of obtaining, comprehensive understanding of students thereby fulfilling the goal, of counseling.
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351, It is essential that, you need to be familiar with the major, tools and techniques of assessment, the purpose for which they are, used and how the information provided by these can be used in, understanding the individual. Psychological testing is one of the, ways of assessment., The selection of any tool whether quantitative or qualitative, depends on the type of information the counselor is interested in, gathering. In most cases both are required to be used for holistic, assessment an appraisal. In this unit, you will read about, psychological tests, which are the tools for quantitative, assessment., , 6.1, , OBJECTIVES :, , After completion of this unit, you would be able to :, , , Describe the meaning and uses of different psychological, tests in guidance and counseling, , , , , , , , 6.2, , Intelligence Test, Interest Inventories, Aptitude Tests, Achievement Tests, Attitude Scale, Personality Test, , PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS :, , Psychological tests are designed to assess the, characteristics of people such as their abilities, attitudes,, motivations, interests, needs and values and so on. Psychological, test can be defined as a sample of an individual, behaviour,, obtaining under standard conditions and scored according to a, fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score (Anastasi, 2003)., In a standardized test, individual scores are compared with a, norm or standard arrived at on the basis of performance of sample, of individuals of the same age or grade level from around the, country who took the same test when it was first developed. Good, standardized tests are the result of years of research. Tests may, take many forms. Usually, they comprise of a series of items /, questions with well-defined correct answers such as in case of tests, of intelligence or achievement, while others such as personality, inventories, do not have right or wrong answers, but are designed, to assess person‘s pre-dispositions, tendencies and preferences.
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352, Tests can be used to compare the same individual on two or, more traits and also compare two or more individuals on the same, trait. Such an assessment is usually quantitative. Although most of, the psychological tests provide relatively objective and quantifiable, scores such as tests of intelligence abilities / aptitudes. Some other, tests may also provide descriptive and qualitative interpretations., You will learn about these in Unit 7., A standard test has a manual which provides complete, information of how the test was developed, evidence of its, consistency, accuracy and objectivity. It also consists of detailed, instructions for administering, scoring, interpreting the test, its uses, and possible misuses. The test manual thus, provides you the, requisite information to allow you to make an informed judgement, as to whether the test is suitable for your use. Besides, the, requirement to select the appropriate psychological test, a, counselor needs to develop various skills in test administration,, scoring, interpretation and communicating results to clients., The following section will describe some type of tests and, the purpose for which they are used., Psychological tests are classified into different types, depending on their content and the way they are administered., Tests vary in their content depending on the aspect of behaviour, that is assessed, for example, some tests are designed to assess, abilities, others assess motivation, personality characteristics etc., Psychological tests are also classified into individual and group, tests, verbal tests and non-verbal tests and performance tests. Let, us discuss one by one quantitative methods and techniques., 6.2.7 Intelligence Tests :, Intelligence has been one of the most popular psychological, terms used in identifying individual differences. It has helped to, explain that people differ from each other in their ability to, understand complex ideas or to learn from experience. Different, theorists have tried to explain intelligence in different ways following, different approaches. Theories by Binet, Weschler Spearman and, Thustone are based on the psychometric approach where, intelligence is considered as an aggregate of abilities. It is, expressed in terms of a single index of abilities. Howard Gardener‘s, theory of multiple intelligences puts forth that intelligence is not a, single entity and there exists multiple intelligences, each distinct, from others. According to him, there are nine distinct intelligences, that are relatively independent of each other. These different types, of intelligences interact and work together to provide a solution of a, problem. The nine types of intelligences proposed by Gardener are, briefly discussed below.
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353, 10., Linguistic Intelligence : The capacity to use language, fluently and flexibly, to express one‘s thinking and understanding, others. Used in reading a book, writing a paper, a novel or a, poem; and understanding spoken words. Poets and writers, exhibit this ability., 11., Logical Mathematical Intelligence : Thinking logically,, critically, using abstract reasoning to manipulate symbols and solve, mathematical problems., 12., Spatial Intelligence : Abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images. Used in getting from one place to, another, in reading a map, and is packing suitcase in the trunk of a, car so that they all fit into a compact space. Pilots, sailors, interior, decorators, surgeons, fashion designers generally exhibit this, ability., 13., Musical Intelligence : Capacity to produce, create and, manipulate musical patterns. Used in singing a song, composing a, sonata, playing a trumpet or even appreciating the structure of a, piece of music., 14., Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence : Ability to use one‘s body, and muscle structure in a coordinated planned way. Used in, dancing, playing basket ball, running a mile or throwing a javeline., Athletes, dancers, actors, gymnasts, sports person, surgeon exhibit, this more than others., 15., Interpersonal Intelligence : Used in relating to other, people, such as when we try to understand another person‘s, behaviour, motives or emotions, counselors, psychologists,, politicians, social workers, religious leaders are shown to be high, on this ability., 16., Intrapersonal Intelligence : Knowledge of one‘s internal, strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to relate to, others., 17., Naturalistic Intelligence : Complete awareness to our, relationship with the natural world, useful in recognizing the beauty, of different species of flora and fauna and making a distinction in, the natural world., 18., Existential Intelligence : Can be defined as the ability to be, sensitive to, or have the capacity for, conceptualizing or tackling, deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as the, meaning of life, why are we born, why do you die, what is, consciousness or how did we get here., The multiple intelligences approach focuses on ways in, which people can be intelligent.
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354, Theorists have also tried to explain intelligence in terms of, information processing approach wherein the focus is on how an, intelligent person thinks, acts and solves problems. Sternberg‘s, information processing approach focuses on how solutions are, arrived. According to Sternberg, the critical aspect of what, constitutes intelligence is not necessarily the speed with which one, arrives at a solution but the processes one uses. Processing, information quickly does not mean it was done accurately or, correctly. A relative rather than an impulsive style of problem, solving has been associated with higher ability to solve problems., Jumping to conclusions without adequate reflection can lead to, erroneous thinking. The notion of emotional intelligence broadens, the concept of intelligence and involves ;, v) perceiving or sensing emotions,, vi) using emotion to assist thoughts,, vii) understanding emotions, and, viii) managing emotions., The concept of IQ dominated intelligence testing for a long, time. With the emerging view of intelligence as multifaceted, the, concept of intelligence as a single unitary ability or a composite of, scores on different abilities is not considered valid. The concept of, IQ has been found to be misleading. As counselors, the focus, should be on a holistic assessment focusing on strengths and, weaknesses of the client. This would help to plan remedial, measures for intervention. The multiple intelligences approach is an, alternative approach to assessment of intelligence. It emphasizes a, variety of abilities and skills (and not just an aggregate of mental, abilities), which are required for success in life situations., As the meaning of intelligence differs from one culture to, another there is a need to understand the cultural context for, measuring intelligence. Even though tests of intelligence assist, counselors and other personnel in providing a view of the clients, abilities, the scores of these tests need to be used with caution., 6.2.8 Interest Inventories :, In order to help students make, vocational and & educational, choices, the counselor needs to, know his/her interest for activities., The study of interest would help, you as counselor to better, understand the students in terms of, his/her likes and dislikes. In this, section, you will learn about the, concept of interest and its assessment.
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355, , You might have observed in your class that some students, show more inclination to mathematics, while others in, computers, some in literary activities, in paining etc., Interest is an expression of our likes and dislikes or our, attractions or aversions. An individual chooses the most, acceptable, suitable alternative out of many, go after, preferred objectives, activities etc. and consequently, desires satisfaction, success and happiness out of the, activities selected. It is because of his or her natural, liking fro these activities over others. Interest refers to, activities that on individual likes to engage in enjoys., , Types of Interest :, , Interest can be classified in, different ways. Supper (1990) classified interest as, (i) expressed (ii) manifest or observed and (iii) measure, or tested., , Interest testing is done to achieve some purpose such, as :, , , , To provide teachers and counselors with information, regarding the students preference and aversions which, will help then acquire better understanding of students and, their problems., , , , To enable teachers, counselors and parents to assist the, testes to prepare his educational and vocational terms, consistent with his interest., , , , To help in the selection of the right person for the right, work, and thus same frustration, unhappiness and, disappointment in the live of the individuals and increase, productive capacity of individual., , Methods of Assisting Interests
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356, We can use (i) formal assessment techniques and (ii), informal assessment techniques to discover a student’s, interest., ii), , Formal Assessment Techniques :, , Interest inventories are formal techniques for measuring, interests. They are considered more reliable at, discovering on individuals interest than interviews as, the inventories address a large number of questions, representing a broad range of carriers. There are many, inventories now in use and majority of them deal with, occupational interest., , Interest Inventories, , The Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIS) and Kuder, preference Record (KPR) are significant milestones in, the area of interest measurement and a number of, revisions of the original forms have been undertaken., Both the interest inventories however better in terms of, approaches in construction and purpose for which they, are used., The SVIB is based on the assumption that a person who has, the interest typical of successful people in a given, occupation will enjoy and find satisfaction in that, occupation., , The KPR constructed by G. Frederic Kuder, assets preferences, for specific activities. Each item contains three choices., The subject has to select one of the three choices as his, first choice, and another as his third choice., , An example of the choices given in an item are :, Build bird houses, Write articles about birds, Drawn sketches of birds.
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357, This particular item aims to test three types of interests,, namely mechanical, literacy and an artistic., , The main difference in the two types of inventories is that in, Kuder preference record the subject is forced to say, which one of the three activities he likes best and which, one he likes least, even though he may not like any of, the that, hence it is called forced choice pattern type. In, Strong Vocational Interest blank, the subject has to, differentiate between L (like), I (indifferent) or D (dislike)., Hence it is called category-response type of, assessment. As counselor if you want a description of a, persons so that inferences could be done regarding, suitability for one of the very large number of jobs,, Kuder Preference Record is your preferable tool of, interest assessment. On the other hand if the purpose is, to appraise the individually interest for a limited number, of specific jobs, then strong Vocational Interest Blank is, more useful. It is important to remember that the SVIB, and KPR tell nothing about the ability or aptitude of an, individual. These to be assessed by other methods., , Results of interest inventories or tests are particularly useful, to the counselor as :, , , , , , The items of interest inventories are non-threatening and, so the student is more likely to respond honestly., The student, with the assistance of the counselor, is, helped to see the discrepancy, if any, between his/her view, of one’s interests and those assessed by the interest, inventories., It also provides the counsellor a view into whether the, clients expressed interests are shifted to what s/he is, pursuing., , You have read about two distinct, types of interest inventories. Besides,, these two, some tools are available and, used by the counselor and the, individual her / himself., , Informal Assessment Techniques :
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358, , It includes client’s expression of interests and observation., The clients interviews regarding his/her interests provide the, counselor a good beginning for understanding the client. For, example, the books s/he reads, and the amount of time spent, on reading provides on indication of clients interests on the, kind of reading s/he does. As counselors you can supplement, this information by using qualitative techniques of, assessment such as observation of the activities a client, participates in or information gathered from anecdotal records, and written works as sources informal information regarding, client interests., , Cautions on the use of Interest inventories, , As counselor, you should keep in the following cautions, in mind while using the results of interest inventories., , , , Interest data of an individual provides a profile of the, pattern of their interests (what they like doing) and, should not be taken as the strength of the individual)., , , , Interest results tell us only about the likelihood of an, individual finding enjoyment in a particular type of, activity or occupation and not s/he is capable of., , , , A high score on an interest inventory so should not be, considered analogues to success in a career., , You have read in the above section that assessment of, interest indicates of a simple level what a person likes to do and, enjoy. It is important to remember interests indicate the clients and, not his or her strength. The emphasis of interest inventories is on, self-exploration. One should know about one self and be able to, relate this information to what one is doing. Thus the results of, interest inventories should not be seen in an isolate manner but, should be supplemented with information from other techniques, such as observation, interview, informal talk etc. interest results are, of little value themselves. They should be considered with, achievement and aptitude scores to help individuals make, educational and career choices.
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359, 6.2.9 Aptitude Tests :, Aptitude is thought of as a natural tendency, special, ability, or capacity or cluster of abilities. Often these natural, abilities are looked at in relationship to a person’s readiness, to learn or their suitability for a particular career. For example,, in order to be successful architect, one most possess the, cluster of abilities such as a keen sense of observation, a, sense of aesthetic visual memory, abstract reasoning, and an, ability to sketch free hand. So, aptitude may be defined as a, trait that characterizes an individual’s ability to perform in a, area or to acquire the learning necessary for performance in a, given area. It presumes an inherent or native ability that can, be developed to its maximum through learning or other, experiences. However, it can not be expanded beyond a, certain point, even by learning. Although that may be a, debatable concept, it is stated here as a basis on which, aptitude tests are developed. In theory, then, an aptitude test, measures the potential of one to achieve in a given activity or, to learn to achieve in that activity., , Aptitude tests may potentially be used by counselors, and others because., , , , They may identify potential abilities of which the, individual is not aware;, , , , They may encourage the development of special or, potential abilities of a given individual., , , , They may provide information to assist on individual in, making educational and career decisions or other, choices between competing alternatives;, , , , They may serve as an aid in predicting the level of, academic or vocational success on individual might, anticipate; and, , , , They may be useful in grouping individuals with similar, aptitudes for development and other educational, purposes., , Types of Aptitude Tests :
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360, There are different types of aptitude tests. Some of them are, single aptitude tests like tests of mechanical aptitude,, clerical aptitude, teaching aptitude, musical aptitude and, so on. Such tests covering a group of related abilities, are necessary for performing in an occupation like, becoming a mechanic, clerk, teacher, musician etc., Another type of aptitude test is work sample aptitude, test. It requires the individual to perform all or part of a, given job under the conditions that exist on the job. An, example of a work sample test for the job of automobile, mechanic is to repair a faulty carburetor. Besides this,, there are differential tests Batteries as well. A commonly, know Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett,, Seashore and Wesman (1984) battery consists of eight, subtests of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning, spatial reasoning, clerical speed and, accuracy, mechanical reasoning, language usage,, spelling, grammar, combination of such abilities is, required for success in different occupations. Such test, batteries can give comprehensive information about the, relative picture of the students specific abilities., Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in, terms of time but one can make selective use of certain, sub tests. For example, a student trying to explore, whether s/he will have the required aptitude to go to, engineering, may not be required to take tests like, clerical speed, language usage, grammatical or verbal, reasoning tests but may be required to take numerical, abstract and spatial reasoning tests. Most of the, batteries of tests available for assessment of aptitude at, school stage are in the form of test batteries consisting, of the underlying abilities required for success in, different occupations rather than direct assessment of, job aptitudes., , Caution in the use of Aptitude Test Data :, , , , It is important that counselors select and use aptitude, tests carefully, keeping in view the student’s/clients needs., If aptitude test data must be used, it should be used along, with previous achievement data, present interests, leisure, time activities and work habits etc. in order to guide the, students into various occupational possibilities., , , , The aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual, and helps to find what he/she can do now and how well it, can be done further. On the basis of present performance,
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361, estimate of his/her future achievement is inferred which is, in terms of probability only., , , It may also be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only, provide leads or suggestions or to help in career planning, and do not automatically match individuals to suitable, courses or studies, and occupations. These are factors, like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or one’s, success in a career which are not measured by aptitude, tests., , 6.2.10 Achievement Tests :, Achievement is what one successfully accomplishes in an, area of study / activity / domain. In the case of students, it may be, conceptualized as successful learning of the assigned educational, material. Such learning is usually demonstrated to teachers and, others either through a verbal presentation or a written, examination., An achievement test measures knowledge and skills, attained by the student in a particular area, usually acquired after, classroom teaching or training. In an educational system,, achievement test scores are often used to determine the level of, instruction for which a student is prepared, to indicate academic, strengths and weakness, and to indicate the relative standing of the, student in a group/class. Achievement test data, in combination, with other data, is used to help guidance counselors plan students, future educational programmes., , Types of Achievement Test :, Achievement tests are of different kinds, each scoring a, different purpose and providing different information on students‘, academic proficiency. These have been classified in various ways,, and understanding of which helps the counselor to understand their, functions., Formative and Summative Tests : Formative tests are used to, measure progress made in knowledge and skills before and during, instruction. Summative achievement tests are given at the end of, course instruction, so as to assess the outcome of the instruction., Progonostic tests : Readiness or prognostic tests are used to, predict how well an individual is expected to profit from training., Diagnostic Test : Diagnostic achievement tests provide, information on performance of the students in different subjects and
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362, indicate their strengths and weakness in reading, arithmetic and, language usage., Achievement test can be either criterion referenced (CRT) or, norm referenced (NRT). The two tests differ in their intended, purposes, the way in which content is selected, and the scoring, process which defines how the test results must be interpreted., Norm Referenced Tests (NRTs) are designed to highlight, achievement differences between and among students and provide, a rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from, high achievers to low achievers. These types of tests are used to, help counselors/ teachers to clarify students for remedial or gifted, programmes. Criterion-reference tests (CRTs) determine the, strengths of the test taker i.e. what they can do and what they, know, not how they compare to others. They report how well, students are doing relative to a predetermined performance level, on an specified set of educational goals or outcomes included in, the school curriculum., , An achievement test is designed to measure how much a, person knows about a specific topic or area such as math,, geography or science. Achievement tests can be standardized test, or teacher-made tests., Uses of Achievement Test Data, Data from standard achievement tests can be used for, promoting,, , classifying,, , diagnosing, , or, , evaluating, , students., , Counselors can also use the achievement tests for :, , , Helping clients in decision making. A counselor can use the, achievement test scores to initiate decision on taking, appropriate choices for a career., , , , Assisting in diagnosis counselors can make use of, achievement test data to diagnose problems faced by the, students in different subject areas. Accordingly corrective, remediation can be planned and carried out.
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363, , , Encouraging self-study. The student through achievement, data, is able to gain insight into his/her strengths and, weakness in different subjects which can motivate him/her to, put in the desire effort., , , , Achievement test are used as learning measures of (1) the, amount of learning, (2) the rate of learning (3) comparisons, with others or with achievement of self in other areas, (4) level, of learning in sub-areas, and (5) strengths and workers in a, subject matter area because of their extensive use and, relatively easy task of identifying appropriate context, measures., , Achievement tests of both kinds i.e. standardized and, teacher –made tests are based on the content taught and are, considered valid. These are used to assess the level of overall, proficiency to meet the entry requirements to certain/ programmes, or the proficiency in a particular subject. The informal classroom, achievement test is suited to a select performance of a group of, students. It is flexible and accommodates testing students on a, local curriculum. The two types of tests can be used in a, complementary manner., 6.2.11 Attitude Scale :, Attitudes are expressions of how much we like or dislike, various things. We tend to approach and seek out to be associated, with things we like, we avoid, shun or reject things we do not like., Attitude represent our evaluations and performance towards a wide, variety of objects, events, persons, and situations. The defining, characteristics of attitudes is that they express evaluations along, the lines of liking-disliking, pro-anti, favouring – disfavouring or, positive – negative (Petty and Cacippo, 1981). By restricting the, term attitude to evaluation, we distinguish attitudes from beliefs or, opinions. Attitude includes certain aspects of personality as, interests, appreciations and social conduct. Attitudes are learnt,, they are adopted. They have aspects as directions, intensity etc. In, the following section we will know how attitudes tested., Types of Attitude Scales :, Attitudes need to be tested because our social life depends, on some desirable attitudes. The success in certain vocations also, depends on some attitudes. Attitudes can be tested through, various techniques. Various scaling techniques have led to the, development of different types of attitude scales which provide, quick and convenient measure of attitudes. However, the ‗method, of equal appearing intervals‘ and ‗method of summative ratings‘, have been extensively used in attitude or opinion research. The, attitude scales which are developed using these scaling techniques
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364, consists of a number of carefully edited and selected items called, ‗statements‘., The method of ‗equal – appearing intervals‘ was originally, developed by Thurstone and Chave. The attitude score of an, individual obtained by this method has an absolute interpretation in, terms of the psychological continuum of scale value of the, statements making up the scale. If this score falls in the middle, range of the psychological continuum, the attitude of the individual, is described as ―neutral‖. If it falls towards the favourable end of the, continuum, it is described as ―favourable‖ and if it falls towards the, unfavourable ends, it is described as ―unfavourable‖., In the ―method‖ of summated ratings developed by Likert,, the item score is obtained by assigning arbitrary weights of 5, 4, 3,, 2 and 1 for Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U),, Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) for the statements, favouring a point of view. On the other hand, the scoring weights of, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are used for the respective responses for, statements opposing this point of view. An individual‘s score on a, particular attitude scale is the sum of his rating on all the items., In addition to the above two scales, there some more, techniques, such as, Error Choice Technique, Free Response, Technique, Paired Comparisons, Opinion Polling or Surveying,, diaries, auto-biographic etc. are used for testing attitude., Attitude scales are used to measure the degree of positive or, negative feeling associated with any slogan, person, institution,, religion, political party etc. Attitude scales are also used in publicopinion surveys in order to make some important and crucial, decisions. Educationists, for example, conduct opinion surveys to, find out how people feel about educational issues., , 6.2.12 Personality Test :, Often by persons use the term personality to indicate the, physical make up of an individual. The term ―Personality‖ however,, signifies much more than simply the physical looks of a person and, has a very broad meaning. It includes the emotional, motivational,, inter-personal, attitudinal and even moral aspects of a person., some researchers have included intelligence also as part of, personality. Personality refers to a unique combination of, characteristics of an individual, which pre-disposes the person to, behave in a particular and consistent way. Personality testing is, necessary to achieve the following purposes.
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365, , , It helps the students in proper educational and vocational, choice. Personality plays an important role in an individual,, personal, educational and vocational adjustment and success., It is, therefore, important to diagnose the individual‘s, personality pattern to see whether he posses the traits which, are likely to contribute significantly to his adjustment to the, course or career he is choosing., , , , It helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts., Personality diagnosis becomes essential when the difficulty the, individual encounters in making proper adjustment with the, educational and occupational choices, lies in emotional conflict, about which the client has no knowledge. When the cause of, the mental conflict is diagnosed, it may be possible for him to, solve his problem in his own way., , , , It helps the clinical psychologist. A clinical psychologist can, use personality assessments to help choose the best therapy, for his clients. Thus, personality assessment is important for, educational, career, personal and social counseling., , Techniques of Testing Personality :, A number of techniques are used for testing personality. The, techniques are :, , , , , , , , , , , , Interview, Observation, Self-report Measures, Checklists, Rating Scales, Situational Tests or Behavioural Tests, Projective Techniques, Anecdotal Records, Autobiography, The Daily Diary, , Here we can discuss some of the techniques of assessment, of personality like self-report measures, projective techniques and, behavioral assessment., Self-Report Measures : Self-report measures are personality, scales that ask individuals to answer a series of questions /, statements about their characteristic behaviour. When you respond, to a self-report personality inventory, you endorse statements as, true or false as applied to you. You indicate how often you behave, in a particular way or you rate yourself with respect to certain, qualities. The logic underlying this approach is simple. Who know, you better than you do ? A variety of personal characteristics can, be measured through self-report inventories.
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366, , Projective, Technique, :, Projective, techniques focus on a composite picture of, the personality as, a whole. This, method is called, the, projective, techniques, because, the, individual, is, stimulated, to, An Illustration of Rorschach Inkblot, , project his, An Illustration showing the Drawing of a, personality into the test exercises. The stimuli, Card of TAT, used in projective techniques attempt to, arouse responses that are a projection of the innerself or motives, and personality traits that are usually hidden and often even, unsuspected by the individual himself. The subject may be asked to, respond to series of picture, inkblots or similarly ambiguous stimuli., The interpretation of responses requires a long period of training, and should be done only by those who are specially qualified. The, most popularly known projective technique is the Rorschach, Inkbolts Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TA)., Behavioural Assessment : The manner in which a student / client, behaves in different situations can provide you with meaningful, information about his / her personality. Observation of behaviour,, teacher reports, interviews, ratings and situations tests serve as the, basis of behavioural analysis., The choice of a specific personality test is difficult but, extremely relevant as different tests yield somewhat different, yet, overlapping types of information. Some provide limited information, while other provides a lot of information, some of which is very, technical to understand. Of course, the more the information, available, you may be able to help in more domains. You should, choose a test that is relevant to clients. The test must have norms, available. You should also be aware of the limitations of the test,, particularly the conditions in which it may mislead the respondents, or you. Even when a test is used the counselor may interpret and, use the test scores along with non-test information, keeping in mind, the age, gender, social group, culture, language of the client., , 6.3, , LET US SUM UP :, , Psychological test is an objective and standardized measure, of a sample of behaviour. Tests are used for selection,, classification, diagnosis and prediction. School counselors,, teachers and administrators use test data for different purposes.
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367, The essential characteristics of standardized psychological test are, : objectivity, reliability, validity and norms. Counselors need to, develop skills in test administration, scoring, interpretation of test, results, and communicating results to their clients. General, considerations for counselors in the appraisal process relate to, being in good psychological health, developing sensitivity for the, client, showing open mindedness, respecting the client, having, attentiveness and showing empathy towards the client., Tests and testing have been criticized because of their, misuse and issues like labeling, inaccuracy, culture bias, invading, privacy, encouraging competition. There is a need for, standardization of all procedures and scoring of psychological tests, for accuracy in results. Counselors need to take cautions in using, psychological tests like interest inventories, aptitude tests,, achievement tests, intelligence tests, attitude scale, personality, tests., , 6.4, , SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES :, , 6., , Explain the meaning of a psychological test, , 7., , Name three types of aptitude test, , 8., , How does the notion of intelligence changed over the years., , 9., , List five techniques for testing personality, , 10. State the four key abilities of Emotional Intelligence, Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises :, 2., , Elaborate on the following points, Define psychological test, Covers both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of, measurements., , 3., , Elaborate on the fact that a good IQ and scholastic record are, not the only indicators of intelligence in a student, but the, concept today has broadened to include multiple and, emotional intelligence. As is sometimes seen, on, academically bright person may be facing a lot of problems, in inter-personal relationships., , 5., , Elaborate on the following points :, Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion, Emotional facilitation of thinking
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368, Understanding and analyzing emotions; employing emotional, knowledge, Reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and, intellectual growth, , 6.5, , SUGGESTED READINGS :, , Benett, G.K., Seashore, H.G. & Wesman, A.G., 1984, Differential Aptitude Tests : Technical Supplement, Psychological, Corporation, New York, Educational Testing Services (ETS), New Jersey, Shertzer, B. & Linlen, J.D. 1979. Fundamentals of individual, Appraisal : Assessment techniques for counselors. Houghton, Mifflin Co., Boston, Gardner, H. 1983. Frames of Mind : The Theory of Multiple, Intelligence. Basic Book, New York., Sternberg R.J., 2007. Cognitive Psychology (4th ed.) Yale, University, Indian Edition., Cervone, D. and Shoda, Y. 1999. The Coherence of Personality., Gilford, New York., Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, I, NCERT, New Delhi, Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, II, NCERT, New Delhi, Kochar, S.K. (1985) : Educational Guidance and Counselling., ,
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369, , , , 7, , QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES FOR GUIDANCE AND, COUNSELLING, Unit Structure :, 7.0, 7.1, 7.2, , 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, , Introduction, Objectives, Qualitative Assessment Test and Tools, 7.2.1 Socio-metric Technique, 7.2.2 Case Study, 7.2.3 Cumulative Record Card, 7.2.4 Autobiography, 7.2.5 Observation, 7.2.6 Interviews, Ethical basis in the use of Psychological Tests and Tools, Let us sum up, Self-Evaluation Exercises, Suggested Readings, , 7.0, , INTRODUCTION :, , You have read in the previous unit about the uses of, psychological tests which are the tools for quantitative assessment, of an individual / client. As you know, tests provide a score related, to a particular area of the individual. This score in itself does not tell, everything about the individual. To enhance your understanding, about an individual / client, you will need to use other assessment, techniques that provide explanations of both the why and how of a, particular situations or incident. This is the basis of the qualitative, assessment. The focus of qualitative enquiry is not on highlighting, differences among the individuals but on the uniqueness of, individuals. Qualitative assessment helps to understand an, individual‘s behaviour in relation to the context and situation., In these unit, you will read about qualitative assessment, tools. There are a number of standard techniques used to form a
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370, qualitative assessment. Observation, interviews, sociometry, case, study, analysis of documents, informal talks, artifacts, rating scales,, checklists, self-descriptions etc. are all sources of data in, qualitative. You will study in this unit how the techniques of, sociometry, case study, cumulative record card, autobiography,, observation, interviews and home visits are used for qualitative, assessment to develop a holistic view of the client. You will also, read about ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools., , 7.1, , OBJECTIVES :, , After completion of this unit, you will be able to :, Describe the important characteristics of seven qualitative, methods, , , , , , , , Sociometric Technique, Case Study, Cumulative Record Card, Autobiography, Observation, Interviews, , Use qualitative methods to develop a holistic understanding of, the client, Describe ethical basis in the use of psychological tests and tools, , 7.2, , QUALITATIVE ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES :, , Qualitative assessment techniques are commonly employed, for various settings. These techniques provide a broader, variable, and more subjective approach to data gathering and interpretation, for human assessment. There are different types of qualitative, assessment, techniques used by the guidance worker and, counselors. We shall now discuss various qualitative assessment, techniques for guidance and counseling., 7.2.1 Sociometry Techniques :, The purpose of this technique is to study the nature of social, relationship of individual within a group. It offers on opportunity to, identify personality problems, especially in isolates and the rejects., The technique is a useful source of information for appraisal of, social behaviour of students., Various aspects of personal-social development of the client, can be more effectively evaluated by using sociometric technique.
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371, You too may have observed that in certain areas like leadership, ability, concern for others, or effectiveness in doing group work etc., peers often know each others strengths and weakness better than, the teacher or the counsellor. The intimate interactions that occur in, the give-and-take of peer relations seldom fully visible to an outside, observer. Hence peer appraisal is important to build an, understanding of the client. You shall now learn about sociometry, which can be effectively used with clients and their peers., Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social acceptance of, the client or individual student. It also provides information on the, social structure of a group or class of which it client is apart. It, provides information relating to how each individual is perceived by, the group/class. Students are required to give their choices of, companions for some group situation or activity. In the example, given below children‘s acceptance is assessed for choices of sating, companions, work companions and play companions., Example :, Name _______________________ Date, Some new arrangements will be made for, sitting, working in small groups, and playing group, games. I would like to know the names of those, children you would like to sit with, to play with you and, to work with you. You may choose anyone in your, class you wish, including those students who are, absent. Your choices will not be seen by any one, else. Make the choices carefully so that he groups, can be arranged the way you really want them. At, times it is not possible to give everyone their first, choice so make sure you give three choices for each, question. I would choose to sit with those children., I would choose to sit with these children., 1._____________________2._______________, 3.___________________, I would choose to work with these children., 1._____________________2._______________, 3.___________________, I would choose to play with these children., 1._____________________2._______________, 3.___________________
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372, , As you may have observed, that given example illustrates, some important principles of sociometric choice, these are :, v), , The choices should be real choices that are natural part of, classroom activities., , vi), , The basis of choice and restrictions on the choices made, should be indicated clearly., , vii) All students should be equally free to participate in the activity., viii) Choices made by the students should be kept confidential., Although some differences in choice can be from one, situation to another, a large element of social acceptance runs, through all the choices. It is suggested by sociometric experts that, negative choices should be avoided unless absolutely essential., Questions such as ―Whom they would not want as comparison may, disturb both the group morale and the emotional development of, students / client., It is important to keep in mind that the number of choices, made by the student is restricted. Two or three choices for each, activity is considered as a suitable number for children otherwise, they find it difficult to discriminate when number of choices is large., The sociometric data is provided in the form of a sociogram, which shows attractions and repulsions within a group and helps, the teacher and the counsellor in discovering the problems of, students in elation to the group., , Use of Sociometric Results, Counsellors and teachers can be sociometric results for :, , Organising classroom groups,, Improving individual students social adjustment,, Improving groups social structure,, and Evaluating the influence of school practices on students social, relations., 7.2.2 Case Study :, A case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of, an individual or the client. The focus in case study is on factors
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373, contributing to the development of particular personality patterns, and /or problems. The case study employs all possible tools and, techniques that seem appropriate to understand an individual (e.g.,, observation, interview, self-reports, teacher‘s ratings, checklist,, sociometry, document analysis, anti-biographics etc.). It gives, detailed information regarding different perspectives that can not be, attained by any other methods. Case study is the most, comprehensive of all analytical techniques because it makes use of, all other assessment techniques., Case study as an assessment technique is used by, counselors to provide a means of integrating and summarizing all, available information about the client in order to determine what, further steps should be taken to enhance his or her development., Remember that collection of case study data is not simple, stockpiling of information. Rather, the purpose of a case study is to, present the client as a fully functioning totality‖ within his her, environment. Therefore, a case may be selected to understand the, mechanism by which problems accrue or a case study may attempt, to achieve a better understanding of the problems of a child. For, example, a case study may be conducted on student who has a, problem in reading or in arithmetic. We employ case study method, to study the hole individual (in her dynamic developmental process), so that we may better understand his concerns, the reasons for his, actions and behaviours and plan the course of action, which is, appropriate for him., Therefore we may say case study is a synthesis and, interpretation of information about the client and his/her, relationships to his / her environment. As counselors it would help, you to understand the nature and cases of the client‘s behaviour,, personality trends and difficulties in adjustment. Then the question, arises how to conduct a good case study? You will now learn about, the characteristics of a good case study, types of information used,, how a case study is organized and low to report a case study., , Characteristics of a Good Case Study :, , , A good case study is concerned with the individuals‘ past,, present and future. The data colleted from different sources, at, different times through various tools and techniques, should be, analyzed synthesized and presented in a manner to present a, complete view of the individual/ clients life.
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374, , , A good case study is dynamic and longitudinal and not static, and cross sectional., , , , The focus of the case study may be the whole individual or a, small part. The focus of the study varies widely and depends on, the age of the client, the purpose of assessment, the working, situation and the experience of the counselor., , Types of information used in a Case Study :, You have learnt that the aim of gathering/ information about, a person is to develop a holistic perspective, to be able to, understand him her and provide proper guidance and counseling., The various kinds of information used in a case study are gathered, from all reliable sources. Cumulative records, observations,, interviews, self reports, tests, peer appraisal data, teaches, perceptions, from parents, friends, relatives., , Organization of a Case Study :, The organization of case study depends on two major, factors :, , , , The purpose for which the case study is being prepared. This, depends upon the heads of the client, counselor, parents,, referral agency or purpose of study., , , , The competencies and skill of the counselor/researcher in, collecting, organizing and using information., , Organization involves providing an outline or format and, developing and executing a logical plan such as to present the, information in an integrated manner., , An Outline for a Case Study Report :, An exempler performa for reporting a case study of a client, is given below :, , vii), , Identification of data : should consist of, , Name of the Client, , :, , Sex, , :, , Male / Female
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375, Father‘s Name, , :, , Mother‘s Name, , :, , Father‘s occupation, , :, , Date of Birth, , :, , Class, , :, , School, , :, , Language used at home, , :, , Present and permanent address :, , viii), , Referral Source, , Personal history, , :, , Date of assessment, Duration, , :, , Nature of problem, , Opinion of parents:, , Onset and teachers, , :, , Seriousness, , :, , Frequency of occurrence of problem:, ix), , Educational History and Record, , Cumulative record card/ancetotal record :, Is there any change school with reason., x), , Health background, , xi), , Home and family background and neighbourhood, , xii), , Friends and acquaintance, , The steps in developing a case study are given below., Recognition and determination of the status of the problem to, be investigated., Collection of data relating to the factors and circumstances, associated with the given problem., Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for, remedial or developmental treatment., Application of remedial or adjustment measures.
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376, Subsequent follow-up to determine the effectiveness of the, treatment., , Caution in using Case Study :, A counselor may guard against errors which creep in unknowingly., , , The case study should penetrate into the problems under, study. It should not be superficial., , , , Parents should be contacted. Medical opinion should be, sought. All those who come into contact with the individual, should be approached. The study not be one sided., , , , All possible details should be gathered and not even the, slightest detail should be over looked., , 7.2.3 Cumulative Record Card :, Cumulative record cards, personal data cards and, permanent data cards are some of the synonyms to denote a, record system which gives us a picture of the student from many, different sources. It is progressively developed and maintained over, a longer period of time, and gives a summarized ―growth record‖, indicating the direction and rate of development. It shifts the, emphasis from one-time or once a year performance in a few, academic subjects to the full development regarding all the, important aspects of education and general, physical, social and, mental development over a longer period of time. Essentially, meaningful and functionally adequate information is collected from, various sources, techniques, tests, interviews, observations, case, study and the like, is assembled in a summary form on a, cumulative record card, so that it may be used when the student, needs our advice for the solution of some educational or vocational, problem., The cumulative record has been defined as ―a method of, recording, filing and using information essential for the guidance of, students. A cumulative record and supplies information on points, such as the following., g), , Personal : (i) name, (ii) date of birth, (iii) place and evidence, of birth, (iv) sex, (v) colour (vi) residence, , h), , Home : (i) Names of parents, (ii) occupation of the parents,, (iii) parents live or dead (iv) economic status, (vI0 number of, siblings, older or younger, (vi) language spoken in the house., , i), , Test Scores (i) general intelligence, (ii) achievement, (ii), other test scores, (iv) personality traits.
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377, j), , School Attendance : (i) days present or absent each year,, (ii) schools attend with data., , k), , Health : record physical disabilities, vaccination record,, diseases suffered from., , l), , Miscellaneous : (i) vocational plans (ii)extra curricular, activities,(iii) counselors note., , If we analyze the items recorded on a cumulative record, card, we find that only such items are included as are recorded in a, case study. Data collected through non-standardized techniques, like check lists, questionnaires, authobiographics do not find a, place in the record card file. It must be remembered that recording, and filing of information are not so important as using the, information., , Need and Importance of Cumulative Record :, The cumulative records about students provide useful, information to teachers, counselors and administrators. The need, and importance of cumulative records in guidance are given below :, , Importance in Guidance :, The basic principle and assumptions of guidance take into, consideration the individual differences. Cumulative records reveal, such individual differences and indicate the nature and amount of, professional assistance needed by individual students of various, stages of their development., It is useful in analyzing the future needs of the individual, student and proper educational and occupational guidance can be, offered on the basis of his needs., , Importance in Teaching :, , , The cumulative records of different students help the teacher in, classifying students in accordance with scholastic attitudes and, mental abilities., , , , They are diagnostic tools to analyze a behaviour problem or an, educational one. For example, why is a student backward in, the class? What steps can be taken to remove his / her, backwardness?, , , , Cumulative record indicate the students who had special help, and adjust the teaching accordingly., , Characteristics of a Good Cumulative Record :
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378, The following are the characteristics of a good cumulative record., 4., , Information gathered should be complete, comprehensive, and adequate so that valid inferences may be drawn., , 5., , Information recorded should be true and valid. Like other, tools of measurement, a cumulative record can be valid only, when it measures what it intends to measure., , 6., , Information to be reliable should be collected by a number of, teachers and then pooled., , , A cumulative record should be reevaluated from time-totime., , , , A cumulative record should be objective and free from, personal opinions and prejudices., , , , A should be usable. A cumulative record to be a useable, may be card types, folder type or booklet type., 7.2.4 Autobiography :, You might have read a number of autobiographics of great, personalities, some of the common are ―My Experiments with, Truth‖ by Mahatma Gandhi, autobiography of an unknown Indian by, Niral C.Choudhury. An autobiography is a description of an, individual in his own words. As a guidance technique for studying, the individual, it gives a valuable information about the individual‘s, interests, abilities, personal history, hopes, ambitions, likes,, dislikes, etc. In guidance, structured autobiographic items are given, to the individual and he is asked to write them out. The, autobiographical material that is verified by various other means., Since feelings, values and attitude can not be measured by any, other technique, autobiography appears to be the one technique for, appraising these characteristics., 7.2.5 Observation :, Observation is the most direct method of learning about the, development of children. Since it requires focus on the child‘s, behaviour, observation allows the counselor to know the child as a, unique individual, rather than as a member of a group. One of the, most accurate ways to learn about children is to observe them in
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379, their daily activities. It requires systematic and rigorous observation,, which involves far more than just being present and looking around., To understand fully the complexities of many situations, direct, participation and observation of the student/client is considered one, of the best approaches., , What to Observe :, Observation is often used by teachers to understand the, cognitive, affective, and motor development of children. What kind, of individual actions are important for a counselor to observe and, record, what has to be observed would depend a lot on the problem, faced by the client, no exclusive list of indicators can be given., , How to Observe :, Systematic and objective observation requires preparation, and training. Training includes how to write descriptively, recording, field notes, using method for validating observations. Preparation, for observation has mental, physical, intellectual and psychological, dimensions. The quality of information gathered from observation, can be increased with training in the observer‘s skills. The observer, must know what to look for, how to record desired information and, how to explain the behaviour. The accuracy, validity and reliability, of observations can be improved through rigorous training and, careful preparation., It is important to remember that the purpose of observational data, is to describe., , , , , , the setting that was observed,, the activities/behaviour that took place in the given setting,, the people who performed the behaviour or participated in, the activities, and, the meaning of what was observed from the perspective of, those observed., , As counselors you can make use of different sources for, collection of observational, data. These sources could be, documents (such as personal diaries, registers, or memos, etc.), interviews, informal talks, physical settings (how space is used,
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380, lighting etc.), social settings (communication pattern, how decisions, are taken etc.), non-verbal cues, or unobstructie indicators, (equipment in the laboratory, books used in the library, conditions, of carpets etc.)., , Variations in Observation :, Counsellors, can, , make, , observations, , in, , a, , number of settings, such, , as, , homes,, , schools, classrooms,, communities, , and, , organizations, depending, , on, , the, , needs of the student., Variations occur due, to a number of factors associated with nature of counselors, participation, extent of involvement, duration of observation,, duration and focus of observation (Patton, 1990) these five factors, can cause variations in an observation., , Nature of Participation :, Observation can be made by being part of clients setting i.e., full participant or it can be made by observing from distance i.e. as, a spectator. The extent to which the counselor or observer, participates in the setting /case being studied can also cause, variations in observation. A counselor can start as a spectator and, gradually become a full participant or vice versa., , Portrayed of Observer Role :, Dimensions of Variations in Observation, , The observations made can be overt i.e. purpose of making, observation is not revealed to the client or it can be covert i.e.,, clients know that observations are being made.
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381, , Duration of Observation :, Observations can vary from one hour to one year. However,, all the observations should last long enough to get the answers to, client‘s problem., , Focus of Observation :, The focus of observation could be to gain holistic view of the, client, therefore, all the necessary aspects of the client have to be, considered, or on the other hand, one single aspect can be studied., , Methods of Recording Observation :, After having learned about what and how to observe, you, now read to learn about the technique to record observations i.e., field note taking., , Field Note :, Field notes contain the description of what has been, observed. They are descriptive, should be dated, should contain, basic information about when and where the observation took, place, who was present, what the physical setting was like, what, activities took place, and what social interactions occurred. It, should permit the counselor, as observer, to experience the activity, observed while reading the observation and analyzing the data, collected. There are a number of ways for developing field notes., Anecdotes records and critical event records are two examples of, field notes., Guidelines for Observation :, There are a few rules to follow when making observations as, part of a qualitative enquiry., , , Be descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records, critical, incidents)., , , , Gather information from different perspectives (client, peers,, parents, and teachers etc).
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382, , , Cross-validate and triangulate by using data from different, sources; observation, interview and documents, etc. and using, more than one investigator., , , , Present the views of the people, their experiences in their own, words., , , , Separate description from interpretation and judgement., , 7.2.6 Interviews :, The purpose of interviewing is to know what going on in a, person‘s mind. You interview people to find out from them those, things you can‘t directly observe such as feelings, intentions and, thoughts. You can not observe things that happened in the past, or, the meanings attached to things or incidents going on around. To, obtain information about these you have to ask questions. This, helps you to know another‘s perspective., In-depth, open-ended interviewing aims to capture the, clients‘ experiences and perspectives on their problem in their own, terms. Open-ended interviewing is based on the assumption that, other‘s perspective is meaningful. It is important to remember that, skillful interviewing involves much more than asking questions., Now, you will learn about the types of interviews content of, interview, and guidelines on how to question to conduct on, interview with the client., , Types of Interviews :, You will now read about the different types of interviews., Informal Conversational Interview :, It relies on spontaneous questioning which may take place, as part of the counsellor‘s participant-observation. Over the course, of an informal talk, the client may not even realize that she / he is, being interviewed. In such interviews, the data gathered would be, on aspects that differ for each client depending on the issues that, emerge from the conservation. The major advantage is that the, interview is highly individualized to the client and produces, information or insights that the counselor/ interviewer may not have
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383, anticipated. This type of interview requires the counselor to be, experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skill., Interview Guide Approach :, It involves deciding before the interview, the issues that are, to be explored with the client i.e., identifies topics, but not actual, wording of questions, thereby offering flexibility. These identified, issues are used to guide the interview and keep it on track and, ensure that they are covered. This kind of interview is focused and, hence the data collected are more systematic and comprehensive, than informal conversational interview., Standardized Open-ended Interview :, This interview consists of set of questions arranged in a, sequence, which are asked to each client. It minimizes the variation, in the questions passed to the client at the same time provides, scope to the client to give responses that are open-ended. This, reduces the possibility of biases that come from having different, types of interviews with different people. Data obtained from such, interviews are systematic and thorough for each client but it, reduces flexibility and spontaneity because the questions are, predetermined thus leaving little scope for issues that may emerge, during the course of the interview. The advantage of these type of, interview is that it is the most structured and efficient of the, qualitative interviewing techniques., The Focus Group Interview :, In the interview the counselor becomes a facilitator among, the interviewees in a group setting where they hear and react to, one another‘s responses. Focus groups can be used by counselors, to assess the needs of a student group, obtain general background, information about a topic or diagnose the potential problems of a
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384, group of students. In this type of interview the counsellor‘s role is of, a moderator, directing the interaction and inquiry in a manner that, the purpose of interview is served., The common characteristic of all qualitative approaches to, interviewing is that the people being interviewed respond in their, own words and provide own personal perspectives., Content of Interviews :, Before an interview is conducted it is important to plan the, type of interview whether it will be the informal conservation, the, interviewing, , guide, , approach,, , the, , standardized, , open-ended, , interview or the focus group. Then it is important to know about the, different kinds of questions that could be asked while interview the, client. The counselor most decide what questions are to be asked,, the sequence of questions, the details required, time of the, interview and how to word the actual questions. The different kinds, of questions that could be asked by the counselor are behaviour /, experiential questions, opinion/ values questions, feeling questions,, knowledge questions, sensory questions, demographic questions., How to Question :, The way the question is worded is important. There are no, fixed rules of sequencing questions for an interview. Informal, conversational interviews are flexible and, therefore, fined schedule, is not required. However, standardized open-ended interviews most, have a sequence because of their structural formed., General Principle of Interview :, The following are the guidelines to make an interview successful., , , The counsellor should feel the need of interview and, counseling.
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385, , , The counselor should have all relevant data about the client, before he starts counseling., , , , A rapport should be established between the counselor and, the counselee. It is a sort of personal relationship of mental, trust and respect based on the feelings of confidence and, security., , , , Discussion should be restricted to issue at hand., , , , When the counselee expresses himself he should be, accepted. The counselor will gain nothing by antagonizing or, embarrassing the counselee., , , , The counselee should be allowed to take the lead in making, decisions., , , , The interview should end with a constructive note., , , , Interview is an art and a skill that is developed with practice., , 7.3, , ETHICAL, BASIS, IN, THE, USE, PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS AND TOOLS :, , OF, , Guidance like other professions has its own ethics, the core, of which is respect for the individual. Every counselee is equal in, the eyes of the counselor. Further the action of the counselor is, governed by the belief that every individual possesses certain, strengths. A good counselor helps to facilitate the strengths of the, individual and overcome his / her weaknesses. Another important, aspect of guidance ethics is that the counselor regards all, information or data about the individual as strictly confidential and, never tries to misuse the data. The counselee confides everything, to the counselor, and it is the moral duty of the counselor to, maintain confidentiality. Besides, the counselor should never use, the counseling session for the purpose of indoctrination or for the, satisfaction of his own needs. He must always respect the freedom, and dignity of the counselee. It is also important for the counselors, to adhere to the ethical norms in the use of psychological test, scores., , 7.4, , LET US SUM UP :, , Qualitative assessment provides an in-depth understanding, and a holistic perspective about a client., The qualitative approach differs from a quantitative approach, in its methodology of studying people. In fact, they provide answer, to different questions., Qualitative approach is known to be descriptive, flexible,, subjective, in-depth, interpretive and holistic in nature. The focus is
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386, on the uniqueness of an individual. One way to strengthen, qualitative analysis is to use triangulation i.e. use of several, methods to study the same behaviour / phenomena., Observation and open-ended interview are two important, tools of qualitative inquiry. Systematic and objective observation, requires preparation and training. The observer must know what to, look for, how to record the obtain information and how to explain., Interviews help to obtain the client perspective. Those are, different approaches to collect qualitative data through open-ended, interviewing. Before conducting interview, it is important to decide, the kind of questions to be asked, their sequence, thinking and, wording them., Sociometry is a technique for evaluating the social, acceptance of individual students and the social structure of a, group i.e. how each individual in a group is perceived., Case study is an in-depth, intensive and detailed study of, each and every pertinent aspect of an individual or phenomenon., Case study method is used for summarizing and integrating, assessment information. The information used in a case study, gathered from all reliable sources, cumulative records,, observations, interview, task, peer appraisals, home visit and, teacher‘s perception etc. Ethical codes and standards have been, developed for proper use of psychological test. It is important for, the counselors to adhere to the ethical norms while using the tools., , 7.5, , SELF-EVALUATION EXERCISES :, , 6., , How can be inaccuracies in observations be reduced ?, , 7., , What are the characteristics of a good case study ?, , 8., , Discuss in brief the importance of cumulative records in, teaching., , 9., , List any five qualitative assessment techniques you would like, to use in your school., , 10. Fill in the blanks with appropriate answer given below., e) Sociometry is a method for evaluating the ____________, of an individual and the ______________ of a group., f), , Peer appraisal technique life sociometric procedures are, especially useful in evaluating___________ development., , g) Sociometry is based on student‘s ___________ of, comparisons for some activity., h) In order to organize and classroom groups, teachers can, make use of _____________ technique to know this group, structure.
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387, (a) Sociometric (b) Personal – Social (c) Social acceptance, social, structure (d) Choices, Answer Key to Self-Evaluation Exercises :, 4. By being descriptive in taking field notes (anecdotal records,, critical incidents), , , By gathering information from different perspectives (client,, peer, parents, teachers etc.), , , , By cross validating and triangulating data from different sources, such as observation, interview, documents etc. and by using, more than one investigator., , , , By presenting the views of the people, their experiences in their, own words., , , , By separating description from interpretation and judgement., , 5. Elaborate on the following points, , , A good case study is always concerned with the individual‘s, past, present and future i.e. it should provide complete view of, an clients life., , , , A case study should be dynamic and longitudinal and not static, or cross-sectional. It should provide all the necessary, information to plan remediation and it should provide scope to, review the effects of remediation programme., , , , The focus of case study should vary widely i.e. it may focus on, whole individual or small selected segment of an individual or, client such as aggressive behaviour of the individual or client., , 6. Indicate the relationship scholastic attainment and the mental, abilities, , , In classifying pupils in accordance with scholastic aptitudes and, mental abilities., , , , Help in identification of students who need individual attention,, remedial teaching, enrichment teaching etc., , , , Helps the teachers in writing reports about individual students., , 5., , a), b), c), d), , -, , c, b, d, a
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388, , 7.6, , SUGGESTED READINGS :, , Stake, R.E., 1995. The Art of Case Study Research. Sage, London, Wragg, E.C., 1994. An Introduction to Classroom Observations., Routledge, London, Manual for Guidance Counsellor, NCERT, New Delhi, Anastasi, A. 2003. Psychological Testing (5th ed.), Mc. Millan, New, York, Hood A.B. and Johnson, R.W., 1997. Assessment in Counselling, (2nd ed.). American Counselling Association, Alexandria, VA, Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, I, NCERT, New Delhi, Assessment and Appraisal in Guidance and Counselling –, II, NCERT, New Delhi, Kochar, S.K. (1985). Educational Guidance and Counselling, , , , ,
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389, , 1, VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, Unit Structure, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, , Objectives., Introduction., Nature and scope of vocational guidance., 1.2.1, Concept of vocational guidance., Check your progress., 1.2.2, Need and Functions of vocational guidance., Check your progress., 1.3, Factors effecting vocational choice:, Check your progress., 1.4, Approaches to career guidance:, 1.5, Holland‘s theory of career development:, Check your progress., 1.6, Burnout and career guidance:, 1.6.1 Meaning of burnout:, Check your progress., 1.6.2 Coping with burnout:, Check your progress., 1.7, Let us sum up., 1.8, Suggested reading., 1.9, Model questions., 1.10 References., , 1.0, , OBJECTIVES., , After going through this unit you will be able to:, Describe the concept need and functions of vocational, guidance., State the factors affecting the vocational choices., Explain the Holland‘s theory of career guidance and its, importance.
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390, Define burnout and the guidance strategies used for coping, from career burnout., , 1.1, , INTRODUCTION, , We all will agree that in resent time there are variety of, educational streams as new occupational opportunities are coming, every other day. as there is variety of occupational opportunities, available to the students, it is not always possible for students to, meet the requirements of the available opportunities as all, individual differ in the abilities, interest, attitude and skill from each, other. Thus it is very necessary to know about ones own abilities,, skills etc. to help in this process the role of vocational guidance, becomes very important. In this unit we will discuss about, vocational guidance, and other phenomenon related to the, vocational guidance., , 1.2, , NATURE AND, GUIDANCE:, , SCOPE, , OF, , VOCATIONAL, , 1.2.1 Concept of vocational guidance., Vocational guidance according to DAW is that which have to, be made well before the school leaving stage. Indeed with, comprehensive education potentially offering a greater educational, opportunity a good case for an increasingly important role for, vocational guidance can be made. It is worthwhile to look at some, of the concepts or frames of refences that are fundamental to a, consideration of occupational choice. Crites suggest that there are, five sets of concepts that need to be considere . firstly, how far is, occupational choice the result of systematic behavior as opposed to, chance? Clearly the practice of vocational guidance is concerned, with systematizing choice. Thus , vocational guidance is not only, adjustment but also achievement and development of the, individuals to the maximum extent to be successful in their chosen, occupations to be satisfied and usefull to the society., Let us discuss the objectives of vocational guidance:, To assist the student to know about the characteristics ,, functions ,duties of the occupations of his choice., To enable him to find out what are the specific criteria as, skills ,abilities, age etc. are required for the occupations of, his choice., To assist the student to know about his skills ,abilities,, interests for making wise choices.
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391, To assist the student to acquire the technique of analysis, before making any final choice., To provide opportunity for experiences in school and out of, school this may provide an idea of the work environment to, the student., To help the student, worthwhile., , realize that all honest labour is, , The recommendations of Education Commission set up by, Government of India in 1964 indicated the aims and scope of, educational vocational guidance. These recommendations suggest, the following:, The aim of guidance is not just to help student in making, vocational choices but also be focused on the development, of the child as good citizen., Guidance should be provided in solving learning difficulties,, academic excellence, developing study habits and must be, started at the primary stage itself., Guidance role is very crucial at the college level as at this, stage student faces many problems related to educational, vocational and personal. They should be make aware about, the job market and how to make adjustment in it., Information may be provide about the training, competitive, examinations and scholarships available., Check your progress:, Q1- Enlists two aims of vocational guidance given by Education, Commission of India., , 1.2.2 NEED AND FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE:, Bringing individuals at par with the demands of the jobs:, As we all know that individual differences exist among all, and no two individuals can have the same abilities skills and, personalities. We can understand it with an example as a person, can be skilled in doing a desk job while the other can be skilled in
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392, the field job so the skill differs and thus the demand for the job also, different fro different individuals. Thus here vocational guidance is, needed for matching the right job with right individual., Assessing the right skill of an individual:, The capabilities and the limitations of an individual should be, known to him e.g. a person may have interest in painting but may, not have the skill to take it as a career. So here the work of, vocational guidance comes to assist the individual in assessing, himself and then accordingly choosing the right kind of job., Expansion of the world of work:, Now a days jobs are available at national as well as, international levels. And it gives rise to many quiries as how one, can choose the best from several alternatives? How to about the, details of the occupation? How to apply? And many more all these, are dealt with the help of vocational guidance., FUNCTIONS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE:, Assessment of the individual in terms of his academic, achievement, skills attitude, interest , limitations etc., Assessment of individual‘s present environment such as, financial resources , family background and family expectations, etc., Assessing the suitability of the individual with that of the job, demands., Helping the individual to come at par with the job requirements., Counseling for the adjustment in the job ., Follow-up services in the form of feed back from the individuals, for further modification in the guidance programme if needed., Check your progress:, Q2. What is the importance of knowing once skill for vocational, guidance?
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393, , 1.3, , FACTORS EFFECTING VOCATIONAL CHOICE:, , 1), , Personal Factors Affecting Career Selection, Aptitudes - What natural abilities do you possess?, Interests inventories - what gives you satisfaction?, Your personality - Do you perform best in low-pressure or, high-pressure working environments?, , 2), , Social Influences on Career Opportunities, Demographic trends, •, , Increase in working parents means more demand for, food service and child care., , •, , More leisure time means more interest in health, and, recreation products and services., , •, , Increased demand for further employment training, creates opportunities for teachers and trainers., , Geographic trends, •, 3), , Where jobs are, salaries, and living costs. Economic, Conditions Affect Career Opportunities, , Trends in Industry, Opportunities, •, , and, , Technology, , Affect, , Automated production methods have decreased the, need for many entry-level employees in factories., , Check your progress:, Q3-, , Career, , Name the factors responsible for career choice.
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394, , 1.4, , APPROACHES TO CAREER GUIDANCE:, , Career guidance refers to services and activities which, assist individuals, of any age and at any point throughout their lives,, to make educational, training and occupational choices and to, manage their careers. Such services may be found in schools,, universities and colleges, in the workplace. It may take place, individually or in group, and may be face-to-face or at a distance. It, include career information provision (in print, ICT-based and other, forms), assessment and self-assessment tools, counseling, interviews, career education programmes.Guidance workers often, encounter individuals having very little idea about the skills which, they have and the career related to the skill. Sometimes, sufficient, time devoted to the early stages of an interview, finding out about, the individual., There are many approaches to career guidance as, Computer-aided guidance. Others are facial expression, especially, glints in the eyes, can be used to know levels of interest in, particular types of work. Often, the client will be interested in more, than one. Individual judgment is required to look at likely, interactions between traits, and selecting the appropriate one., , 1.5, , HOLLAND’S, THEORY, DEVELOPMENT:, , OF, , CAREER, , The Holland Codes represents a set of personality types, described in a theory of careers and vocational choice formulated, by psychologist JOHN L. HOLLAND .Holland's theory argued that, "the choice of a vocation is an expression of personality" and that, the six factor typology he articulated could be used to describe both, persons and work environments. His model has been adopted by, the U.S. Department of Labor for categorizing jobs relative to, interests. The Holland Codes are usually referred to by their first, letters: RIASEC. He present his theory graphically as hexagon., The shorter the distance between their corners on the hexagon, the, more closely they are related. Holland's (1992) theory of career, guidance is based on four basic assumptions. The first assumption, is that most people can be characterized as one or a combination, of six personality types. Second, the theory assumes that the work, environment can be classified into the same six categories of, personality. Third the theory assumes that people seek out, environments compatible with their personality types. And, fourth,, the theory holds that particular behavioral patterns emitted in any, environment are determined by personality and environmental, types.
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395, The six personality and work environment types described, by Holland are as follows:, Realistic- Working with your hands, tools, machines, and, things; practical, mechanically inclined, and physical.viz., agriculture, computer engineer, basket ball player, chef,, Gardner, martial arts , pilot etc, Investigative- Working with theory and information,, analytical, intellectual, scientific. Viz. lawyer, statistics,, surgeon., Artistic- Non-conforming, original, independent, chaotic,, creative. Viz. actor, writer ,dancer., Social- Cooperative environments, supporting, helping,, healing/nurturing. Viz. psychologist, professor, social worker,, physician., Enterprising- Competitive environments, leadership,, persuading. Viz public relation, administration, journalism,, marketing, management., Conventional- Detail-oriented, organizing, clerical. Viz., proof reader, copy editing, clerk, librarien., Check your progress:, Q4-, , What does RIASEC stands for?, , 1.6, , BURNOUT AND CAREER GUIDANCE:, , 1.6.1 Meaning of burnout:, First let us discuss about the concept of burnout. What is the, meaning of the term burnout?Burnout is a psychological term for, the experience of long-term exhaustion and diminished interest. It, should not be looked as a disorder but as Problems related to lifemanagement difficulty. The most well-studied measurement of, burnout in the literature is the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Maslach, and her colleague Jackson first identified the construct "burnout" in
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396, the 1970s, and developed a measure that weighs the effects of, emotional exhaustion and reduced sense of personal, accomplishment. This indicator has become the standard tool for, measuring burnout in research on the syndrome. The Maslach, Burnout Inventory uses a three dimensional description of, exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy., Many theories of burnout include negative outcomes related, to burnout, including job function, health related outcomes, and, mental health problems. The term burnout in psychology was, coined by HERBERT FREUDENBERGER in 1974., Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North gave, 12 phases of burnout, which are not necessarily followed, sequentially:, A compulsion to prove oneself, Working harder, Neglecting one's own needs, Displacement of conflicts (the person does not realize the, root cause of the distress), Revision of values (friends or hobbies are completely, dismissed), Denial of emerging problems (cynicism and aggression, become apparent), Withdrawal (reducing social contacts to a minimum,, becoming walled off; alcohol or other substance abuse may, occur), Behavioral changes become obvious to others, Depersonalization (life becomes a series of mechanical, functions), Inner emptiness, Depression, Burnout syndrome, The signs can vary from individual to individual, but the, following are some universal indicators that one can use to, determine if career burnout is occurring., Depression-Feelings of despair and sadness that last for, weeks or months usually signal that something in your life is, not working like it should and is cause for an investigation, into the cause – potentially your job.
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397, Lack of energy-If individual experience constant fatigue, throughout the day., Lack of desire-if an individual find that he just don‘t care if, he is successful or not it‘s a warning that the individual may, have become burned out., Decreased productivity- if the productivity of an individual, is decreased and he is not coming upto the desired expected, result., Increased absences and/or tardiness- if an individual finds, every opportunity to skip out on work., Boredom-Occasional boredom in one‘s career is, completely normal; however, pervasive feelings of weariness, and dreariness are not and are an indicator of potential, burnout., Anger/resentment in workplace-Frequently lashing out at, coworkers and/or supervisors is unacceptable under any, circumstance. This behavior deserves immediate attention, due to its potentially abusive nature., Sleep problems-Insomnia or occasional fatigue can happen, to anyone but are a cause for concern if they become, constant and a part of your everyday life. Sleep, disturbances are your body‘s way of saying it is overworked., Check your progress:, Q5-, , Define the term burnout., , 1.6.2 COPING WITH BURNOUT:, There are a variety of ways that both individuals and, organizations can deal with burnout. In his book, Managing stress:, Emotion and power at work (1995), Newton argues that many of, the remedies related to burnout are motivated not from an, employee's perspective, but from the organization's perspective., Let us now discuss some of the common strategies for dealing with, burnout.
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398, ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS:, Employee assistance programs (EAP)- Employee Assistance, Programs were designed to assist employees in dealing with the, primary causes of stress. Some programs included counseling and, psychological services for employees. But now a days it is less, utilized as compared to stress management training (SMT)., Stress management training (SMT).-Stress Management Training, (SMT) is employed by many organizations today as a way to get, employees to either work through stress or to manage their stress, levels; to maintain stress levels below that which might lead to, higher instances of burnout., INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS:, Problem-based coping-Individual can cope with the problems, related to burnout and stress by focusing on the causes of the, stress. This type of coping has successfully been linked to, reductions in individual stress., Appraisal-based coping-Appraisal-based coping strategies deal, with individual interpretations of what is and is not a stress inducing, activity., Check your progress:, Q6-, , What do you understand by STM?, , 1.7, , LET US SUM UP:, , In this unit we have discussed about nature and scope of, vocational guidance, why vocational guidance is needed and how it, helps an individual is discussed under the functions of vocational, guidance. The factors which effect vocational choice as social,, demographic, geographical, personal has also been talked about., An attemped has been made to acquaint you about the Holland‘s, theory of career development, usually referred as RIASEC as it
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399, contains six factor typology they are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,, Enterprising,, Conventional., Meaning, and, clear, understanding has been made by discussing about burnout and, career guidance and also about the different strategies of coping, with burnout., , 1.8, , SUGGESTED READING:, , Agarwal, J.C,(1985), Educational Vocational, Counseling, Doaba House, New Delhi., Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational, Counseling,principles, techniques, publication , Delhi., Kochhar, S.K, (1980), Publishers, New Delhi., , Guidance, , Guidance, , And, , Vocational Guidance And, and programmes. Shipra, And, , Councelling,, , Sterling, , Nanda, S.K and Sharma S,(1992) Fundamentals Of Guidance,, Chandigarh., , 1.9, , MODEL QUESTIONS, , Q1-, , What are the objectives of vocational guidance?, , Q2-, , Describe the organizational and individual coping strategies, of burnout., , Q3-, , Explain the Holland‘s theory of career guidance., , Q4-, , Discuss in detail 12 phases of burnout given by Herbert, Freudenberger and Gail North., , 1.10 REFERENCES, Agarwal ,R.(2007), Educational, Counseling,principles, techniques, publication , Delhi., , Vocational Guidance And, and programmes. Shipra, , http://www.lenus.ie/hse/bitstream/10147/46051/1/10499.pdf, www.careersteer., www.lotsofessays.com/viewpaper/1693190.html, www.careerstrides.com, wikipedia.org/wiki, ,
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400, , SYLLABUS, M.A. EDUCATION PART - II, GROUP B, PAPER 8, GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING, Course Objectives, To develop an understanding of, Concept, need of guidance, Career guidance, Concept, approaches and testing in counseling, Counseling and intervention strategies in contemporary, times, MODULE I : GUIDANCE : CONCEPT AND NEED, 1. Concept of Guidance, a. Meaning, Principles, Need and Scope of Guidance, b. Meaning and Implications of Areas of Guidance in Global, Context : Personal, Educational, Vocational, a-Vocational,, Social, Moral, Health and Leisure-time, c. Types of Guidance : Individual Guidance and Group, Guidance., d. Agencies of Guidance : International, National, State and, Local Levels., 2. Guidance for Population with Special Needs, a. Mentally challenged Learners : Slow Learners, Mentally, Retarded and Gifted., b. Learning Disabilities : Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia, c. Disadvantaged Groups : Social, Economical and Educational, (Over Achievers and Under Achievers), d. Women : Exploitation at Home and Work, e. Senior Citizens : Emotional, Social and Physical Problems, MODULE II : CAREER GUIDANCE, 3. Work and Mental Health, a. Meaning of Work, Compensation and Incentives, b. Relation between Work and Leisure and Work and, Incentives
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401, c. Meaning, Characteristics and Need for Mental Health, d. Role of Guidance Personal in Promoting and Preserving, Mental Health, 4. Vocational Guidance, a. Nature and Scope of Vocational Guidance, b. Factors affecting Vocational Choice, c. Approaches to Career Guidance, Employment Trends, d. Holland‘s Theory of Career Development, e. Burnout and Career Guidance, 5. Occupational Information & Job Satisfaction, a. Need and Sources of Occupational Information, b. Methods of Collection, Filling, Classification,, Dissemination of Occupational Information, , and, , c. Meaning and Factors of Job Satisfaction, d. Relationship between Job Analysis, Job specification and, Job Profile, 6. Psychometric Methods and Techniques for Guidance and, Counselling, a. Psychological Tests : Intelligence Tesis, Interest Inventories,, Aptitude Tests, Achievement Tests, Attitude Scales,, Personality Tests., b. Other Testing Tools and Techniques : Sociometric, Technique, Case Study, Cumulative Record Card,, Autobiography, Observation, Interviews, Home visits., c. Ethical Basis in the Use of Psychological Tests and Tools, 7. Concept of Counselling, a. Concept : Meaning, Principles, Goals, and Types of, Counselling., b. Counseling Processes : Stages and Skills, c. Characteristics and skills of a Counsellor, d. Counsellor‘s Role and Functions, e. Types of Counselling : directive, Non-directive, Eclectic and, Online, 8. Counselling Approaches, a. Cognitively Oriented Counselling Approaches : Trait and, Factor
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402, b. Affectively Oriented Counselling Approaches : Psycho, analytic., c. Conditions Influencing Counselling : Physical Setting,, Privacy, Recording, d. Legal and Ethical Considerations in Counselling, MODULE, IV, : COUNSELLING, AND, STARTEGIES IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES, , INTERVENTION, , 9. Counselling in Current Areas, a. Conflict Resolution, b. Training for Assertiveness, c. Stress Management, d. Life Style Planning, e. HIV / AIDS : Pre, Post Counselling and Stigma., 10. Intervention Strategies, a. Rational Emotive Therapy, b. Crisis Intervention Techniques, c. Grief and Bereavement Intervention Strategies, d. Disaster Menagement, ASSIGNMENTS OF INTERNAL ASSESSMENT, 1. Conducting and Reporting a Case Study of any Individual with, Special Needs., 2. Preparation of a Job profi9le of any one Career., REFERENCES :, 1., , Agarwal J. C. (1985) Educational Vocational Guidance and, Counselling, Doaba House New Delhi., , 2., , Bernard Harold W. (1969) Principles of Guidance AlliedPublishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi., , 3., , Bernard and Fullmer (1972) The School Counsellor Consultant, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company., , 4., , Bhati S. S. (1979) Jobs Careers and Personality New Delhi,, Indian-Institute of International Understanding., , 5., , Borrow Harold W. (1973) Career Guidance for a New Age, Boston, Houghton Miffing Company., , 6., , Chibber S. K. (1999) Guidance and Counselling Common, Wealth Publishers, New Delhi
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403, 7., , Drummond, R. J. and Ryan, C. W. Career Counselling And, Development Appraoch Prentice hall of India, New Delhi., , 8., , Gothard, W. P. : (1985) Vocational Guidance Theory and, Practice, Croom Helm London., , 9., , Hoppak R. (1976) Occupational Information : Where to Get and, How to Use in Counselling and Teaching, Mc Graw Hills, Publications New York., , 10. Jaffrey A. Kotler and Elien Kothar, (1993) Teacher as a, Counsellor, Sage Publication London., 11. Jones, J. A., (1979) Principles of Guidance, Mc Graw Hill New, York., 12. Kemp Gratton (1978) Foundations of Group Counselling, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi., 13. Kochhar, S. K., (1980) Guidance and Counselling, Sterling, Publishers, New Delhi., 14. Kevin, Anglo (1987) Vocationalizing Education an International, Perspective Pergamon Press, Oxford London., 15. Mosher, Carle, Kehas (Ed) (1972) Guidance on Examinations,, Harcourt, Brace & Wond., 16. Mc Daniel. Henry (1956) Guidance in Modern School. Holt,, Rinchart and Winston New York., 17. Nanda, S. K. and Sharma S., (1992) Fundamentals of, Guidance, Chandigarh., ,
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