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Linux Operating System, and Basics, , , , , , , , , History, GNU Info and Utilities, Various Linux Distributions, The Unix/Linux architecture, Features of Unix/Linux, Starting the, , shell, Shell prompt, Command structure, File Systems and Directory Structure, man pages, more documentation pages., , , , 1.1 History, , ¢ In 1984, Richard Stallman’s Free Software Foundation (FSF) started the GNU (GNU’s NOT UNIX) project to, develop a Unix-compatible operating system called GNU. Its intention was to make the software free., , ¢ Developers contributed many programs and utilities around the world and by 1991 most of components were, ready., , ¢ Kernel is the heart of an operating system was missing in this project., , ¢ In 1991, Linus Torvalds a Finnish student started writing his own free operating system kernel., , He started with the development of device drivers and hard-drive access. By September a basic design was made, , which he called version 0.01., , e Development was done on MINIX using GNU C Compiler., , This kernel afterwards combined with the GNU system to produce complete free operating system. As Stallman’s, concept of free means software that could be freely read, used, modified and redistributed., , On October 5‘ 1991, Torvalds posted the release of version 0.02 to the comp.os.minix newsgroup., , Further numbers of volunteers communicating over the Internet were increased and kernel was rapidly, improved by Torvalds and by December its functional standalone Linux system was released as version 0.11., , © On January 5t 1992 version 0.12, an improved and stable kernel was released., Torvalds published version 0.11 under a freeware license of his own invention, further released the version 0.12, , under the GNU’s (General Public License)., , , , 1.1.1 Community, © The largest part of the work on Linux is performed by the community i.e. thousands of programmers use Linux, , and suggest the developments to the maintainers., The Linux community is an ecosystem which consists of developers, system administrators, users and vendors,, , who use different forums to connect with one another,, , For Example,, , 1. Linux User Groups.

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¥ Linux Operating System (MU_B.Sc.), Internet Relay Chat (IRC) software., , Linux Operating System ang ba, Sley, , Online forums and discussion boards., , 2., , 3., , 4, Newsgroups and mailing list., 5., , Community events., , 1.1.2. Terms, , Understanding Linux operating sys, , °, , Sr.No. Name, , Most popular user community is L!, active on news, tutorials, user tips etc., , er one million unique visitors every month and, s, , inux.com which serves Ov!, , some basic terms which are frequently used such as,, , tem there are, Function, , the hardware of a computer. It’s, , , , 1 Kernel, , It connects the application software to, the central core of a computer operating system which controls, ct with application., , hardware and make the hardware intera, , For e.g. : Linux Kernel, , , , , , 2 Distribution, , It’s a collection of application which is combined to make an operating, , system., For e.g.: Ubuntu, , , , 3 Boot loader, , It’s a program that puts the operating system into memory., , For eg. : ISOLINUX, , , , 4 Service, , It’s a program that runs on background process., , For e.g. : http, ftpd, , , , , , , , 5 File System, , It’s a method for storing and organizing of files., For e.g. : ext3 (3"4 Extended file system), FAT ( File Allocation Table), , , , It provides GUI ( Graphical User Interface)on top of the operating, , , , 6 Desktop, Environment system., For e.g. : GNOME (GNU Network Object Model Environment), 7 Command Line It’s an interface for typing commands on top of operating system., , , , , , , Shell, , , , , , , , It interprets the command line input and instructs operating system to, perform tasks and commands., , , , For e.g.: bash

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1.2.2 Utilities, , ¥ Linux Operating System (MU_B.Sc.), , e Itreads documentation in the info format., , 1-3, , tools and can link with other pages, create menus and ease navigation in general., , documents., , Linux Operating System and Basics, , info is like man, wii ratte, in! ith a more robust structure for linking pages together. Info pages are made using the text info, , e programs don’, Some programs don’t have man pages or have very incomplete man pages and store their documentation as info, , To view these, you will have to use the info command instead of the man command. That's info tar instead, , of man tar., , , , , , , , , , , [NAME, , , , , , , , , , , , , "EON, [jile: *manpages*,, , TAR(1), TAR(1), , ISYNOPSIS, , wr [-] A --catenate --concatenate | c --create | d --diff --co, mpare, , Info. (*manpage, , , , , , , Node: tar, Up: (dir), , BSD General Commands Manual, , --delete | r --append | t --list | --test-Label | u --updat, , , , Shea, , tar — The GNU version of the tar archiving utility, , — Bee ene ee ee, jo ‘Prev’ or ‘Up' for this node within this document., , Utilities - provide the user most of the functionalities of an operating systems., , Following commands include various ne!, , which can help users to enhance their productivity,, , work monitoring, system auditing or some another random commands, , , , w, , Display who is logged into the, system and what process executed, by them., , $w, , , , , , nmon, , Nmon or nigel’s monitor is a tool, which displays —_ performance, information of the system., , $ sudo apt-get install nmon, , nmon can dump information related to netwrok,, , cpu, memory or disk uses., , $nmon, , , , , , ncdu, , , , , , A Command utility is a cursor, based version of ‘du’, this, command is used to analyze disk, space occupied by various, directories., , , , $apt-get install ncdu, , '$ncdu /, , , , , , , , , , SF Techknowiedgs, , ountie ations

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Linux Operating System and, , , , , , , , , , $ apt-ge!, , , , d line utility used for, rk interface, , it will | example, $ slurm -{ <interface>, , , , slurm A comman, command based netwo!, , bandwidth monitoring,, display ascii based graphic., , $slurm -i eth1, , options, , Press Ito display Ix/tx led., press cto switch to classic mode., , press r to refresh screen., , press q to quit., , , , findmnt —_ | Find mnt command is used to find | $findmnt, , mount file systems. It is used to list, mount devices and can also mount Example, , or unmount devices as and when To get output in list format., required, it comes as a part of, , util-linux. $ findmnt -I, , , , , , , , , , 1.3 Various Linux Distributions, , * — Linux users usually obtain their operating system by downloading distributions, which are available for a wide, , variety of systems such as embedded systems, personal computer, supercomputers., ’ A typical Linux distribution contains Linux Kernel, GNU tools and libraries, additional software, documentation, , and desktop environment., The family and representative distribution are :, , , , , , , , , , , , Other Distributions, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , RHEL, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Open, SUSE, , , , Fig. 1.3.1, , , , , , , , nee atlar®

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¥E Linux Operating System (MU_B.Sc.) 1-5 Linux Operating System and Basics, , , , 4. Debian Family System, ¢ The Debian distribution is upstream for several other distributions including Ubuntu and its upstream for, Linux Mint and others., ¢ Commonly used on servers and desktop computer., « Open source project which provides stability., e Ubuntu is widely used for cloud deployments., * Linux Mint, a distribution based on and compatible with Ubuntu. Supports multiple desktop environments., , 2. SUSE Family System, , ¢ SUSE Linux Enterprise Server is upstream for open SUSE., e Linux Kernel 3.11 used in open SUSE 12.3., ¢ — Includes YaST (Yet another System Tool) application for system administration purpose., , « SUSE Family System used in retail sectors., , S, , Fedora Family System, , e Fedora family is upstream for CentOS, RHEL and Oracle Linux, e RHELused by enterprises which host their own systems., e Fedora contains more software than Red Hat’s enterprise version because it’s a diverse community used to, , build Fedora., 4. Mandriva Family System, , « It is also known as mandrake earlier was one of the great user-friendly Linux distributions now has, , business Linux server projects only., PC Linux OS, a derivative of Mandriva, which grew from a group of packages into a community-spawned, , desktop distribution., , ¢ ROSA Linux, another former derivative of Mandriva, now developed independently., , 5. Slackware Family system, , Itis highly customizable distribution that stresses ease of maintenance and reliability. Generally considered, a distribution for advanced users, it is often suggested to those who want to learn the inner workings of a, , Linux operating system., , 1.3.1. Linux Kernel vs Distribution, , , , , , , , , , , , Table 1.3.1, Sr. No. Linux Kernel Distribution, 1. Kernel manages input, output, memory Kernel is bundled with bunch of useful utilities and, and processing but it useless by itself. interfaces called as distribution., 2. For e.g., Linux Kernel For e.g., Ubuntu distribution, 3. Linux is just the kernel which comes just | Ubuntu is an operating system which is built over the, above the hardware kernel., , , , , , , , , , Se TorhKnomlodas