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PEDAGOGY OF BIOLOGICALSCIENCES, SYLLABUS, , Unit-1: Introduction to Science, 1.1. Meaning and Functions, of Science, 1.2. Nature and Scope of Science, , 1.3. Structure of Science, 1.4. Branehes of Science, 1.5 History of Biological Science, Unit-2: Aims and Values of Biological Science, 2.1. Aims of, Biological Science, 2.2. Values of Teaching Biological Science, 2.3. Competences ofa Biological Science Teacher, 2.4. Correlation of Biological Science with other school, , Teaching, , Unit-3: Objectives of Teaching Biological Science, 3.1. Meaning and Importance of objectives, , Subjects, , 3.2. Revised Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives., , 3.3. Instructional Objectives and specifications with examples, 3.4. Academics Standards mentioned in the school biological, sCience text book., , Unit-4: Methods and Techniques of Teaching Biological Science, , 4.1 Micro Teaching Techniques, 4.2 Lecture Method, lecture Demonstration Method, and, , Laboratory Method, 4.3 Scientific Method (lnductive and Deductive Method), 4.4 Project Method, , Unit-5: Planning for Teaching Biological Science, 5.1 Year Plan, , 5.2 Lesson Plan, Constructivist approach and CCE, 5.3 Period Plan (Herbartian and, , Model), 5.4 Learning Experiences, 5.5, , Planning ICT Applications in Learning Biology

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PEDAGOGY OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, , 1, , INTRODUCTION TO, , UNIT, , SCIENCE, , Man is nquisitive by nature., He tries to find out, the how and wlhy of, all that happens in Nature and in, his, surroundings. 1lis, first extends to most, of inquiry at, simple facts of Nature. For E.g. aspirit, child would like, to know how wind, blows, how a small seed, grows into a seedling and, then into a huge tree. As he, he, grows up comes across more, events and objects. n this, complicated, way human mind is always, in, busy the pursuit, of Exploring the unknown. This, process of fulfillment of the spirit of, enquiry or the modalities adopted in diving, deep into the complexities of, is, nature, , termed, , science., Genius persons by their, persistent efforts, careful, and exact reasoning have collected a mars, of tested, as, , experimentation, , information which we, can be described as the, , call, , science. Thus in a commonsense science, study, which attempts to depict and understand the nature, of, 1.1, , MEANING OF SCIENCE, , universe., , The word science has been derived, from the latin word "Scientia", which means knowledge or to know., Science refers to a system of, requiring knowledge. This system uses, observation and experimentation to describe and, explain natural, phenomena. Less formally the word science often describes any, systematic, field of study or the knowledge gained from it., Science refers to any systematic, or, , knowledge-base, , prescriptive, practice that is capable of resulting in a prediction or predictable, type of, outcome. In this sense, science refers to, , a, , highly, , skilled, , technique or, , practice., In other words science is the concerted human effort, to understand, or to understand, the, better,, history of the natural world and how the, natural world works, with observable, physical evidence as the basis of, that understanding. It is done through observation of natural, phenomena, and/or through experimentation that tries to stimulate the natural, processes, under controlled conditions. So science is, referred, to as an, generally, , organized or systematized body of knowledge., 9

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i, U9., , I, O, , 2, , D, , thee, O, , 9, , (D, , 9, , D

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7., S., 9., 0, , INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE, , self confidence systematic, aic an, approe, , e selfconfidenpe. and, the, , building, , helpsin, , Science, , totheproblems., , tranng, , children i, , PEDAGOGY OF, fields,, , Agriculture., , BIOLOGICALSCIENGESHealth,Home, , Products, Leisure time activities,, ultimately, , wh1ch improves, , mindednessand, , knowledge, , makingn, , things and decision, , environmental probiens, Science also deals with human problems,, scientist's efforts., and health hazards which are solved by, to, aids for the good ife from Bicycles, Science has provided so many, Radio to Colour Television, Jet-Aircraft, Antibiotics to Heart surgery,, Satellite to multi TV Channels and, and Cell Phone network,, hormones., Fertilizers to Plant growth, , students., , develops 'scietific atitude, creating, , thinking andreasonin curiosity, open, , Science has vast importance including, , diferent, ) Science has its impacton, andwelfare, Industries, , 4), , 6), , 5), , alinuaA, , the, ining thechildren, for eveloping scientifica, , objective, tetmperament, , etc., , ctive inin nature.It does not depend on subject;ahi, suoect atitua, , m, , Sciencehelps, Scienceis, , ike feling,, , substances, , search for truth, , 10. Science, Sciencestudies, studie non-lIving things, material and, , remains in, 1. Science always (constantly), 12. Science predicts future., , 13. Science is dynamic(Changes), , 1.2.1 SCOPE OF SCIENCE, The scopeofscience is intinite. It seeks to answer all that is answe, , years has, , SCIENCE, we willfind, , two statements, , Now science is controlling, , Seience in recent, The scope of the field of science is unlimited, its material is endle., scientific eraintrue sense. 1hus,, e 7 ) Weare living ina, existence. It has controlled health,, changed our entire, the worl., , every group of natural phenomena, every phase ofsocial life, every, very sa, stag, , transportation and power., , 1.3 STRUCTURE OF, , of past or present-development is material for science., , The scope of acourse is the range of disc1plines, scientifie or soci, , definitionsofscience,, Ifwe analyse the, describing science, or, ofscience., Science involves methods ofinquiry processes, , a), , summarized as, , Science = Inquiry and Concepts, , 15, , 2.Syntactical structure of Science., , 1.Substantive structureof Science., , that to understand the nature of science,, , have been made to, , it can be divided into, , pais:, , of, In the last to decades a number attempts, filed, Some of the intellectuals in the, determinethe nature of science., (1964), natureofscience Joseph J. Schwab, have tried to conceptualize the, concluded, contributed in this field. k has been, and Bruner (1962) have, wo, , also, only concepts or content but, find these concepts., , which represent the body of scientific knowledge., nature of science inceludes net, Now it is possible to infer that the, to, the methodologies which are used, , and concepts, Or Science= Ditferent methodologies ofScience, , Or, , These statements may be, Science = Methods and Knowledge, , or concepts., , ditfereb) Thisinquiry results inabodyofasystematizedknow/edgeorcoe, , or what ever it includes. Scope of Science is as wider as than any othe, , subject. It has many branches in this., Physics is the study ofMechanicalpurposes, in, , advances mchemical, , Chemistry is the study of diferent chemicals used, reactions., , Astronomy is study ofwhole universe., Archeology derives new insight from the rapid, , and physical analysis., of animals and, , tor, Botany is the complete study of plants and uses ofplants various, , purposes., , human beings., , Loology is the study of Sociology and Psychology, , maintained by, , The above branches again have a number of sub-branches., 1.2.2 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE, , Actually the modern world is created by science and, , science. Some importance of science has given below., , empherical knowledge it also create agreat culture., , )The important aspect of science is new creation, invention, discoveries, and technologies., 2) Science quantatised describes, explains, protects and produces, , 14

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1), , 2), , SCIENCE, , INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE, , Substantive structure, , Syntactie structure, ) Methods, , 2) Processes, , 1) Facts, 2) Concepts, , 3) Observation, 4) Experiment, 5) Inference, , 3) Theory, 4) Law, , 5) Generalization, , 6) Principles, 7) Definitions, , ne, , wIUNEENAftinkiDAPI2), , to, , beams to, , and principals oi, broad generalizátions, , verticalpillars tothe theories.and the horizontal, , comparable, , PEDAGOGY OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, Ihe, , work Is, , SCience., , the methods and process of science. The facts are comparable to building, , the vertica, , understanding ofthe structure ofscience., , basis ofempirical tests. It should be noted that this analogy ofa building, , materials i.e., stone, bricks, mud, concrete etc., In this analogy, Pillars and the horizontal beams ofscience is subject to alteration on tne, under construction is to facilitate, , 1.3.1 SUBSTANTIVE STRUCTURE, , The substantive structure of science represents the major conceptual, scheme, which constitutes the basic knowledge in science. This substantive, , It is the interrelated collectionofpowerful ideas that flourik, , "major concepts" representative ideas etc. In order to understand the, substantive structure of science we can categorized it into two categories, , observations, theory statements etc. which we may call as "key concepts",, , structure contains different classes of statements, definitions, direct, , laws, , of knowledge., , Substantive structure of Science:, a discipline. It represents a network of related theories and, concepts and conceptual schemes that individual researchers make, , 1. Direct Observation, , 2. Conceptual Schemes, , Theoretical Knowledge, , b) Theoretical Knowledge, SUBSTANTIVE STRUCTURE, , a) Empirical Knowledge, , use of, when they set out to solve problems in their discipline. This, constitutes the basic knowledge used in science. The substantive, developing science is fluid and dynamic. New, , continuously, , mpirical observations and new theoretical formulations which make, , structure of any, , better sense of old observations show that the structure is, , Facts, , Instrumental Observation, , changing, eg.Laws of Mendel. Mendel used the word factors', which Empiriçal Knowledge, 2., , and perceive facts. These, , statements can, , level of knowledge. Scientists collects this, , statements, , 1., , ways., 2., 2, , statements., 17, , senses-Direct observation, Byobservingdirectly through, observation, By observing with the help ofinstruments-Instrumental, , statements., , known as empirical, The information acquired through observation is, verifiable and it is the first, knowledge. The knowledge so acquired is, observational data and make, be made in two, , A. EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE, , 6.Theory, 7.Hypothesis, , 1.Concepts, , were later identified and called as genes. The substantive structure, , 3., , are, , expressed|, science contains different classes ofstatements which, of, as definitions concepts, principles, generalizations, laws and theories, Syntactic structure ofScience:, , 3. Principles, 4.Generalization, 5.Laws, , This aspect of the nature of science is concerned with the, processes ofscientific enquiry which is the means by which scientific, knowledge is acquired and verified. The syntactical structureinvolved, finding out the pathway of enquiry used by scientists, what they, mean by verified knowledge and how they go about their verfication., It is similar but not identical to the term scientific method. Syntactical, structure is concerned with issues, such as the way in which new, substantive concepts are formed and the way in which different, kinds of knowledge or statements may be proved. It is concerned, with the modes of thinking and reasoning used in the discipline., , The structure of science can be compared to the fame work of, building under construction. A frame work of a building consists of, , foundation, vertical pillars and horizontal beams. The foundation ofthe, 16

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INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE, , ervation statemer, , direct ooservation, observation state, stater, direct, , ents. This, , Ihe observatio, ts: The, , Statements:, , are, , observation, , Formation, , Instrumental, , observation statements., , made, ot, , edgye., , nade by, , small speheres or thickness of chalk by using vernier calline, , Facts: Facts are defined as records of events and eyents are thino, , Scientists nów a days use a number of instruments in sciences,, , screwguage., , For example measuring the diameter, of a, , observation statement: The statements, observing with the help of instruments are known as instrumen, , closed lid., , Eg., , sense, directly by is influencedbyone's culture and background knovtype, observation, while boiling the water in, ofwater vapour, a, pan, , 1. Direct, , 2., , 3., , we try to explain with relevant concepts., , that we observe happening or make them happen. An experimen, nproduces events that are recorded as observed facts whose regularity, Hence a fact is thus something that iS Known to exist or happen, the, , the, , hus, , PEDAGOGY, , OF, The, , for, , scientific, , Is, , grass-roos, , discoveries., , of, , responsible, , SCIENCES, and are, , facts and, , whole process, , knowledge, , BIOLOGICAL, , law., , all, form the basis of, or, , by n e w, , said to be, They are, enterprise, scientif+c, of the, discoveries., , to the earth., , and, , process, , nearest, , by n e w tacts, , law. The whole, , knowledge., , replenished, , of any theory, , facts, , or, , the basis of all, , is continuously, , initiation, , enterprise, , Facts a r e, , of any theory, continuously replaced, , is the planet, boils at 100°c., , B. THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE, , 2) Water, , Venus, Eg. 1), , describe, , the, , tne, , observed, , called, , derive, , picture, , theoretical, , laws, principles, , facts and, scientists perceive, knowledge, the empirical, phenomena., the observed pnenome, After acquiring, among, oDserved, and effect relationshipsamong events and phenomena., , cause, establishes, establishes cause, , concepts,, , is, type of knowledge, , fundamental, , This, , formulate, , explain and, , they, , They try to, And then, , a hypothetical, and generalizations., abstract and portrays, This knowledge is, and is not necessarily, knowledge., based on probability, , 1. Concepts, , Theoritical knowledge, , comprises of, 2. Conceptual schemes, , 4. Generalizations, , 3. Principles, 5. Laws, , 6.Theory, , 7. Hypothesis, CONCEPTS:, , in common., , to NCERT, , broad, , or, , and, , process, , systems of classifying, Concepts emerge througn, , are, , processes, , are, , interrelated, , Ideas., , are, , and, , "Concepts, generalized, These concepts, , and are, , situation., , of concepts reveals that concepts, 19, , or, generalized idea about an object, symbol, , interdependent"., The above definitions, , of science., , information, , According, , certain qualities, , among, is a description of a regularity, According to Novak, Concept, (UNESCO 1977)., which, facts or other concepts, an abstraction, as "Concept is, Falk (1970) described concept, etc. which have, objects, feeling, skills, is used to classify words, ideas,, , 1., , is, existence or happening of which is supported through some source. Aofthe word. This knowledge, ho, scientific fact is the one that has been arrived at through scientific method,, verifiable., verifiable., , to Henrie Poincare "Science is built of facts as a house is built of stones,, , That is why scientific facts are consider as highly reliable, valid and, objective. Facts are the basic building blocks ofall knowledge. According, of, but an accumulation of facts is no more a science, than a heap stones., time., Facts should be directly observable and demonstrable at any, when kept outside the freezer., e.g. Ice changes into water, and, The truth of scientific facts is always dynamic, tentative, facts are always open, provisional instead of being permanent. Scientific, on scientific findings., to be replaced by the newly discovered facts based, and subjected to further, They are always open to further verification, are liable, observation, experimentation and research. Consequently, they, sufticient evidence and thus must, to be modified or changed in the light of, always be regarded as flexible and dynamic instead ofbeing fixed, eternal,, static and final., , Functions of facts:, Good and Hatt have enumerated the following functions of facts., , They modify exísting theory, They redefine and clarify theory, , 1. Theyinitiatetheory, 2., 3., , 18

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the growth, ha:beng, , ctual development oft, , fan to a small childisiss:, , intellectual., with the, , grows along, The concept, of the individual., , individual and, , ofa ceilin, cept, , f, , fundas, damenta, , 1., , PEDAGOGY, , one, , BIOLOGICAL, , at, levels at, , SCIENCES, , (the, , i, , which, whicn, , be, , constantstare, , usually, , organisms can usually, , each other,, , in it, is in a, , ofconcepiual, , can, rescarchea), researched), in science, and p r o c e s s e sal understanding., , seven a r e a s, , substances or, , interacting with, , and everything, , Changes in, , Things are constantly, , environment, , that, , events, , plex (the, complex, (children) to comp, , OF, , young, laught, taught to very young, , into, , Change:, , of change., , effect:, , Continuity:, , cease., , Substances can, , change but do, , not, , many, , vanish., on, , direct, , interwoven, terms ofsome, living thing is, The survival of any, Interdependence:, surroundings., and the physical, do not, with other living things, the environment, at work in, Life and the forces, , similar, , cause., in, be traced toa particular, they can be grouped, All things differ, yet, Variety o r Similarity:c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s or properties., , Cause and, , causing change., , Interaction:, , The, , So most concepts, , problems are, , being, child, the concom simply, being, grows, that, j, problems, of, fan, become, ecom current, explain, to know that it is an, electronic, adget, and, et an, ofthe tollowing, group, , As the, , come, , on., , concept, For E.g. The, he wil, , when siwitch, , broad and, , gives air, very, , be said, said that the, In a nutshell it canb De, on electricity., how it work, with the passage of time., , of concepts:, , ideas ofscience change, The characteristics, 1., , 2, , tion, , Concepts are generalized ideas., Concepts vary from simple to complex., Concepts are formed through varied experiences including acquisitin, , They may be çomplete or incomplete., , offactual knowledge., Concepts are facilitated by Learning through activity., , 3., 3., , 5., , complete, , feeling which, , become, , ideas and, , Conservation:, , under the, , same, , statement, , on, , direct, , what has, , many, , summarizing, , formed or based, , concise, , are, , simply a, , When generalisations, , Definition:, , been observed., , is a, generalizations. It, , (true), , statement about the, Principles are, made. It is a, demonstration are, to be invariable, pbservations and, has been found, of nature which, nature are, behaviour of an aspect conditions. So principles by their, , (JeanB. PRINCIPLESformed when generalizations based, by ohiet, , level, , idea suggested to the individual, , learning is limited by one's developmental, , is a generalized, , Conceptual, , A concept is an abstraction to classify words,, have certain common qualities., , as children grow., , They grow as the children grow i.e. theconcepts, , 4., 6., 7., 8., , Piaget)., oncept, , for, , of further experiences,, , Symbol or Situation, it is not synonym principle., Eg. I) All living things are composed of cells., and electricity., 2) Metals are good conductors of heat, Uses of concepts:, , on account, , ., as a consequence of poolingtogether 4., , can he, , sets of variables., , which furnishes, , of circumstances, , Rule of action or procedures., set, , rule or doctrin, , Applicable to a given, results., A comprehensive, offacts, principles and concepts which5 for, other theories., simple (capable af, , 21, , a, , basis, , or, , origin, , and has value in describing, , become principle., discussion and argument., demonstrations, they, 1. Provides a medium for, observations and repeatable, laws and theories., considered is a, 2 Forms a major elements in, A principle is, for, into a statement., 3. Provides a frame work understanding., Convenientclassification of facts, two or imore, or., eternal and are liable to be change, modified, the relationship between, Concepts are not, Fundamnental truth that explains, scientific researches and ., , replaced, , innovations., , system, , It is much broader in its coverage. It, , conceptual scheme emerges, , 2. CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES:, A, , a, , sound Iearning sequence from, , severalmajor concepts., defined as "a big idea,, a, be organized into, , can, , 20

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6., 6., , 7., , Condensed, , cannot, , number of, , INTRODUCIION1O SCIENCE, not De, be contradicted,, contradicted., , truth that, , summarizing a, , b r i e f s t a t e m e n t ., , which are repeatable., , Asa, , ofrelationship., , basis of reasoning, , statement, , on, , usually has somesignificant aplication., , It is always a fact., , It, , It is formed, , Itisa, , Characteristicsof Principles:, , ., 2., , 3., 4., , perimental resul, , PEDAGOGY, 4. Prediction, 5. Experimentation, , 5. LAW, , OF, , BIOLOGICAL, , cireumstances, , facts, , or, , regularity of, , general, , or no, , of whatalways, which, , SCIENCES, , statement, , general, , law is a, , factual, law may be defined as a, A scientific, as a theory,, defined, or it can be, certain, valid with few, tested and found to be, been exhaustively, , happens in, exceptional cases., , has, , some, , scientific, America "A, , According to Encyclopedia, describe, that purposes to, , statement, , verification may be accepted, verification, , as scientific, , or, , principle, , relationship,, cause and effect, tested application is, valid observation and, , law., , Thus a, science. Thus, law in science., , and further, the, frequently causa, after proper generalization, used universe, verified, Scientific facts and concepts, , Concepts are not principles but principle may have concepts in the, , scientific, is considered as a, Principle differ from concepts. In that principles state some kine, eventgeneralization, or, verified on the basis of, relationship between two or more concepts, objects, A hypothesis, , The principle is the statement of relationship, nature between two facts., , 5. It is illustrated, 6. Itis not a definition, 7., , 8., 9., , Laws of learning, , natural phenomena, So a scientific law is a description ofa, under, conditions and will occur, , Eg:, Eg:, , hproper experimentation,, scientific law., 10. It is significant in ts application., accepted as a, Mendal's Laws of heredity, 11. It should be proved, it can be illustratedand jt should not be definitio, , Example: a) Bernoullis principles,, b) Archimedes principle., , in a concise, , to, , statement, , the, , by repeated successful, , be without exception at, , Lincolnetal (1990):A law is "An empirical, , testing rule., , that appears, ofa biological principlebecome, consolidated, , time it is made, and has, , generalization; a, , true under specific, that invariably holds, that is true and, c) Newtons laws of motion, scientific law is a statement, A, certain circumstances., D. GENERALIZATION:, in the universe., valid for all times and at all places, Generalization helps in deriving conclusions from scientific fact, of law are:, Definitions, Facts, concepts and generalizations are interrelated and interdependen, set of observed regularities expressed, Krimley (1995): A law is "a, Facts give rise to concepts, and when facts and concepts are classifie, verbal or mathematical statement., , base on some scientific process they give rise to a generalization., 2., , Eg. Any object which is thrown up in the air will come back to th, ground due to gravitational force acting on it., Thus the process of repeated experiences through which a vali, , conclusion is in the form of a principle or law by adopting inductiCharacteristics of Law:, approach is usually referred to as generalization., , that evidence., broader scope., , Scientific laws although based on observational evidence, go beyond, , 2. They are descriptive, , 23, , or events, , A theory is a proposed explanation of a set of conditions, unproved but usually supported by strong evidences. Thus theory, , 3. Generally they are based on the laws of, 6. THEORY:, , Eg. All metals gets expanded after heating. The process o, , evapouration takes place on heating water., The process ofscience through which generalization could be madeare, , 1.Observation, 2. Classification, , 3.Communication, 22

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representsa, , asoftthi, , comp ises o, , vary interrelated and interd, fit the available broad inter, , a relationship, , BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES, , statement assessing, as a "tentative, , PEDAGOGY OF, described, , also described, facts"., , certain, , positions, , and theorems., , of, , between, , include, , propositions, propositions, , are the building blocks of, Just as concepts, of theories. Sub-types, , guide, , in the, , postulates, hypotheses, empirical generalizations,, theory wnicn, and, tentative assumption drawn from knowledge, themes that are, investigation of other facts and, , as a, , It is a, , used, , differences between the characteristics, , means, , concerned with the so-called, , by which scientific knowledge 15, , The syntactical structure of science is, , of Oxygen and Sulphur., STRUCTURES OF SCIENCE, 1.3.2 SYNTACTICAL, , Eg.1) There will be significant, , yet known., , -Grool (1969his, 1969), , logically constructed svstenon, , blocks, pendey, are the building, , laws, aws, , conclusinprises, , in itself.. ThisSsystem, , INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE, system, , operat1ng in a, , facts, concepts generalized, , well organized, , related scientific, , When a scientist endeavors to, , different sub-systems, way., into orderly,, , is called a theory, , and general principles, system, , eringd, , Good and Hatt says thatTheory refers to the relationship between facts or the orderine, , them in some meaningful way, , enao, , 6. Measurement, , 5.Experimentation, , 4. Consensus, , 3. Repetition, , 2. Classification, , 1.Accurate and precise description, , .e. the way of acquiring scientific knowledge., , i.e. Means ofacquiring scientific knowledge), , Science is a Process, , Syntactical Structure, , helps in prediction. Assuch the newly discovered scien orocéssesofscientific inquiry,, , Theories help in understanding as well as explaining a phenomena, , proces. It also, , predictin, , Scientific inquiry, (Asking questions), , facts, concepts and laws helps in building new theories the, and proves acqured, aacquired and verified., changes in, previous, asset for bringing desirable modifications, and, established old theories., , Eg:1.Theory ofelectrolytic cell, 2.Theory of magnetism, 3. Electron Theory, 4. Newton Theory, According to, and, , Kerlinger, theory is a set of inter-related concept, systematic view of phenomena by specifyin, , definitions and presents a, , relations among variables with the purpose ofexplaining, , the phenomena., , Characteristics of Theory:, , 1.Observing, 25, , 1. SCIENTIFIC INQUIRÝ:, 1) Theories are related to two or more observational points., to, The literal meaning of inquiry is to question, to seek information,, 2) Theory is based on facts., or, clear., investigate. So it can be defined as being inquisitive, asking questions,, 3) Theory should be precise and, trying to find out something for oneself., 4) Theory has meaningful structure., Denneth D.Peterson defines inquiry as a systematic and investigative, data., 5) Theory is must to be grounded in empherical, among, activity with the purpose ofdiscovering and describing relationships the, 6) Theory has applicability., use, and events. "He contends that inqdiry is characterized, by, best whicobjects, the, 7) Theory follows the law of parsimony. That theory is, of investigation, of orderly and repeatable processes, reduction of object, for explanation and, explains the most in simplest form., of, and, use, works, logical, most, forms,, simple, to, Scientific inquiry:, prediction. He list the following as operations of, , 7. HYPOTHESIS, , A hypothesis is a proposition that is empirically testable. Baile, , (1982) said "hypothesis is a proposition stated in a testable form which, , predicts a particular relationship between two or more variables. It i

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Seismology, , Environment system, etc., , About plant animal fossils, etc., , Classifying living things in animal a, and, kingdom in to groups, ctc., , About earthquakes, , INTRODUCTIONTO SCIENCE, 15, Taxonomy, , Paleontology, , 16, , 17, , 18 Ecolog, 19 Pathology, , 20 Meteorology, , Various diseases, reasons for disea., Ases,, atmosth, Physical and chemical dynamicsofof atm, the Earth, oceans, their effects, etc,, , material, , nee., , for scieno, , living world from, , OFBIOLOGICAL SCIENCE, , present-development is, , science is unlimited, its m, Thus the scope of the field of, every phase ofso:, endless, every group of natural phenomena,, , every stage of past or, , 1.5 HISTORY, , arose, , back to, , ayun, , the study ofthe, ane, The history of biology traces, as a single coh, concept of biology, to modern times. Although the, sciences emerged, in the 19th century, the biological, field, , such, , was further, , as, , develop, , works of Aristotle and Galenin, , world. This ancient work, , Egyptian medicine and the, , reaching, traditions of medicine and natural history, , ancient, ancient Greco-Roman, , in physiology,, , Avice, and scholars, the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians, and early modern period, biolog, During the European Renaissance, in empiri, a renewed interest, thought was revolutionized in Europe by, Prominent in this move, and the discovery of many novel organisms., used experimentation and care, were Vesalius and Harvey, who, Linnaeus and Bu, and naturalists such as, , Observation, , as, , the fossil record, wel, who began to classify the diversity of life and, Microscopy revealed, development and behavior of organisms., , the, , laying, , e, , consider, , and ethology., , the importance of, , biogeography, ccology, , INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, 1oundations for, , and, a new, Naturalists began to reject essentialism, provided, extinction and the mutability of species. Cell theory, extinctionand, as well, developments., on, thefundamental basis oflife. These, perspective, synthesized in, as t h e restults, and paleontology, w e r e, the resutsfrom embryology, as, of the, evolution by natural selection. The end, Charles Darwin's theory of, of the, saw the tall of spontaneous generation and the rise, 19th century, a, offdisease,, di, though the mechanism of inheritance remained, theoryof, theory, , germ, germ, , mystery., , after Watson and Crick, , the structure, , DNA., , 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the, In the early, 'Thomas Hun: Morgan and his students,, of, rapid development genetics by, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural, "neo-Darwinian synthesis". New disciplines developed, , selection in the, , organisms and, , organisms-and, , of, proposed, rapidly, especially, the Central Dogma and the cracking of, Following the establishment of, was largely split between organismal biology, the genetic code, bioloEY, , molecular and cell, , with, fields like genomics and proteomics were reversing this trend,, , deal with whole, , groups of, the fields that, to cellular and molecular biology. By the late 20th century,, the fields related, , new, , organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and, , 29, , and the, , Explain the syntactical structure of Science., functions., Write a note on the characteristics of Science and its, , Define Science and describe its Scope?, , REVIEW QUESTIONS, , between, , environment,, genes, biologists investigating the interplay, well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms., as, , 1., , 2., the, ground, previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying, 3, natural theology, part, for cell theory. The growing importance of, encouraged the growt, response to the rise of mechanical philosophy,, from design)., natural history (although it entrenched the argument, sciences such as bota, Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological scientific, , disciplin, and zoology became increasingly professional, Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animatea, , organis, , relationship depends on geograp, , the interaction between, , inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists su, and their environment, and the ways, , asAlexander von Humboldt investigated, this, 28