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MANGALORE UNIVERSITY, CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION, , Mangalagangothri - 574 199, , COURSE 5, Understanding Disciplines, and School Subjects, (Curriculum and Pedagogic Studies), BLOCKS 1 & 2, , B.Ed. DEGREE PROGRAMME, (OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING), , FIRST YEAR B.Ed., , Published by, MANGALORE UNIVERSITY, Mangalagangothri - 574 199

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Contents, Overview of the Course, Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and School Subjects, Unit - 1, , : Concept and Meaning of School Subject, Discipline and Academic, , 1, , Disciplines, Unit - 2, , : School Subjects and Academic Disciplines - Differences and, Relationship, , 12, , Unit - 3, , : Aims of Schooling, , 19, , Unit - 4, , : Emergence of Academic Disciplines and Formation of School, Subjects, , 37, , Unit - 5, , : Importance of School Subjects, , 50, , Unit - 6, , : Nature and Content of School Subjects, , 62, , Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across Disciplines, Unit - 1, , : Classification of Academic Disciplines, , 71, , Unit - 2, , : Interdisciplinary and Multi-Disciplinary Teaching and Learning, , 81, , Unit - 3, , : Humanities and Social Science in the Curriculum, , Unit - 4, , : Natural Science in the Curriculum, , 97, 106, , Unit - 5, , : Mathematics in the Curriculum, , 120, , Unit - 6, , : Social Justice and School Subjects, , 134, , ii

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Overview of the Course, This course will enable you to reflect on the nature and role of disciplinary, knowledge in the school curriculum, and the paradigm shifts in the nature of, disciplines. This course will help you to understand that disciplines and school, subjects are not ‘given’ but are products of history and geography and they, emerged in particular social, political and intellectual contexts, especially over, the last two centuries, and have been constantly redefined and reformulated ., There have been attempts towards redefinitions of the school subject, also with, concern for social justice., This course will introduce you to the content, processes, organizational, approaches of different school subjects. It is increasingly recognised that for, teachers to know a school subject they must know the ‘theory of content’ –, how the content was selected, framed in the syllabus, and how it can be, transformed so that learners construct their own knowledge through it., Apart from the content, it is important to know the history of a subject, because it helps to deepen the understanding of the content. It tells us why, something was included or not included in a particular subject at a point of, time. Understanding the processes of different disciplines through which the, school subjects have been deducted, will help teachers to decide the pedagogic, approaches. This also helps teachers to understand that there is a close, relationship between the nature of knowledge and the pedagogical processes., This course also helps you to understand why some subjects existed and some, did not, at one time in school curriculum. Through this course, you will realise, that, in the present context, there is a need to incorporate some new approaches, while teaching different school subjects., The above issues have been discussed in two blocks. The concept of, discipline, school subject, academic discipline, their inter relationships and, differences, aims of schooling, history of emergence of disciplines, formation, of school subjects and their importance, nature and content of school subjects, have been discussed under block 1. The different classification of disciplines,, inter disciplinary and multidisciplinary concepts, nature and curricular aspects, of different subjects like Science, Social Science, Math, as well as the issue of, social justice in relation to school subjects have been discussed under block 2., Understand the concepts presented and discussed in this course thoroughly, well and develop the competencies required of a classroom teacher to the, maximum level and prove to be a good teacher., , iii

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Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and, School Subjects, Unit - 1 : Concept and Meaning of School Subject,, Discipline and Academic Disciplines, Unit Structure, 1.1.1, , Learning Objectives, , 1.1.2, , Introduction, , 1.1.3, , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 1.1.3.1., , Concept and Meaning of School Subject, Check Your Progress - 1, , 1.1.3.2., , Concept and Meaning of Discipline, Check Your Progress - 2, , 1.1.3.3., , Concept and Meaning of Academic Disciplines, Check Your Progress - 3, , 1.1.4, , Let us Summarise, , 1.1.5, , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’-1, 2, and 3, , 1.1.6, , Unit-end Exercises, , 1.1.7, , References, , 1.1.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, •, , Explain the concept and meaning of School Subjects, , •, , Explain the concept and meaning of Discipline, , •, , Explain the concept and meaning of Academic Disciplines, , 1.1.2. Introduction, You are familiar about different school subjects like Science, Social Science and, Mathematics etc. You also know that these subjects belong to different disciplines. If you, 1

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have noticed the way we teach these subjects, you will realise that we teach each of these, subject in a different fashion. You might have already noticed it. Science is not taught as, we teach social science. Why is this? This is because the nature of each discipline is different, and this demands different type of methodology or approach for each subject. Hence it is, very important for each teacher to understand the nature of each discipline so that the, methodology can be properly adopted. Before understanding the nature of each discipline,, it is important to know the meaning of ‘Discipline’ and its related concept ‘Academic, Discipline’ and the concept of school subjects. Let us understand the meaning of these, concepts and relationship among them in this unit., , 1.1.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 1.1.3.1. Concept and Meaning of School Subject, Meaning of School Subjects, Exercise I: You have been teaching different subjects in your schools. Try to define them ., , A school subject is a subject or a field of study as well as a branch of knowledge, that is taught and researched at the school, college or university level., School subject refers to an area of knowledge that is studied in school. It can be called a, learning tool or the criteria by which we learn. More precisely, subjects are the parts into, which learning can be divided. It is a field or sphere of knowledge in which the learner, has chosen to specialize., It can sometimes be used synonymously with the term ‘discipline’ and, can be referred to as a systematic instruction given to the students in a particular area of, learning that follows specific code of conduct., Humanist educators argue that school subjects are created to provide students with, intrinsically rewarding experiences that contribute to the pursuit of self-actualization,, personal growth, and individual freedom. School subjects, therefore, need to be formulated, according to the interest, attitudes, and developmental stages of individual student &, they need to derive content from a wide range of sources such as personal experiences,, 2

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human activities, and community cultures and wisdoms. Disciplinary knowledge might, or might not be useful for the formation of school subjects. From the perspective of social, efficiency, school subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining, and enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with the, requisite knowledge, skills, and capital & the formation of school subjects, therefore,, is justified with close reference to the needs of occupation, profession, and vocation., Specialized and applied -fields (e.g., engineering, accounting, and marketing,) among, others, therefore, are the primary sources from which the contents of school subjects are, derived School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning, experiences that might lead to emancipation and engender social agency. The formation of, school subjects is based upon an examination of social contents, social issues, and futures,, with the intention of helping individuals reconstruct their own analyses, standpoints,, and actions. Like humanistic educators, social reconstructionist believes that schools subjects, derive contents from a wide range of sources., , Definition for School Subject, A school subject can be defined as a branch of knowledge or a body of knowledge, that is being provided to its learner. According to Zongyi Deng, a school subject refers, to an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes an institutionally, defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning., A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape, to curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities (Karmon, 2007)., School Subjects is defined as an “area of knowledge that is studied in school”. Britannica Encyclopedia., “A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes, an institutionally defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning.”- Deng,, Z (2013)., School subjects are human constructions in response to social, economic, cultural,, political, and educational realities and needs. They are “uniquely purpose-built educational, enterprises, designed with and through educational imagination towards educative ends”, (Deng & Luke, 2008, p. 83)., A school subject is an area of learning within the school curriculum that constitutes, an institutionally defined field of knowledge and practice for teaching and learning., School subjects can be traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics, history,, geography, physics, chemistry and economics. Academic school subjects, such as, 3

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mathematics, chemistry, geography, history, and economics, are to be compulsorily taught, to the students. The content of these academic subjects needs to be worked with and, transformed by the teachers in such a way that it is appropriate for classroom teaching., Constructing a school subject involves the selection and arrangement of content of, knowledge, skills and the transformation of that content for school and classroom use. This, is in accordance with respect to both societal expectations and activities of teaching., , Nature of School Subjects, Grossman and Stodosky (1995) defined three features of school subjects. They are, 1., , School subjects differ in their status they have in school and larger community., Craft, physical education are considered less important than science and mathematics., , 2., , Sequentiality is perceived as important in school subjects where certain knowledge, and skills have to be learnt before proceeding to new learning. For example, the, basic calculations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are to be, taught before teaching ‘fractions’., , 3., , The scope of the subject refers to the different disciplinary areas included in the, subjects which can be broad or restricted. An example of broad-based subject is, physical science which includes physics and chemistry. Social science includes, history, geography, economics, and civics., , Let us analyse the above definitions and understand the nature of school subjects., A School subject, •, , is also called as a learning tool, , •, , serves as criteria by which we learn, , •, , is used synonymously with the term ‘discipline’, , •, , refers to a particular area of leaning, , •, , has a specific code of conduct, , •, , aims to give intrinsically rewarding experience to students, , •, , contributes for self-actualization, personal growth and individual freedom, , •, , needs to be formulated according to the needs of students, , •, , derives content from a wide range of sources, , •, , is constructed from the perspective of social efficiency, , •, , aims to maintain and enhance social productivity., 4

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•, , has close reference to the needs of occupation, profession, and vocation, , •, , is an area of learning within the school curriculum, , •, , involves the selection and arrangement of content of knowledge, skills and, the transformation of that content, , Thus, a school subject is the result of institutional selection, organization, and framing, content for social, economic, cultural, curricular and pedagogic purposes. A school subject, constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and shape to curriculum content,, teaching, and learning activities. School subjects are distinctive, purpose-built enterprises,, constructed in response to different social, cultural, and political demands and challenges,, and towards educational aims. Thus a school subject contains content, and translating content, for educational purposes., , Check Your Progress – 1, 1. Define ‘Subject’, 2. Explain the Concept & Meaning of School Subject, , 1.1.3.2. Concept and Meaning of Discipline, Meaning of the term ‘Discipline’, The word discipline which we are referring to is in the context of academics. This, should not be confused with school discipline. School discipline relates to the actions taken, by a teacher of the school organization towards a student or a group of students, when their, behviour disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a rule created by the teacher or, school system. But we are not dealing with that concept in the present context. This is, related to a field of study. The origin of this word is not clearly known. The term discipline, may be used for many things at the same time and it is necessary to examine the various, meanings of the word., Let us start with an exploration of the etymology of the word discipline. Dictionaries, suggest words like ‘discipulus’ which means pupil, and discipline, and also means teaching., Whether this has any connotation of the word, we are discussing, we do not know. The, term discipline is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as “a branch of learning or, knowledge”. It is technical term for organization of learning and systematic production of, new knowledge. The Latin term ‘disciplina’ meant ‘teaching, learning’, and instruction., The Old English Version dictionary referred to a branch of knowledge or field of study., Arthur Dirks points out that, discipline in an academic sense, pertains to the practice of, study of a certain category of experience, its methodologies, how it goes about its pursuit, 5

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of truth. There is fundamental theory and fact (one might call it doctrine) that informs the, practice of that pursuit, but it is the pursuit that counts.’, According to Moti Nissani (1997), a discipline can be conveniently defined as the, study of “any comparatively self contained isolated domain of human experience which, possesses its own community of experts”., In the words of P. Bourdieu, a discipline has an academic and socially acknowledged, name (that for example can be found in a library classification system). A discipline is, inscribed in, and upheld by, the national and international networks of research, university, departments, research institutes and scientific journals that produces, certifies, rewards,, and upholds that which he calls the ‘discipline capital’. And a discipline is characterized by, a particular, unique academic and social style., Disciplines are broken into sub disciplines and sub sub disciplines. This is a, convenient way to organize a library, a school program, or a higher education institution., John Walton states, “by discipline I mean a body of subject matter made up of, concepts, facts, and theories, so ordered that it can be deliberately and systematically taught.”, According to him, a discipline is a body of subject matter that is teachable. However,, Walton‘s definition does not define a discipline comprehensively as it considers any body, of knowledge as a discipline which has quality of teachability. However, there are many, subjects which are taught at different levels but are not considered as disciplines., Janice Beyer and Thomas Lodahl (1976) describe disciplinary fields as providing, the structure of knowledge in which faculty members are trained and socialized; carry out, tasks of teaching, research, and administration; and produce research and educational output., Disciplinary worlds are considered separate and distinct cultures that exert varying influence, on scholarly behaviors as well as on the structure of higher education. Disciplinary, communities establish incentives and forms of cooperation around a subject matter and its, problems. Disciplines have conscious goals, which are often synonymous with the goals of, the departments and schools that comprise an institutional operating unit., According to M. S. Yadav and T.K.S Lakshmi (1995), discipline refers to a specific, area of study, a branch of knowledge recognized by a certain distinctness it reveals in its, substance and methodology. A discipline is a deliberate differentiation of the knowledge, base with a specific perspective in order to gain better understanding of the phenomenon, under focus. According to them, the knowledge base represents the sum total of the human, understanding of environment. Disciplines are derived from the knowledge base but get, formulated in recognizable differentiated forms of both substance and methodology due to, further specialization, diversification and differentiation., 6

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Bryan Turner (2001) has pointed at the ecclesiastical meaning, which refers to the, order maintained in the church, and at the medical meaning of discipline, as a medical, regimen imposed by a doctor on a patient to the patient‘s benefit. It follows that the academic, discipline can be seen as a form of specific and rigorous scientific training that will turn out, practitioners who have been disciplined by their discipline for their own good., The term ‘discipline‘ is inherited from the vocabulary of nineteenth century and is, understood as a branch of instruction for the transmission of knowledge and as a convenient, mapping of academic administration., Let us derive the nature of discipline from what we have presented so far and our, experience with dealing with different disciplines:, •, , Discipline implies an order, , •, , Discipline is related to learning, , •, , Discipline is related to putting some order to learn, , •, , Discipline is making some organization with the purpose of learning, , •, , It involves some efforts made to organize teaching, , •, , It involves some efforts made to organize learning, , •, , It is related to teaching learning process, , •, , It is related to knowledge organization process, , •, , It is related to processing of knowledge, , •, , It involves deduction of more knowledge through organization of the existing, knowledge, , •, , It is basically related to learning process and hence education, , •, , It is related to the learner teacher, experts and specialists, , •, , It is related to construction of new knowledge, , •, , It implies that knowledge grows and expands, , •, , It implies that knowledge is not final., , •, , It involves a process of classification., , •, , It is a body of specialised knowledge, , •, , It has theories and concepts, , •, , It has specific terminology, , •, , Its specific object is research, , •, , It has got definite methodology of research, , 7

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Check Your Progress – 2, Identify the correct statements using ‘✓' mark., 1., , Order is not an inevitable part of Discipline, , 2., , Discipline is related to learning, , 3., , Discipline is related to putting some order to learn, , 4., , Discipline is making some organization with the purpose of knowing, , 5., , It involves some efforts made to organize school activities, , 6., , It involves some efforts made to organize learning, , 7., , It is related to teaching learning process, , 1.1.3.3. Academic disciplines-Meaning and Nature, Let us understand the meaning of the word ‘Academic discipline’, You have heard of different academic disciplines like science, humanities, arts etc. Recall, your experiences with these disciplines and try to identify the meaning of academic, disciplines., The term ‘academic discipline’ certainly incorporates many elements of the meaning, of ‘discipline’ discussed above, as school discipline. At the same time, it has also become, a technical term for the organisation of learning and the systematic production of new, knowledge. Often disciplines are identified with taught subjects, but clearly not every subject, taught at university can be called a discipline. Discipline has many more attributes than the, fact that something that is taught in an academic setting., , Characteristics of Academic Discipline, There is a list of criteria and characteristics, which indicate whether a subject is indeed a, distinct discipline. They are as follows:, •, , disciplines have a particular object of research (e.g. law, society, politics), though, the object of research may be shared with another discipline;, , •, , disciplines have a body of accumulated specialist knowledge referring to their object, of research, which is specific to them and not generally shared with another, discipline;, , •, , disciplines have theories and concepts that can organise the accumulated specialist, knowledge effectively;, , •, , disciplines use specific terminologies or a specific technical language adjusted to, their research object;, 8

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•, , disciplines have developed specific research methods according to their specific, research requirements; and may be most crucially, , •, , disciplines must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects taught, at universities or colleges, respective academic departments and professional, associations connected to it., , Generally, it can be said that the more of these criteria discipline can tick, the more, likely it becomes that a certain field of academic enquiry is a recognised discipline capable, of reproducing itself and building upon a growing body of own scholarship. If a discipline, is called ‘studies’, then it usually indicates that it is of newer origin (women studies) and, that it may fall short of one or more of the above mentioned characteristics. This would be, typically lack of theorisation or lack of specific methodologies, which usually diminishes, the status of a field of research. These ‘studies’ can either aim at remaining ‘undisciplined’,, as women’s studies did in the 1970s, or they can engage in the process of their, disciplinarisation and institutionalisation. Thus, we can conclude that, •, , Academic discipline is a branch of learning or scholarly investigation that, provides a structure for the students’ (program of study,) especially in the graduate, and post-graduate levels., , •, , Academic discipline is a field or branch of learning affiliated with an academic, department of a university, formulated for the advancement of research and, scholarship., , •, , Academic discipline is formulated for the professional training of researchers,, academics and specialists., , •, , It is a branch of knowledge that is taught and researched as part of higher, education. Examples for Academic Disciplines are Anthropology, Space Science,, psychology, sociology, archaeology, Education etc., , •, , An academic discipline is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and, researched at the college or university level., , •, , It incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies,, inquiry, research areas, and facilities that are strongly associated with a given, scholastic subject area or college department. For example, the branches of, science are commonly referred to as scientific disciplines, e.g. physics, chemistry, and biology., , •, , Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to, as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied other subjects rather than, concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists., 9

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•, , While academic disciplines in and of themselves are more or less focused, practices, scholarly approaches - multidisciplinary / interdisciplinary,, transdisciplinary, and cross-disciplinary- integrate aspects from multiple, academic disciplines. They address any problems that may arise from narrow, concentration within specialized fields of study., , •, , Academic discipline is also known as field of study. Field of inquiry, research, field and branch of knowledge are the different terms used in different countries, and fields to denote a ‘discipline’., , Check Your Progress – 3, Identify the correct statements using ‘✓’ mark., 1., , The object of research of a discipline cannot be shared with other disciplines, , 2., , Disciplines have a body of accumulated specialist knowledge referring to their, object of research, which is specific to them and not generally shared with another, discipline, , 3., , Discipline are free from theories and concepts., , 4., , Disciplines use specific terminologies or a specific technical language adjusted, to their research object;, , 5., , Methodology of research is not discipline specific, , 6., , Disciplines must have some institutional manifestation in the form of subjects, taught at universities or colleges, respective academic departments and, professional associations connected to it., , 1.1.4. Let us Summarise, •, , School subject refers to an area of knowledge that is studied in school. It, can be called learning tool or the criteria by which we learn., , •, , There is no single and comprehensive definition of the term discipline., , •, , A school subject constitutes an organizing framework that gives meaning and, shape to curriculum content, teaching, and learning activities ., , •, , There is no single and comprehensive definition of the term discipline. It is, technical term for organization of learning and systematic production of new, knowledge., , •, , The term ‘academic discipline’ certainly incorporates many elements of the, meaning of ‘discipline’ . it has also become a technical term for the organisation, of learning and the systematic production of new knowledge., 10

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Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and, School Subjects, Unit - 2 : School Subjects and Academic Disciplines Differences and Relationship, Unit Structure, 1.2.1., , Learning Objectives, , 1.2.2., , Introduction, , 1.2.3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 1.2.3.1. School Subjects and Academic Disciplines- Differences, Check Your Progress – 1, 1.2.3.2. School Subjects and Academic Disciplines- Relationship, Check Your Progress - 2, 1.2.4., , Let us Summarise, , 1.2.5., , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1and 2, , 1.2.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 1.2.7., , References, , 1.2.1. Learning Objectives, After completing this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, •, , Identify the differences between school subjects and academic disciplines;, , •, , Clarify the relationship between school subjects and academic disciplines; and, , •, , Identify the school subjects and academic disciplines., , 1.2.2. Introduction, You are familiar about the concepts of subject, school subject, discipline and academic, discipline. These concepts are related and at the same time they differ in some aspects. It is, important to be aware of these differences and similarities because they have implications, for learning and teaching. Teaching depends on the understanding of the nature of the, content you are teaching and hence a teacher needs to know whether they are teaching a, school subject or academic discipline. Academic disciplines demand a different set of, behavior than those employed for teaching a subject. The teaching plan for an academic, subject is less rigid than the plan employed for teaching academic discipline. Let us take an, 12

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example. Suppose a teacher is teaching the ‘properties of magnet’ in a discipline-based, physics class, the primary and most important method is observation. A teacher cannot, teach this topic without making the students observe the magnetic properties. On the other, hand, when a teacher is teaching ‘women studies’ (subject of study), she can start with a, discussion on the current status of women in the society, or show a video, or discuss a, paper clipping etc. Hence, in the present unit, let us understand the relationship and, differences between school subjects and academic disciplines., , 1.2.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 1.2.3.1. School Subjects and Academic Disciplines- Relationship, Let us begin with the word discipline. As mentioned above, discipline refers to a, branch of academic study. For example, psychology, sociology, anthropology, mathematics, and philosophy are all disciplines. These can mostly be seen in higher educational institutions, such as universities. This, however, does not denote that disciplines cannot be seen in other, educational settings such as schools. For example, mathematics is a school subject that is, also a discipline that is found in higher educational institutions., Disciplines usually consist of theoretical backgrounds, research and experiments,, groups of experts in the discipline, etc. For example, a person who is pursuing his studies, in a particular discipline not only gains an in-depth understanding of it but also conducts, experiments or research as well. Such a person is considered as specializing in the chosen, discipline., School subjects are the basis for the development of basic information that will turn, the learners into specialists in academic disciplines. A school subject results from the, transformation of an academic discipline. School subjects come first and academic, disciplines later in one’s journey of learning from school to the university. An academic, discipline provides an end point for the formation of a school subject and school subject, furnishes the avenue for getting to know the academic discipline., School subjects can have different and variable relationships to academic disciplines,, depending on their aims, contents, and developmental phases. School subjects are derived, from academic disciplines. They are also organized according to the ‘structure’ of academic, disciplines. For example, History as a school subject is derived from ‘humanities’ and both, history ( a school subject) and humanities( a discipline) are narrative structurally. That is, the nature in both the contexts. Science as a discipline deducts truth through inductive, approach and this holds good for physics also, which is a school subject., School subjects constitute a faithful and valid introduction to the academic disciplines., While students are dealing with relatively simple ideas and methods in school subjects,, 13

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they study the same ideas and method known by experts in the academic discipline., Remember, we use concentric approach in the organization of curriculum. There, one can, see how a school subject gets enhanced as a discipline., Theories of, Classification of, Animals, Classification, of Animals, Characteristics, of Animals, , Introduction, of Animals, as living, Species, , Observe how the status of school subject develops as academic discipline as students, go to higher classes., The relationship between school subjects and academic disciplines can be understood, from three key positions., It is important to transmit disciplinary knowledge for the development of the, intellectual capacity of students and for the maintenance or reproduction of academic culture/, knowledge. This is called the doctrine of disciplinarity, according to which school subjects, are derived from and organised according to the structure of academic disciplines., •, , The central purpose of a school subject, like that of a discipline, is to initiate, the young into the academic community of scholars. School subjects, therefore,, are supposed to derive their life, from their related intellectual disciplines., , •, , School subjects constitute a faithful and valid introduction to the academic, disciplines whose names they bear., , •, , Students are dealing with relatively simple ideas and methods; they study the, same ideas and methods known by experts in the academic disciplines., , 14

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Check Your Progress – 1, 1. Explain the relationship between School Subjects and Academic Disciplines, , 1.2.3.2. School Subjects and Academic Disciplines- Differences, Discipline and Subject are two words that relate to fields of knowledge between, which a key difference can be seen. Discipline refers to a branch of academic study. On the, other hand, subject refers to a branch of knowledge studied or taught., School subjects and academic disciplines are essentially different in purpose and, substance. Hence, school subjects are allowed for construction, which could get beyond, the narrow academic or disciplinary concern. The discontinuous position finds support in, humanism, social efficiency, and social reconstructions., Humanist educators argue that school subjects are created to provide students with, rewarding experiences that contribute to personal growth and individual freedom. School, subjects, therefore, need to be formulated according to the interest, attitudes, and, developmental stages of individual students. They need to derive content from a wide, range of sources – such as personal experiences, human activities and community cultures, and wisdoms. Disciplinary knowledge may or may not be useful for the formation of school, subjects., From the perspective of social efficiency, school subjects are constructed for the, primary purpose of maintaining and enhancing economic and social productivity by, equipping future citizens with the requisite knowledge, skills, and capital. The formation, of school subjects, therefore, is justified with close reference to the needs of occupation,, profession, and vocation. Academic disciplines are drawn upon only when they demonstrate, their efficacy in promoting those skills and knowledge actually needed in occupations., School subjects are created to provide students with meaningful learning experiences, that might lead to liberation and cause social activity., The formation of school subjects is based upon an examination of social contexts,, social issues, and futures, with the intention of helping individuals reconstruct their own,, standpoints, and actions., The curricular discourses call for a learner-oriented approach to the construction of a, school subject that allows learners to construct their own knowledge according to their, individual needs and interests., The curricular discourses require the school subject to be formulated in ways that, help students cultivate certain kinds of sensitivity, disposition and awareness needed for, responsible participation in society., 15

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The school subjects equip students with general skills and lifelong learning abilities,, essential for facing the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based economy., Discipline refers to a branch of academic study. On the other hand, the subject refers, to a branch of knowledge studied or taught., Try to understand the difference between school subjects and academic disciplines, from the following table, Areas, , School Subjects, , Academic Disciplines, , Aim, , Aims at social, reconstruction, , Content, , Formed by simple ideas and, information.Includes practical, knowledge, local community, knowledge and technical knowledge, , Complex theories and their, implication, content related to, the discipline and inter, disciplines., , Focus, , More concerned about meeting, social, economic and political, needs,takes care of the demands of, the society and the individual., , More concerned about learning, the content of the discipline,, compared to school subjects, focus is narrow, but focused on, in-depth knowledge of the, discipline. Works within the, discipline., , Competencies,, skills, , Skills required by the individual to Competencies related to, live in the society like understanding and application, communication, comprehension etc of the discipline like, experimentation, observation, etc., , Outcome, , The result will be the formation of a, better citizen involves basic skills, such as reading, writing and, arithmetic., Scope is vast since the aims is broad, based, , Scope, , Flexible: changes as the aims of Scope within the subject,, narrowed point of view, society change, compared to school subjects, , reform, , and development of the intellectual, capacity of students and for the, maintenance or reproduction of, academic culture/knowledge., , Gives importance for the, development of special skills,, many professional and, vocational skills. Related to, enhancing the disciplinary, knowledge through one’s own, thinking., , 16

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Nature, , constructed based on the interests,, attitudes and feelings of learners, , Less scope for flexibility,, working within the discipline,, less scope for change of, knowledge., , Curriculum, construction, , Learner centred constructivist, approach, , Constructed according to the, nature of discipline and, advances according to the, nature of disciplines only when, new innovations take place., , Curricular, discourses, Area, of, operation, , Limited to schools, , Not learner centred, For universities and other, higher educational institutions., , Check Your Progress – 2, 1., , Explain the difference between school subject and academic Discipline, , 1.2.4. Let Us Summarise, •, •, , •, , A subject or a field of study is a branch of knowledge that is taught and, researched at the school, college or university level., School subject refers to an area of knowledge that is studied in school., It can be called learning tool or the criteria by which we learn. More precisely,, subjects are the parts into which learning can be divided. It is a field or sphere, of knowledge in which the learner has chosen to specialize., The term discipline ‘originates from the Latin words discipulus, which means, pupil, and discipline, which means teaching. The term discipline is defined by, the Oxford English Dictionary as “a branch of learning or knowledge”., , •, , “Academic discipline is a field or branch of learning affiliated with an academic, department of a university, formulated for the advancement of research and, scholarship. It is formulated for the professional training of researchers,, academics and specialists.”- Deng, Z (2013)., , •, , School subjects can be traditional academic subjects, such as mathematics,, history, geography, chemistry and economics that have direct relation with their, parent academic disciplines. School subjects constitute a faithful and valid, introduction to the academic disciplines whose names they bear. Students are, dealing with relatively simple ideas and methods, they study the same ideas and, methods known by experts in the academic disciplines., The exclusive reliance of the curricular position on academic disciplines in, defining school subjects leaves out other kinds of knowledge (e.g., practical, knowledge, technical knowledge, local community knowledge, etc.) that could, be potential curriculum content., 17, , •

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Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and, School Subjects, Unit - 3 : Aims of Schooling, Unit Structure, 1.3.1., , Learning Objectives, , 1.3.2., , Introduction, , 1.3.3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 1.3.3.1., , Meaning, Nature and Aims of Education and Schooling in Global Context, Check Your Progress-1, , 1.3.3.2., , Aims of Education/ Aims of Schooling – Indian Context, Check Your Progress-2, , 1.3.4., , Let us Summarise, , 1.3.5., , Answer to Check Your Progress -1 and 2, , 1.3.6., , Unit end Exercises, , 1.3.7., , References, , 1.3.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this Unit, the student teacher will be able to;, •, , Explain the meaning and nature of aims of Education and Schooling;, , •, , Explain the Aims of Education and Schooling in Global Context; and, , •, , Explain the Aims of Education and Schooling in Indian Context., , 1.3.2. Introduction, We all work in schools. We go to school every day, do the assigned work like teaching,, monitoring students, helping in curricular and co-curricular activities etc. But have we, ever contemplated on why are we involving ourselves in all these activities? What are our, goals? Where do we want to reach? Or in other words, what are our aims in guiding our, students? Where do we want to take them etc. In the same way students also come to, school. They learn what we teach, or guide, pass the examinations and go to the next class., 19

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After completing school education, they join the next class in colleges. Have they ever, asked you, why they should do schooling? Neither they nor we are serious about knowing, the purposes of schooling. We have started our journey without knowing our destination., Don’t you think this may lead to a great amount of waste and failure? Therefore, in the, present Unit, let us understand what are the aims of schooling, what goals we, as teachers, need to keep in mind while working along with students in school., , 1.3.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 1.3.3.3. Meaning, Nature and Aims of Education and Schooling in, Global Context:, School is a social institution established with a social purpose of imparting education, to people. It is an important means to achieve the aims of education of a country. Therefore,, anyone interested in identifying the aims of schooling must first understand the philosophy, of education of the place(nation) to which the school belongs. This naturally will lead to an, understanding of the aims of schooling., Aims of education are not fixed and universal. These are changeable and relative in, nature. We can point out some specific nature of educational aims as follows. These are, true in terms of the aims of schools also, because, schools aim to achieve the aims of, education., •, , As education is not a single aimed activity, plurality is an important feature of, educational aims. Different aims represent different ways of looking into the, same thing., , •, , Educational aims differ in nature and orientation. Some are permanent, definite, and unchangeable whereas others are flexible, adjustable and changeable., , •, , Educational aims are related to the multiple needs of the individual, as well as,, of the society., , •, , Educational aims are correlated with the ideals of life. Thus, educational aims, change in keeping with the different schools of philosophy, religious, political, and economic ideals held by an individual or by a country. Therefore, the, formulation of aims of education is formulation of aims of ‘life’, itself., , •, , In reality, education is a reflection of the society and a process of social control., So educational aims are the means to shape and form a society., , •, , Educational aims change from age to age and place to place. Thus, these aims, are not fixed., , •, , Lastly, different types of education have separate aims of education., 20

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Thus, educational aims are changing according to the specific needs and ideals of the, individual as well as the society. Quest of educational aims has been made since time, immemorial. This quest gains momentum with the birth of great thinkers and philosophers, and with their educational experiments. Social and economic issues also serve as, determinants of educational aims and objectives. Education must prepare the future, generation for the economic and social system of the country. In determining its educational, objectives, every country has to take into consideration its economic conditions. Thus, we, find variability is the nature of educational aims. The Secondary Education Commission, (1952) puts it: “As the political, social and economic conditions change and new problems, arise, it becomes necessary to re-examine carefully and re-state clearly the objectives which, education at definite stage should keep in view.”, The aims of education all over the world in general are the same. It is to help the, citizens as well as the country to grow in a positive direction. But the specific aims of, education of each country will emerge based on its philosophical, sociological, technological, and many other situations. These aspects determine the aims of education of a nation, and, hence the aims of schooling of that place also., The following diagram clarifies the relationship between the aims of education as, well as the aims of schooling., , 21

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Thus, it is clear that the aims of schooling are derived from the aims of education., There are some general aims of education, as well as schooling, which applies to all the, nations, but specific aims are nation specific. Therefore, let us understand the aims of, education as well as schooling in general and then get clarified about the aims of schooling, in Indian situation. Hence our discussion starts with the global aims of education, followed, by the deducted aims of schooling in global context. Next, let us proceed with the aims of, education suggested by different documents at different times in India, followed by their, respective implications for aims of schools., The historic Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted at the UN General, Assembly in 1948, declared that “everyone has the right to education”. Article 26 in the, Declaration stated that “education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental, stages” and “elementary education shall be compulsory”, and that ‘education shall be directed, to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for, human rights and fundamental freedom. The idea that education must result in the ‘full, development of the human personality’ continued to be reflected in influential reports such, as that entitled ‘Learning: The Treasure Within’, the International Commission on Education, for the Twenty-first Century chaired by Jacques Delors, submitted to UNESCO in 1996., According to Delors, the twenty first century will witness the following main tensions; and, all of us have to confront and overcome them. These tensions are:, •, , The tension between the global and the local., , •, , The tension between the universal and the individual., , •, , The tension between tradition and modernity., , •, , The tension between long-term and short-term considerations., , •, , The tension between the need for competition and the concern for equality of, opportunity., , •, , The tension between the extraordinary expansion of knowledge and human, beings’ capacity to assimilate it., , •, , The tension between the spiritual and the material., , Looking at the major tensions that a twenty-first century human being is poised to, encounter, “it is not enough to supply each child early in life with a store of knowledge to, be drawn on from the on. Each individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunity, throughout life, both to broaden her or his knowledge, skills and attitude, and to adapt to a, changing, complex and interdependent world”., , 22

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The Commission advocated four types of learning, which are important in a person’s, life and these four types are popularly called the four pillars of education. These are:, 1., , Learning to know: To acquire the instruments of understanding, , 2., , Learning to do: To act creatively on one’s environment, , 3., , Learning to live together: To participate and cooperate with other people in all, human activities., , 4., , Learning to be: An essential progression which proceeds from the previous, three., , In the traditional system of education, the first two aims of education have been the, major focus. However, there is a need to make all the four aims of education an integral, part of the organized learning system. Let us briefly discuss each of these aims., , Learning to know:, Learning to know has mainly two dimensions. These are as a means and as an end in, life. As a means, it helps an individual to understand his/her environment so that he/she can, live in dignity, develop occupational skills and communication. As an end, it strives to, foster understanding, knowing and discovering the abilities of an individual. In this context,, it is essential that children acquire the knowledge of scientific method and becomes ‘friends, of science’., The second major aspect of this learning is that learners should be exposed to both, general education as well as specialised education so that they can cope up with the constantly, changing and proliferated knowledge of the 21st century., According to the Commission, ‘learning to know pre-supposes learning to learn,, calling upon the power of concentration, memory and thought. In today’s world, when the, information grows rapidly, one need to learn to concentrate on things and people, otherwise, he will be completely lost. Inculcation of memory right from childhood should be encouraged, in the schools so that a child is able to store and circulate vast amounts of information, which is available for him/her. It is also necessary that schools attempt to develop thought, processes in children by encouraging two-way traffic between the concrete and the abstract,, between deductive and inductive approaches to learning. Hence, the Commission emphasises, that acquiring knowledge is a never-ending process and can be enriched by all forms of, experience., , 23

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Learning to Do, Learning to know and learning to do are quite inseparable. After acquiring knowledge,, it is important that knowledge should be put into practice. Although this concept is not new, to the field of education, the Commission has hinted at how education can be adapted to, future work plan when it is not possible to foresee how exactly that work will evolve. The, commission advocates a shift from skill of a worker to his/her personal competence, which, has become inevitable due to the changed nature of production processes. “Purely physical, tasks are being replaced by more intellectual, more mental work, such as controlling,, maintaining and monitoring machines, and by the work of design, study and organisation,, as machines themselves became more ‘intelligent’ and the physical labour required for, work diminishes”. Hence, the abilities to communicate, work with others, manage and, resolve conflicts must be developed among the learners., Secondly, the ‘dematerialization’ of the advanced economies has resulted in, quantitative and qualitative expansions in both market oriented (finance accounting,, management) and on-market oriented service sectors (education, health, social services)., This has, no doubt, called for tremendous training in interpersonal relationships among the, workers. Therefore, the education system is called upon to develop in the learners, the, qualities of teamwork and development of interpersonal relationships., , Learning to Live Together, Never has the human society faced such a threat of self-destruction, as it would, encounter in the twenty first century. Human beings are becoming mute spectators of, conflicts, destruction and mass killings. Hence, there is a need “to devise a form of education, which might make it possible to avoid conflicts or resolve them peacefully by developing, respect for other people, their cultures and their spiritual values”. Among the various means, to combat prejudices and conflicts, non-violence has been recommended by the Commission., Moreover, countries must have common objectives and a shared purpose to reduce prejudices, and hostilities and to pave the way to cooperation and friendship. The Commission therefore, suggested that “formal education must therefore provide enough time and opportunity in, its programmes to introduce the young, from childhood, to cooperative undertakings through, participation in sport or in cultural activities, and also through participation in social activities, such as neighbourhood renovation, helping the underprivileged, humanitarian work,, intergenerational assistance, etc. “Both teacher and students should come together to resolve, conflicts and this will also help enhance the teacher-pupil relationship., , Learning to be, All the three types of learning presented earlier form the basis for the fourth type of, learning. This type of learning envisages all round development of human personality body,, 24

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mind and spirit. All human beings should develop independent and critical thinking, and, form their own judgement. It restates the fear ‘Learning to be’, the report of the International, Commission on Education, 1972 that “the world would be dehumanized as a result of, technical change”. Therefore, education should help an individual to solve his own problems,, make his own decisions and shoulders his responsibilities. Education should strive to ‘give, people the freedom of thought, judgement, feeling and imagination that they need in order, to develop their talents and remain as much as possible InControl of their lives’., In the twenty first century, it is required that standardization of individual behaviour, must pave the way for the qualities of imagination and creativity, the clearest manifestations, of human freedom. The commission emphasizes “it is therefore important to provide children, and young people with every possible opportunity for discovery and experiment-aesthetic,, artistic, sporting, scientific, cultural and social swell as appealing introductions to the creation, of their contemporaries or earlier generations”. To sum up, education must try to foster a, fully developed and balanced personality in human beings., In the 21st century three curricular discourses, autonomous learners, participatory, citizenship, and globalization, have become rather influential in the debates. These discourses, argue that contemporary schooling should allow individual learners to construct their own, knowledge base and competences. It should prepare young people for their future role as, active, responsible, and productive citizens in a democratic society. Furthermore, schools, are expected to be instrumental in equipping individuals for the challenges created by, economic and cultural globalization., , Aims of Schooling –Based on Curriculum Ideologies, Over the last century schooling has been asked to serve four different aims that are, reflected in four curricular ideologies. They are;, •, , Academic Rationalism: Primary function of schooling is intellectual, development through initiating students into specific bodies of knowledge,, techniques, and ways of knowing embedded in academic disciplines., , •, , Humanism: The central goal of schooling in terms of fostering students’, potential, personal freedom, self-actualization, and all-round development., , •, , Social Efficiency: The central purpose of schooling is to meet the current and, future manpower needs of a society by training youth to become contributing, members of society., , •, , Social Reconstructionism: Schooling is primarily an instrument for solving, social problems (inequalities, injustice, poverty, etc.) and cause social reform, and reconstruction., 25

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Check Your Progress 1, Below are given the ideas suggested under different objectives of ‘Learning: The, Treasure Within’ document. Classify them under each of the objectives appropriately., I.Learning to know:, II., , Learning to Do:, , III., , Learning to Live Together:, , IV., , Learning to Be:, , 1., , Resolve conflicts peacefully, , 2., , the qualities of teamwork, , 3., , helps an individual to understand his/her environment, , 4., , strive to ‘give people the freedom of thought, , 5., , skill of a worker to his/her personal competence, , 6., , countries must have common objectives, , 7., , strives to foster understanding, , 8., , help to solve one’s own problems, , 9., , pre-supposes learning to learn, , 10., , the abilities to communicate, work with others, , 11., , introduce the young, from childhood, to cooperative undertakings, , 12., , help to make one’s own decisions, , 1.3.3.3. Aims of Education/ Aims of Schooling – Indian Context, I. Aims (Aims of Schooling) as derived from the Constitution of India, 1., , Development of Democratic Citizenship and Values in the People: The success, of democracy depends largely upon people’s awareness of their rights and duties and, the extent to which they fulfill their responsibilities. Education should assume the, responsibility of providing the kind of education that would enable the students to, develop qualities which are of great importance for them towards bear responsibility, of a democratic citizen. Education aims at developing the ability to think and, distinguish between right and wrong in people, to understand social, economic and, political issues, and to reflect on the possibility of solving such problems. Thus,, education has a challenging responsibility with regard to moulding and directing, 26

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every citizen towards democratic citizenship. The schools are responsible to develop, this democratic citizenship., 2., , Training in Skillful Living: Democracy can be said to succeed only if it translates, the democratic ideals to its society. And, for this, socialisation of the individual through, education is essential. The educational system should be designed to inculcate some, democratic values, such as scientific temperament of mind, a spirit of large-hearted, tolerance, of mutual ‘give and take’, respect for the culture of other nations, etc. It is, also desirable to develop such social qualities as collective feeling, cooperation,, discipline, sympathy, brotherhood, etc., in the individual. Education must also aim to, create faith in social justice and the willingness to rebel against injustice. Education, helps people in adjusting to each other. Therefore, schools should aim at developing, these values among children., , 3., , Development Vocational Skill: No nation can progress in the absence of economic, progress. The first duty of the state is to provide a system and means of education, which imparts some vocational and professional skills to the learners so that they are, able to earn their livelihood at the same time as they contribute to the nation’s economic, growth. Education must aim at increasing the productive or vocational efficiency of, young students for increasing national wealth of the country. Therefore, schools should, aim at development of an attitude towards appreciating the dignity of work and, productive efficiency of the individual., , 4., , Development of Social, Moral and Spiritual Values: The success of democracy,, its strength and stability are contingent upon people’s developed sense of social, responsibility and a deeper appreciation of moral and spiritual values hence, the schools, should at strengthening and deepening of the sense of social responsibility and a, keener appreciation of moral and spiritual values., , 5., , Promoting National Consciousness: India is a land of different castes, peoples,, communities, languages, religions and cultures. The achievement of social and national, integration is an important aim of our educational system. The main role of education, should, therefore, be to enable our students to discover ‘unity in diversity’ and in this, way. The schools should aim at promoting this national consciousness through planned, activities., , 6., , Development of Physical Resources: The modernisation of agriculture and rapid, industrialisation should also be an important aim of education in a democracy like, India. To achieve this purpose education should be linked with productivity, science, should be considered a basic component of education, work- experience should be, considered important, vocational education should be expanded, scientific and, 27

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technical education should be improved. In this regard, schools should develop, productive skills among students which help them to develop required competencies., 7., , Development of Human Resources: This aim implies changes in the knowledge,, skills, interests, and values of the people as a whole. In a democracy the individual is, an end in himself and the primary purpose of education should be to provide him, with the widest opportunity of developing his potentialities to the fullest, through, social reorganization and emphasis on social perspectives. Cultivation of essential, values in the people, development of dedicated and competent leadership and educated, electorate are essential towards strengthening democracy. Schools, therefore, must, aim at developing such human resources required for the defense of Indian democracy., Democracy can succeed only if most of its members have developed mature, personalities through physical, mental, social, ethical and spiritual development. These, aims are social or national objectives which are to be achieved through education., These are imperative towards strengthening the society., , Aims of Schooling-Deductions:, The schools should aim at developing, • Democratic Citizenship, • living skills, • Vocational Skills, • Social, Moral and Spiritual Values, • National Consciousness, • Physical Resources, and Human Resources., More or less the same aims have been emphasized further by different committees, and commissions as well as curricular frame works. Let us see the implications of the, recommendations of these committees in relation to the aims of schooling., , II. Aims of Schooling as deducted from National Policy on Education (1986)., The Government of India declared its new education policy under the title “National, Policy on Education, 1986” which was intended to prepare India for the 21st century. As, per the National Policy on Education (NPE1986), the aims of education should be, 1., , To foster all round development of the individual, as well as, the society as a, whole., , 28

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2., , To promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism,, democracy, socialism and secularism, equality of the sexes, national cohesion,, removal of social barriers etc., , 3., , To provide education of comparable quality to all students, irrespective of caste,, creed, location or gender. d) To develop manpower for different levels of the, economy which would further guarantee national self-reliance., , 4., , To develop a scientific temper and independence of mind and spirit., , 5., , To reconstruct the educational system to improve its quality at all stages, and, give much greater attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral, values and a closer relationship between education and the life of the people., , 6., , To inculcate in the mind of the students the importance of national integration, and certain national values like secular, scientific and moral values., , 7., , To strengthen the world view and motivate the younger generations towards, international cooperation and peaceful coexistence., , 8., , To promote equality, it is necessary to provide equal opportunity or access, but, also provide conditions for success., , 9., , To develop awareness of the importance of protection of environment and, observance of the norms of small family., , 10., , To encourage students towards cherished goal of life long education through, open and distance education., , Aim of Schooling: Deductions, •, , The school should aim to achieve all round development of the individual and, the society,, , •, , Promote Indian cultural values, along with nationalistic, scientific, moral,, environmental values, provide quality education irrespective of any differences, and develop manpower., , III. Aims of Schooling as deducted from National Curriculum Framework (2005), The aims of education according to the National Curriculum Framework 2005 are, the following:, According to this, education should develop a commitment to democratic values of, equality, justice, freedom, concern for others’ wellbeing, secularism, respect for human, dignity and rights, build a commitment to these values which are based on reason and, understanding, promote independence of thought and action, encourage value-based decision, 29

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making, independently and collectively, teach the skills of learning to learn and the, willingness to unlearn and relearn as means of responding to new situations in a flexible, and creative manner. It also suggested that the curriculum needs to emphasise the processes, of constructing knowledge. It emphasized that choices in life and ability to participate in, democratic processes depend on the ability to contribute to society in various ways. This is, why education must develop the ability to work, participate in economic processes and, social change. Appreciation of beauty and art forms is an integral part of human life., Creativity in arts, literature and other domains of knowledge is closely linked. Education, must provide the means and opportunity to enhance the child’s creative expression and the, capacity of aesthetic appreciation., , Aims of Schooling: Deductions, •, , Schools should aim at developing democratic values, , •, , Develop a commitment to these values, , •, , Develop independence of thought and action, the skill of learning to learn, , •, , Promote value-based decision-making skills, , •, , Promote the attitude to unlearn and relearn, , •, , Develop the ability to participate in democratic processes, , •, , Promote an attitude to appreciate art forms., , IV. Aims of Schooling as deducted from the context of Globalization:, The aims and importance of global education can be stated as follows:, 1., , Education should aim to enhance the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt,, and apply knowledge., , 2., , Education should allow every individual to develop freely. The individual will, have to find his/her own point of reference in a society of constant change that, generates short lived values., , 3., , Education should help students to gain skills of new cultures. Education should, help learners to develop their critical thinking skills, gain democratic values, and apply their knowledge independently in an effectively designed teachinglearning environment., , 4., , Education must give the people the capacity to acquire the relevant knowledge, and interpret values that will help them to adjust with the changing environment, such as tolerance in human rights, the diversity of culture, respect for others, and for the environment. It should create the right balance among the concern, of societies and the integrity., 30

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5., , Education should produce an increased quantity of scientifically and technically, trained persons, as the emerging economy is based on knowledge as a key, factor which demands highly trained person in science and technology., , 6., , In a global society education should aim at providing students the ability of, working together. Education should be the catalyst for the desire to live together., At the heart of the same society and in the same ‘global village’ through universal, values such as tolerance and human rights, the diversity of culture, respect for, others and for the environment etc. maintaining balance between the concerns, of society and integrity of individuals., , 7., , Education should enable students to think independently to exercise appropriate, judgment and to collaborate with others in order to make sense of new situations., Education should assist people in criticising events from global perspectives., , 8., , Education should help to develop the skill of multi-sided thinking by enabling, individuals to gain the cultural sensitivity and experience, to develop the, language and skills of harmony at work in different cultures., , 9., , Education should aim at playing an increasingly vital role in resolving and, treating the social contradictions and strains carried by globalisation., , 10., , Education should aim at equipping people with the new knowledge and skills, required for the global economy. In such a global context, education should, aim at preparing children to compete in the global labour force., , 11., , Education should develop feelings of world citizenship to acquaint the student, with new and current or latest areas of knowledge and to develop international, understanding., , 12., , In a global world, education should aim at producing better educated citizens., , Aims of Schooling: Deductions:, •, , Enhance the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt, and apply knowledge, , •, , Allow every individual to develop freely, , •, , Help students to gain skills of new cultures, , •, , Give the people the capacity to acquire the relevant knowledge and interpret, values, , •, , Produce an increased quantity of scientifically and technically trained persons, 31

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•, , Aim at providing students the ability of working together, enable students to, think independently to exercise appropriate judgment, , •, , Aim at equipping people with the new knowledge and skills required for the, global economy, , •, , Develop feelings of world citizenship, , V. Aims of Schooling as deducted from Draft National Education Policy 2019:, The draft National Education Policy 2019 has clearly presented the vison of education, in India in its preamble. Accordingly, it is to ensure that it touches the live of each and, every citizen, consistent with their ability to contribute to many growing developmental, imperatives of this country on the one hand, and towards creating a just and equitable, society on the other., It also mandates to have broad view of education encompassing the holistic, development of students with special emphasis on the development of the creative potential, of each individual, in all its richness and complexity, as suggested in many reports from, UNESCO, the OECD, the World Bank, the World Economic Forum. The draft documents, also highlights the aims of schooling as the development of not only cognitive skills - both, ‘foundational skills’ of literacy and numeracy and ‘higher-order’ cognitive skills such as, critical thinking and problem solving skills - but also social and emotional skills, also, referred to as ‘soft skills’, including cultural awareness and empathy, perseverance and, grit, teamwork and leadership, among others. The Policy recognises that it is important to, conceive education in a more encompassing fashion, and this principle should inform and, guide reforms in relation to the reorientation of the contents and processes of education., According to the policy, culturally, India has been, and continues to be, a cradle of, great diversity in all walks of life, with its myriad languages and dialects, with as many as, seven classical dance forms and two classical music forms, many well-developed traditions, of folk arts and music, pottery, sculptures and bronzes, exquisite architecture, incredible, cuisines, fabulous textiles of all kinds, and so much more. These rich legacies to world, heritage must not only be nurtured and preserved for posterity, but also enhanced and put to, new uses through our education system., , Aims of Schooling: Deductions:, The schools should aim at developing, •, , creative potential of each individual, , •, , cognitive skills, 32

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•, , foundational skills, , •, , higher order skills, , •, , social and emotional skills, , •, , culturally diverse arts and skills, , There are some more specific aims of schooling, that aresuggested by the experts in, the field. They are highly significant. You will find those aims below:, •, , Develop a love for learning and opportunity for each individual to achieve, their full potential and to develop and explore their own interests in a secure, and challenging environment., , •, , Enable children to become confident, resourceful, enquiring and independent, learners, able to apply their skills;, , •, , Create an atmosphere of mutual respect, understanding and consideration for, the ideas, attitudes, values and feelings of others;, , •, , Develop children’s self-esteem, resilience, personal development and wellbeing;, , •, , Promote individual and collective responsibility, , •, , Enable children to value and be valued as part of their community., , •, , Provide a rich, diverse and challenging education through excellent and, innovative teaching and learning., , •, , Celebrate success, promote a “can do” attitude and inspire each to achieve, their best., , •, , Support personal development, social responsibility and a sense of self-worth., , •, , Develop the attitudes and skills that support a healthy and fulfilled life together, with the confidence for a lifetime of learning., , •, , Work as partners in learning with students, parents/carers and the community., , •, , Provide a safe, supportive and well-ordered environment where students and, staff are happy and confident as they aspire to achieve., , Check Your Progress -2, Below are given the aims of schooling (two each) as deducted by different documents, and contexts. Classify them under appropriate documents and context., 1., , Constitution of India, , 2., , National Policy on Education 1986, , 33

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3., , National Curriculum Framework, , 4., , Context of Globalization, , 1., , Develop manpower., , 2., , Democratic Citizenship, , 3., , Allow every individual to develop freely, , 4., , Promote the attitude to unlearn and relearn, , 5., , Living skills, , 6., , Achieve all round development of the individual and the society, , 7., , Promote value-based decision-making skills, , 8., , Help students to gain skills of new cultures, , 1.3.4. Let us Summarise, •, , School is a social institution established with a social purpose of imparting, education to people. It is an important means to achieve the aims of education, of a country., , •, , Aims of education are not fixed and universal., , •, , As the political, social and economic conditions change and new problems, arise, it becomes necessary to re-examine carefully and re-state clearly the, objectives which education at definite stage should keep in view., , •, , The aims of education all over the world in general are the same. It is to help, the citizens as well as the country to grow in a positive direction. But the specific, aims of education of each country will emerge based on its philosophical,, sociological, technological and many other situations. These aspects determine, the aims of education of a nation, and hence the aims of schooling of that place, also., , •, , ‘Learning: The Treasure Within’, the International Commission on Education, for the Twenty-first Century chaired by Jacques Delores, suggested four types, of learning: Learning to know, Learning to do, Learning to live together and, Learning to be. schools are expected to be instrumental in achieving these and, hence form the aims of schooling., , •, , The aims of schooling in India can be derived by different documents of different, times and also in different contexts., , 34

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•, , They are the constitution of India document, NPE 1986, NCF 2005 and the, context of Globalization and the draft of National Education Policy 2019. Each, suggests some common and some context specific aims for schooling., , 1.3.5. Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ -1 and 2, Check Your Progress-1, Check Your Progress -1, Learning to know- 3,7,9, Learning to Do - 2,5,10, Learning to Live Together - 1,6,11, Learning to Be - 4,8,12, , Check Your Progress -2, Constitution of India- 2,5, National Policy on Education 1986-1,6, National Curriculum Framework-4,7, Context of Globalization-3,8, , 1.3.6. Unit end Exercises, 1. Explain the aims of Schooling., , 1.3.7. References, •, , John White (2005). The Aims of School Education. London: University of, London., , •, , Tomas England (2004). Curriculum Research. Orebro: Orebro University., , •, , NCF (2005). Report of NCF-2005. New Delhi., , •, , Aldrich R (1988). The national curriculum: an historical perspective.In Lawton, D. and Chitty C. (eds) The National Curriculum, London: Institute of Education,, University of London., , •, , White J. (ed) (2003) Rethinking the School Curriculum: Values, Aims and, Purposes. London: Routledge Publications., , •, , White J. (2006) Intelligence, Destiny and Education: The Ideological Origins, of Intelligence Testing. London: RoutledgePublications., 35

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Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and School, Subjects, Unit - 4 : Emergence of Academic Disciplines and, Formation of School Subjects, Unit Structure, 1.4.1., , Learning Objectives, , 1.4.2., , Introduction, , 1.4.3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 1.4.3.1., , Emergence of Academic Disciplines, Check Your Progress-1, , 1.4.3.2., , Formation of School Subjects, Check Your Progress-2, , 1.4.4., , Let us Summarise, , 1.4.5., , Answer to Check Your Progress - 1 and 2, , 1.4.6., , Unit End Exercise, , 1.4.7., , References, , 1.4.1. Learning Objectives, •, , After completing this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, , •, , Describe the historical perspectives of academic discipline;, , •, , Explain how the academic disciplines emerged; and, , •, , Describe how the school subjects were formed., , 1.4.2. Introduction, We know that, what we speak of disciplines today like science, mathematics, history, etc. were not in existence in the past. The knowledge was considered as a single unit. The, knowledge was classified into different discipline for number of reasons. We are also aware, that the subjects taught in our schools today emerged during the course of time. We are, naturally curious to know how these disciplines and school subjects emerged. Let us, understand the history behind this process in the present unit., 37

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1.4.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 1.4.3.1. Emergence of Academic Disciplines, knowledge is the starting point in the process of the evolution of discipline. Let us, understand how knowledge is created. Knowledge emerge in the following situations:, • social experience of human beings, • interaction between human beings and the environment, When these personal experiences are felt by many people in a cultural environment,, it gets validated and get the status of knowledge. Take for example, many people experience, the possibility of training dogs and as a result of it, they deduct the knowledge that ‘dogs, are trainable’. This will be further validated by many people and gets established as, knowledge., When knowledge gets into the realm of academic discipline, its focus and scope get, narrowed. Bringing knowledge under a discipline means, defining the boundaries of, knowledge of different nature. Therefore, a discipline defines boundaries, and decides, whether a particular knowledge can be brought within or outside that particular discipline., Today we are so familiar about these boundaries, that the moment one describes the structure, of a plant, we say he is talking about botany, the moment one speaks about the form of, government of a country, we say he is dealing with political science., Why did people categorize knowledge under different disciplines? This may be, because people thought that this helps people to get specialized in that discipline. This, specialisation helps to identify principles, laws and also to form theories. The network of, laws and principles help to deduct new knowledge within disciplines. More exploration, into the discipline again leads to the growth or expansion of the discipline., The need for segregation of knowledge can be identified as follows:, •, , Due to continuous production of new knowledge in different fields the need of, its preservation and transfer was also inevitable., , •, , The customs and knowledge of ancient civilizations also became more complex., These different kinds of skills and activities were the earlier forms of human, knowledge. Each generation, since the beginning of human existence, has sought, to pass on cultural and social values, traditions, morality, religion and skills to, the next generation., , •, , In pre-literate societies, education was achieved orally and through observation, and imitation. But with the passage of time, different skills and activities became, 38

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more specialized due to generation of new knowledge and new discoveries., Each such discovery and invention enriched human understanding in different, fields of knowledge., This organized body of knowledge of a particular field was termed as ‘discipline’., Disciplined study of different fields of human knowledge started with the beginning of, institutionalized study and research of these areas at different times. The knowledge that a, society possessed has been developed into the status of disciplines and its diversification, and specialisation results in further fragmentation of knowledge in to new disciplines. The, evolutionary process of disciplines might have gone through the following phases:, •, •, •, •, •, , Knowledge accumulation, Specialization and fragmentation of Knowledge, Formation of Disciplines, Diversification and further specialization of knowledge within the discipline, Breaking of disciplinary boundaries and emergence of more specialised new, disciplines, , •, , Formation of New Disciplines, breaking of disciplinary boundaries and, emergence of more specialized new disciplines., , The same has been represented in the following diagram., , Formarion, of New, Disciplines, Breaking of, disciplinary boundaries, and emergence or more, specialised new disciplines, Diversification and further specialization, of knowledge within the discipline, Formation of Disciplines, Specialization and fragmentation of Knowledge, Knowledge Acmulation, , This may be occurred in one of the following ways:, (i), , Two or more branches of knowledge merge and develop own distinct characteristics, and form a new discipline. In interdisciplinary learning learners draw on two or more, disciplines in order to advance their understanding of a subject or problem that extends, beyond the scope any single discipline. Learners integrate and develop information,, concepts, methodologies and procedures from two or more disciplines to gain new, 39

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knowledge, understanding and skills, and commonly also to explain or solve problems., Frequently cited examples of inter disciplines are neuroscience, biochemistry,, geobiology, Knowledge Specialization and Fragmentation of knowledge Discipline, Diversification and further specialization of knowledge within the discipline Breaking, of disciplinary boundaries and emergence of more specialized new disciplines., sustainability science and engineering, psycholinguistics, ethnomusicology, cultural, studies, etc., (ii), , A social and professional activity becomes an area of application for several disciplines, and recognized as an independent field of study. For example, education, social work,, management, medical Sciences, agriculture, technology and engineering etc. In these, cases, the practice of practitioners in the field became an organised discipline by, incorporating the specialised knowledge emerged out of the practices., , (iii) When number of disciplines converge into an important field of activity resulting in, two-way flow of ideas for the enrichment of both, it results in the emergence of, interdisciplinary knowledge and areas., (iv), , The changes in the socio-political scenario may result in the formation of new, disciplines. Based on the changes taking place in the living pattern of people, some, form of enquiry may be essential and later they may result in the formation of new, disciplines. For example, ‘urban studies’ has been evolved as result of formation of, urban society., , (v), , New researches and consequent developments and inventions will also result in the, formation of new discipline. For example, nanotechnology, information technology,, Space Science etc. The invention of computer and related technology add to the, development of information technology., , The Chronology of Formation of Disciplines, Disciplines inadvertently have been around as long as humans have been learning, from each other. Of course, this knowledge exchange was not labelled. The earliest, recording of an academic discipline, similar to the ones we know today, was with the Greeks, in Socrates’ time. During this time and extending closer to the present, education was strictly, for the upper class. Also, during this time, education was religion-and militarycentered versus the disciplinary-focused curriculum we know today., The 1800’s started to see the development of the modern disciplinary systems we, know. The disciplines that we know today started as scholars specializing in that field of, interest then continuing to share their knowledge with others. The scholars who have, specialized in particular topics would collaborate together to determine definitions for the, 40

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field of study in order to create the disciplines. As knowledge along with communities, grew, the need for professions grew as well, and these communities and professions carved, out the academic disciplines., Kenneth (1974) observes that like any other social phenomena academic disciplines, do have a history. Every discipline can be analysed by looking at its historical development., Historians of science can look at the specific historical conditions that led to the foundation, of an academic discipline and at how it changed over time, or in other words, its evolution., The historical perspective helps to understand the great continuity of disciplines, but also, the points of discontinuity or departure from obsolete practices and ways of thinking., Sometimes this leads to the disappearance of an older discipline and the creation of a new, one that can replace it. In other words, the historical perspective captures the great dynamics, of the development of science and the academic disciplines., Historians will generally look for the wider societal context and the overall conditions, that influenced the development of a specific discipline, for example the political climate, or any particular needs society had at a particular time, as well as internal factors that, shaped its development. For example, Julie (1990) has pointed out that the academic, discipline was an invention of the late Middle Ages. The term was first applied to three, academic areas for which universities had the responsibility of producing trained, professionals: theology, law and medicine. Julie argues that this early disciplining of, knowledge was a response to external demands, while the specialization into disciplines, that emerged in the 19th century was due to internal reasons., How does a new discipline emerge?, The formation of a new discipline requires talented scientists who can take over the, burden of intellectual leadership by defining what the new discipline is about and by giving, it a clear agenda for research, which can inspire followers. In other words, finding a new, discipline needs adventurous pioneers who are willing to leave their original discipline, behind and to cover new ground, which always includes a certain risk that they and their, new discipline will possibly fail., This means that practically every new discipline starts off necessarily as an, interdisciplinary project that combines elements from some parent discipline(s) with original, new elements and insights. Once the discipline is established a new type of researcher is, needed. The new discipline needs people who can consolidate it by filling in the gaps left, by the pioneers. Without these consolidators and synthesizers, a discipline will never develop, some stable identity and will eventually go nowhere. So, in the consolidation phase, disciplines will start restricting too original ideas and will become more and more focused, on disciplinary coherence and orthodoxy., 41

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Arthur L. Dirks (1996) gives a comprehensive account of the development of the, academic disciplines. The following time-line shows the history of disciplines during the, course of time., Pythagoras’, Museum in, the 500 BC, , 400 BC, Theodosium II, founded, university, , 392 BC,, Isocrates, rhetorical, school, , Aristotle’s, Lyceum, , 387 BC,, Plato’s, Academy, , golden era, of Islamic, Culture in, the 1000s, , Pythagoras’ Museum in the 500 BC cultivated studies of mathematics, music,, acoustics, and geometry. Other inquiry was pursued by the Sophists, who established the, oratorical tradition, but were itinerant teachers. Socrates, advocated his questioning method, of provoking discovery. In 392 BC, Isocrates established a rhetorical school in Athens to, train students in politics. In 387 BC, Plato opened his Academy in Athens. Mathematics, and music were some of the first disciplines that were taught in the Greek era. When Plato, opened his academy, he taught social issues such as politics and education alongside the, already established discipline of mathematics. His standard studies included Pythagorean, number theory, advanced geometry and speculations on science. He explored social issues,, primarily, education, jurisprudence, politics, and sex. Aristotle founded his Lyceum in 335, BC in Athens, which resembled the Academy, but was wider in intellectual scope. There, was little that escaped discussion: music, botanical classification, biology, anthropology,, ethics, law, logic, metaphysics, physics, politics, psychology, poetry, rhetoric. In, Constantinople, Theodosius II founded a university in the 400s where the subjects ranged, from grammar, letters, medicine, and law to philosophy. By the golden era of Islamic culture, in the 1000s, curricula covered a broad range including mathematics (algebra, geometry,, and trigonometry), science (chemistry, physics, and astronomy), medicine (anatomy, surgery,, pharmacy, and specialized medicine), philosophy (logic, ethics, and metaphysics), literature, (philology, grammar, poetry, and prosody), social sciences, history, geography, politics,, law, sociology, psychology, jurisprudence, and theology (comparative religions, history of, religions, study of the Koran, religious traditions, and other religious subjects). In medieval, world, there existed only four main faculties for study. They were Medicine, Theology,, Liberal Arts and Canon Law. In the contemporary period the number of studied disciplines, increased greatly. From the middle of the nineteenth century, such rather new disciplines as, non-classical languages, political science, literature, and economics were added. Besides,, as there were made many discoveries in natural science and technology disciplines,, 42

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engineering, biology, chemistry and physics were chosen to be studied. During the twentieth, century when the development of the whole world was very rapid, new academic sciences, were needed to be studied. New level of life and social conscience demanded that psychology,, sociology and education disciplines were added into the normal curriculum. In the end of, the twentieth century, a new explosion of scientific interest was observed. There appeared, rather new disciplines focusing on particular fields of knowledge or specific questions., Many disciplines were intended to prepare students for profession and career building. The, development of Medicine led to new medical departments such as hospitality management, and nursing. At last, the achievements in geophysics and biochemistry increased so much, that there appeared the necessity to outline specific professions in this field because the, scientist contribution to this branch was great and became widely known., The evolution of disciplines is a continuous process. As the human beings, societies, and technologies develop. Human understanding and interpretations also develop and results, in the formation of new knowledge and emergence of new disciplines. As scientific, knowledge, understanding and practices advances, some old disciplines may deprive off, its dominance or such disciplines are subjected to different forms of adaptations., The disciplines, where we find a wealth of specific knowledge, are the building blocks, of Interdisciplinary Studies. Understanding the past disciplines is relevant to understand, the future disciplines. For example, while learning about medicine, it is important to reflect, on the past use of herbs and how far we have come with modern pharmaceuticals, today. When reflecting, we are able to see what has worked and what has not worked. This, is why disciplines are changed and new disciplines are formed. Academics have been, constantly changing based on what society feels as important for the students to learn from, the beginning of time., Education has evolved from past centuries to allow students to learn about the past, and take it into consideration when learning about the present and future. All disciplines, are built on what they used to be when they were first recognized in the seventeenth,, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries – especially for arts, history, and humanities majors, since these disciplines were so prominent in earlier centuries. The great aspect of the twentyfirst century is that mostly all disciplines encompass aspects of other disciplines creating a, multidisciplinary approach. By combining disciplines, we are able to learn a vast majority, of new information in a shorter amount of time, rather than studying each subject separately, like students did in the early days. This allows for more skilled and diversified employees, in today’s society., In the early days, students were almost forced into higher education based on societal, demands. With fewer fields of study available, most students were taught humanities and, 43

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religious studies. Nowadays students are allowed to choose what they want to learn based, on their own likes and dislikes. Students are able to take courses from many different, disciplines and integrate them together to form their own new discipline. This approach is, called Interdisciplinary Studies. Without the disciplines, Interdisciplinary Studies would, have nothing to build on, nothing to incorporate or weave together in order to find solutions, to societal problems., , Emergence of Academic Disciplines in India, I, personally have not come across much work about the formation of acaedemic, disciplines in the context of India. This is a fertile area for research. There is no doubt that, there were good number of disciplines, in its strict sense in India, which were studied in, different educational institutions. The present disciplines which are popular in schools, may be the result of the influence of the western countries, but there are evidences to say, that number of disciplines emerged and in existence in institutions of education in India., Dear students, give more thought to this area of study, take up studies in depth and deduct, appropriate knowledge., The origin of disciplines in India can be traced back to ancient times when Vedanga ,, the six auxiliary disciplines of Hinduism developed. (This deduction needs to be supported, with more evidences.) These are:, 1., , Shiksha : phonetics, phonology, pronunciation. This auxiliary discipline has, focussed on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, accent, quantity, stress, melody, and rules of euphonic combination of words during a Vedic recitation, , 2., , Chandas : prosody. This auxiliary discipline has focussed on the poetic meters,, including those based on fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based, on fixed number of morae per verse., , 3., , Vyakarana : grammar and linguistic analysis. This auxiliary discipline has, focussed on the rules of grammar and linguistic analysis to establish the exact, form of words and sentences to properly express ideas., , 4., , Nirukta : etymology, explanation of words, particularly those that are archaic, and have ancient uses with unclear meaning. This auxiliary discipline has, focussed on linguistic analysis to help establish the proper meaning of the words,, given the context they are used in., , 5., , Kalpa : ritual instructions. This field focussed on standardizing procedures for, Vedic rituals, rites of passage rituals associated with major life events such as, birth, wedding and death in family, as well as discussing the personal conduct, and proper duties of an individual in different stages of his life., 44

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6., , Jyotisha : Auspicious time for rituals, astrology[1] and astronomy. This auxiliary, Vedic discipline focussed on time keeping., , 7., , The character of Vedangas has roots in ancient times, and the Brihadaranyaka, Upanishad mentions it as an integral part of the Brahmanas layer of the Vedic, texts. Individually, these auxiliary disciplines of study are traceable to the 2nd, millennium BCE, and the 5th-century BCE scholar Yaska quotes the Vedangas., However, it is unclear when and where a list of six Vedangas were first, conceptualized., , The Vedangas likely developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after, the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. Though Vedangas developed as ancillary studies, for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar,, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various, schools of Hindu philosophy. The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the, Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras., It has been found that Indian mathematics emerged in the Indian subcontinent from, 1200 BC until the end of the 18th century. Development of Mathematics as a clear discipline, is evident in the works of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara II, and Varâhamihira., , Check Your Progress – 1, Below are given the phases of the evolutionary process of disciplines. Arrange, them in proper order., The evolutionary process of disciplines might have gone through the following phases:, 1., , Formation of New Disciplines, breaking of disciplinary boundaries and, emergence of more specialized new disciplines., , 2., , Specialization and fragmentation of Knowledge, , 3., , Knowledge accumulation, , 4., , Breaking of disciplinary boundaries and emergence of more specialised new, disciplines, , 5., , Formation of Disciplines, , 6., , Diversification and further specialization of knowledge within the discipline, , 45

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1.4.3.2. Formation of School Subjects, The history of school subjects of today is of recent origin. It has started around last, few decades. This area of study has not been explored much and thus a very fertile area of, research. This requires one to study the socio economic and political conditions of India at, different times, which have significantly influenced the system of education and from which, the present system of education, including the set of subjects has emerged. To understand, the emergence of school subjects, we need to refer to number of sources like the study of, school laws and decrees, external prescriptions to teachers and students form authorities,, enforcement of subjects and pedagogic prescriptions. The 80s ‘cultural trend’ which believed, that individual experiences being always the result of a particular social-political context,, influenced this trend of looking at school practices as a resultant of socio-political contexts., To know about the emergence of school subjects, first of all, it is necessary to trace, the appearance/disappearance of subject/subjects, its rise and fall at different times, according, to the documents. We need to verify the text books, its content, language and style etc, which give number of clues to trace the formation of school subjects., Research and writings by experts reveal that the existing pattern of subjects in majority, of our schools today is the result of the historical and cultural phenomena through the, years. The system of education, including the pattern of subjects taught in schools is highly, influenced by different forces during the course of time., In ancient India, schools were in the form of gurukuls, where number of subjects,, both practical and theoretical in nature were taught according to the needs of students., These were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning. These were typically the houses, of teachers or the monasteries. During Mughal rule, madrasas were introduced to educate, the children of Muslim parents. We come to know from the records of British times that, indigenous education was wide spread in 18th century, with a school for every temple,, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught in these schools, included reading, writing, art, theology, law, astronomy, ethics and medicine, science and, religion., Under the British rule in India, Christian missionaries from England and other countries, established schools throughout the country. These schools marked the beginning of modern, schooling in India and the subjects they prescribed became the bench mark for schools in, India. Today, majority of schools follow the same model given by British., This does not mean that Indians were not aware of different subjects to be taught in, schools. There were well established subjects of Indian origin which were simultaneously, taught in Indian schools, as mentioned above. These were closely related to the life of, 46

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students and useful for daily living. Developing Reading and writing skills in Indian, languages (according to the linguistic background) was the focus of Indian educational, institutions. Other subjects had deep support in their disciplines. These subjects were, seriously taught in schools and colleges. Nalanda university, which was established in 5th, century was offering education in well-established subjects like theology, logic, astronomy,, metaphysics, medicine and philosophy. Takshila (800B.C) offered law, medicine and military, science along with archery, hunting and elephant lore. Vikramashila (783 B C) had subjects, like philosophy, grammar, Indian logic, metaphysics etc., This theme, the formation of school subjects in India is very vast, and demands an, in-depth study of the political, socio-cultural aspects of the country which have influenced, the system of education of India. Make a thorough study of this subject to deduct apt, findings., , Check Your Progress – 2, Below are given a few incomplete sentences. Complete them using appropriate, answers., 1., , In ancient India, schools were in the form of ____________________, , 2., , Nalanda university, was offering subjects like ____________________,, ___________, ___________,___________,and ___________, , 3., , Experts reveal that the existing pattern of subjects in majority of our schools, today is the result of the ___________, , 4., , The schools which marked the beginning of modern schooling in India were, started by ___________, , 1.4.4. Let Us Summarize, •, , Knowledge is the starting point in the process of the evolution of discipline., This organized body of knowledge of a particular field was termed as ‘discipline., , •, , ’When knowledge gets into the realm of academic discipline, its focus and, scope get narrowed. Bringing knowledge under a discipline means, defining, the boundaries of knowledge of different nature., , •, , There are number of good reasons to classify knowledge under different, disciplines., , •, , The evolutionary process of disciplines might have gone through the following, phases: Knowledge accumulation, Specialization and fragmentation of, Knowledge, Formation of Disciplines, Diversification and further specialization, 47

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of knowledge within the discipline, Breaking of disciplinary boundaries and, emergence of more specialised new disciplines, Formation of New Disciplines, , breaking of disciplinary boundaries and emergence of more specialized new, disciplines., •, , Emergence of disciplines has a long history. In India, disciplines have developed, since ancient times., , •, , School subjects have developed in India as a result of socio political influences., , 1.4.5. Answers to Check Your Progress 1 and 2, Check Your Progress – 1, 3,2,5,6,4, 1, , Check Your Progress – 2, 1., , Gurukulas, , 2., , theology, logic, astronomy, metaphysics, medicine and philosophy, , 3., , historical and cultural phenomena, , 4., , missionaries, , 1.4.6. Unit end Exercises, 1., , Explain how disciplines were emerged?, , 2., , Describe the process of formation of school subjects in India, , 1.4.7. References, 1., , A Brief History of the Online Classroom and Virtual College Courses. College, Classes, Retrieved from http://www.collegeclasses.com/a-brief-history-of-theonline-classroom-and-virtual-college-courses/(2011-2015)., , 2., , https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-ancient-disciplines-of-the-Indianeducation-system-How-would-you-describe-them-and-explain-the-place-andsignification-of-Kautilya-Arthashastra-among-them, , 3., , Cohen, E., & Lloyd, S. (2014). Disciplinary evolution and the rise of the, transdiscipline. Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging, Transdiscipline, 17,189-215. Available: http://www.inform.nu/Articles/Vol17/, ISJv17p189-215Cohen0702.pdf, , 4., , Deng, Z. (2007). Knowing the subject matter of a secondary school science, subject. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 39(5), 503-535., 48

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5., , Deng, Z. (2009). The formation of a school subject and the nature of curriculum, content. Hong Kong: Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41:5., , 6., , Grayson, D.J. (2004). Disciplinary Knowledge from a Pedagogical Point of, View. Andromeda Science Education and University of Pretoria, retrieved from, https://web.phys.ksu.edu/icpe/publications/teach2/Grayson.pdfon 15.10.2015., , 7., , NCERT (2005). New Curriculum Framework (2005). New Delhi: National, Council of Educational Research and Training., , 8., , Stengel, B.S. (2010). Academic Discipline and School Subject: Contestable, Curricular Concepts. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 29:5., , 9., , Crotty, J. M. Distance Learning Has Been Around Since 1892, You Bic MOOC., forbes, Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesmarshallcrotty/2012/, 11/14/distance-learning-has-been-around-since-1892-you-big-mooc/, #1c3f6e055bf7, , 10. https://press.rebus.community/idsconnect/chapter/the-history-of-the-academyand-the-disciplines/, , ************, , 49

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Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and, School Subjects, Unit - 5 : Importance of School Subjects, Unit Structure, 1.5.1., , Learning Objectives, , 1.5.2., , Introduction, , 1.5.3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 1.5.3.1. Importance of School Subjects in general, Check Your Progress-1, 1.5.3.2. Importance of school subjects -Subject wise., Check Your Progress-2, 1.5.4., , Let us Summarize, , 1.5.5., , Answer to Check Your Progress - 1and 2, , 1.5.6., , Unit end Exercises, , 1.5.7., , References, , 1.5.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this unit, the student teacher will be able to;, •, , Express that need for studying school subjects;, , •, , Explain the objectives of school subjects;, , •, , Explain the uses of school subjects in general; and, , •, , Explain the importance of different school subjects., , 1.5.2 Introduction, It is education that raises us up above the other animals, the other creatures that crawl, the earth; and it is the very breadth of education that empowers us. If we merely regard, learning, studying, as the means to secure a certain institution accredited accolade, then we, may have acquired some knowledge, but little humanity., A good, broad education is an asset for a lifetime: it is not just a key to open the doors, of various professions, but a social resource, enabling you to mix with many people. The, 50

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world itself is a more interesting place to the educated person. Where the uninitiated will, just see the rocks and the sea, the learned will notice the wave cut platform, and the variegated, influence of erosion on different stone formations. Education changes our eyes, lets us see, things differently. A narrow education, merely serving ones chosen profession, narrows the, very world. We should strive to be polymaths, studying a whole range of subjects! Schooling, helps to achieve our goal of changing for good, to become human, to think differently than, others. This will not help in vacuum. The learning of different subjects prepares us for, different tasks. Let us understand in this unit, the importance and uses of studying different, school subjects., , 1.5.3 Learning Points and Learning Activities, 1.5.3.1. Importance of School Subjects in general, Why should students learn the subjects that are taught in schools? This question is, natural for every learner. As teachers it is our prime responsibility to know the need and, importance of teaching my subject. Ask at least 5 teachers, the following questions and, analyse their answers., Why are you teaching the subject that you are teaching? What do you think are the, advantages of that subject?, , I have listened to many answers. ‘Because I have to teach that’, ‘that is prescribed in, the curriculum’, ‘we have to conduct examination’, and many teachers do not think beyond, this. The subjects are the vehicles which are intended to take us to our goal, our goals are, clear, specific, and focused. Each subject in the curriculum has been introduced with a, definite purpose that would serve the individual to lead a ‘quality life’. The purpose of, teaching subjects is beyond finishing portion prescribed or conducting examination and, testing students. We may be able to reach our goals without conducting the regular, examinations also, and this may be realised in the class room itself. Then what are the, purposes of teaching or learning different school subject? Let us understand the advantages, of learning school subjects. They are as follows:, Experts in the field of education have analysed the nature of different subjects and, have found that the learning of a few subjects would help to reach our goals. With this, knowledge they have prescribed the subjects that are meaningful in the context of school to, 51

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reach the goals of education. Let us see, what purposes these school subjects serve in the, educational context., •, , The school subjects equip the individual with the skills and competencies, required to lead a quality life, , •, , They promote the basic academic skills required for day to day living like, communication, problem solving analytical thinking etc., , •, , They give an awareness about the neighbourhood in which the individual lives., , •, , They prepare students for the process of socialisation, , •, , Learning of these subjects promote the values required to be developed by an, individual in the social context, like love, co-operation, brotherhood, tolerance, etc., , •, , The knowledge under different subjects make the individual appreciate people, and nature around her/him, , •, , The social behaviour of children is directed through the themes that are dealt, under different subjects., , •, , The school subjects prepare children to develop nationalism, internationalism, and other patriotic feelings., , •, , School subjects have connection with social structure, social relations and they, have contributed in the process of cultural transmission too. Now it is being, recognized that school subjects are important sources for studying about the, society and problems in it., , •, , Studying school subjects are necessary to investigate the link between school, subject knowledge and classroom pedagogy., , •, , School subjects are now being considered as cultural and historical phenomenon, so it is necessary to study about them., , •, , One of the important reasons for studying school subjects is that they provide a, clear picture of school knowledge and practices., , •, , Studying school subjects involves an understanding of the “theory of content”, that is crucial for disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content., , •, , School subjects are aimed to maintain the academic culture and develop the, intellectual capacity of students., , 52

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•, , School subjects are constructed for the primary purpose of maintaining and, enhancing economic and social productivity by equipping future citizens with, the requisite knowledge, skills, and capital. School subjects are created to, provide students with meaningful learning experiences that might lead to, liberation and cause social activity., , •, , School subjects are allowed for construction of knowledge and further provide, students with rewarding experiences that contribute to their intellectual growth., The school curriculum encourages a learner-oriented approach to construct, knowledge under school subject that allows students to learn according to their, needs and interests in their chosen fields of study., , •, , The school subjects equip the students with general skills and learning abilities,, essential for facing the challenges of globalisation and the knowledge-based, economy., , •, , studying school subjects stands to offer a wide horizon for students to create, and explore create new corridors leading to enlightenment., , •, , Studying school subjects helps us to analyses how school subjects are influenced, by the society, culture and values of a nation., , Check Your Progress-1, Add any four more advantages of teaching school subject that you have experienced, in your career, , 1.5.3.2. Importance of school subjects -Subject wise., We teach many subjects in schools. Each subject has unique advantages. Some, outcomes may be the combination of subjects, or some subjects may help to achieve and, strengthen the set goals. Let us understand the importance of a few subjects taught in, schools, , Math:, Math is part and parcel of our time. We start our day with math. “oh! ‘It is already 7’,, ‘please give me half cup of coffee’, ‘ I have to travel 8 k.m’ ‘I have to reach the school by, 10 a.m’ -in all these sentences we are using maths. We cannot live without math. ‘Sir, I am, sorry, I am late by half an hour’ -these expressions demonstrate how we are living with, math. Thus it helps to tell time., It helps to maintain our finances. Balancing one’s bank account, for example, is an, important life skill that requires math in order to subtract balances. People who know, math are therefore less likely to go into debt because they did not know how much money, 53

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they had versus how much money they spent. Math helps us have better problem-solving, skills., Math helps us think analytically and have better reasoning abilities. Analytical thinking, refers to the ability to think critically about the world around us. Reasoning is our ability to, think logically about a situation. Analytical and reasoning skills are important because, they help us solve problems and look for solutions., Math is used in practically every career in some way. Obviously, mathematicians, and scientists rely on mathematical principles to do the most basic aspects of their work, such as test hypotheses. While scientific careers famously involve math, they are not the, only careers to do so. Even operating a cash register requires that one understands basic, arithmetic. People working in a factory must be able to do mental arithmetic to keep track, of the parts on the assembly line and must, in some cases, manipulate fabrication software, utilizing geometric properties (such as the dimensions of a part) in order to build their, products., Math is all around us and helps us understand the world better. To live in a, mathematically-driven world and not know math is like walking through an art museum, with your eyes closed. Learning and appreciating math can help one to appreciate things, that would not otherwise noticed about the world., , Science, Science education is the field concerned with sharing science content and process with, individuals not traditionally considered part of the scientific community. Teaching science, well can nurture curiosity, can satisfy some of that yearning to understand WHY. Having a, methodology to turn our native curiosity into knowledge it gives us the power and possibility, of invention, of finding solutions to problems., A knowledge and love of science is the ultimate equalizer, the pathway to human, rights and a better quality of life. Countries with strongly supported science programs are, better off economically, have greater numbers of people creating new technologies., Science studies can help a person develop and gain:, •, , Awareness of the world, , •, , Increased intellectual capabilities, , •, , Logical reasoning, , •, , Critical thinking abilities, , •, , Creating and testing hypotheses, 54

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•, , Creativity and discovery, , •, , Discovering the beauty of the universe, , •, , Opening doors in research, , •, , Meeting others who enjoy science, , •, , Following one’s passions to contribute to society, , With the knowledge of science, one can learn to think logically and solve a problem., It is this problem-solving skill, which is learnt in the early years that enables a person to, solve problems. Communications, medicine, transportation, and almost everything we see, around us are mainly present because individuals have used their knowledge of science to, create real life applications. Knowledge in this subject also enables us to understand many, other subjects better., How to conserve natural resources, All aspects of the environment have a deep impact on our lives. Science helps to, learn about how the earth functions, and how to make use of natural resources. It also, teaches us how the lack of these resources affects living things, and how one can conserve, these resources., Science helps you us to learn about the various weather conditions, and helps us to, distinguish between normal weather and dangerous weather. With this knowledge, you can, stay alert about natural disasters or survive the disaster., The processes and ideas of science are of great importance to everybody in three, ways. The first is in their personal lives, for example so that they can validly identify the, components of a healthy life- style. The second is in their civic lives, so that they take an, informed part in social decisions, for example on future options for electricity supply., The third is in their economic lives, where they need to be able to respond positively to, changes in the science-related aspects of their employment., Science is everywhere. Science develops critical thinking. It motivates to ask critical, questions and helps to proceed with analytical thinking and results in solving our problems., Every decision we make is based on these processes. We ask questions out of curiosity, (what is the problem?), we construct hypothesis (may be this is the cause), we test the, hypothesis (how to confirm the inferred cause?) test it with evidence and evaluate the, result (Did the solution work?), and make future decisions based on that result. This is the, product of science., , 55

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Social Sciences, Social Science is a branch of study which deals with human beings – their behaviour,, growth and development, relationships, resources they use and the various institutions they, require to function and carry on their life smoothly. For example – family, school, workplace,, government, judiciary, recreation clubs, etc. All these aspects of life are inter-related and, interdependent on one another. So whether one wants to become a doctor or an engineer or, a chartered accountant, an artist or a teacher, we all have to live in a society, interact with, individuals belonging to different cultural and socio- economic backgrounds, adapt to various, situations and circumstances, and also adhere to certain societal norms in order to lead a, peaceful and productive life., The inclusion of Social Studies in the curriculum right from primary to secondary, classes signifies the importance of the subject and the role it plays in a student’s life. Social, Studies is incorporated in the school curriculum through a combination of subjects like –, History, Geography, Cultural Studies, Economics, Political Science, Sociology, Psychology,, Anthropology, etc., These subjects help children to developAwareness of The World and Environment: Lessons in Social Studies related to topics, like – My Family, My Neighbourhood, Community Helpers, Early Man, Indus Valley, Civilization, Modern Period in Indian History, Indian Freedom Movement, etc teach students, about the various to know about their locality and nation and the world. This knowledge, enables the students to understand how the world and different societies have evolved, the, important events that have occurred in the past, enduring ideas and eminent personalities, that have created an impact and affected the lives of people both locally, nationally and, globally. It also helps students to understand how different societies are structured, managed, and governed. This in turn helps students to understand their place in the world., Lessons such as – Our Earth, Solar System, Major Landforms, Water Resources,, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources, Natural Disasters, Disaster Management,, Pollution, enable students to learn about – outer space, formation of different landforms;, evolution of animals, flora, fauna and man, water bodies, available resources, importance, of conservation and preservation, environmental impact on present life and future, generations. This information helps students to eventually develop a holistic understanding, of their environment and the interrelationship which exists between the natural and human, habitats., , 56

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Social Sciences help to Develop Critical Thinking Abilities: Social Studies inculcate, higher order thinking abilities and skills like – Comprehension, Application, Analysis,, Evaluation and Synthesis, Creativity in students. Learning a variety of topics such as –, Natural Resources, Water Resources, Transport, Communication, Caste System, Political, Ideologies, Social Reformers, Our Cultures, United Nations, etc give students a chance to, gain appropriate information and data in various contexts. The information gained allows, students to make relevant observations, identify similarities and differences, make, connections between related concepts, ideas and resources. Appropriate experiences further, enhance the students’ understanding about how different things and people affect their day, to day lives. For example – in order to investigate poverty in the society, students require, knowledge of subjects like – History, Economics and Politics. Students first have to gain, information and comprehend ideas such as discrimination, resource allocation and political, priorities. They then need to understand, analyse and evaluate the existing connections, between those ideas and theories to make sense of how poverty affects certain populations, in the country. This knowledge can be further put to use to foster creativity, if students are, asked to think about ways or come up with new solutions and policies which they think can, help reduce poverty. They could be given a chance to present their ideas in the form of, debates, essays, role plays or class projects., Helps to Enhance the Social Understanding Of Students: Different topics included in, the Social Studies curriculum for various age groups like – Festivals of India, Different, types of Families, Clothes We Wear, Food We Eat, Our Country, States of India, My, Community, Socio-Religious Reforms, Challenging the Caste System – help students to, observe, learn and understand human behaviour, values and attitudes and the, interrelationships which exist among different people. They come to know about the different, religions and cultures which exist in the world other than their own. They also learn about, the societal strata and norms of society and the need of various governing bodies and other, institutions. This in turn helps the students to develop a wider perspective of society and, the human condition., Furthermore, learning about the different religions, social and cultural beliefs, castes, and creed, nationalities and ethnicity, values, languages, festivals, food and clothing, types, of families, etc makes students aware that the society they live in, is diverse and multicultural, and yet there is interdependence and inter-relatedness between different people, families,, cultures, religions and countries. This helps students to recognize the benefits and challenges, of living in a world with multiple cultures and ideologies. This awareness helps them to, understand the importance of democracy, rights and freedoms and the fact that in order to, live and coexist peacefully each and everyone needs to respect, trust and balance the various, 57

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opinions, values and attitudes, lifestyles, cultures and practices and ideologies existing in, society., Helps students to become better citizens: Subjects in Social Studies like Economics,, Political Science and History educate students on Political Ideologies, Constitutional Laws,, Citizenship, Rights and Duties, Morals and Virtues, Social Code of Conduct, thus making, children aware of their roles and responsibilities particularly in relation to social and civic, affairs. By providing relevant information and knowledge, skills and attitudes, the study of, Social Science prepares students to grow up as active, responsible, and reflective members, of society. It also teaches them to address societal and global concerns using literature,, technology and other identifiable community resources., In today’s global economy and world, only being exposed to the immediate community, is not ideal. Through social studies education, students get to learn about the vast array of, people and cultures that make up the global community. By studying world populations, from both a historical and sociological perspective, students will get a better understanding, of themselves and how they fit into the greater world. Further, when they enter the workforce,, students will be better equipped to compete in the international marketplace by having, some understanding of different cultural norms., Social studies classes help students understand the responsibilities that citizens—, including themselves—have in their communities. Through social studies, students learn, how all levels of government function and become familiar with the role that citizens play, in shaping the legal and political landscapes. Students also gain the ability to compare and, critically analyze different government styles., Hence, the importance of Social Science as a subject in the school curriculum can be, summarised as, •, , It helps to form efficient citizens of democracy, , •, , It develops national view points, , •, , It makes man duty bound, , •, , It enlightens the path of progress and advancement, , •, , It enhances the moral status of a society, , •, , It helps to solve critical social problems, , •, , It develops imagination, critical thinking among students., , •, , It clarifies the duties of citizens towards human society, , •, , It develops desirable attitudes, 58

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•, , It develops human qualities, , •, , It promotes appropriate social behaviour, , •, , It develops the power of reasoning, , •, , It develops the feeling of brotherhood, , •, , It helps to mould the individual according to the needs of the environment, , •, , It develops good habits and social efficiency, , •, , It socialises the students, , •, , It develops social and moral values, , Languages, You have already studied the importance of language in the school curriculum, under, course 4. Language is an evitable part of life as well as curriculum., The language is always believed to play a central role in learning. No matter what the, subject area, students assimilate new concepts when they listen, talk, read and write about, what they are learning. Speaking and writing reflects the thinking process that is taking, place. Students learn in language, therefore if their language is weak, so is their learning., Language occupies a key position in the School curriculum. More so at the primary, stage, because it is at this stage that the child is receiving formal instruction in language for, the first time. Before that, he/she was learning language in an informal way primarily in the, home. And since it is through language that the child learns all the other subjects at school,, this formal instruction in language leads to his/her learning in other curricular areas as, well. Further, apart from its importance as a medium of learning other subjects in schools,, language also helps the child in communication and self-expression. As children grow up,, they need to express their ideas, feeling and opinions. This self-expression is the basis of, the growth of the child’s self, his/her personality and individuality. Thus, language helps, the learnersi., , in learning their school subjects,, , ii., , in communicating with others, both at school and outside,, , iii., , in their day-to-day life situations and, , iv., , in the learning of concept in other areas. Proper language learning means learning of, the four basic language skills i.e. skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing., language learning has been shown to greatly enhance student performance across the, curriculum. Language learning has been shown to improve a student’s cognitive, function, including, but not limited to enhancing problem solving skills, improved, 59

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verbal and spatial abilities, improved memory function, enhancing creative thinking, capacity., Hence, the importance and role of language in school curriculum can be summarised, as follows:, •, , It develops the basic skills required in life. They are speaking, reading, writing., , •, , It helps to develop concepts., , •, , It is a means of thinking and hence promotes thinking.It is a component of, higher order thinking skills., , •, , It is the most important tool in daily living, , •, , It is the basic means to understand different subjects in the school curriculum, , •, , It is tool for making meaning, , •, , It is a filter for assessing students’ outcome, , Check Your Progress – 2, You have studied the importance of different school subjects like math, science, social, science and language. You are teaching one of these subjects. Mention the outcome you, have realised through the subject that you have taught. It may include what has been discussed, already or may be something not discussed so far. Quote illustrations and examples, , 1.5.4. Let us Summarise, •, , The subjects taught in schools are of great importance because it helps to achieve, the objectives of education, in multiple ways. Some of the aspects which make, learning school subjects inevitable for students are, the school subjects equip, the individual with the skills and competencies required to lead a quality life,, they promote the basic academic skills required for day to day living like, communication, problem solving analytical thinking , they give an awareness, about the neighbourhood in which the individual lives., , •, , Each of the subject taught in school like math, science, language and social, science helps to achieve specific objectives. Each contribute in its own way, , 60

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1.5.5. Answer to Check Your Progress: 1and 2, Check Your Progress-1, Share your experiences with your colleagues., , Check Your Progress – 2, Share your experiences with your colleagues., , 1.5.6. Unit end Exercises, 2., , Explain the importance of school subjects., , 3., , Explain the role of math, science, social science and language in the school, curriculum., , 1.5.7. References, 1., , Subjects and academic disciplines. In A. Luke, A.Woods & K.Weir(Eds.),, Curriculum, Syllabus design and equity: A primer and model. London:, Routledge Publication., , 2., , Ivor F. Goodson and Colin J. Marsh (1996). Studying school subjects –, Aguide.London: Routledge Publication., , 3., , https://academicpartnerships.uta.edu/articles/education/importance-of-scienceeducation.aspx, , 4., , https://www.piday.org/10-reasons-why-math-is-important-in-life/, , 5., , https://www.progressiveteacher.in/the-importance-of-social-studies-in-theschool-curriculum/, , 6., , https://www.orindaacademy.org/2014/07/10/the-importance-of-social-studiesin-schools/, , 7., , http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/7796/1/Unit-1.pdf, , **********, , 61

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Block - 1 : Introduction to Disciplines and School, Subjects, Unit - 6 : Nature and Content of School Subjects, Unit Structure, 1.6.1., , Learning Objectives, , 1.6.2., , Introduction, , 1.6.3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 1.6.3.1. Major disciplines with discipline specific processes to acquire knowledge, Check Your Progress-1, 1.6.3.2. Content of School Subjects: Languages, Math and Social Science and, Science,, Check Your Progress-2, 1.6.3.3. Content of School Subjects: Physical Education, Fine arts Education, Peace, Education, and Value Education, Check Your Progress-4, 1.6.4., , Let us Summarize, , 1.6.5., , Answer to Check Your Progress - 1, 2 and 3, , 1.6.6., , Unit end Exercises, , 1.6.7., , References, , 1.6.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this unit, the student teacher will be able to;, •, , Explain the content of school subjects - Languages, Math and Social Science, , •, , Explain the content of school subjects – Science, Physical and Health Education, and Fine arts, , •, , Explain the content of school subjects - Peace Education, Work Education and, Value Education, , •, , Explain the processes involved to understand the subjects based on different, disciplines., 62

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1.6.2. Introduction, Experts in the field of school subjects have suggested that school subjects are not, given, nor are they direct translations of academic disciplines. They can have different and, variable relationships to academic disciplines and applied fields. School subjects are human, constructions in response to social, economic, cultural, political, and educational realities, and needs. They are “uniquely purpose – built educational enterprises, designed with and, through educational imagination towards educative ends.”The formation of a school subject, entails a theory of content –a special way of selecting, framing, and translating content for, educational purposes. Knowing the content of a school subject thus entails knowing more, than the content itself; it entails an understanding of the theory of content that is crucial for, disclosing the educational potential embodied in the content. Hence, in the present unit, let, us understand the content that forms each of the school subject., , 1.6.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 1.6.3.1. Major disciplines with discipline specific processes to acquire, knowledge, It is not enough if teachers know the content of different school subjects. It is important, to know the processes which help the students to acquire the content of different subjects., Indeed, these are the processes through which the knowledge has been evolved. If a teacher, of science does not understand the processes of science, i.e. the processes which evolve, science knowledge, the teacher cannot decide the pedagogy of teaching science content., These processes tell us the ways in which science content or knowledge has been evolved., The same is true in relation to other subjects also. Therefore, let us learn the processes of, the emergence of knowledge in different disciplines through which the school subjects are, derived and understand that these are the pedagogical processes for respective subjects., , Processes of Science :, •, , Critical observation of the natural phenomenon., , •, , Developing inquiry on observable phenomenon., , •, , Establishing linking and correlating the scientific ideas with physical happenings., , •, , Engaging in scientific experimentation., , •, , Natural and scientific exploration of facts and ideas and their validation., , •, , Validating the result of scientific inquiry., , •, , Developing scientific thinking and ability to make abstract concepts/ideas, , 63

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Processes of Social Science:, •, , Critical observation of the social phenomenon, like social happenings; norms, of the society; inter-personal relationships; issues pertaining to the society;, changes and dynamics of the society; diversities and inclusiveness;, understanding gender, caste and class, culture and religion; etc., , •, , Engaging in social inquiry, exploration, and understanding cross cultural and, cross sectional dimensions of the society., , •, , Understanding social, cultural, and economic diversities of the society., , •, , Understanding individual’s rights and duties., , •, , Understanding civic responsibilities, ethical practices, and love for the entire, world, , Processes of Math, •, , Connecting mathematical principles with the daily life of the children., , •, , Making children think rationally, and do thing inductively or deductively., , •, , Developing logical reasoning and make the children to solve mathematical, problems., , •, , Developing the skills of analyzing and synthesizing the mathematical principles., , Processes of Language, •, , Making the children communicate themselves in different situations., , •, , Developing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing., , •, , Understanding and reflecting on literature., , •, , Appreciating literature and engaging in creating literature, , •, , Linking similar literatures and also developing metacognitive skills, , Check Your Progress -1, Classify the following processes according to the processes of different, subjects(Denote by S, L, SS and M: S-Science, L-Language, SS-Social Science, M-Math), 1., , Developing inquiry on observable phenomenon, , 2., , Connecting mathematical principles with the daily life of the children, , 3., , Making the children communicate themselves in different situations, , 64

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4., , Engaging in social inquiry, exploration, and understanding cross cultural and, cross-sectional dimensions of the society, , 5., , Making children think rationally, and do thing inductively or deductively, , 6., , Critical observation of the natural phenomenon, , 7., , Critical observation of the social phenomenon, , 8., , Establishing linking and correlating the scientific ideas with physical happenings, , 9., , Understanding social, cultural, and economic diversities of the society, , 10., , Developing logical reasoning and make the children to solve mathematical, problems, , 11., , Developing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, , 12., , Understanding and reflecting on literature, , 1.6.3.2. Content of School Subjects: Science, Social Science Language, and Math, With this background of processes let us understand the content of different school, subjects., , Science, •, , Scientific literacy, , •, , Science in everyday situations, , •, , Understanding the world around the learners, , •, , Socio-scientific issues, , •, , Sources in and outside schooling, , •, , Science as a way of knowing, thinking, and acting, , •, , Matters in our surroundings., , •, , Atoms and Molecules, , •, , Diversities in living organism, , •, , Forces and laws of motion, , •, , Work and energy, , •, , Natural resources and its management, , •, , Improvement in food resources, , •, , Acid and chemical reactions, , •, , Metals and non-metals, , •, , Life processes, 65

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•, , How do organisms produce?, , •, , Heredity and evolution, , •, , Electricity, , •, , Scientific research and innovations, , Social Science:, •, , Citizenship education, , •, , Reflective socio-political enquiry, , •, , Informed social criticism and ethical decision making to social issues, , •, , Social dynamism, mobility and transformation, , •, , Constitutional values like democracy, justice, and equality, , •, , Personal engagement and development, , •, , Culture – Local, National, and Global, , •, , People, place, and environment, , •, , Individual development and identity, , •, , Individuals, groups, and Institutions, , •, , Power, authority, and governance, , •, , Production, distribution, and society, , •, , Science, technology, and society, , •, , Global connections, , •, , Civic ideas and practices, , •, , Social research and innovations, , Math, Numbers, four operation, simplification, money, metric system, reading clock, basic, Geometrical concept., Number Fractions, decimal fraction Money, measurement Idea of simple Geometric, term/concept/properties Unitary method, simple interest Ratio proportion, General Mathematics Number system Sets (basic ideas) Algebra- expression,, equations, factors Geometry Mensuration – theorem, properties, Discount Shares, Graphs Compound interest Banking Introduction to Trigonometry Statistics Advance, Mathematics consists of: Sets Fraction Irrational number, complex number Indices and, logarithm Inequality and inequation Quadratic equation Geometry- proofs and application, , 66

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Languages, •, , Skills development in language learning – speaking, listening, writing, reading, , •, , Teaching various texts of languages– drama/fiction, grammar, poetry, prose,, narratives, etc., , •, , Creation and appreciation of language and literatures, , •, , Multi and cross-cultural issues of languages, , •, , Language research and current practices, , •, , Socio-cultural issues in language learning, , •, , Construction of language knowledge during the early years of life, , •, , Age wise language development., , •, , Multilingualism and language learning., , •, , Differences between school and home language, , •, , Usages of languages, , •, , Language development and cognitive skills, , •, , Language usages in diverse social households, , •, , Development of languages, , Check Your Progress-2, You have taught a few subjects by now. Select one topic of your choice and recall the, pedagogical processes you have employed and match those with the actual processes you, need to employ in teaching those topics. Make a plan to teach your next topics using the, pedagogical processes described in first part of this unit., , 1.6.3.3. Content of School Subjects: Physical Education and Fine arts, Physical Education, •, , Human Body, , •, , Movement and awareness, , •, , Food and Nutrition, , •, , Safety and Security, , •, , Our environment, , •, , Social health and Sports services, 67

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•, , Sports skills and abilities, , •, , Physical fitness, , •, , Orientation to sports skills, , •, , Orientation to physical education and sports education., , Fine arts Education, •, , Art education programme should comprise, handling of the materials for drawing,, painting, collage, clay modelling and construction of puppets; creating artistic, things by free expression method, learn simple concepts of visual arts, knowledge, of works of well-known artists both contemporary as well as historical etc., prepare posters, placards and invitation cards related to celebrations of national, days like Republic Day, Independence Day, etc., , •, , Drawing, painting and sculpture/ clay modelling, , •, , Activities of dance, music, drama and craft, , •, , Drawing: contour line, rendering, sketching, value, shading, hatching,, crosshatching, stippling, one-point perspective, , •, , Painting: wet-on-wet, wet-on-dry, sponge, wash, watercolour techniques of, sponging Printmaking: relief, frottage (rubbing), , •, , Ceramics: pinch and pulled forms, slab, drape mold, coil, surface decoration, techniques, , •, , Sculpture /architecture: carving, additive, subtractive, modelling, constructing, , •, , Fibres: pulling threads, weaving, stitchery, tying and wrapping techniques,, braiding, basketry, , •, , Mixed media: collage, bas-relief, , •, , Two Dimensional or Pictorial arts: • Drawing and Painting • Collage making •, Print making • Photography and computer Graphics (Wherever possible) •, Rangoli/ Mandna/ Wall painting (State/region specific traditional art forms), , •, , Three Dimensional Arts • Sculpture (using locally available materials) • Clay, modelling • Terracotta • Carving and relief work • Paper Mache • Mask making, • Construction (using waste materials) • Pottery (If possible) • Installation, , Peace Education, •, , Peace concepts and concerns: Knowing peace, choosing peace, facts about, peace, barriers of peace, building blocks of peace; peace within self, Peace at, different levels, Harmony with nature., 68

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•, , Understanding and dealing with conflict, sources of conflicts, analysing, conflicts, dealing with conflicts constructively, related strategies and skills, , •, , Humanism: living with human relationships, understanding the concept of, ‘being human’. Setting the goals of life with humanist philosophy, strategies to, achieve the goals; Creating a human atmosphere., , •, , Towards understanding and enabling self: the self and others, overcoming biases, and prejudices, Self-reflection and listening to the inner voice, , Value Education, •, , Values, need to have a value-based life, developing universal human values, , •, , Values derived from the Indian Constitution, , •, , Developing problem solving attitude towards contemporary challenges, holistic, development of the individual, responsible attitude towards self and society,, nurturing ethical approach, collaborative skills and respect for human rights;, , •, , Positive thinking, compassion, discovering inner peace, learning to live together,, respecting human dignity, being true self, critical thinking, resolving conflict, non-violently, building peace in the community and caring for the planet., , Check Your Progress-3, Make a study of the syllabus of any 3 schools, of any one subject (physical education,, art education and peace education) mentioned in this unit, and deduct the content followed, for the subject and compare the same with the content suggested above. Give your, observations., , 1.6.4. Let us Summarise, •, , The subjects taught in our schools is unique in its nature., , •, , The objective of each subject is different, , •, , It is important to know the content and nature of each subject, , •, , The nature of each subject decides the pedagogic processes. Hence it is important, to know the nature of each subject which can be understood by the underlying, processes., , •, , Since the nature of each subject is different, its content and underlying pedagogic, processes also are different., , 1.6.5. Answer to Check Your Progress 1, 2 and 3, Check Your Progress -1, S: 1,6,8, 69

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S.S:4,7,9, M:2,5,10, L: 3,11,12, , Check Your Progress-2, Make a record of your observations for your professional growth., , Check Your Progress-3, Share your findings with your colleagues and improve your school practices., , 1.6.6. Unit end Exercises, 1., , Explain the content of math, science and social science at school level, , 2., , Explain the content of physical education, art education and peace education at, school level., , 1.6.7. References, 1., , Deng, Z. (2013). School subjects and academic disciplines. In A. Luke, A. Woods &, K.Weir(Eds.), Curriculum, Syllabus design and equity: A primer and model. London:, Routledge Publication., , 2., , Ivor F. Goodson and Colin J. Marsh (1996). Studying school subjects – Aguide. London:, Routledge Publication., , 3., , Grossman, P.L, Wilson, S.M. and Shulman, L.S. (1989). Teachers of substance: subject, matter knowledge for teaching. In M.C. Reynolds (ed.), Knowledge Base for the, Beginning Teacher. New York: Pergamon, 23-36., , 4., , NCERT (2005). New Curriculum Framework (2005). New Delhi: National Council, of Educational Research and Training., , 5., , NCERT (2006). Teaching of Social Sciences - Position Paper National Focus Group., New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training., , 6., , NCERT (2007). Work Education - Position Paper National Focus Group. New Delhi:, National Council of Educational Research and Training., , 7., , NCTE (2009). National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education - Towards, Preparing Professional and Humane Teachers. New Delhi: National Council for Teacher, Education., , 8., , h t t p : / / w w w. n c e r t . n i c . i n / p d f _ f i l e s / 1 7 . M a t h e m a t i c s % 2 0 C u r r i c u l u m %, 20for%20School%20Education%20_16.12.pdf, ************, 70

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Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across, Disciplines, Unit - 1 : Classification of Academic Disciplines, Unit Structure, 2.1.1., , Learning Objectives, , 2.1.2., , Introduction, , 2.1. 3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 2.1.3.1., , Need and Importance of Classification of Disciplines, ‘Check Your Progress’- 1, , 2.1.3.2., , Classifications of Academic Disciplines, , 2.1.4., , Let us Summarise, , 2.1.5., , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress - 1 and 2, , 2.1.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 2.1.7., , References, , 2.1.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, •, , Classify the Academic Disciplines, , •, , Explain the criteria of classification of Academic Disciplines, , •, , Describe Biglan’s classification of Academic Disciplines, , •, , Explain the Biglan-Becher typology, , 2.1.1. Introduction, You have already studied about the meaning of ‘Discipline’ and ‘Academic Discipline’, in the first block of this course. Did you ever think of how these disciplines come into, existence? Do you think knowledge emerged as we study and teach today in our schools?, No! Knowledge neither emerged nor developed in the past as we see it today. There was a, time when knowledge was not classified as physics, chemistry, history, etc. In the past,, Knowledge was considered under a single discipline known as ‘Philosophy’. At the time of, geographical invasions, people could discover more and more places, and as a result their, knowledge got widened. They found that knowledge is so vast, that one person in his life, time cannot learn everything and therefore only a part of it can be studied. Hence, they, started analysing knowledge in order to classify it. Thus, the single and all-encompassing, 71

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knowledge started getting classified under different disciplines. You are familiar about the, degree called ‘Doctor of Philosophy’. This degree will be given in disciplines like, Mathematics, History, Languages and other subjects also. This is because all the subjects, were studied under a single discipline ‘Philosophy’. This story of the classification of the, ‘whole knowledge’ is very interesting. Let us study, in the present Unit, how knowledge, was classified, what are the different classifications and the criteria for classification., , 2.1. 3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 2.1.3.1. Need and Importance of Classification of Disciplines, Before discussing about how academic disciplines have been classified, let us, understand the reasons for classification., Classification is a very common and natural activity. Whenever we see some object,, or person or place, we categorise them with related previous knowledge. It helps us in, number of ways. It helps us to recall and retrieve. Hence, people in the past realised the, advantages of classifying knowledge and made attempts for it., Classifications or Typologies are important because, •, , They help to bring order to a chaotic world. Just imagine, you have a bulk of, information and you want to make a study of that. What will you do first? You, will categorise the information under different headings to comprehend better,, or to make more meaning out of it., , •, , Typologies allow scholars to group things under few categories that assist in, grasping relationships and trends. For example, if you have information about, different animals, and if you classify them on the basis of some criteria, it will, help you to know the differences and similarities among them. This will help, you to understand the relationship among different aspects like colour of the, animal and its food, size, geographical condition, strength, mobility styles etc., , •, , Preliminary classifications of new sets of objects or phenomena can lead to the, detection of previously undiscovered patterns and to the generation of theory, to be tested. The more you study based on the classification, better will be your, understanding. You understand the objects or phenomena in depth, collect more, information, go for more observation leading to formulate theories. Many of, the theories have been put forward based on typological studies., , •, •, •, •, , Makes our study simple and clear, Allows to gather more details about specific aspect., Makes our path of study easy., Allows for the investigation of further knowledge through the processes of, compare, contrast, and application of observed knowledge., , •, , In both scientific and non-scientific fields, as in daily life, classification is a, common activity. It is employed with the purpose of getting more clarity of, 72

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content. There is no one general classification of academic disciplines. Different, researchers take different bases of their organizations. However, the majority, of them have some identical features., , Check Your Progress – 1, Identify the correct answers using ‘“’ mark., Classifications are important because they __________, 1., , allow for the investigation of further knowledge., , 2., , assist in grasping relationships and trends., , 3., , allow to gather more details about specific aspect., , 4., , lead to the detection of previously undiscovered patterns., , 5., , allow for understanding of practical issues., , 6., , make evaluation of content easy., , 2.1.3.2. Different Classifications of Academic Disciplines:, The academic disciplines have been classified by different people at different times, with different criteria. Let us understand such three classifications and they are as follows:, a), , The Approximate Classification of Academic Disciplines, , b), , Aristotle’s Classification, , c), , Biglan’s (1970) Classification, , d), , Biglan-Becher typology, , a) The Approximate Classification of Academic Disciplines, In approximate classification of academic disciplines, disciplines are arranged into, following subgroups:, 1., , Fine Arts: This include such disciplines as Art, Music, Theatre, Visual Arts, and, Performing Arts. The task of Fine Arts is to evaluate the human activity from, the aesthetic point of view., , 2., , Humanities which are History, Language, Literature, Philosophy, and Religion, etc. This subgroup also has its own task which is to comprehend a human creature, as a unique phenomenon., , 3., , Social Sciences are Anthropology, Archaeology, Area Studies, Cultural and, Ethnic Studies, Economics, Gender and Sexuality Studies, Geography, Political, Science, Psychology, Sociology. The aim of this group of academic disciplines, is to investigate social role of a human and the results of human activities., Social Sciences are divided into General and Concrete Sciences. General, disciplines explore general human activity, and Concrete Sciences investigate, humanactivities in a concrete situation., 73

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4., , Sciences include Chemistry, Astronomy, Botany, Biology, and physics etc. The, task of this group is to explore the nature., , 5., , Mathematics covers such disciplines as Computer Sciences, Logic, Mathematics,, and Statistics. The aim of this branch of knowledge is to explore and systemize, abstract notions and relations between them., , b) Aristotle’s Classification, Aristotle divides the disciplines into three classes, each has different aim and each, requires special kinds of subject matter and special competence:, Theoretical: The aim of the theoretical is to know or to understand. Theoretical disciplines,, such as mathematics and the natural sciences require investigators who are able to reason, logically, to deal with abstractions, to build comprehensive theories; and the objects of, study must possess at least relative permanence and uniformity. Thus, it is that, say, physics, deals not with singular facts (particular events) but with general facts (invariant associations)., Practical: The aim of practical is to do. In contrast to the theoretical discipline, the practical, disciplines are concerned with subject matter capable of change or alternation. Such subject, matters, for example, as human character and social institutions have the necessary, characteristics. The chief practical disciplines for Aristotle were ethics, politics, and, education. The practitioner obviously needs certain skills and abilities that differ from, or, go beyond those needed by one undertaking theoretical investigations., Productive: The aim of the productive is to make or create. The productive disciplines,, such as engineering, fine arts, and applied arts, require material that is even more malleable, and skills that are more specialized and distinctive. Aristotle’s classification is still relevant., Beyond a few traditional academic disciplines, the majority of disciplines in contemporary, institutions of higher learning are applied, dynamic, and relatively young- such as, management, information technology, interior design, or dental hygiene., , c) Biglin’s (1970) Classification of Academic Disciplines, In the early 1970s Anthony Biglin carried out a study to investigate the faculty’s, judgment about similarities and differences between several academic fields. These, perceptions were classified as, i. Pure vs applied, ii. Hard vs soft (or paradigmatic vs non-paradigmatic disciplines), iii. Concerned with life systems vs those not concerned with life systems., , i. Pure vs applied:, Pure Disciplines: Pure discipline is studying a discipline purely for the sake of knowledge, and not for its application. For example, Mathematics is a Pure Discipline. In Mathematics,, we solve problems, find facts and answer questions that do not depend on the world around, 74

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us, but on the rules of Mathematics itself. That is the reason why some theorems and rules, appear vague to us and we cannot understand its application. The research outcomes in, Mathematics add to the body of knowledge in Mathematics, not every knowledge can be, applied to the world around us directly. Hence, pure disciplines refer to those disciplines, that tend towards fundamental research. There is systematic observation of phenomena, solely for discovering unknown facts which may develop into theories. The product of, these disciplines is some kind of new knowledge. Simply put a pure discipline is a discipline, that involves study purely for the sake of knowledge and not for its application. Some, examples are Pure Physics, Pure Chemistry, and Pure History and so on., Applied Disciplines: Applied disciplines as the phrase indicates it relates existing knowledge, to real world situations. These disciplines make significant contributions to the world by, articulating the theoretical foundations in their field of study. The Applied Disciplines use, knowledge from one or more disciplines as its sole purpose is Application to solve problems, related to the world around us. For example, Human Resource Development is an applied, discipline that draws heavily from pure disciplines like Psychology and Sociology., Engineering is an applied science dependent on the pure sciences of Mathematics and, Physics. Similarly, in Education we draw knowledge from the foundation subjects namely,, Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology and History and focus our attention on applying the, knowledge to the field of Education. Hence, Education is an Applied Discipline., , ii. Hard vs Soft ( or paradigmatic vs non paradigmatic disciplines), Hard disciplines: Some Disciplines like Physics, Engineering, Computing and Chemistry, etc. tend to use quantitative data, which tend to be predictive and use experimental methods,, are called as hard disciplines. These hard Disciplines use experimental methods to build, their repository of knowledge. Braxton (1995) represents the hard disciplines as being, characterized by greater concern for career development and cognitive goals (such as the, learning of facts and concepts)., Soft Disciplines: Soft disciplines are those disciplines that rely on qualitative data. They, generally do not use experimental methods and hence cannot make conclusive predictions, concerning the future. Examples of soft disciplines are Languages, Law, Anthropology and, Education. The soft disciplines as being characterized by greater concern for general, education development, character development, critical thinking and ‘scholarly’ activities, (such as the reading of research articles), , iii. Concerned with life systems vs those not concerned with life systems., The third classification of Academic Disciplines given by Biglin (1970) is concerned, with life systems and those not concerned with life systems., Academic Disciplines like Biology and Psychology that deal with life systems or, living beings are classified into one group and Academic Disciplines like Physics,, Mathematics, Geology that deal with inanimate objects are classified into another category., 75

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Emphasis of Academic Disciplines as Knowledge integration and, application, Further, a study by Smart and Ethington (1995) reports the opinions on the goals of, undergraduate education from over 4000 university faculty members who regularly taught, undergraduate students. The conclusions were that soft and applied disciplines place greater, emphasis on knowledge acquisition, and hard disciplines have more concern for knowledge, application. Knowledge integration and application were both perceived to be more, important in the applied disciplines than in the pure., , d) Biglan-Becher typology, While Biglan’s work concentrated on the cognitive dimension of disciplines, Becher, in 1989 called attention to the social dimensions of academic disciplines. From this emerged, the Biglan-Becher typology of academic disciplines. According to this typology, four main, types of groups are possible., 1. Hard and Pure disciplines, 2. Hard and Applied disciplines, 3. Soft and Pure disciplines, 4. Soft and Applied disciplines, , Emphasize, discoveries and, Explanations, Eg Mathematics,, Biology,, Chemistry, Physics, Emphasize, understanding, and interpretation, Eg. History,, Literature Art,, Theory, Socialogy, , Emphasize, Products and, techniques, Eg. Medicine,, engineering,, Design, , Emphasize Process, and Protocols, Eg. Education, Lae,, Information, Management, , Hard-Pure disciplines involve general areas of human understanding and are clustered, around limited number of problems. The nature of knowledge in these disciplines is, cumulative and concerned with universal phenomena. The result of such knowledge is, discovery of something new or expansion of already existing knowledge. Just like a crystal, grows as more and more molecules add on to it, so is it in case of this group of disciplines., As new knowledge keeps adding, the older form of knowledge is enhanced. For example,, 76

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consider the knowledge about an atom. As research on the atom progressed, our knowledge, about atoms made incremental progress. The relationship between the knowledge seeker, and knowledge is unbiased and very objective. There are very definite criteria to verify, knowledge in such disciplines. There is a high degree of consensus over significant questions., For example if two scientists are studying the effect of temperature on the states of matter,, their results will be similar no matter which parts of the world they perform their experiments, in. Academic communities in hard-pure disciplines are well organized, their work is quite, competitive and publication rates are high., Hard-Applied Disciplines are involved in purposive work. The emphasis is on application, of theories resulting in creating techniques and products. These disciplines are practical in, nature and are concerned with solving problems, addressing challenges and mastering the, environment around us. The focus is on application and hence heuristic approaches find, more importance in such disciplines. They use both quantitative and qualitative approaches., The criteria for judging the product of such disciplines are functional. Such disciplines, result in new techniques and products being created. Engineering, for example, is a hardapplied discipline which draws from Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. Clinical Medicine, is a hard-applied discipline dependent upon Biology and Chemistry. The ethos in such, disciplines is entrepreneurial and dominated by professional values. Patents are submitted, for publication., Soft-Pure Disciplines stress on understanding and interpretation of phenomena. Knowledge, in these disciplines is reiterative which means there may be repetition of knowledge when, examined in different situations. These disciplines are concerned with particular happenings, rather than general occurrences. Unlike hard sciences, here data is qualitative. The researcher, and knowledge share a personal relationship. There can be different views regarding what, verification of data. Subjectivity can be high when interpretations are made. There is no, definiteness as to what significant questions are to be answered. Anthropology and History, are some examples of disciplines in this type. The academic communities of such disciplines, tend to be less structured compared to those from hard-pure disciplines. Publication rate is, also lower. It is interesting to note that while a discipline like Sociology is a soft-pure, discipline, Sociometric, a subfield of Sociology, is hard-pure., Soft-Applied Disciplines emphasize processes and protocols. These are functional and, utilitarian in nature. They are concerned with the enhancement of professional practice., Often their status is uncertain. They also appear to be dominated by intellectual fashions., They use a mix of qualitative and quantitative data for their growth. Case studies form an, important tool in such disciplines. Law and Education are examples of soft-applied, disciplines. Education depends upon other soft disciplines like Psychology, Sociology, and, Philosophy. Publication rates in these disciplines are low., , 77

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Check your Progress-2, Below are given incomplete sentences. Complete them using appropriate answers., 1., , Professionals classified the disciplines on the basis of ______________, a. Content, b. Nature, c. Properties, d. Similarities, , 2., , Pure discipline is a discipline that involves study for______________, a) Purely Knowledge sake, b) Purely Application sake, c) Knowledge and Application sake, d) Neither Knowledge nor Application sake, , 3., , The sole purpose of Applied disciplinesis ______________, a) To add to the body of knowledge, b) To apply existing knowledge to real world situations, c) Both a & b, d) To draw knowledge from one or more disciplines, , 4., , Nature of knowledge in Hard-Pure disciplines ______________, a) cumulative and concerned with universal phenomena, b) application of theories, c) concerned with particular happenings, d) utilitarian in nature, , 5., , Hard discipline tends to use______________, a) Qualitative data., b) Quantitative data, c) Both qualitative and quantitative data, d) Neither Quantitative nor Qualitative, , 6., , Soft disciplines use______________, a) Qualitative data., b) Quantitative data, c) Both qualitative and quantitative data, d) Neither Quantitative nor Qualitative, Nature of knowledge in Hard-Applied Disciplines______________, a) cumulative and concerned with universal phenomena, b) application of theories, , 7., , 78

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c), d), , concerned with particular happenings, utilitarian in nature, , 8., , Nature of knowledge in Soft-Pure Disciplines______________, a) cumulative and concerned with universal phenomena, b) on application of theories, c) concerned with particular happenings, d) utilitarian in nature, , 1., , Nature of knowledge in Soft-Applied Disciplines______________, a) cumulative and concerned with universal phenomena, b) on application of theories, c) concerned with particular happenings, d) utilitarian in nature, , 2.1.4. Let us Summarise, •, , Classifications or Typologies are important because of number of reasons like, they bring order, assist to grasp relationships, lead to the detection of previously, undiscovered patterns and to the generation of theory, Makes our study simple, and clear, allows to gather more details about specific aspect, makes our path, of study easy, allows for the investigation of further knowledge through the, processes of compare, contrast, and application of observed knowledge., , •, , The academic disciplines have been classified by different people at different, times with different criteria. Some of the classifications are, the Approximate, Classification of Academic Disciplines, Aristotle’s Classification, Biglan’s, (1970) Classification and Biglan-Becher typology., , •, , There is no typology of academic disciplines that is complete and final., , 2.1.5 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’, Check Your Progress – 1, 1 to 4 - ‘“’, Check Your Progress – 2, 1-a, 2-a, 3-b, 4-a, 5-b, 6-b, 7-b, 8-c, 9-d, , 2.1.6 Unit -end Exercises, 1., , Explain the Classification of Academic Disciplines., , 2., , Explain any two classifications of academic disciplines., , 79

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Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across, Disciplines, Unit - 2 : Interdisciplinary and Multi-Disciplinary, Teaching and Learning, Unit Structure, 2.2.1., , Learning Objectives, , 2.2.2., , Introduction, , 2.2. 3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 2.2.3.1., , Interdisciplinary and Multi-Disciplinary Teaching and Learning, ‘Check Your Progress’- 1, , 2.2.4., , Let us Summarise, , 2.2.5., , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1, 2 and 3, , 2.2.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 2.2.7., , References, , 2.2.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to –, •, , Explain the Meaning of Interdisciplinary teaching and learning, , •, , List out the Characteristics of interdisciplinary learning, , •, , Explain theconcept of Multidisciplinary learning, , •, , List out the Characteristics of Multidisciplinary learning, , •, , Differentiate between Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Learning, , •, , Justify Significance of Interdisciplinary learning and Multidisciplinary learning, in education, , •, , Enlist the role of the Institution in organizing interdisciplinary and, multidisciplinary learning, , •, , Illustrate the Strategies to Promote Interdisciplinary Learning, , 81

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2.2. 2. Introduction, In the previous unit you have already studied about the meaning of Academic, Discipline and the basis of its classification. Have you ever realised, while learning one, discipline the knowledge of other discipline becomes helpful or what you have learnt in, one discipline is linked to what you are learning in other discipline? There are two approaches, we can observe when we try to link knowledge from different disciplines, they are, Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary approaches of Learning. Two metaphors have been, used by Moti Nissani to illustrate the concepts of interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, approaches to learning. Multidisciplinary approach is like a bowl of mixed fruit, each fruit, representing a single discipline. On the other hand, interdisciplinary learning is more like a, ‘smoothie’ which is a blend of fruits so well blended into one another that the original, distinctive flavour of each fruit is no longer recognizable. Multidisciplinarity refers to the, placing side by side of insights from two or more disciplines. Here different disciplines, help to develop a detailed understanding of the topic being studied. These disciplines, however make separate contributions unlike interdisciplinary learning where an, interdependent relationship is emphasized. No integration between these disciplines is, expected in a multidisciplinary approach., , 2.2.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 2.2.3.1. Interdisciplinary and Multi-Disciplinary Teaching and Learning:, Meaning, significance and Nature., Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary Teaching and Learning:, As we know the traditional approach to learning organizes content into compartments, based on subject matter boundaries. In interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches,, content revolves around questions, themes, problems and projects. Interdisciplinary and, multidisciplinary approaches make educational experiences authentic. Curricula that reflect, real life are more meaningful to students. Students are able to see natural and logical, connections that cut across content areas., , Meaning of Interdisciplinary teaching and learning, Heidi Jacobs defines interdisciplinary learning as “a knowledge view and curriculum, approach that consciously applies methodology and language from more than one discipline, to examine a central theme, issue, problem, topic, or experience”., Keith Barto and Lynn Smith suggest that interdisciplinary learning is especially, important in the early grades so as to “provide authentic experiences in more than one, content area, offer a range of learning experiences for students, and give students choices, in the projects they pursue and the ways they demonstrate their learning.”, 82

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Barton and Smith explain that interdisciplinary units enable teachers to use classroom, time more efficiently and address content in depth, while giving students the opportunity to, see the relationship between content areas and engage in authentic tasks., Academic disciplines are good platforms to impart and generate new knowledge., But interdisciplinary learning is required to solve complex problems and gain an, understanding of issues as it may be beyond the ability of one single discipline to address, an issue comprehensively or resolve a problem effectively., To summarise, Interdisciplinary Learning is a process of answering a question, solving, a problem, or addressing a topic that is too broad or complex to be dealt with adequately by, a single discipline, and draws on the disciplines with the goal of integrating their insights, to construct a more comprehensive understanding., There can be two distinct approaches to interdisciplinary:, i. The integrationist approach, which considers a process by which ideas, information,, methods and tools from two or more disciplines are connected, synthesized or blended., ii. The generalist approach where there is a dialogue or interaction between two or more, disciplines but the disciplines are not blended into one another. Some experts consider this, approach multidisciplinary., , Characteristics of Interdisciplinary learning, 1., , Interdisciplinary learning draws from more than one discipline., For example when studying about ‘War’, we may draw from History (to study about, wars that have occurred), Economics ( to study economic causes and effects of war),, Geography ( to study which regions have been afflicted by war), Literature ( to see, how poets and writers express events related to war), Political Science ( to see how, Political affairs determine events related to wars). Various disciplines contribute, towards interdisciplinary learning. The content drawn from each discipline enables, the learner to understand varied perspectives of the issue being investigated., , 2., , Interdisciplinary learning must have a definite focus which is beyond the sphere of a, single discipline. In interdisciplinary learning, the focus is such that a single sphere, cannot give a complete understanding of the same. For example, the topic ‘Health’ is, not just related to Science. It will include perspectives from Geography (as climate, may be related to health) and Economics (as some diseases are related to economic, status)., , 83

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3., , Interdisciplinary learning is pragmatic in approach meaning it should promote new, understanding or a new solution about the issue being investigated. Students using, interdisciplinary approach to learn develop a problem-solving attitude., , 4., , Interdisciplinary learning is a dialectical process requiring team work between people, from more than one discipline. There is logical discussion of ideas and opinions that, draw from different disciplines. To gain understanding of an issue from varied, perspectives, one may need to confer with people from various fields and this help to, come to logical and more objective conclusions about the issue being investigated., , 5., , Interdisciplinary learning is integrative. Students and teachers integrate disciplinary, perspectives deliberately and productively. Elements of different disciplines, (knowledge, understanding and skills) are put into a productive relationship with one, another, and connections made help students to accomplish a new, deeper and broader, understanding of the topic under study., , Allen Repko, Director of Interdisciplinary Programmes at University of Texas, identifies four cognitive abilities fostered by interdisciplinary learning., a) Perspective Taking Techniques: The capacity to understand multiple viewpoints on a, given topic is improved. Students develop an appreciation of the differences between, disciplines and especially their perspectives on how to approach a problem., b) Development of structural knowledge: Problem solving requires declarative knowledge, and procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge is factual information related to the, problem and procedural knowledge is information about the process involved. Both these, are enhanced due to use of interdisciplinary learning., c) Integration of conflicting insights: Variety of ideas from different disciplines are, incorporated due to interdisciplinary approach. Rather than use approaches from a single, discipline, students are encouraged to look out for alternatives from different disciplines, and hence insights are enriched., d) Interdisciplinary understanding increases and hence holistic thinking occurs. It, promotes higher order thinking skills such as creativity, critical and systems thinking,, synthesis, evaluation and analysis., , Interdisciplinary Learning and contemporary education, There is much emphasis on interdisciplinary learning in the 21st century. The, International Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme (MYP) incorporates interdisciplinary, learning supports students to understand bodies of knowledge from two or more disciplines, or subject groups, in order to integrate them and create new understanding. Students, demonstrate interdisciplinary understanding when they bring together concepts, methods,, 84

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or forms of communication from two or more disciplines or established areas of expertise, so that they can explain a phenomenon, solve a problem, create a product, or raise a new, question in ways that would have been unlikely through a single discipline., The National Curriculum Framework 2005 proposes five guiding principles for, curriculum development:(i) connecting knowledge to life outside the school; (ii) ensuring, that learning shifts away from rote methods; (iii) enriching the curriculum so that it goes, beyond textbooks; (iv) making examinations more flexible and integrating them with, classroom life; and (v) nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns within, the democratic polity of our country. These principles are enshrined in the basics of, interdisciplinary learning. The executive summary of this landmark document categorically, states ‘The NCF recommends the softening of subject boundaries so that children can get a, taste of integrated knowledge and the joy of understanding’. A careful scrutiny of the, document shows that it supports interdisciplinary learning. One comes across statements, like ‘For an enabling curriculum, certain themes that facilitate interdisciplinary thinking, need to be incorporated’., Here is an example of how Interdisciplinary learning is visualized for the topic, ‘Migration’., Issue being investigated, Migration, , Level, Secondary Level (Class IX or X), , Disciplinary Understandings, History, , Geography, , Students explore the trends Students explore patterns of, of migration in different migration, reasons for mieras and different nations. gration and types of migration (migration within a nation and out of the nation), Science, Students learn about, migration of animals., They study patterns of, migration. Students reflect, on similarities and, differences in animal and, human migration, , Literature, Students can see how migrations have influenced the, language of migrants and, locals. Eg impact of migration on language of Parsis., Students will investigate, how migrations have influenced literature and language by looking at, diasporic literature., , Economics, Students, study, how, migration has affected, livelihoods, population. They, study the impact of migration, on countries where migrants, settle, Political Science, Students research into how, politics affects migration., They find answers to, questions like: which nations, have had large number of, people leaving the country?, What are the plausible, reasons for the same? How, are migrants treated in the, new nation?, 85

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Integrative Understandings, Through this unit, students will, •, Understand economic, political, social reasons for migration., •, Comprehend the impact of migration on individual and society., •, Comprehend the impact of migration on language, art, science., •, Connect issues like war and migration, economic development and migration,, business and migration., •, Understand how migration modifies the economic, social, political scenario, of a nation., Understand how human migration is different from that of animals, Assessment of Learning, Multiple assessment strategies can be used eg reflective journals, group discussions,, poster presentations, analysis of literature and art forms influenced by migration, Focus must be on ability to analyse and synthesize inputs from different disciplines,, ability to integrate information, Some guiding questions to ensure interdisciplinary learning, • Is the unit conducive for interdisciplinary learning?, • Are the disciplinary understandings robust and adequate?, • Are the disciplinary understanding suited to the age and maturity of the learners?, •, •, , Are the integrative understandings tied to the purpose of the unit?, Are the activities for assessment comprehensive? Do the foster interdisciplinary, approach?, , Multidisciplinary learning, Multidisciplinary refers to the placing side by side of insights from two or more, disciplines. Here different disciplines help to develop a detailed understanding of the topic, being studied. These disciplines however make separate contributions unlike, interdisciplinary learning where an interdependent relationship is emphasized. No integration, between these disciplines is expected in a multidisciplinary approach., A multidisciplinary approach in learning involves drawing appropriately from multiple, disciplines to redefine problems outside of normal boundaries and reach solutions based, on a new understanding of complex situations., According to Langa and Yost, multidisciplinary instruction is an approach that, thoughtfully incorporates and connects key concepts and skills from many disciplines into, the presentation of a single unit., According to Garner (1995), the term ‘multidisciplinary’ refers to a combination of, various disciplines as independent and separate components of learning, which allows, students to work within discipline specific parameters and attain discipline specific goals., 86

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Multidisciplinary learning “refers to the involvement of several different professional, areas, though not necessarily in an integrated manner” (Shafritz, Koeppe, &Soper, 1988)., , Characteristics of Multidisciplinary learning, Most characteristics of interdisciplinary learning will be found in multidisciplinary, learning as well., 1., , Multidisciplinary learning gives the learner varied perspectives of the topic., Different disciplines contribute towards enriched learning. For example if the, topic being learned is ‘Water’ , the learner gets an idea about the chemical, composition and properties of water from Science, whereas Geography will, throw light on distribution of water over the Earth, sources of water., , 2., , Content matter gathered from different disciplines may retain their distinct, identities but will help the learner get a more comprehensive view of the topic, of study., , 3., , Multidisciplinary learning may not be integrative in its approach. Each, discipline retains its own uniqueness in multidisciplinary learning. While the, topic is examined through the lens of different subjects, there is no conscious, effort to merge these perspectives or integrate these views., , Difference between Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Learning, The multidisciplinary learning differs from interdisciplinary learning in the following, ways., In interdisciplinary learning, the selection of disciplines and their insights is, purposefully done with the end product clearly in view whereas in multidisciplinary learning,, disciplines need not be chosen purposefully., In multidisciplinary learning, the contribution of each discipline remains unique, whereas in interdisciplinary learning there is a complete blend of thoughts and thus the, disciplinary insights got from each discipline merge into each other., Interdisciplinary learning focuses on more collaboration and interactions between, disciplines as compared to multidisciplinary learning., Multidisciplinary learning highlights learning of topics from diverse disciplines; while, interdisciplinary learning is based on a mixture of diverse disciplines to solve a problem., While interdisciplinary approach may involve one teacher dealing with the content,, multidisciplinary learning will involve different experts from various disciplines., 87

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Multidisciplinary learning is represented in the figure, alongside where insights from two disciplines A and B are consulted, but there is no integration., , Interdisciplinary learning is represented alongside where, insights from two disciplines A and B are integrated to construct a, more comprehensive meaning., , Significance of Interdisciplinary learning and Multidisciplinary learning, • Interdisciplinary learning and multidisciplinary learning share several common, features. The significance of these approaches to learning is profound., • Interdisciplinary learning and multidisciplinary learning promote a broadened, outlook with the learner becoming aware of the perspectives offered by more than one, discipline. Interdisciplinary studies courses provide students with opportunities to understand, the diverse perspectives of and the links among discrete subjects/disciplines and to develop, their knowledge and skills beyond the scope of individual disciplines to solve problems,, make decisions and present new findings., • Narrow allegiance to one discipline is prevented. Considering only one discipline, to understand a complex issue can lead to incomplete learning. An interdisciplinary or, multidisciplinary bent of mind forces one to look at the issue through the lens of other, disciplines, • It encourages a more comprehensive way of looking at real life problems. Real life, problems are not confined to one discipline. One may need to examine the problem from, different disciplines to identify the most effective solution., • Objectivity in learning is encouraged. Holding on to only one discipline is likely to, produce biased views. Neutral decisions can be taken when an issue is examined by referring, to more than one discipline., • Interdisciplinary learning and multidisciplinary learning bring an appreciation of, other disciplines. The more we know about other disciplines, the more we will appreciate, the knowledge they contain. For example, suppose the issue being discussed is that of, human progress. A person who is basically from the Science discipline can appreciate the, contribution of Art to human progress. If the issue is only examined through the lens of, science, a lopsided view of human progress is viewed., 88

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• One can reflect how the real world works when one uses the interdisciplinary or, multidisciplinary approach. This is useful to understand complex phenomena that affect, our daily interactions. For example, when examining how international trade is carried out,, one needs to consider the perspectives offered by Political Science, Economics, Geography, and Business., • Sensitivity to ethical issues is fostered by such learning. Consider an issue like, euthanasia or mercy killing. If a person is declared brain dead, should life support be, discontinued? A question like this will need to look at implications from the point of view, of Science, Law, Religion and Sociology. Ethical issues cannot be resolved by looking at, just one discipline., • Interdisciplinary learning and multidisciplinary learning enhance the ability to, synthesize information. Information used is drawn from many disciplines and hence needs, to be effectively analysed and synthesized., • Unconventional and original thinking is enhanced. A single discipline may promote, one way of thinking. Consideration of more than one discipline forces to consider different, modes and thus promotes unconventional thinking., • Interdisciplinary learning and multidisciplinary learning help students to develop a, new awareness of the meaningful connections that exist among the disciplines. One realizes, that the real world does not support fragmented knowledge. One appreciates true knowledge,, the sources from where one gets knowledge and the means to garner knowledge. Thus, a, zest for lifelong learning is developed through interdisciplinary learning., , Check Your Progress- 1, Complete the sentences using appropriate answers., 1., , Interdisciplinary Learning is_______________, , a), , solving a problem, , b), , generate new knowledge, , c), , enriching the curriculum, , d), , All the above, , 2., , Interdisciplinary understanding promotes_______________, , a), , solving a problem, , b), , higher order thinking skills, , c), , increases Application, , d), , None of the above, 89

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3., , Content matter gathered from different disciplines may retain their distinct, identities in _______________, a) Inter Disciplinary Learning, b) Academic Discipline, c) Multi Disciplinary Learning, d) None of the above, , 4., , Interdisciplinary, learning, enhances_______________, , and, , multidisciplinary, , learning, , a) original thinking, b) increases Application, c) involving more than one discipline, d) None of the above, 5., , One of the Strategies to Promote Interdisciplinary Learning is _______________, a) Self-learning, b) Start Off Small, c) Academic learning, d) None of the above, , 2.2.3.2. Educational Implications of Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Learning, Role of Institutions in organizing in interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, learning, Today interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning are widely acknowledged as, means to offer learners a more comprehensive view of knowledge the way it actually exists, in the real world. The benefits of such learning are vast and institutions must make efforts, to ensure that they offer viable means for learners to immerse in meaningful interdisciplinary, and multidisciplinary learning environments. Let us discuss the role played by institutions, in organizing effective interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning., , 90

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Role of the Heads of Institutions in promoting interdisciplinary and, multidisciplinary learning:, •, , Heads of institutions must ensure that there is a varied choice of subjects made, available to the students. This will facilitate interdisciplinary bent of mind. At, the school level, generally subjects are predetermined by the board to which, the institution is affiliated. In higher education, there is greater likelihood of, offering variety of subjects., , •, , Individual departments of different disciplines must be strengthened. This can, be done by subscribing to various journals, encouraging the faculty to be part, of academic groups. A strong foundation in one’s own discipline will help to, make better contribution towards interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, endeavours., , •, , While selecting the faculty, heads of institutions should ensure that while they, have in depth knowledge and understanding of their own disciplines, it is vital, that they possess an interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary attitude. A fairly, good understanding of other disciplines is always an advantage., , •, , Training sessions may be conducted to assist teachers plan for interdisciplinary, and multidisciplinary learning experiences. Interdisciplinary units should be, shared with all faculty so that they can have the opportunity to contribute their, knowledge and skills., , •, , Provide flexibility in timetable so that teachers can co ordinate together to, organize for interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning experiences., , •, , Information Technology plays an important role in promoting for, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning. The website of the institution, can provide useful links to encourage such learning. Collaborative documents, can be prepared, resources can be shared, discussion can be carried using online, forums thus promoting for interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning., , •, , The institution can document good practices in interdisciplinary and, multidisciplinary approaches so that the students and teachers learn from these, experiences., , •, , Involvement of stake holders as industry personnel and prospective employers, in planning and transacting interdisciplinary learning activities will help learners, get the views of those involved in real world applications of knowledge learned., , •, , Healthy campus culture with equal respect accorded to all disciplines and an, ethos of sharing and collaborating contribute to effective interdisciplinary, learning., 91

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Role of teachers in promoting interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, learning:, •, , Teachers must design and implement curriculum based on the scope and, sequence of the integrated disciplines and be flexible enough to form and revise, the curriculum according to the students’ needs., , •, , Teachers must choose appropriate topics that offer scope to indulge in, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning. While planning for the year,, teachers teaching a particular class could look out for common topics that can, be dealt with through interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approaches. Various, learning approaches and techniques can be incorporated to facilitate, interdisciplinary learning. Most curricula these days incorporate project based, learning. This is a good opportunity to plan for interdisciplinary learning. Provide, a range of curriculum experiences that reflect both a discipline-based and an, interdisciplinary orientation. A basic grounding in disciplines needs to be, followed up with interdisciplinary studies., , •, , By attending seminars and workshops of other disciplines a teacher can widen, his/her understanding of these disciplines. This will help to think beyond the, realms of one’s basic discipline., , •, , Undertaking interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary research will ensure that, the teacher thinks across disciplines. This will help to provide better guidance, to students when working towards interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary, learning., , •, , Simply planning for interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning is not, enough. Teachers must engage students in epistemological questions such as, “What is knowledge?” “What do we know?” and “How can we link knowledge, with real world application?” Constructivist approach (where students explore, and take responsibility for their own learning)will be effective in interdisciplinary, learning., , •, , Teachers can invite experts beyond the field of academics to provide their inputs, on the topic being explored. For example when dealing with the theme of, ‘Pollution’ experts such as officers from the Pollution Control Board, doctors, and environmentalists can be invited to interact with the students., , 92

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Role of students in Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary learning, •, , Students should develop a healthy attitude towards all disciplines. Considering, one discipline superior to another is harmful as it only gives a lopsided, understanding of a topic., , •, , Reading and reflecting is an assured way of assisting multidisciplinary and, interdisciplinary learning. By reading articles from different disciplines and, more importantly by reflecting over what each discipline has to offer, meaningful, interdisciplinary learning is possible., , •, , Extended learning places as historical museums, monuments, libraries,, laboratories, science centres are opportunities to promote interdisciplinary, learning. These visits should not be seen from a recreational point of view., Rather they should be viewed as opportunities that promote integrated learning., , •, , If possible, students should be involved in the planning and development of, interdisciplinary units. This may be possible in higher education where students, are mature and think critically., Thus, ensuring interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning is the joint, responsibility of the curriculum framers, the institutional head, teachers and, students. Others like experts from the community and researchers may also, add their own inputs to make this endeavour effective., , Strategies to Promote Interdisciplinary Learning, There are several designs for interdisciplinary teaching. Some of these involve, integrating interdisciplinary teaching in a single course, while others tie together a, combination of different courses in a series. Regardless of the format used, integration by, design is an important starting point. The examples below provide some ideas for different, methods for interdisciplinary teaching., Promote Buy-In, Student, department, and institutional buy-in for interdisciplinary teaching is an, important first step in developing activities and courses that cross disciplinary divides. At, the institutional level, redesigning courses and curricula to include interdisciplinary teaching, presents an opportunity to increase enrollment was noted as a way to appeal to administrators., Further, interdisciplinary teaching can broaden the enrollment in courses offered in individual, disciplines, integrating geoscience, engineering, humanities, policy, education, and other, majors. At the student level, interdisciplinary teaching appeals to students interested in, multiple disciplines and who realize the necessity of tackling real-world problems through, an interdisciplinary lens., 93

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Start Off Small, Small-scale implementations and practices can be a great way to start to incorporate, interdisciplinary teaching into your classroom. While challenges and barriers may exist in, incorporating disciplines outside your area of expertise, these small scale changes can build, bridges between disciplinary divides and equip you to better overcome these challenges., Small scale changes include:, •, , Make connections with faculty from other departments, industry, and the, community! Informally talk with them, learn what they do, and draw connections, to your teaching., , •, , Invite guest speakers to give a presentation. Guest speakers can provide a way, for you and your students learn about topics outside your expertise and speakers, from the community or industry can serve as a model for how what students, are learning in class is applicable to their life and the importance of building a, culture of collaboration to solve problems., , •, , Partner with faculty from other departments to develop projects that incorporate, aspects from different disciplines., , •, , Make use of pedagogies that lend themselves to interdisciplinary teaching, such as service learning, teaching with the local environment/, campus, teaching systems thinking and teaching with real world examples., , Team Teaching, While potentially expensive, there is substantial added value in true team-teaching, of courses. In addition to bringing more expertise to instruction, team teaching allows, students to sort through and then integrate multiple perspectives, hypotheses, and opinions., Team teachers can also serve as role models to demonstrate effective interdisciplinary, cooperation in tackling a problem or a solution., Traditional team teaching involves two or more instructors actively involved in, teaching a cohort of students in a single course. This popular method for teaching in an, interdisciplinary fashion and may involve instructors from the same department with different, specialties or from different departments. The coursework is generally integrated into a, single syllabus for a single class. Course work can be either assessed by both instructors to, ensure the course outcomes are being addressed or done by each faculty independently, based on the assignment topic., , 94

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Check Your Progress - 2, To promote Interdisciplinary learning,, a), , Heads of institutions must ensure that _____________, , b), , Individual departments of different disciplines _____________, , c), , faculty, should have in depth knowledge and understanding of _____________, , d), , Training sessions may be conducted to assist teachers _____________, , e), , Teachers need to follow strategies like_____________, , 2.2.4. Let Us Summarise, The following table summarises the differences between multidisciplinary , interdisciplinary, and disciplinary learning, Learning mode, Interactivity, Mono, disciplinary Subject driven, learning, Multidisciplinary, Disciplines retained, learning, their, individuality., No emphasis on, synthesis, of, knowledge got from, varied disciplines, Interdisciplinary, collaboration, learning, between disciplines, is sought. Emphasis, is on integration of, knowledge, for, problem solving, , Student identity, Teacher identity, Knowledge receiver Knowledge deliverer, with limited choice, Knowledge consumer Knowledge facilitator, with no limits on, choice of subjects, , Knowledge, Learning designer, collaborator .choice, of subjects limitless., No, limits, on, integration, of, knowledge, , 2.2.5 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 1 and 2, Check Your Progress- 1, A,b,c,a,b, Check Your Progress- 2, a. there is a varied choice of subjects made available to the students, b. must be strengthened., c. their own disciplines,, d. plan for interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary learning experiencese., Promote Buy-In, Start Off Small, Team Teaching__________________________________, 95

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Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across, Disciplines, Unit - 3 : Humanities and Social Science in the Curriculum, Unit Structure, 2.3.1., , Learning Objectives, , 2.3.2., , Introduction, , 2.3. 3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 2.3.3.1., , Meaning, Branches and Importance of Humanities, ‘Check Your Progress’- 1, , 2.3.3.2., , Social Science in School Curriculum, , 2.3.4., , Let us Summarise, , 2.3.5., , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1, 2 and 3, , 2.3.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 2.3.7., , References, , 2.3.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to •, , Explain the meaning of Humanities & Social Sciences, , •, , List out branches of Humanities, , •, , Justify the need and importance of Humanities and Social Sciences in the School, Curriculum, , •, , Explain the Approaches of organizing social science curriculum, , 2.3. 2. Introduction, We have already discussed about the meaning and processes of Social Science as a, branch of humanities. We also know that it is not enough for teachers to know the content, of the subject they teach, but they need to know the nature of the subjects so that they can, decide the pedagogical procedures appropriate to the content. Once they know the nature, of the subject, it is easy to organise the content in the curriculum of that specific subject., Hence, let us understand the nature of Humanities and Social Sciences and also their, organisational implications in the present unit., 97

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2.3.3 Learning Points and Learning Activities, Humanities is a stream of study which primarily deals with aspects of human behaviour, and its effects on society. This covers the areas of human behaviour, psychology, philosophy,, criminology, sociology, anthropology and much more. It provides a well-developed, understanding of the social strata systems, sociological theory, and social policy. Both, humanities and social sciences are the study of human behaviour and interaction in social,, cultural, environmental, economic and political contexts. The humanities and social sciences, have a historical and contemporary focus, from personal to global contexts, and consider, challenges for the future., In the Curriculum, the Humanities and Social Sciences learning area includes a study, of history, geography, civics, citizenship, economics, business and much more. Through, the study of Humanities and Social Sciences, students develop the ability to question, think, critically, solve problems, communicate effectively, make decisions and adapt to change., The Humanities and Social Science subjects in the Curriculum provide a broad understanding, of the world in which we live, and how people can participate as active and informed, citizens with high-level skills needed for the 21st century., , 2.3.3.1. Meaning, Branches and Importance of Humanities, Let us try to understand the nature of Humanities through different interpretations., Humanities is one of the major groups of academic disciplines. The field of study, teaches students how history, art, music, religion and culture have shaped the modern world., While on one hand, Humanities centres on art, music and literature, on the other hand,, Social Sciences focuses on anthropology, archaeology and politics. That is why even though, the two streams are different they are often studied together as both complement each, other., Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human society and culture., They use methods that are primarily critical, or speculative, and have a significant historical, element—as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences, yet,, unlike the sciences, it has no central discipline. The humanities include ancient and modern, languages, literature, philosophy, history, human geography, law, politics, religion, and art., The humanities are studies about human culture, such as literature, philosophy, and, history. Studying the humanities gives general knowledge, but not a practical trade., Humanities is a broad academic field under which students study various types of, human interactions, using methods that are largely analytical, critical or exploratory., Humanities contain something explicit to explore in itself. As it serves several disciplines, where human beings and the society focus on different kinds of studies. Humanities are, 98

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also referred to ‘Integrated Humanities’ which states this stream as the study of the, following subjects:, § History, § Geography, § Religious Education, § Sociology, § Psychology, § Government and Politics, § Law, , Branches of humanities, The different branches of humanities include literature, art, music, philosophy, history,, religion and language. People use humanities to document and explore the human, experience, and there are further branches that intersect with the scientific world., Literature, most generically, is a body of written works. More, restrictively, literature refers to writing considered to be an art form or any single writing, deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that, differ from ordinary usage., , Importance of Humanities in School Curriculum, •, , The humanities help us understand others through their languages, histories, and cultures., , •, , They foster social justice and equality., , •, , They reveal how people have tried to make moral, spiritual and intellectual, sense of the world., , •, , The humanities teach empathy., , •, , They teach us to deal critically and logically with subjective, complex, imperfect, information., , •, , They teach us to weigh evidence sceptically and consider more than one side, of every question., , •, , Humanities build skills in writing and critical reading., , •, , The humanities encourage us to think creatively. They teach us to reason about, being human and to ask questions about our world., 99

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•, , The humanities develop informed and critical citizens. Without the humanities,, democracy could not flourish. ., , •, , Humanities can help us think critically and help us reason well so that we can, gain insight into a variety of subjects and topics., , •, , Humanities have been an important field since the times of Ancient Greece,, and the knowledge was used to explore poetry, history, culture and the arts., , •, , Humanities teach many fundamental skills such as critical thinking, analysis, and creativity. These skills are useful not only for those considering graduate, level studies or professional degrees, but also for those considering careers in, business., , •, , The humanities play a number of roles in a man’s life, including providing, greater insight into the world, helping to better understand both the past and, the future and fostering a sense of empathy. Broadly defined, the humanities are, the study of human culture through art, literature, philosophy, music and, languages., , •, , Better curriculum coverage and coherence: When a school humanities, curriculum uses the National Curriculum objectives for history and geography, as its platform, rather than its aim, the overarching story of history can be, developed through cross-phase planning, making sure that children are learning, in a progressively sequenced way. Coherence, organising content into wellsequenced orders, can be difficult to achieve when tied to themes or topics,, since they may be interpreted in a variety of ways. Being explicit with children, that they are learning ‘geography’ might also make it easier for them to see, how the content fits into the bigger picture of the subject., , •, , A subject-based humanities curriculum supports high-quality teaching: With, the National Curriculum as the platform and coherence as an aim, there is, scope for learning to be systematically developed over time. When National, Curriculum objectives are mapped out and taught sequentially, assessing learning, within the humanities subjects becomes a far simpler task. Aligning this with, knowledge organisers that carefully outline the substantive knowledge that needs, to be learned can help to make assessments more accurate, more so than in one, unit of work., , 100

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Check Your Progress:1, Explain the meaning and importance of humanities in school curriculum., , 3.3.3.2. Social Science Curriculum, Curriculum is an important component of any system of education. Curriculum is, planned for the entire course of study as well as for different subjects. The overall aims of, education are achieved by achieving the aims and objectives of different subjects taught in, schools. The success in achieving the aims mainly depends on the appropriateness of the, procedure in which curriculum is framed. Hence, to achieve the objectives of social science,, a well-formed curriculum will prove to be inevitable. This is because curriculum is the, plan for guiding the goal oriented educative process. This plan involves four important, components. They are as follows:, Content, , Evaluation, Procedures, , Objectives, , Pedagogic, strategies, , The curriculum of social science is supposed to fulfil some important functions., They are as follows:, Synthesis of the subjects of study and life, Acquisition and strengthening of knowledge, Complete development, Development of democratic values, Satisfaction of students’ needs, Realisation of values, Harmony between individual and society, Cration of suitable environment, , Approaches to Curriculum Organization in Social Science:, Though there are number of approaches for the organization of curriculum in social, science, no single approach has been proved to be complete and comprehensive. Each, approach has merits and limitations. Teachers need to select approaches appropriate to the, level and needs of the students and organize the curriculum. Let us understand the different, approaches for organising matter in social science curriculum., 101

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The Spiral Approach, The spiral approach is nothing but devising a strategy that fosters continuous un, broken learning of the subject matter of social science through the various stages of, education. According to this approach, children in primary classes develop simple, generalization about man carrying of his everyday activities. They work with more and, more complex items of information and as a result deepen and reshape the dimension of, the related generalization already developed earlier. For example, it is very important that, children should know our freedom struggle in the primary classes the information about, this unit will be imparted through the life of some of the great leaders such as Mahatma, Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Balagangadhara Tilak and B.R. Ambedkar. In the middle stage, the information will be imparted through event the formation of the Indian National, Congress, partition of Bengal, Civil Disobedience, Quit India movement etc. In the, secondary stage, the pupils still learn to compare and contrast the freedom movement in, our country with other countries of the world and analyse them scientifically by establishing, cause effective relations., Application of this approach will make social science a subject of immediate and, real interest for the average pupil. It will be the basis of correlating phenomena and, happening with the immediate life of humanity and for those who are more intellectual it, will be the basis of which academic insights and specialization in the discipline concerned, can be attempted., If proper care is not taken by the curriculum framers in gradually expending the, material without mere repetition and if teachers do not carefully increase the scope of study, in psychologically sound and natural way, this approach may cause monotony and lack of, interest because of the repetition of information. At the initial stage it will be difficult to, give a clear picture of problem by presenting all the relevant details and by considering it in, its totality., , Concentric Approach, In this approach the whole curriculum is spread over a number of years. Quite often, a general treatment of almost all the topics are attempted at the beginning and it is developed, in successive year according to the mental development of the pupil in the beginning in the, simplified way. In the next years more and more details of its parts are gradually added. It, follows the maxims of teaching such as form whole to part simple to complex easy to, difficult etc. Among educationalists of modern times Bruner is the main exponent of this, approach as he thinks that discovery learning is only possible only if this approach is, maintained and this approach is referred to as concentric approach., 102

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Topical Approach, In this approach, selected topics of study suitable for the age ability and interest of, children are included in the curriculum and each topic is dealt with completely in the class, where it is first introduction of each topics are linked together by the teacher with the help, of link lessons for the children of the age group 13+ (above 13) this approach is quite, possible., The curriculum makers take particular topics as the central theme of social science, learning at different levels of instruction. At each stage the topics vary in accordance with, the ability and interests of the children. In the primary classes, the child may start the study, of the development of concrete and familiar thing such as food, clothing, shelter and means, of transportation. In the middle classes, he may be introduced to more important and more, difficult topics like history of instructions and of government. In the secondary classes the, student may be provided with ideas about ideologies like communism, socialism capitalism, etc. In this approach, we can deal with all the aspects of a problem and give an overall view, of that particular problem., ‘This approach provides an action plan for dealing with vast material in a logical and, rational way. It helps the pupils to understand the facts of their developmental setting. This, approach can be adapted according to the age ability and aptitude of the children.It imparts, a sense of purpose to the pupils because of the total perception attempted.This approach, enables the teacher to control the subject matter and adapt it to the varying needs of the, children. It destroys the continuity of subject matter. Since aspects involved in a topic may, be beyond the cognitive competencies of pupils in lower classes a complete study of the, topic will not be possible., Generally speaking, when a topic is complex and very large and involve units posing, varied levels of difficulty it will be advisable to have the unit approach. The only thing is, that care should be taken to effectively link all the units of the same topics as and when, opportunities arise., , 2.3.4. Let us Summarise, •, , Humanities is a stream of study which primarily deals with aspects of human, behaviour and its effects on society. This covers the areas of human behaviour,, psychology, philosophy, criminology, sociology, anthropology and much more., , •, , In the Curriculum, the Humanities and Social Sciences learning area includes a, study of history, geography, civics, citizenship, economics, business and much, more., 103

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•, , Humanities are academic disciplines that study aspects of human, society and culture., , •, , There are many advantages of learning humanities subjects, , •, , While framing the curriculum, it is important to know the functions it needs to, fulfil. They can be identified as follows:, , •, , Organisation of social science curriculum needs to be meticulous task. It involves, mainly four aspects namely, the objectives, pedagogic strategies, content and, evaluation procedures, , •, , There are different approaches to organize the content of social sciences and, they are the spiral, concentric, and topical approaches. Each approach has merits, and limitations. Teachers have to select appropriate approaches based on the, level, need and interest of students., , Check Your Progress – 2, Classify the following attributes under spiral, concentric and topical approaches, 1., , strategy that fosters continuous un broken learning of the subject matter of, social science, , 2., , the whole curriculum is spread over a number of years, , 3., , focus is on developing simple generalization, , 4., , organised according to the mental development of the pupil, , 5., , provides an action plan for dealing with vast material, , 6., , details are gradually added, , 7., , themes of interest for students are selected, , 8., , will make social science a subject of immediate and real interest for the average, pupil, , 9., , involves logical and rational procedures, , 2.3.5 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ 1 and 2, Check Your Progress -1, Refer Section 2.3.3.1. of Self Learning Material, , Check Your Progress – 2, Spiral: 1,3,8 Concentric: 2,4,6, Topical: 5,7,9,, , 104

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Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across, Disciplines, Unit - 4 : Natural Science in the Curriculum, Unit Structure, 2.4.1., , Learning Objectives, , 2.4.2., , Introduction, , 2.4.3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 2.4.3.1., , Meaning, Branches and Importance of studying Natural Science, Check Your Progress -1, , 2.4.3.2., , Science Education at different levels and Issues and challenges in teaching, Science, Check Your Progress -2, , 2.4.3.3., , Place of Science in School Curriculum and Organization of Science, Curriculum, Check Your Progress- 3, , 2.4.4., , Let us Summarise, , 2.4.5., , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1 and 2, , 2.4.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 2.4.7., , References, , 2.4.1. Learning Objectives, After learning through this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, •, , Explain the meaning of natural science, , •, , Describe the branches of Natural Science, , •, , justify the place of natural science in school curriculum, , •, , Describe the major approaches in Organization of Science Curriculum, , 106

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2.4.2. Introduction, What is Natural science? What are its branches? Why do we teach science to school, children? What do we teach them in science? These are the basic questions to which a, teacher must know the answers for. This unit will help you to understand the concept of, natural science, the purpose of teaching science and objectives of teaching science for the, cognitive, affective and psychomotor development of human abilities. You will also learn, about the science curriculum and its place in school education., , 2.4.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 2.4.3.1. Meaning, Branches and Importance of studying Natural Science, Natural Science –Meaning, What is Natural science? The natural sciences seek to understand how the world and, universe around us works. Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the, description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical, evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and, repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances., , Branches of Natural Science, Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science (or biological, science) and physical science. Life sciences, include botany and zoology; and Physical, science is subdivided into branches, including physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth, science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized, branches (also known as fields). As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from, the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature, into measurements which can be explained as clear statements of the “laws of nature”., Life Science, Biology is a branch of Life science that involves the scientific study of living organisms, from the molecular level to their interactions with one another and their environment. This, field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms., The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies., Biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms,, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and, the environment., The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to early periods of, civilization, while microbiology was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of, the microscope. However, it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified, 107

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science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided, they were best studied as a whole., Some key developments in biology were the discovery of genetics; evolution, through natural selection; the germ theory of disease and the application of the techniques, of chemistry and physics at the level of the cell or organic molecule., Modern biology is divided into sub disciplines by the type of organism and by the, scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life,, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At, a higher level, anatomy and physiology look at the internal structures, and their functions,, of an organism, while ecology looks at how various organisms interrelate., Physical Science, Physics focuses on the physical properties of matter and energy and the interactions, and relationships between these, and attempts to develop mathematical models to explain, physical phenomena. Thus, Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of, the universe, the forces and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced, by these interactions. In general, physics is regarded as the fundamental science, because, all other natural sciences use and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics, relies heavily on mathematics as the logical framework for formulation and quantification, of principles., The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from, direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing, laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on,, with philosophy gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and, observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics, include Isaac Newton’s theory of universal gravitation and classical mechanics, an, understanding of electricity and its relation to magnetism, Einstein’s theories, of special and general relativity, the development of thermodynamics, and the quantum, mechanical model of atomic and subatomic physics., The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies, as quantum mechanics and theoretical physics, applied physics and optics. Modern physics, is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area, rather than being “universalists” like Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein and Lev Landau, who, worked in multiple areas., , 108

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Chemistry, Chemistry Constitutes the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale,, it deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals., The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials, are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of, individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications., Chemistry is one branch of Natural Sciences but itself consists of many branches,, such as inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry and biochemistry., Chemistry can be viewed as the study of different types, components and properties of, matter, and the chemical changes that different types of matter undergo., Astronomy, This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside, the Earth’s atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology,, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe., Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of stars, planets, comets,, galaxies and the cosmos. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote, observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been, performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium). While the origins, of the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific, methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor, was Galileo’s introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail., The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton’s development, of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation, although it was triggered by earlier work, of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed into a formal, science, with the introduction of instruments such as the spectroscope and photography,, along with much-improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories, Earth Science or Geosciences, Earth science is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth,, including geology, geophysics, hydrology, meteorology, physical geography, oceanography,, and soil science. Although mining and precious stones have been human interests throughout, the history of civilization, the development of the related sciences of economic, geology and mineralogy did not occur until the 18th century. The study of the earth,, particularly palaeontology, blossomed in the 19th century. The growth of other disciplines,, such as geophysics, in the 20th century, led to the development of the theory of plate, tectonics in the 1960s, which has had a similar effect on the Earth sciences as the theory of, 109

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evolution had on biology. Earth sciences today are closely linked to petroleum and mineral, resources, climate research and to environmental assessment and remediation., , Importance of Studying Natural Science, The role of Science with reference to sustainable development and Health can be, summarised as follows:, •, , By emphasizing and explaining the dependency of living things on each other, and on the physical environment, science fosters the kind of intelligent respect, for nature that can inform decisions on the uses of technology to improve the, world for humans and all living things. The more science-literate individuals, are, the stronger their society can be. Specifically, the lessons and skills science, gives us can have effects that help make for more responsible citizens, a balanced, economy, a healthier environment, and a brighter sustainable future for everyone., , •, , Science makes us aware of environmental problems, , •, , Helps to improve our understanding in areas such as climatic change, growth, in rates of resource consumption, demographic trends, and environmental, degradation, , •, , Use of technology for remote sensing and GIS helps in tracking environmental, degradation, , •, , Helps in meaningful resource utilization., , •, , Science helps suggest alternative practices to reduce pollution, , •, , Scientific knowledge should be applied to articulate and support the goals of, sustainable development, through scientific assessments of current conditions, and future prospects for the Earth system., , •, , Such assessments, based on existing and emerging innovations within the, sciences, can be used in the decision-making process and in the interactive, processes between the sciences and policy-making., , •, , To develop innovative, green solutions to address the climate, food and energy, crises facing the world today, science, technology, research and development, capacities for sustainable development must be strengthened, , The role of Science with reference to health issues can be summarised as follows:, •, , Advances in Science & Technology have led to longer, healthier, better lives., , 110

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•, , A generation that understands and honors or celebrates past achievements will, welcome and pave the way for future discoveries and inventions that will, improve physical and mental health., , •, , Science helps create an awareness of diseases ( Physical and mental health) ,, Importance of having a balanced diet , measures to prevent diseases., , Check Your Progress – 1, 1.Explain the meaning, branches and importance of Natural Science., , 2.4.3.2. Science Education at different levels and Issues and challenges in, teaching Science, Science Education at Primary Education Level, At the Primary level Science & Social Science are integrated as Environmental Studies., At this stage Science education should help to:, •, , nurture the curiosity of the child about the world (natural environment, artifacts, and people),, , •, , have the child engage in exploratory and hands-on activities for acquiring the, basic cognitive and psychomotor skills through observation, classification,, inference, etc.;, , •, , emphasise design and fabrication, estimation and measurement, , •, , develop basic language skills: speaking, reading and writing not only for science, but also through science., , Science Education at Upper Primary Education Level, At this stage,, •, , the child should be engaged in learning the principles of science through familiar, experiences, working with hands to design simple technological units and, models (e.g. designing and making a working model of a windmill to lift, weights), , •, , continue to learn more about the environment and health, including reproductive, and sexual health, through activities and surveys., , •, , Scientific concepts are to be arrived at mainly from activities and experiments., , •, , Group activities, discussions with peers and teachers, surveys, organisation of, data and their display through exhibitions, etc. in schools and the neighbourhood, should be important components of pedagogy., 111

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Science Education at Secondary Education level, At the secondary stage, students should be engaged in.., •, , learning science as a composite discipline,, , •, , in working with hands and tools to design more advanced technological modules, than at the upper primary stage, and, , •, , in activities and analyses on issues concerning the environment and health,, including reproductive and sexual health., , •, , systematic experimentation as a tool to discover/verify theoretical principles,, , •, , working on locally significant projects involving science and technology, are, to be important parts of the curriculum at this stage., , Science Education at Higher Secondary School level, At the higher secondary stage,, •, , science should be introduced as separate disciplines,, , •, , with emphasis on experiments/technology and problem solving., , Issues and challenges in teaching Science, Position Paper of National Focus Group on Science identifies some issues with refer, teaching of Science:, •, , Lack of infrastructure: resource rooms, activity rooms, laboratories, material, for models, toys, tools, appropriate books for reference, encyclopaedias,, dictionaries, multimedia and internet facility., , •, , Overloaded syllabus: The most important consideration while developing a, science curriculum is to ensure a reduced emphasis on mere information and, provide greater exposure to what it means to practice science., , •, , Inadequacy of textbooks based on constructivist methods., , •, , Instrument of social change: Need to use science curriculum as an instrument, of social change to reduce the divide related to economic class, gender, caste,, religion and region., , •, , Present day science education develops competence but does not encourage, inventiveness and creativity., , 112

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Check Your Progress 2, Explain the issues and challenges of teaching Science, , 2.3.3.3. Place of Science in School Curriculum and Organization of Science, Curriculum, Place of Science in School Curriculum, It is said that man’s future is stubbornly linked to scientific advances and the, development of productive activity. Therefore, science must find a respectable place in the, school curriculum. All over the world, this feeling is generated. In India, through the efforts, of National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), science has been, made a compulsory subject throughout the school stage., The views of Kothari Commission and UNESCO’s International Commission on the, Development of Education are: Kothari Commission (1964-66) stated that “We lay a great, emphasis on making science an important element in the school curriculum. We, therefore,, recommend that science and mathematics should be taught on a compulsory basis to all, pupils as a part of general education during the first ten years of schooling. In addition,, there should be a provision of real courses in these subjects at the secondary stage, for, students of more than average ability”., UNESCO’s International Commission recommend as under:, “Science and technology must become essential components in any educational, enterprise; they must be incorporated into all educational activity intended for children,, young people and adults, in order to help the individual to control social energies as well as, natural and production ones – thereby achieving mastery over himself, his choices and, actions – and, finally, they must help man to acquire a Scientific turn of mind so that he, becomes able to promote science without being enslaved by it”., With regard to the nature of science and its relation with humanities, this Commission, hoped that “The natural sciences will one day incorporate the science of man, just as the, science of man will incorporate the natural sciences; there will be a single science”., In the past, science had to struggle long and hard for its rightful place in the school, curriculum. There was a time when science was considered an inferior subject to study and, the meritorious students were supposed to study classics and mathematical subjects. New, ideas or inventions in science were not immediately accepted in the society and were looked, upon with suspicion. Any new idea that went against the prevailing beliefs and codes of the, time was condemned., , 113

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Science is no longer confined to a few seriously devoted persons. It satisfies the, usual needs for its inclusion as a subject in the curriculum such as intellectual, cultural,, moral, aesthetic, utilization and vocational values., According to National Curriculum Framework 2005, people today are faced with an, increasingly fast-changing world where most important skills are flexibility, innovation, and creativity. Good Science education is true to the child and these imperatives have to be, kept in mind in shaping science education., •, , The simple observation leads to the following basic criteria of validity of a, science curriculum., , •, , Cognitive validity requires that the content, process, language and pedagogic, practices of the curriculum are age appropriate and within the cognitive reach, of the child., , •, , Content validity requires that the curriculum must convey significant and correct, scientific information. Simplification of content is necessary for adapting, curriculum to the cognitive level of the learners., , •, , Process validity requires that the curriculum should engage the learner in, generating and validating scientific knowledge and nurturing the natural, curiosity and creativity., , •, , Historical validity requires that the science curriculum be informed as to how, the concepts of science over time evolved., , •, , Environmental validity requires that the science curriculum be placed with, learner’s environment, local and global, enabling them to appreciate the issues, at the interface of science, technology and society., , •, , Ethical validity requires that the curriculum promote the values of honesty,, objectivity, cooperation and freedom from fear and prejudice and inculcate in, the learner a concern for life and precaution of environment., , Organization of Science Curriculum, The main purpose of every school is “to make the child a complete and perfect, man.” This will help the child to be able to lead his life in a better way than he is today., Therefore, schooling is an important human activity. In formal school education curriculum, is the major means to impart knowledge and skills. The major issue in the field of education, today is organizing science curriculum in an effective manner. There are two major, approaches regarding organization of science curriculum viz. Disciplinary Approach &, Integrated Approach. These two approaches are explained below, 114

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(a) Disciplinary Approach, This approach is also known as the subject approach or the traditional approach, as, each subject is separately taught by the teacher in the area of the particular subject in, question. For example, science was traditionally taught as a subject with different, compartments such as physics, biology, and chemistry as separate components of the science, subject. Similarly, language was taught as a separate subject from other subjects. English, was taught as being different from Hindi, Oriya, History, Geography etc. Thus, each subject, has a well-defined boundary from which there is no connection to the other. Thus, the, approach in which every subject is taught as a separate discipline is called as disciplinary, approach. This approach is based on the premise that, the subject is a store house of facts,, methods, theories, concepts & generalizations. In disciplinary approach the focus is more, on the subject & its content rather than the process. In India the disciplinary approach is, very popular in the higher secondary level. It shall be the responsibility of teacher to show, the connection between different disciplines (subjects)., Characteristics of disciplinary approach, a), , In-depth Conceptual Knowledge: Every subject has detailed and in-depth, conceptual knowledge, , b), , Disciplinary based teaching: Each subject is taught as a separate discipline., , c), , Content based teaching: The teaching of disciplinary based curriculum largely, based on content., , d), , Source of knowledge/information: In disciplinary approach the teacher is the, main source of knowledge / information., , e), , Main purpose: The main purpose of disciplinary approach is to prepare specialist,, scientists etc., , f), , Mastery of the subject: The learner is expected to master the subject matter., , g), , Chalk & talk based teaching: This approach mostly leads to chalk & talk based, teaching., , h), , Text book is main authority: This approach restrains student observations, values, or conclusions different from the textbook which is the main authority in, disciplinary approach., , 115

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Importance /Merits of the disciplinary approach, •, , Expert in the subject: This approach develops expertise in particular subject, , •, , Subject Growth: The disciplinary approach fosters the growth of the subject., , •, , Time Saving: Disciplinary approach is very time saving in terms of course, completion., , •, , Detailed Conceptual Understanding: The disciplinary approach of organizing, science curriculum provides detailed conceptual understanding of the subject., , •, , Theory building: The disciplinary approach is very useful in building theory in, particular subject/discipline., , •, , Higher level thinking: As in disciplinary approach the subject is store house of, theories, concepts,generalizations etc. This lead to higher level thinking., , Limitations, §, , Less opportunity for creativity: The disciplinary approach does not provide much, opportunities for students creativity., , §, , Dropout: Disinterest in particular subject / discipline may lead to dropout., , §, , Require expert teachers: The disciplinary approach requires highly, knowledgeable & expert teachers., , §, , Less Scope of socialization & social skills: Isolated teaching reduces the scope, of socialization and social skills., , (b) Integrated Approach, “An integrated approach allows learners to explore, gather, process, refine and present, information about the topics they want to investigate without the constraints imposed by, traditional subject barriers. “(Pigdon & Woolley, 1992). Integrated approach encourages, student to see the interconnectedness and interrelationships between the different curriculum, areas. Instead of focusing on learning in isolated curriculum areas, an integrated approach, is based on skill development around a particular theme that is relevant to students of a, particular class., For Example: The curriculum set up of science at primary level i.e. general science is, an example of integrated approach., Following are the ways of integration, a., , Cross disciplinary approach: This approach examine an issue typically relevant, to one discipline through the lens of another discipline., 116

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b., , Multi disciplinary approach:- This approach examines an issue from multiple, perspectives, without making a concerted effort to systematically integrate, various disciplines., , c., , Inter-disciplinary approach:- This approach examines an issue from multiple, perspectives, leading to a systematic effort to integrate the alternative, perspectives into a unified or coherent framework of analysis., , The integrated curriculum approach is successful in making students more aware of, content area connections, providing a learning environment supporting academic and social, needs, dissolving the boundaries among the disciplines, and fostering stronger student/, teacher relationships. Students participating in an integrated curriculum have demonstrated, a more positive attitude about themselves & school. Similarly teachers are provided with a, new opportunity to work together, increasing collegiality., Characteristics of Integrated approach :, i., , Wide conceptual knowledge: Integrated approach provides an opportunity for, broader & wider conceptual knowledge., , ii., , Child-centered teaching: Integrated approach promotes child centered teaching, , iii., , Integration of skills with contents: Integrated approach of curriculum, organization promote integration of skills with contents., , iv., , Teacher as a mediator: The role of a teacher is mediator between knowledge, and child., , v., , Use of modern method:The integrated approach requires use of modern methods, of teaching such as inquiry based teaching., , vi., , Flexibility: - No rigid disciplines exist. Integrated approach is flexible., , vii., , Preparation of future citizens: - The main purpose of integrated approach is to, prepare the future citizens of a society., , viii. Openness: -The approach is open to new ideas and procedures., ix., , Multi learning Environment: - The approach requires multi learning environment, such as classroom, lab, outdoor, computer, internet etc., , Importance / Merits of integrated approach, 1., , Detailed conceptual understanding: This approach help the learner to get detailed, conceptual understanding of the content., , 2., , Choice based selection of discipline / subject: Integrated approach help the, students to select discipline / subject according to their own interest., , 3., , Creativity: This approach foster creativity among learner., 117

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4., , Promotion of modern methods: This approach promotes modern methods of, teaching such as collaborative learning, cooperative learning etc., , 5., , Development of self concept & socialization: Integrated approach helps in, developing self concept & socialization., , 6., , Realistic Application: This approach has realistic applications., , Limitations of integrated approach, i., , Time Consuming: Integrated approach is time consuming as a single theme, analysis is done with different discipline point of view., , ii., , Need of well equipped & expert teacher: Integrated approach needs well, equipped & expert teachers who are capable of using modern methods of, teaching., , iii., , Create confusion: If this approach is not handled carefully then child may get, confuse in various disciplines., , iv., , Proper selection & organization of various disciplines: Integrated approach, needs expertise to select theme and organization of various disciplines., , Check Your Progress - 3, Explain the approaches to organise science curriculum at school level., , 2.4.4. Let us Summarise, ●, , Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence, from observation and experimentation., , ●, , Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life sciences, include botany and zoology; and Physical science is, subdivided into branches, including physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth, science., , ●, , According to National Curriculum Framework 2005, people today are faced, with an increasingly fast-changing world where most important skills are flexibility, innovation and creativity. Good Science education is true to the child, and these imperatives have to be kept in mind in shaping science education., , ●, , The two major approaches in organization of science curriculum viz. Disciplinary Approach & Integrated Approach., , 118

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Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across, Disciplines, Unit - 5 : Mathematics in the Curriculum, Unit Structure, 2.5.1., , Learning Objectives, , 2.5.2., , Introduction, , 2.5.3, , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 2.5.3.1., , Need and Importance of Mathematics in the Curriculum, 'Check Your Progress'- 1, , 2.5.3.2., , Mathematics and School Curriculum, 'Check Your Progress'- 2, , 2.5.4., , Let us Summarise, , 2.5.5., , Answers to 'Check Your Progress' - 1 and 2, , 2.5.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 2.5.7., , References, , 2.5.1. Learning Objectives, After completing this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, ●, , Clarify the importance and need of Mathematics in the School Curriculum, , ●, , Explain the values that Justify the importance of Mathematics Curriculum, , ●, , ●, ●, , Explain the social, mathematical and practical importance of Mathematics curriculum;, Understand the Place of Mathematics Curriculum in the School Curriculum, Identify the aims and Objectives of teaching Mathematics at different levels of, Schooling;, , ●, , Express the vision of school Mathematics curriculum;, , ●, , Conceptualise the concerns of teaching school Mathematics;, , ●, , Clarify the underlying principles of development of Mathematics curriculum;, , ●, , Describe various Modern trends in the development of school Mathematics, curriculum., 120

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2.5. 2. Introduction, All of us agree with the fact that mathematics is considered as one of the most important and essential school subjects. Throughout the centuries, mathematics has been, recognised as one of the central strands of human intellectual activity. From the very beginning, mathematics has been a living and growing intellectual pursuit. It has its roots in, everyday activities and forms the basic structure of our highly advanced technological, developments. It comprises intricate and delicate structures which have a strong aesthetic, appeal. It also offers opportunities for opening the mind to new lines of creative ideas and, challenging thought. Undoubtedly, the mechanism of resolving an intractable problem offers the most intense of all intellectual pleasures. At the same time, it is reputed to be, and, rightly so, the most hypothetical of all sciences. Mathematics is also considered as the, mother of all sciences. It exhibits connections between things which can be visualized only, through the agency of human reason., The word "mathematics" has been used in two distinct and different senses, i.e., one, as a method used to solve the problems of quantity, space, order, etc., and the second as a, set of laws or generalizations of truths that are discovered. Most teachers think of it as a, tool in science, commerce and industry and are not able to appreciate its nature as a way to, think and what connects its various branches into a single logical framework of proof, structure. Many questions which usually arise in the minds of teachers need to be resolved., What are the aims and purposes of teaching mathematics? What are the new methods and, new ways of thinking about mathematics? This unit gives an exposure to teachers the, importance of teaching Mathematics as one of the school subjects., , 2.5.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 2.5.3.1. Need and Importance of Mathematics in Curriculum, Mathematics curriculum is the “plan for the experiences that learners will encounter,, as well as the actual experiences they do encounter, that are designed to help them reach, specified mathematics objectives”, Need and importance of mathematics in school curriculum, Why do we need to know Mathematics? Why should we memorise so many formulae, theorems, proofs, etc? How will this information help us in our later life? What is its, importance in my life? These are some of the common questions that we can see among, those who are not interested in learning Mathematics. How far, as teachers we are able to, convince our students to appreciate the importance of Mathematics?, 'Why should we learn Mathematics?', is a valid question, and as Mathematics teachers, it is our responsibility to understand and conceptualise its importance and unique place, 121

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among other school subjects. Why do our curriculum designers place Mathematics as a, core school subject, and what is the significance of Mathematics in the overall school, curriculum?, The following values justify importance of Mathematics Curriculum., , Social Aspects, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , The routine activities of daily life demand a mastery of number of facts and, number of processes. To read with understanding much of the materials in, newspapers requires considerable mathematical vocabulary. A few such terms, are percent, discount, commission, dividend, invoice, profit and loss, wholesale and retail, taxation, etc. As civilization is becoming more complex, many, terms from the electronic media and computers are being added., Mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and, so on, are used in our daily activities. From poor to rich, all have to use Mathematics in their real lives in one or the other way., Certain decisions require sufficient skill and understanding of quantitative relations. The ability to sense problems, to formulate them specifically and to, solve them accurately requires systematic thinking., To understand many institutions and their management problem, a quantitative, viewpoint (modelling) is necessary. It is illuminating to hear from an economist, an architect, an engineer, an aviator, or a scientist what in mathematics is, helpful to them as workers., Many vocations need mathematical skills., The child should gain an appreciation of the role played by mathematics in, many fields of work. Since, scientific knowledge and technology are linked, with the progress and prosperity of a nation, we should be able to appreciate, the role of mathematics in acquiring these., Mathematics has helped in bringing together the countries of the world which, are separated from each other physically., Mathematics helped man to discover the mysteries of nature and to overcome, superstitions and ignorance., , 122

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Mathematical Aspects, ●, , ●, , ●, , Mathematics teaches us how to analyse a situation, how to come to a decision,, to check thinking and its results, to perceive relationships, to concentrate, to be, accurate and to be systematic in our work habits., Mathematics develops the ability to perform necessary computations with accuracy and reasonable speed. It also develops an understanding of the processes of measurement and of the skill needed in the use of instruments of, precision., Mathematics develops the ability to a) make dependable estimates and approximations, b) devise and use formulae, rules of procedure and methods of making comparisons, c) represent designs and spatial relations by drawings, and d), arrange numerical data systematically and to interpret information in graphic, or tabular form., , Application of Mathematics, The history of mathematics is the story of the progress of civilizations and culture., “Mathematics is the mirror of civilization”. Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations have, given a pertinent position to Mathematics. They considered it as a subject to be learnt in, order to perform daily life activities in a better way. Elementary arithmetic and algebra, were built up to solve the problems related to commerce and agriculture. They used this, knowledge generally for money exchange, simple and compound interest, computing wages,, measuring weights and lengths, determining areas of fields, etc. Since ancient times, the, subject of Mathematics has been given a pivotal position due to its utilitarian and disciplinary values. It is believed that study of Mathematics improves our mental power and reasoning ability., ●, , A country's civilization and culture is reflected in the knowledge of mathematics it possesses. Mathematics helps in the preservation, promotion and transmission of cultures. Various cultural arts like poetry, painting, drawing, and, sculpture utilise mathematical knowledge. Mathematics has aesthetic or pleasure value. Concepts like symmetry, order, similarity, form and size form the, basis of all work of art and beauty. All poetry and music utilizes mathematics., Quizzes, puzzles, and magic squares are both entertaining and challenging to, thought. Hence, the teaching of mathematics is inevitable in our schools., , 123

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Place of Mathematics curriculum in present school curriculum, It is in this context, that National Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2005), stated that, the main goal of Mathematics education in schools is the mathematisation of the child's, thought processes. Basically, it means that children should learn to think about any situation using the language of Mathematics. Further NCF argued that, for the realisation of this, vision, school Mathematics needs to recognize and try to work to achieve the following, aims of teaching Mathematics., , Check Your Progress – 1, Tick the correct answers using '✓' mark, We need to learn mathematics because__________________, a), , The routine activities of daily life demand a mastery of number of facts and, number of processes., , b), , To get status in the society, , c), , To read with understanding much of the materials in newspapers requires considerable mathematical vocabulary., , d), , To teach our children, , e), , To gain an appreciation of the role played by mathematics in many fields of, work., , f), , To be proud of ourselves, , g), , To appreciate the role of Mathematics in the development process, , h), , To learn how to analyse a situation., , 2.5.3.2. Mathematics and School Curriculum, Aims and Objectives of Mathematics Curriculum, The narrower aim of teaching Mathematics at school is to develop useful capabilities, particularly those relating to numeracy- numbers, number operations, measurements,, decimal and percentage. The broader aim is to develop the child to think and reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusions and to handle abstractions., School Mathematics curriculum should help the children learn to enjoy Mathematics. How can these visions materialise? The following objectives will help us in realising, the vision of school Mathematics curriculum:, , 124

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●, , Attain proficiency in fundamental mathematical skills;, , ●, , Comprehend basic mathematical concepts;, , ●, , Develop desirable attitudes to think, reason, analyse and articulate logically;, , ●, , ●, , ●, , Acquire efficiency in sound mathematical applications within Mathematics and, in other subject areas;, Attain confidence in making intelligent and independent interpretations; and, Appreciate the power and beauty of Mathematics for its application in science,, social sciences, humanities, arts, etc., , Principles of Formulating Mathematics Curriculum, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , Curriculum can be considered as the sum total of all the experiences gained by, a child as a result of various formal as well as informal activities at school, at, home and in the society, Basic component while designing a curriculum is nothing but the pre-determined objectives. The next aspect is the curricular activities to be provided to, the students for realising these objectives., The pedagogical approach that a teacher is going to use for organizing those, activities will decide whether the child will be able to learn the concept or not., While constructing the Mathematics curriculum we need to consider those topics, or themes, which would help children to succeed in their everyday life., Secondly child's needs, interests and capabilities should be considered as the, base for curriculum construction., The content and various activities provided in the curriculum should help the, students to understand the social and civic responsibilities., Conservation of our cultural heritage is an important aspect that needs to be, taken care of while framing curriculum., The curriculum should be framed in such a way that different types of children, can have opportunity for self-expression and development., The most modern and latest development in mathematical ideas should be included in the curriculum., , 125

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Discipline of Mathematics in present school curriculum, The sequential curriculum is followed in math across the school years., Sequence is the presentation of the material in a logical order. The sequence could be, determined…, - By increasing complexity ,, - By logic (local environment to world),, - Psychologically (begins with immediate interests and proceeds to more remote ones)., Any curriculum for mathematics must incorporate the progression from the concrete, to the abstract and subsequently a need to appreciate the importance of abstraction in mathematics., Maths Education at Primary & Upper Primary School, In the lowest classes,, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , Activities with concrete objects form the first step in the classroom to enable, the child to understand the connections between the logical functioning of their, everyday lives to that of mathematical thinking., Operations on natural numbers usually form a major part of primary mathematics syllabi., However, the standard algorithms of addition, subtraction, multiplication and, division of whole numbers in the curriculum have tended to occupy a dominant role in these. This tends to happen at the expense of development of number sense and skills of estimation and approximation., Operations should be introduced contextually. This should be followed by the, development of language and symbolic notation, with the standard algorithms, coming at the end rather than the beginning of the treatment., Making simple comparisons and classifications along one dimension at a time,, and identifying shapes and symmetries, are appropriate skills to acquire at this, stage. Encouraging children to use language to freely express one's thoughts, and emotions, rather than in predetermined ways, is extremely important at, this and at later stages., Mathematical games , puzzles and stories involving number are useful to enable children to make these connections and to build upon their everyday understandings., 126

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Math Education at Upper Primary School, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , At the upper primary stage, students start the application of powerful abstract, concepts ., Students are introduced to algebraic notation and its use in solving problems, and in generalisation, to the systematic study of space and shapes, and for consolidating their knowledge of measurement., Data handling, representation and interpretation form a significant part of the, ability of dealing with information in general, which is an essential 'life skill'., The learning at this stage also offers an opportunity to enrich students' spatial, reasoning and visualisation skills. ( Involves Set theory , Operations, Ratio &, proportion, Simple planar Geometry concepts, basic algebraic Concepts , linear equations etc.), , Math Education at Secondary School, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , At the secondary stage, students begin to perceive the structure of Mathematics, as a discipline., They become familiar with the characteristics of mathematical communication, carefully defined terms and concepts, the use of symbols to represent, them, precisely stated propositions, and proofs justifying propositions., Topics covered – Concept of IR and R numbers and their operations, Exponential numbers, Quadratic equations, Simultaneous equations ,Theorems on elements of a circle / quadrilaterals , Mensuration , Logarithms ,Trignometry etc., At this stage, students integrate the many concepts and skills that they have, learnt into a problem-solving ability., Mathematical modelling, data analysis and interpretation taught at this stage, can consolidate a high level of mathematical literacy., Individual and group exploration of connections and patterns, visualisation and, generalisation, and making and proving conjectures are important at this stage,, and can be encouraged through the use of appropriate tools that include concrete models as in Mathematics laboratories and computers., , Math Education at Higher Secondary School, ●, , The aim of the Mathematics curriculum at the higher secondary stage is to, provide students with an appreciation of the wide variety of the application of, Mathematics, and equip them with the basic tools that enable such application., 127

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●, , ●, , A careful choice between the often conflicting demands of depth versus breadth, needs to be made at this stage., Topics – Sequences/ Series, Aritmetic /Geometric Progression, Calculus, Higher, algebra, Co-ordinate geometry, Conics (2d Geometry) , Trignometry etc., , Issues and challenges in teaching the discipline of Mathematics, Position Paper of National Focus Group on Mathematics identifies some issues with, reference to teaching of Mathematics:, a), , A sense of fear and failure regarding mathematics among a majority of children,, , b), , A curriculum that disappoints both a talented minority as well as the non-participating majority at the same time,, , c), , Crude methods of assessment that encourage perception of mathematics as, mechanical computation,, , d), , Lack of teacher preparation and support in the teaching of mathematics., , e), , Compartmentalisation: there is very little systematic communication between, primary school and high school teachers of mathematics, and none at all between high school and college teachers of mathematics, , f), , Systemic problems further aggravate the situation, in the sense that structures, of social discrimination get reflected in mathematics education as well. Especially worth mentioning in this regard is the gender dimension, leading to a, stereotype that boys are better at mathematics than girls., , Role of Mathematics with reference to sustainable development and, Health, ●, , Mathematical models are used to predict environmental changes. Statistics provides invaluable data to Governments to draw up health care programs, , ●, , Risk factors for diseases are estimated through the use of mathematics, , ●, , Modeling is important in a range of areas such as:, ✓ preparing for flu outbreak, ✓ modelling the impact of an epidemic, ✓ Predicting health needs of the future, ✓ Certain Computational models use gene expression data to diagnose and, treat diseases., , 128

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Factors Affecting Change in Mathematics Curriculum, Educators are aware that changes have taken place in school mathematics in the past, two to three decades. These changes have brought about a near revolution in the content,, methods and instruction of mathematics., , Reasons for changes, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , The rapid advance of knowledge in mathematics makes increasingly greater, demand on an enlightened citizenry., The need for more effective articulation from one grade to the next and from, elementary to secondary school., The recognition that the traditional mathematics programme, limited mainly to, emphasis on computational skills and divided into traditional compartments, viz. arithmetic, algebra and geometry, is somewhat lacking in a few fascinating, and interesting aspects of mathematics., The need for a better understanding of the structure of mathematics and the, mathematical process, its language and methods of proof., The need for the utilization of more effective media (technology and aids) for, adapting mathematics learning to the needs of different abilities., , Modern Trends or New emphasis in Mathematics Curriculum:, The following changes have taken place in recent years:, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , Concern for the child as an individual and as a learner caused educators to, question, the grade placement of certain topics in elementary school mathematics., A change in emphasis to a more generalized language, formulation of laws and, of Mathematics in integrating algebraic processes in computational work., The drill method of teaching was replaced with methods emphasizing "meaning" and explaining the "whys" of the processes as related to computational, procedures., Psychologists emphasized the relatedness of learning and explored the process, of learning pertinent to the development of fundamental mathematical ideas., They found that there are levels, that is,, , 129

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(a), , the level of the concrete or the world of things;, , (b) the level of the semi concrete where experiences are internalized and fit together;, (c), , the symbolic level where abstractions and generalizations are formulated;, , (d), , the level of applications where the generalizations are tested and applied to, situations., , This led them to conclude that certain topics should be introduced much earlier than, was formerly believed., ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , Bruner's hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development led to an explosion, of new methods based on discovery and problem-solving., The study of geometry was expanded far beyond Euclid's elements. The basics, of transformations, vectors and coordinate geometry were included. In algebra, emphasis has now been given to equations by broadening the base to include, ideas such as mathematical sentences, replacement set and solution set. Generalizations, of the properties of the real number system and the introduction of, the algebra of sets, groups, etc., provided an expansion of mathematical ideas, in both depth and breadth. Basic concepts such as function, variable, relations,, etc., gained greater importance., The use of computers has further enriched the content and practices in, mathematics education in schools., Subject-Centred Approach: This approach to curriculum lays more emphasis, on content in comparison to learners and teaching process. Teachers' role is, very crucial who are expected to transact the curriculum with a view to help, students to learn different subjects., Behaviourist Approach: In this approach, the development of curriculum starts, with a plan, called blueprint. Blue print consists of goals and objectives of, learning of the particular subject. This approach suggests that teacher should, disseminate information in a sequential way and demonstrate how to solve a, problem, how to derive a formula, and how to construct a shape, followed by, independent practice by students. The role of students in this approach is to, repeat what teacher transacted in the classroom., Constructivist Approach: It is based on the premise that whenever a child encounters a new experience, he/she can either easily connect it with the existing, 130

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knowledge or can make some changes in the existing knowledge to accommodate the new experience., ●, , ●, , Learner-Centred Curriculum: In this approach, the needs and interest of learners are paramount. The role of student will be that of an active participant in, the learning process, and therefore, it necessitates that the teacher should know, well each child. Learner centred curriculum will definitely help the child to, enjoy Mathematics, to make him realize its beauty, and to remove the fear of, difficulty of the subject. Another benefit of this curriculum is its flexibility., The new development and thinking in the area of Mathematics can be included, at any time through the modification of the curriculum., Activity-Centred Curriculum: This is also very similar to learner centred curriculum. The role of the learner is very important and should be very active., This is based on the premise that child loves to play and activity will help to, create motivation. When curricular material is presented in terms of activity, it, is known as activity centred curriculum. Learning of the prescribed material, included in the curriculum takes place through appropriate activities., , Check Your Progress-2, 1., , The aim of the Mathematics curriculum at the higher secondary stage is, ____________, a) To provide wide variety of the application of Mathematics, b) To provide wide variety of the solicitation of Mathematics, c) To provide wide variety of the assessment of Mathematics, d) None of these, , 2., , The approach that makes changes in the existing knowledge to accommodate, the new experience is ____________, a) Constructivist Approach, b) Learner-Centred Curriculum, c) Behaviourist Approach, d) None of these, , 3., , Mathematical models are used to ____________, a) predict environmental changes, b) forecast conservational changes, 131

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c) expect recyclable changes, d) None of these, , 2.5.4. Let Us Summarise, ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , ●, , Learning of Mathematics helps in daily life of an individual., Mathematics should be considered as a core subject area in school curriculum, due to its wide applications., As per National Curriculum Framework (2005), mathematisation of the mind, of the child will be the vision of school Mathematics., The narrower aim of teaching school Mathematics is to develop useful capabilities, particularly those relating to numeracy- numbers, its operations, measurements, decimals and percentages., The higher aim is to develop the child's resources to think and reason mathematically, to pursue assumptions to their logical conclusions and to handle, abstractions., In order to fulfil the vision of mathematisation, curriculum should be constructed based on measurable and attainable objectives., While developing Mathematics curriculum with a vision of mathematisation,, curriculum designers should keep in mind some basic principles of curriculum, development., Some of the curricular concerns like teacher preparation, pedagogical- Mathematics approaches, student assessment, etc, needs to be taken care of, while, developing the curriculum., Appropriate topics need to be included in Mathematics curriculum at various, stages of school education., Shift from subject-centred curriculum to constructivist approaches like learnercentred and activity-centred curriculum and their benefits., , 2.5.5 Answers to 'Check Your Progress' 1 and 2, Check Your Progress – 1, a,c,e,g,h - ‘✓’, , 132

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Check Your Progress'-2, 1-a, 2-a, 3-a, , 2.5.6. Unit - end Exercises, 1., , List the uses of mathematics in other areas: social studies; the sciences; art;, music; health and physical education., , 2., , Analyse a textbook of mathematics and find out if the branches of mathematics, are genuinely integrated., , 3., , Prepare a report on the Modern Trends in School Mathematics Curriculum at, the Global level., , 2.5.7. References, 1, 2, , http://www.ncert.nic.in/rightside/links/focus_group.html, http://www.ncert.nic.in/new_ncert/ncert/rightside/links/pdf/focus_group/, math.pdf, , 3, , http://www.ncert.nic.in/html/pdf/ncf_qna.pdf, , 4, , http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp? DocumentID=52, &ArticleID=85&l=en, , 5, , Marsh. C.J (2009) 4th Education Key Concepts for Understanding Curriculum, Routledge Publications, , 6, , NCERT, (1988), Guidelines and Syllabi for Secondary Stage (Class IX, X),, New Delhi: NCERT., , 7, , New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching, Vol.1, UNESCO.1969-70., , 8, , Chambers Paul (2010). Teaching Mathematics- Developing as a Reflective, Secondary Teacher, Sage South Asia Ed, New Delhi, , 9, , Hansen Alice and Vaukins Diane (2012). Primary Mathematics across the, Curriculum, Sage Publication India Pvt-Ltd, New Delhi, , 10 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000). Principles and Standards, for school Mathematics. Reston V A, NCTM, 11 NCERT( 2019). Textbooks for Classes IX and X, NCERT, New Delhi, 12 NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework, 2005, NCERT, New Delhi, 13 NCERT (2005). Position Paper National Focus Group on Teaching of, Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi, 14 NCERT (2012). Pedagogy of Mathematics, Textbook for Two Year B.Ed, Course, NCERT, New Delhi, **************, , 133

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Block - 2 : Classification and Teaching Across, Disciplines, Unit - 6 : Social Justice and School Subjects, Unit Structure, 2.6.1., , Learning Objectives, , 2.6.2., , Introduction, , 2.6. 3., , Learning Points and Learning Activities, , 2.6.3.1., , Concept of Social Justice and Social Justice Culture within School Set up, ‘Check Your Progress’- 1, , 2.6.3.2. School Subjects and Social Justice, ‘Check Your Progress’- 2, 2.6.4., , Let us Summarise, , 2.6.5., , Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’ - 1 and 2, , 2 2.6., , Unit-end Exercises, , 2.6.7., , References, , 2.6.1. Learning Objectives, After completing this Unit, the student teachers will be able to, •, , Explain the concept of Social Justice;, , •, , Describe the type of culture to be formed in school to develop the attitude and, practices of Social Justice in Schools; and, , •, , Explain how the attitude of Social Justice can be developed while teaching, different school subjects., , 2.6.2. Introduction, We all know that schools set higher goals to achieve rather than just teaching a few, subjects and helping students to get marks in the examination. This is mainly related to, developing desirable values and attitude among students that are needed for the development, of individual and society. One of the important values that need to be focused in the process, of schooling is the value of social justice. The development of social justice will help to, 134

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form a truly democratic citizens who contribute to a large extent for the success of democracy., Hence, in the present Unit, let us discuss what is meant by social justice and how the, attitude of social justice can be developed through schools in general and subjects in, particular, , 2.6.3. Learning Points and Learning Activities, 2.6.3.1. Concept of Social Justice and Social Justice Culture within School, Set up, Social justice, if needs to be realised in society should start from our classrooms., Therefore, social justice education should be part and parcel of our school set up. It is, concerned with achieving equitable and quality education for all students., As experts in the field suggest, it is both a process and a goal. The goal of social, justice education is full and equal participation of all groups in society that is mutually, shaped to meet their needs., Social justice includes a vision of society in which the distribution of resources is, equitable and all members are physically and psychologically safe and secure. It is a sort of, society in which individuals are both self-determining and interdependent., In the school situation social justice should be viewed at two levels: one at the school, level, where in social justice is maintained by the teachers and students together and the, value of social justice is thus practiced. Second, to develop the thinking and behaviour of, students in such a way that they are able to maintain social justice culture in the society in, which they live., Historically, classrooms have been the stage for social change, providing a venue to, promote and accelerate new ideas. In addition to academic instruction, one of the important, roles of a classroom teacher is to help students develop the critical thinking, collaboration,, and self-reflection skills necessary to foster a better society., Social justice doesn’t manifest in a singular fashion, nor is it achieved through a, specific means of instruction. Students who focus on this concept and develop related, attitude and values, use critical examination of themselves, others, institutions and events, to find patterns of inequality, discrimination, then explore possible solutions to the problems, they have identified. Social justice advocates hope to build a society in which individuals, have equal access to resources and receive equitable treatment regardless of their race,, gender, religion, sexuality, income level or disability., Enabling conversations about these issues empowers students to voice their concern, and question unjust situations in their lives or in the lives of those around them. To help, students examine systemic inequality, teachers can have them consider questions such as:, 135

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• Who makes decisions and who is left out?, • Who benefits and who suffers?, • Why is a given practice fair or unfair?, • What is required to create change?, • What alternatives can we imagine?, Through answering these questions, students can start to recognize injustice existing, at the micro and macro levels., Experts have suggested that we need to ‘rethink of our classrooms’ because they are, not taking into consideration the abilities required to deal with the social and personal, situation in ‘just’ ways. Our Classrooms, in reality can help teachers and students gain, indications of the types of society we live in and prepare students to develop critical thinking, abilities to deal with it., In order to develop the attitude of social justice among students, we need to have a, special set up in our schools/classrooms. The following practices contribute to build up, such an environment., •, , The classroom should be a safe and encouraging place for students where they, can express their experiences, beliefs, opinions and suggestions. The teacher, should create space for students to feel free to say what they intend to say., , •, , A community of conscience need to be developed within the classroom. What, is this community of conscience? It is a group working together based on a ‘a, set of moral principles. Social justice should be the base to set the norms within, this community also. This leads to fairness within classroom behaviour., , •, , Productive conversations can be created by teaching students to share their, ideas and respond to the ideas of others in a way that allows for disagreement, but still values the student’s perspective., , •, , Teachers can model questions and answers that illustrate ways to thoughtful, conversation rather than making students feel bad or devalued by their, classmates. By providing model responses, teachers can illustrate to students, how a good response helps to enrich a conversation whereas some responses, can shut discussions down., , •, , Helping students see each other as co-learners rather than opponents. They, should view their classmates as academic siblings rather than as competitors., , 136

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•, , Attempts should be made to interact with every student and the views of every, student should be respectfully accepted and acknowledged., , •, , Teachers can also strengthen the classroom community through learning, experiences that draw upon the diverse backgrounds of their students. The, diverse background should be utilised as a resource in the classroom. This, helps the students with diverse background to understand better, at the same, time enriching the information of students who are from different backgrounds., , •, , The messages from the materials from text books, resource books should not, be presented as they are, but should be analysed in front of students from the, point of view of social justice. For example, most of the times teachers complete, the lesson just by saying that ‘there were four varnas in Indian society namely,, bramhanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras’, but never make a comment on, the injustice made for some of these groups by the upper strata of the society., , •, , Correlate the teaching points with the current issues. For example, while teaching, about some event of the past, correlate with the present situation so that the, students compare and see to what extent there was justice in the past and to, what extent the situation has improved. While teaching about varnas, teacher, can relate with the present situation, where our society is in transition as far as, this point is concerned, changing from the caste system to class system., , •, , Give opportunities for self-reflection. At times, teachers can ask students to, reflect on their behaviour and find out to what extent they are contributing or, not contributing for social justice. The teacher can provide a three point or five, point rating scale for students to rate their behaviour., , •, , Teachers can motivate students to critically analyse the information/ news, available from print media, television and social media and discuss from the, point of social justice., , Social justice can’t be taught in one easy lesson. It is a value that gets integrated into, the teaching philosophies and actions of teachers. By helping students feel safe and, encouraged, teachers can help students start asking the right questions and then participate, in ways that are purposeful and productive., , Check Your Progress - 1, Answer the following questions to understand the extent you promote the culture, of social justice in your school., , 137

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1., , What is happening at your school to address social justice issues as a learning, community?, , 2., , What are you doing in your classroom to examine social justice issues?, , 3., , How might your school implement specific practices to address social justice, as an institution?, , 2.6.3.2. School Subjects and Social Justice, you are teaching one or two subjects in your school. You have understood the concept, of social justice. Think of some topics which you think have scope to develop awareness, and commitment for social justice among students., Below are given some topics. Identify the topics that are more conducive to develop, awareness and commitment for social justice than others., •, , Types of democracy, , •, , Administration of Akbar, , •, , Properties of acids, , •, , Water resources, , •, , Social challenges of India, , •, , Economic challenges of India, , •, , Ration and Proportion, , •, , Simple interest, , •, , Compound interest., , It is interesting that school subjects can be very well utilised to develop awareness, among number of issues like gender related issues, population related issues etc. School, subjects prove to be very effective to teach social justice also. With such applications teaching, of school subject become more meaningful and creative for both students and teachers., This demands a teacher who is resourceful, creative and innovative. A systematic and focused, planning will certainly help to develop the awareness, attitudes and values required to, achieve social justice., As mentioned earlier, the schools should practice social justice within their system., The practices, rules and regulations of school should be formed based on the principles of, social justice. Once students observe social justice within the system, they will realise its, meaning and get prepared to practise the same in the larger society., 138

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The teaching of curricular subjects should be planned in such a way that they reinforce, the attitude towards social justice which they have already observed in the school system., Subjects like math, science, social science, languages have ample scope to promote the, value of social justice. Some topics lend themselves to teach social justice., Let us take the examples of math classes. Topics like simple interest, compound, interest can be related to a larger context, it is, the community in which the students live., The teacher can give a problem where a land lord lends money to the poor farmers with, very high rate of interest, and calculates compound interest for the same. The students can, be asked to solve the problem based on this situation wherein they are supposed to calculate, the amount to be returned by the farmer, based on compound interest. After they finish, solving, the same problem can be extended to the community. The teacher can ask the, students, “do you see people taking loans with interest, as we saw in the problem just, now?” . If so, what will be the consequences? This situation can be used to teach about, social justice. Below are given the themes, focal points from the point of view of the subject,, focal point from the point of view of teaching social justice. Observe them. The teacher, should successfully lead the discussion to achieve the goal., Mathematics, Content/ Theme, , Task, , Issues/points for, discussion from, subject point of, view, , Compound, Interest, , A land lord gave a loan, of Rs at a rate of 20, percent compound, interest per year. What, is the total amount to, be given by the farmer, to the land lord after 3, years, , What is the total, amount to be given, by the farmer to the, land lord after 3, years, , Ratio and, proportion, , In a farm the daily, wages for men is Rs, 300 and women Rs, 200. If three men and, 5 women work for 5, days what is the total, amount to be paid to, the workers. Find the, ratio of wages for men, and women., , Find the ratio of, wages for men and, women., , Issues for discussion from the, point of view of, social justice, How just it is to, lend money at the, rate of 20%, interest? Is it really, happening in our, society?, , Does this type of, discrimination, exist in our, society? What, measures, are, required, to, overcome this, discrimination?, 139

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Science, Content/ Theme, , Balanced Diet, , Task, , Issues/points for, discussion from, subject point of, , Issues for discussion from the, point of view of, , Collect information Collect information, about Balanced Diet. about Balanced Diet., Explain the meaning, of Balanced Diet., , What proportion of, people can afford to, have balanced diet, every day., , Collect information, about the meaning, and, status, of, adulteration, in, India.Collect, information about, the, cases, of, adulteration in urban, and rural areas., , What are the reasons, for the current, status? How to, overcome them?, , Collect information Explain the concept, about the cases of of adulteration with, adulteration in urban examples, and rural areas., , Why do more poor, people suffer from, the effects of, , Collect information, about the meaning and, status of adulteration, in India., , Social Science, Content/ Theme, , Illiteracy, , Dowry, , Task, , Issues/points for, discussion from, subject point of, , Issues for discussion from the, point of view of, , Collect information, about meaning, causes, of illiteracy and collect, data about the rate of, illiteracy in India today, and the causes for the, same., , Explain the, meaning of, illiteracy and its, causes., , Why is it that the, poor among masses, form a bigger group, of illiterates than the, middle and higher, middle class? Is it, just and appropriate?, , Collect information, about the status of, dowry system in, Karnataka, , Explain the, reasons for dowry, system in, Karnataka, , What, is, the, relationship between, dowry and social, justice?, 140

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Languages:, Language has more scope than any other subject to teach social justice. Activities, like quiz, essay writing, story writing, story analysis, poem analysis, analysis of proverbs,, panel discussions, enacting plays etc can be successfully used to develop social justice., Not all topics under each subject, lend themselves to teach social justice. It is also, true that social justice cannot be taught in a manner that is not natural. Such attempts will, not take us to reach the goal. A realistic, creative planning, with committed attempts of the, teacher along with supportive ambience of the school will prove successful to achieve the, goals of social justice., , Check Your Progress -2:, Take a topic of your choice and plan a lesson to achieve the goal of developing the, attitude of social justice among students., , 2.6.4. Let Us Summarise, •, , Social justice includes a vision of society in which the distribution of resources, is equitable and all members are physically and psychologically safe and secure., , •, , In the school situation social justice should be viewed at two levels: one at the, school level, where in social justice is maintained by the teachers and students, together and the value of social justice is thus practiced. Second, to develop the, thinking and behaviour of students in such a way that they are able to maintain, social justice culture in the society in which they live., , •, , Social justice advocates hope to build a society in which individuals have equal, access to resources and receive equitable treatment regardless of their race,, gender, religion, sexuality, income level or disability., , •, , Social justice can be developed through school practices in general and while, teaching different school subjects, following different strategies. These strategies, and activities are to be planned identifying appropriate plug points in each, subject., , 2.6.5. Answer to Check Your Progress – 1 and 2, Check Your Progress - 1, Share your ideas with your colleagues, , 141

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Check Your Progress -2:, Execute the plan and document your experiences. Share your experiences with your, colleagues. Prepare a collection of such plans and share with your colleagues., , 2.6.6. Unit end Exercises, 1., , Explain the importance of developing the attitude of social justice in schools, and describe how you can achieve them., , 2., , Illustrate how you can develop social justice while teaching different school, subjects., , 2.6.7. References, 1., , https://www.edutopia.org/blog/social-justice-whole-school-approach-jeanineharmon, , 2., , https://rrr.edu.au/unit/module-1/topic-3/social-justice/, , 3., , https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/teaching-socialjustice, , *************, , 142