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UNIT 6, , THOMAS HOBBIES, , Structure, 6.1, , 6.2, 6.3, , 6.4, , 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, , Introductiol~, Life and Times, The State of Nature and Natural Rights, Laws of Nature and the Covenant ., The Covenallt and the Creation of the Sovereign, Rights and Duties of the Sovereign, The Church and the State, Civil Law and Natural Law, Col~clusion, , 6.10 Summary, 6.11 Exercises, , 6, , INTRODUCTION, , Thomas Hobbes is one of the most colourful, colltroversial and important figures in the I~istory, of western political thought. In his life-time he was almost unanimously denounced for his, alleged atheism, blasphelny and impiety and was known as the Monster of Malmesbury. He, was clespised by the parliamentarians whom he opposed and suspected by the'royalists whom, he purported to support, because his ideas were quite out of step both with the parliamentarians', theory of popular representation and the Stuart theory of political legitimation based on the, Divine Right of Kings. His status as a great philosopher and political thinker was not fully, recognised until the 19th Century. The philosophical radicalisin of the English utilitarians and, the scientific rationalism of the Frcnch Encyclopaedists incorporated in a large measure Hobbes', mecllanical materialism, his nominalism, radical individualism and psychological egoism., Emphasising his influe~lceon the utilitarian thought, Sir Frederick Pollock picturesquely remarks, that the for~nulaof the greatest good of the greatest number was made as a hook to be put in, the nostrils of Leviathan so that it could be tamed and harnessed to the chariot of utility. By, the mid-20th Century Hobbes was acclaimed as "probably the greatest writer on political, produced (Sabine: 1963, 457). According to, philosophy that tile English speaking people 11~tt:, Michael Oakeshott: "The Leviuthan is the greatest, perhaps the sole, masterpiece of political, pl-~ilosophyin the English language" (1960, viii)., Hobbes is now generally regarded as the father of modern political science. It is he who for, the first time systematically expounded the absolutist theory of sovereignty and originated the, positivist theory of law which was perfected by the analytical jurists of the 19th and 20th, centuries. Though he was by no means a liberal, modern.commentators (Oakeshott: 1960, vii,, Gauthier: 1969, 144) believe that "his political doctrine has greater affinities wit11 the liberalism, of the 20th Century than his authoritarian theory would initially suggest" (Gauthier). From the, Marxist point of view (Macpherson : 1962) Hobbes' tlieoly is seen to reflect the political, ideology of the incipient capitalist market society characterised by the doctrine of "possessive, individualism" and the ethic of cut-throat colnpetition and self-aggrandisement. Karl Marx, himself is said to have remarked that "Hobbes was the father of us all." And it is the measure, , .I, , ,

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of the richness and s~~ggestiveness, of Hobbes' system of ideas that it is supposed to imply, or, assume, one of the most sophisticated modern metliodological tools of mathematical analysis, for an adequate explanation of social phenomenon. John Rawls thinks that Hobbes' state of, nature is the classic exa~npleof tlie "prisoner's dilemma" of game-tlieoretic analysis (1971 :, 269) and wrjters like Hampton (1986)' Kavka (1986) and Gauthier (1969) have examined, Hobbes' theory in the light of tlie above remark, though a full-fledged application of the, prisoner's dilenilna analysis to Hobbes' theory of the state of nature has hardly been successfillly, attempted or acliieved, because Hobbes' tlieory is perhaps not amenable to that kind of analytical, treatment., From a broad philosophical perspective tlie importance of Hobbes is perhaps i11 his bold and, almost systeniatic attempt to assi~nilatetlie science of man and civil society to a thoroughly, modern, mathematical physical science corresponding to a completely mecl~anisticconception, of nature. His psyclio1ogical egoism, his ethical relativism and his political absolutisn~are all, supposed to follow logically from the assumptions or principles underlying the physical world, wl~icliprimarily consists of inatter and motion, or rather matter in tilotion. Whether a straight, way progress from geometry to physics and then from physics to politics, psycllology and, ethics, is possible is another matter. It is, however mainly a deductive syste~nderived from, materialistic premises that Hobbes understood his pl~ilosopl~icalenterprise and this is Ilow, generations of Hobbes scliolars have interpreted him ever since., , I, , ., , ., , Here it is pertinent to make two observations. First, it should not be understood that Hobbes, is the precursor of the modern empirical science of politics and sociology w11ich regards the, methods of physical science as the proper model for political in the Mill's sense (Oakeshott;, 1960, XXIII). Hobbes was strongly opposed to Bacon's et~~pirical, and experimental method., His own metliod was deductive atid geonietrical througli and througl~.It was the resolutivecornpositive method as developed in the scliool of Padua and followed by Galileo and other, natural scientists. The second point to note is that in spite of Hobbes' claitn about tlie unity of, his thought and its foundation in scientific materialism, modern scholars have neither eildorsed, the supposed unity of his philosophy nor acdcpted the scientific basis of his ethical and politicnl, theory. Leo Strauss, taking a cue from Croom Roberts011(1886) and also relying on 1-Iobbes', own observation that a knowledge of natural philosophy is not a necessary precondition for, understanding his views 011 politics, argued that 1iis political tlieory was pre-scieritific alld was, based 011 'hurtianist 'premises. According to Michael Oakeshott, the basis of Hobbes' politics, was not scientific lnaterialistn but p1iilosopliic rationalism, not a specific view of the nature of, the world, but a paaicular notion of philosophical knowledge. This line of lliought culminated, in the famous Taylor-Warrender thesis which completely separated Hobbes' mechatiistic, psychology fro111 his 'deontological' ethics. While Taylor found in Hobbes a proto-Kantian, philosopher of duty for duty's sake (1938), Warrender placecl Nobbes squarely in the Natural, Law tradition based on theistic metapl~ysics,deriving the obligatory force of law from Divine, Command (1958), F.C. Hood likewise argued for tlie Divine Politics of Hobbes (1964). There, is a lot of textual evidence to support the tlleorics of Taylor, Warrender and I-Iood. The point,, however, is whether it is reasonable to jettison Hobbes' psychological egoism which is an, important element of his theory, in orcler to make I-Iobbes a consistent deontologist as depicted, by these writers. Are we justified in making I-IobPes more consistent than Ile really was and in, this process ignorit~gthe historical and contextual basis of his writings? Quentin Skinner has, forcefully argued that none of I-Iobbes' conteiiiporaries understood Idobbes as grounding, political obligation on tlie prior obligation to obey the command of God and that this is a, conclusive proof tliat the Taylor-Warrender-Hood interpretation is erroneous and a misleading, extrapolatioll.

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A review of existing critical literature and a close textual analysis of Hobbes' writings show, that it is not possible to reconcile these conflicting interpretations and neatly fit them into a, coherent pliilosophical system. But logical consistency is not the sole mark of a philosopher's, greatness. The profound ricliness of the intellectual content of a pliilosophy may be a vibrant, source of inspiration opening different avenues of thought and it may far outweigh the lack of, logical rigour and formal consistency. It is a true measure of Hobbes' greatness as a thinker that, so many important and suggestive ideas and perspectives of thought are adumbrated and found, interwoven in his comprehensive, though cornplex and multi-faceted system of philosophy. It, is true that Hobbes' extremely pessimistic and unedifying view of human nature is not only, highly distorted and exaggerated but incompatible with the very idea of a civil society. But it, is also a fact that, as one perceptive writer puts it, such a lurid and extreme possible picture, of the hulnan condition appears, to be "a magnificent incarnation of an eternally recurrent for111, .., of error . . . that in some time and places looks disconcertingly like the truth" (Anthony, Quinton; 1982 : 153)., , 6.2, , I, , i, , ', , LIFE AND, , TIMES, , ~ o b b i swas prematurely born in 1588 in Westport near tlie small town of Malmesbu~yin, England at a time when the country was threatened by the impending attack of the Spanish, Armada. He died in 1679. His long life was full of nom men to us events and synchroniskd with, great scientific discoveries'and philosophical systematisation characteristic "of the century of, genius". Hobbes was a witness to the great political and constitutional t~~rmoil, caused by the, English Civil War and his life and writings bear clear imprint of it, thougl~the pl~ilosopl~ical, import of his work went far beyond the controversies of his time. After his education at Oxford, where he was rather bored by the teaching of Aristotle and the scl~olasticpl~ilosopl~y,, Hobbes, joined as tutor to the son of William Cavendish, first Earl of Devonshire in 1608. He remained, closely connected with the Cavendish family for a long period of his life. He accompanied his, charge to France and Italy in 1610 and came under the influence of Kepler and Galileo. After, his return from the continent he remained with the Cavendish family for the next eigl~teenyears, dividing Itis time between London and Chatsworth, the country home of the Cavendish. tIobbesY, next visit to France was in 1929, when lie accepted tutorship to the son of Sir Gervase Clinton, after the death of his first patron, the seco~ldEarl of Devonshire in 1628. In the year 1628, Hobbes' translation of Thucydides' history of the Grecian War was published. During his, second visit to tlte continent Hobbes came under the spell of geon~etrical neth hod which started, from self-evident premises and proceeded to derive complicated theorems by way of logical, deduction. During the third journey to France and Italy (1634-37) which he undertook with the, third Earl of Devonshire whose service he had rejoined in 163 1, Hobbes [net Descar-tes, Gassendi, and Galileo. He became convinced t!lat everytlling including man and society, morals and, politics could be explained on the basis of laws of motion. Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and Galileo's laws of falling bodies made a deep impact in his mind. He returned to England, and completed in 1640 his first important philosophical work called the Element af Law, which, was published in 1650 in two parts, Human Nature and De Corpore Politico. In this work, Hobbes demonstrated the need for undivided savereignty, but tile arguments for this were not, derived from the theory of Divine Right of Kings. In 1640 Hobbes fled to the Continent in fear, for his life after the dissolutioli of Parliament in May 1640 and the impeachment of Earl of, Strafford by the Long Parliament. For tlie next eleven years he remained in Paris in the, inte~~kctual, circle of Mersenne. During this period lie accepted to act as tutor in mathematics, to the future CI~arles11., The exile in France was the most frui'tful period of Hobbes' intellecti~al life. In 1642 he, published his De Cive in Latin (later to appear as De Corpore Politico) He also planned to write, 82, , I

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lais ambitious trilogy on body, Inan arid citizen in which everything in the world of nature and, lnan could be explained on the pattern of the science of mechanics. He made a beginning with, De Corpore. Leviatlian, Hobbes' magniun opus, was writtcl-Iduring this period and was published, in 165 1. ,/Clarendon thought that the book was written t o flatter Cromwr:ll. Hobbes hitnself is, reported io ]lave said: "I have a 111i1id to retuni I~ome."But the philosopliical sweep of Leviathan, was much above the ilnniediate political controversies of the day and had far-reaching, re, of European tl~ougtlt., consequences for tlie f ~ ~ t udevelopment, Hobbes returned to Ellgland in 195 1 and was soon embroiled in a controversy with John ., Bramhall, Bishop of Derry, on the question of free will, and determinism. Another co~itroversy, was with the mathematician John Wallis about H0bbe.s' attempt to square tlie circle. In 1957, De Homine, the second part of liis trilogy, was published. The last year's of Hobbes' life were, devoted to tlie writing of his autobiography in Latin, both in prose and verse, and a verse, translation of the Iliad and Odyssey. Mobbes died at Chatsworth in 1679 at tlie age of ninetyone., The Leviatlian is Hobbes' most famous work. It is, however, not the only important soulce for, a co~npleteunderstanding of I-lobbes' ideas. Many competent scholars believe that although "as, literature De Cive does not rival Leviathan which is a masterpiece of English prose style, it is, superior to it as pliilosophy (Gel1 1978; 3). A.E. Taylor i n Ilis interpretation of Hobbes relies, ~nostly011 De Cive (1938). Tliis is not to say that tliere is E I I ~ YR~ndaruentaldiscrepancy between, Leviathan and otlier works of Hobbes. Tliere is only a difference in emphasis and style of ', presentation. The argument is substantially tlie same; different books are devoted to illumi~~atil~g, the basic tlietne in diffcrent ways., , 6.3 THE STATE OF NATURE AND NATURAL RIGHTS, As we liave already indicated, I-Iobbes' political theory is, i n 11is own perception, derjved from, his psychology which in turn is based on his ~nechaliisticconception of ~ ~ a i uThis, r ~ ! standard,, text-book reading of Hobbes, as we liave observed above, has of late been strongly challenged, and scientific materialism is corisidered either irrelevant to or inconsistent, by conipetent scl~olar*s,, wit11 Hobbes' political and ethical theo~y.I-Iobbes himself says tliat one can follow his ideas, just by observation and intsospection without going tlirougli the elaborate process of ratiocination, and logical deduction fiom llie basic premises. Be tliat as it Iiiay, let us follow Hobbes ill his, explication of the concept of the state of nature and natural rights which is tile starting point, of all social contract theories., The concept of the state of nature, tliat is, Iiu~na~i, condition prior to the fol.11iation of civil, society, is derived from the nature of man, his basic psycho-pllysical character, liis sensations,, emotions, appetites and behavior. Like all otlier things in na.t~tre,man is primarily a body, governed by law of motion which permeates the entire physical world. There are, Hobbes says,, two kinds of motion ill animals-vital no ti oil and voluktary motion. Vital motion is the auton~atic, movement of the pl~ysiologicallnecl~anislnwllicli goes 011 within our orga~~isni, from birth to, deatlt, without our being conscious of it. Circulation of blood; breathing, diges,tion, excretion are, exarnples of this kind of motiol~., Voluiitary motioli is first "fancied in our minds" and is caused by the impact of external stimuli, on our sense organs wliich produces phantasms in the brain and also initiates internal n~otiorl, that is carried through the nerves to tlie seat of vital ~liotionthat is the heart. Tliis internal, ]notion appears as sel~sationwhich either aids or retards the vital motion and thus l~elpsor, Iiillders tlie colitinued existence and vitality of the physiological system. If the transmitted

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motion helps or heightens tlie vital motion, we are attracted to, or there is an 'endeavour', toward, its originating cause or object in tlie external world; if it retards it, we are repelled by, it. Thus two original motions or. emotions are generated which we call desire and aversion., From these basic motions or endeavour, other emotions like hope, diffidence, glory, courage,, anger, benevolence etc. are derived. Pleasure and pain are related to desire and aversion as their, necessary co~nplements.Imagination and memory are both sensations, imagination being decaying, sensation, memory tlie recollection of past sensation. Deliberation is the succession of desires, and aversion in the mirld and will is the last stage of deliberation that ensues in action. There, is no fiee will and no conflict between freedom and necessity. Good is what we desire, and evil, is that which we s11~1n., The predominant passions of desire and aversion are the root cause of conflict in the state of, nature according to Hobbes. Everybody is inoved by the natural impulse of self-preservation, to desire and possess the objects or goods that are conducive to his existence. Since the goods, or objects of desire are lini:+edand me11 are roughly equal in strength, when physical power of, some is offset by the niental superiority or cunningness of others, there consequently occurs a, 1.utliless co~~ipetition, and conflict of interest alnoiig individuals in whicl~no one is eventually, victorious., Competition for goods of life becomes a struggle for power, because without power one cannot, retain what one has acquired. But it is i n tlie very nature of power that it must be continually, augmented to save it from dissipation. One cannot retain power without acquiring more power., Thus it turns out to be a struggle for power after power which ceaseth only in death. Sense of, insecurity, fear, vain-glory and pride aggravate this tragic conditioti. Hobbes says that "in the, state of nature, we find three principle causes of quarrel. First, competition; second, diffidence;, third, glory. Tlie first, n~aketlimen invade for gain; the second for safety; and the third, for, reputation" (Leviathan, ch. 13). The crux of the matters is concisely put in the following words:, I put for a general inclinatioii of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of, power after power that ceasetli only in death. And the cause of this, is not always, that a man hopes for a more intensive delight, that lie has already attained to ; or, that he cannot be content with a more moderate power : but because he caniot, assure the power and lneans to live well, wl~ichhe Iiath present without the, acquisition of Inore (Lev. ch. 11)., In this passage Hobbes presents with great clarity and incisiveness the inexorable dialectics of, power which later thinkers like Acton, Burckhardt and Simone Weil have fully appreciated and, expatiated upon., Thus there is, in the very essence of power, a fi~ndamentalcontradiction tlrat, prevents it from ever existing in tlie true sense of the word ; those who are called, the masters, ceaselessly compelled to reinforce their power for fear of seeing it, snatched away from them, are for ever seeking a dominion impossible to attain ;, beautiful illustration of this search are offered by the 'infernal torments in Greek, mythology (Weil 1958 : 67)., It appears that what is central to Hobbes' psycliology is not hedonism but search for power and, glory, ricl~esand honour. Power is, of course, the central feature of Hobbes' system of ideas., "Man is a complex of power; desire is the desire for power, pride is illusion about power,, honour opinion about power, life the uilrelnitting exercise of power and death the absolute loss, of power" (Oakeshott ; 1962 : xxi), , ,

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One might ilnagine that in the conditio1.r of plenty of resources and amplitude of man's power, over natural phenomena and social behaviour there would be no serious conflic:t and the reign, of peace and security would prevail. But conflict is itlherent in human psychology according, to Hobbes; it is i~nplailtedin man's inordinate pride, covetousness, sense of fear and insecurity, etc. Hobbes also nzentions another cause of co~lflictwhich cannot simply be traced to, psychological egoism. This relates to the differences among men about what is goodand evil,, desirable and undesirable. Some scholars have expressed the opinion that Hobbes was principally, concerned with the clash of beliefs and ideologies. Shortsightedness may be another factor, respo~isibIefor the state of strife. Though men are rational creatures prone to strive for their, self-preservations, passions frustrate the nonnal working of reason and blind pursuit of selfinterest brings them illto conflict wit11 each other. It is to be noted that this is not primarily a, historical account but a logical construction from the first premise:^ about human nature., The combined effect of the factors enumerated above is that the state of nature is a war of every, man against every man in which the life of man is "solitary, poor,, nasty, brutish and short"., In this state there can be no morality, justice, industry, and civilisation. 111this state, however,, there is a right: of natiire, natural right of every mati to every thing, even to one another's life., It is clear tliat here we are far away from the Aristotelian conception of the state as natural to, man, the state as logically prior to Inan and, teleologically, 1ii.s natural destination., So far we have presented only one part of Hobbes' theory. The other part is concenied with, the solution of the problem ca~lsedby the nliseries of the state of nature., Before we proceed to consider how Hobbes suggests a method of escape fioin this predicament, of the original, pre-political human condition, we must take note of a few important critical, points. It is generally believed that the basis of Hobbes' state of nature lies in his theory of, psychological egoism. This view has been vigorously chalfenged by some writers 011the grou~ld, that Hobbes does take into accouilt other-regarding or altruistic motives and virtues like sympathy,, pity, kindness, charity, benevolence etc. According to Jol;~nPlatnenatz: "Psychological egoism,, which so maiiy of Hobbes' critics have fastened upon, is not really necessary to his political, theory" (1963; VoI I. 1 18- 119). Bernard Gert has argueld that psychological egoism does not, ~lecessarilyimply that men act only out of selfish motive. "From the fact that whenever anytl~ing, benefits my vital motion, this causes me to desire it, it d~oesnot follow that I desire it because, I believe that it will benefit my vital motion. Although Mobbes does maintain that our desiring, a thing is caused by its benefitting our vital motion, he never claims that whatever we desire, we desire because we believe it will benefit our vital motion" (1965 : 346). According to, Kavka, Hobbes is a "rule-egoist". Be that it may, it is not necessary to decide this technical, point in the present context., The other impoi-tant concept tliat Hobbes introduces io his account of the state of nature is, natural right. "The Right of Nature, "lie says, is "the: liberty each man hatll, to use his own, power, as lie will hilnself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life;, and consequently, of doing anything, in his own judgement, and reason, he sliall conceive to, be the aptest means thereunto"(Lev. Ch. XIV)., Tlie concept of natural right is considered to be the: most important contribution of Hobbes to, nlodern political tlleory., It is by this conception of right as the principle of morals and politics that the, originality of Hobbes' political philosophy (which i~lcludeshis moral philosophy), is least alnbig~~ously, evinced. Far by starting fio~nright and thus denying the

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prirllacy of law (or, what amounts fundamentally to the same, of virtue), Hobbes, makes a stand against the idealistic tradition. On the other hand, by basing morals, and politics #on right and not on purely natural incli~lationsor appetite, Nobbes, makes a stand against the naturalistic tradition. That is to say, the principle of right, stands inidway between strictly lnoral pririciples (such as those of traditional natural, law) oil the one hand, and purely naturd principles (such as pleasure, appetite or, even utility) on the other, 'Right' we may say, is a specifically juridical conception, (Strauss, 1963, VIII-IX)., The essential point in Strauss' e,rposition of Hobbes is that Hobbes makes a clear-cut distinction, between right and might without at the same time identifying right with the traditional doctrine, o f morality. Strauss does insist that Hobbes' theory is moralistic as against naturalistic or, utilitarian, but his is a lnorality of a special kind. It is not possible here to examine in depth, the Straussian view of Hobbes' natural right. But it must be said that on this point Hobbes is, neither clear nor consistent. Hc: sometimes equates natilral right with power, sometilnes with, absence of obligations, and sti'll on other occasions, he regards it as liberty to do that which, right reason prescribes. The wold is also used in a sense in which one ~nan'sright ilnplies other, men's duty. The paradox o f nat,uraI right, as Hobbes conceives it, is that in the state of nature, it remains highly precarioils on acc:ount of the very conditions in which it is claimed and, in, civil society, it touches the vanis11in;g point, that is, it survives simply as the right to life which, even the sovereign cannot touch exc:ept in extraordinary conditions., , LAVVS OF I\iATURE' AND THE COVENANT, After presenting a horrible picture of the state of nature, Hobbes proceeds to discuss how men, can escape it. In addition rto bejllg a slave of passion, mall is also endowed with reason, a faculty, whicl~tells hiin about the llleasures that nJay, if folloWed sincerely by all, lead to peace and, security. Unbridled p ~ ~ r s uofi t self-interest leads to war, but rational self-preservation would not, only avoid the fatal risk of war, but would be more effective in securing every man what are, the necessary means of preservation, At least it would, enable men to avoid the risk of violent, death. Hobbes has no philosophy of sunznlum bonurn. The final concern of man, according to, him, is to the avoidance of sw?znz?rrn~, mal'um., The Laws of nature are called the theorems of peace. Hobbes defines a law of nature as follows:, "A law of ~ia'tuce(lex naturalis) is a precelpt or general rule, found out by reason, by which a, Inan is forbidden to do, that, whicl~is destructive of his life or taketll away the means of, preserving the same; and to omit that by which he thinketh it may be best preserved".(Lev. 07,, 14). Further, "lavv, and rights, differ as much, as obligation, and liberty, which in one and the, same lnattcr are inconsistent.", , -, , Hobbes then lists as many as nineteen laws of nature, three of them being of utmost importance., These are:, , 1) "that every man, ought to endeavour peac~e,as far as he has hope of obtaining it; and when, he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of war. The first, branch of whish rule, containeth the first, and fundamental law of nature; which is to seek, it. The second, the sum of the right of nature; which is, by all means we, peace, am~foZ1o~v, can, to a'( ,ifend ourselves., 2) "that a Ir la11 be willing, when others are so too, as far-forth, as for peace, and defence of, himself lle shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented, , 1

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with so r n ~ ~ cliberty, h, against other men, as he would allow other men Bgainst himself.", "This is the law of the Gospel; hatso soever you require that others shozrld do to you, that, do ye to them. ", 3), , "That wen perfornz their coveizants made., , ", , There are other laws of nature which are not generally emphasised but they are quite, important insofar as they show that Hobbes is really not the type of psychological egoist, or ethical subjectivist that he is usually made out to be. These are justice, propriety,, complaisance, equity, against pride, against arrogance etc., The Laws of Nature play a crucial role in the transformation of the State of Nature into civil, 'society. But they raise highly controversial and difficult questions which have 'been a subject, of continuing debate. I-Iere we call mention .tliem o11ly briefly., First, there is the question of tlie nexus between the state of nature and the Laws of Nature. Are, these laws operative in the state of nature? If not, in what sense are they natural? If tlie, descriptio~iof the state of nature as tlie war of all against all is to be taken seriously, laws of ,, nature obviously do not play any effective role in the conduct of rnen in that state. How can, then p~~rely, egoistical and passion-dominated individuals sudde~ilyawake to the life of reason, and decide to abide by tlie norlns of peacef~~l, a~idcooperative life by surrendering their natural, e,, rights to all things? If, on tlie other hand, reason is an egsential ele~netltof llunlan ~ ~ a t u rhow, could individuals be absolutely devoid of it in the state of nature? The paradox arises out of, the fact that Hobbes analytically separates two parts of human psychology, passion and reason,, and delineates their working alterliately in order to show, by a sleight of hand as it were, that, the only alternative to anarchy is absolute rule., Hobbes says tllat the ' ~ a w of, s nature oblige injbm interno; that is to say, they bind to a desire, they shall take place; but i17 foro externo; that is to say, putting illem in act, not always." Even, if one intends to abide by the law of nature, fear and distrust of others impel him to take, preemptive action as dominant strategy to ward off possible danger. This situatioli is exemplified., in what is now-a-days called Prisoner's Dilemrna., Hobbes' own conteniporary, the Earl of Claret~donposed the question veiy precisely and no, satisfactory answer has ever been given to it:, How should it else come to pass, that Mr. Hobbes, whilst he is demolishing the, whole frame of Nature for want of order to support it, and makes it unavoidably, necessary for every one to cut his neighbour's throat . . . I say, how comes it to, pass, that he would in ille same, and tl~enext chapter, set down a Body of Laws, prescribed by Nature itself, as are iln~nutableand eternal? that there appears, by, his ow11shewing ; a ELIII remedy agaitlst all that confusion, for avoiding whereof, he hat11 devised all that unnatural and i~npossiblecontract and covenant? "(Quoted, in Ha~npto~i,, p. 63)., , Tlien'we have the problem of obligation. Are Natural Laws merely maxims of prudence or, objectively valid and i~i~niutable, principles of morality? There is ample evidence in Hobbes', text to support divergent interpretations., Adam Smith's estimate of Hobbes' theory has been widely accep~edfor about two cenluriesthat "odious" doctrine "offensive to all sound moralists, as it supposed that t1iere.was no natural, , d, , -, , I

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distinction between right and wrong, that those were mutable and changeable and depended on, the mere arbitrary will of the civil magistrate" (1776: 318)., I, , The exactly opposite view, known as the Taylor thesis, was propounded in the mid-20th Century,, accorditlg to which Hobbes' ethical theory is a 'strict deontology' of the Kantian Wpe. Another, versioll of this view expounded by Warrender and Hood regards it as Divine Command theory, in tlie classical Natural Law tradition, In this interpretation I-Iobbes' psychological egoism is, disengaged from his ethics and the latter is represented or reconstructed as a consistent system, of transcendentally yalid ethical norms wllicll are obligatory independently of their beneficial, consequences. Natural Law is true law of reason, binding upon both the subject and sovereign,, but its binding force or obligatory character arises out of the will of God. Yet another interpretation, makes of Hobbes a virtue ethicist laying emphasis not on Rights but on Good or Virtue, (Boonin-Vail). In between the two extrelnes come those readings which regard Hobbes' ethics, as a kirrd of prudential reasoning, justifying natural law on conventional, contractual or utilitarian, grounds (Gauthier, Peters). According to Kavka, I-Iobbes is a rule egoist, adopting a kind of, reconciliatory position between moralism and act-utilitarianism. J.W.N. Watkins refuting the, charge that Hobbes committed the "naturalistic fallacy" of deriving moral prescriptions from, 'fatual prolnises about human psychology, argues that his (Hobbes') laws of nature are not, S L, moral prescriptions, but they are more like "doctors's orders of a peculiarly coinpelling kind.", They are "assertoric hypothetical imperatives.'' According to Plamenatz, the laws of nature are, "dictates of reason, not as imperatives which follow logically from statement of facts, but as, rules which only creatures capable of reasoning could think or could want to see observed", (Leviathan,Fontana Library, pp. 12-13). In Plamenatz's opinion God is superfluous to Hobbes', theory of morality., , . F As we have said, Hobbes' own words are not quite unequivocal. He says:, These dictates of reason, men use to call by the name of laws, but improperly:, for they are but conciusions, or theoreins concerning what conduceth to the, conservation and defence of themselves; whereas law, properly, is the word of, l~im,that by right hat11 command over others. But yet if we consider the same, theorems as delivered in the word of God, that by right commandeth all things;, then are they properly called laws, (Lev. Ch. 16)., Si~lceaccording to Hobbes nothing is definitely known about God except his existence, it is, argued by the critics that the introduction of God in this exposition is logically redundant and, is meant only to assuage the feelings of those who were enraged by Hobbes' atheism. "An, obligation to obey God", says Plamenatz "as Hobbes conceives of it, does not differ in kind, from what the obligation to obey a human sovereign wo~ildbe in a world without God", (Fonta~~a,, p. 30). David Gauthier observes that "what is important to Hobbes' moral and political, theory is natural law qua dictate of reason, not qua command of God" (1969: 70)., , Howard Warrender takes a firm stand against treating natural law as rational principles of selfpreservation devoid of moral implications beyond self-interest. Against Plamenatz he contends:, "The Laws of nature (seek peace, keep covenants etc.) are a special kind of rules for selfpreservation and are not strictly rules for personal preservation-the individual may save llimself, by the 111ost dubious nleans. They are rules for the preservation of man in general. And so, the, formula required for the state is not 'preserve yourself (though this is always permissible) but, 'act so that ail men can be preserved, except where this is inconsistent with your own, preservation'. This is, of course, an entirely different matter; and a preservation principle of this, kind could never be derived from the ordinary self-interest of the individual alone. If Plamenatz

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dispenses with the-role of God and leaves no substitute, such as a self-evident natural law, how, is such a principle to be supported?" (K. C Brown; 1965 ; 97). Warrender here stakes his claim,, not so much on God as the basis of nloral obligation as on the self-evident character of natural, law based on reason., Another controversial point in Leviathan that admits of different interpretations relates to in, foro interno and inforo externo obligation., The laws of nature oblige in for0 interno; that is to say, they bind to a desire they, should take place : but in foro externo ; that is, to tile putting them in act, not, always. For he that should be modest and tractable, and perform all he promises,, in such time, and place, where no Inan else should do so, sllould but make, himself a prey to others, and procure his own certain ruin, contrary to tlie ground, of all laws of nature, whicll tend to nature's-preservation. And again, he that, having sufficient security, that others sliall observe tlie same laws towards hirn,, observes them not himself, seaketh not peace, but war ; aild~consequentlythe, destruction of his nature by violence., And whatsoever laws bind in for0 interno, may be broken, not only by a fact, contrary to the law, but also by a fact accordirig to it, in case a man think it, contrary. For tllough his actions in this case, be according to the law ; yet his, purpose was against the law; which, where the obligation is in foro inferno, is, a breach. (Lev. ch. 15), The laws of nature, according to the above explanation, are clearly hypothetical imperative., ~ l i eoblige, i, only if certain conditions are fulfilled. But Hobbes also accords them the status of, categorical imperatives. He says: "The laws of nature are immutable and eternal; for illjustice, ingratitude, arrogance, pride, inequity, acception of persons, and the rest can never b e made, lawful. For it can never-be that war shall preserve life, and peace destroy it.", Warrender interprets the above exposition to mean that the laws of nature oblige in foro interno,, that is in conscience, even in the state of nature, but since the validating conditions of their, obligations do not obtain in that condition, they do not oblige in actual fact, that is 'inforo, externo'. Warrender's view is that a single and consistent theory of obligation runs through the, whole of Hobbes' doctrine and obligation in the state of nature does not differ from obligation, in civil society in principle but only in circumstance. Plamenatz and Oakeshott think that this, is to go beyond what the text suggests. Michael Oakeshott finds four kinds of obligation in, Hobbes: "There is tlie moral obligation to obey the authorised will of the sovereign; there is, the external physical obligation arising from force or power; and there is the internal rational, obligation of self-interest arising from fear of punisl~mentand desire of peace. Each of these, pbligations provide a separate motive for observing the order of tlie comn~onwealtli,and each, is necessary for the preservatio~lof that order." Political obligation is a "mixed obligation, consisting of pl~ysical,rational and moral obligations, combined to serve one end, but never, assimilated to one another" (1960 : Lxl)., of the Laws of Nature which, There is another problem connected with the hypothetical riat~~x-e, has been discussed by recent critics. Tl~isis the Prisoner's Dileln~namatrix of the game theory, to which we have already made a reference. Under conditions of uncertainty and in the absence, of a sovereig~~, power to control the behaviour of men, the dominant motive and strategy of a, rational agent who wants to maximise his pay-off would be to take a preemptive action and, attack whatever the other party might do. For if the otlier party attacks, one who attacks first, would be decidedly in a superior position, and if i t does not attack, the first invader would

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easily be able to steal a march over his rival. But if this analysis is correct there is no possibility, of men coming to an agreement to relinquish their natural rights unless there is a comnlon, superior to keep them in awe. But the paradox is that this common superior cannot be created, except by a covenant., T11e situation for Hobbes is, however, ~ ~soo dismal, t, as this analysis suggests. His individuals, are not utility-maximisers, but disaster-avoiders. On sober thought they would trust each other, and take initiative in coming to an agreement. Hobbes' famous Reply to the Foole is meant to, convince that it is always rational to abide by the Laws of Nature if tlie other party has-already, performed and that justice, "that is to say, keeping covenant, is a rule of reason, by which we, are forbidden to do anything destructive to our life ; and consequently a law of nature."(Lev,, Ch. 15), , 6.5, , THE COVENANT AND THE CREATION OF THE, SOVEREIGN, , Having discussed the conditions in the state of nature, Hobbes proceeds to the problem of, creation of civil society. The sovereign authority is created out of a covenant among individuals., The sovereign himself stands outside the covena~it.He is a beneficiary of the contract, but not, a party to it. Each man makes an agreement with every man in the following manner:, , I authorise and give up my rightVofgoverning nlyself, to this man, or to this, assembly of men, on the condition, that thou give up thy right to him, and, authorise all his actions in like manner. This is tlie generation of that great, Leviathan or rather (to speak more reverenty) of that Mortal God, to which we, owe under the immortal God, our peace and defence. (Lev., Ch. 17)., It is clear that no individual can surrender his right to self-preservation. For this is precisely, the raisorz dJetre of civil society., Hobbes makes a distinction between a contract and a covenant. "The ~nutualtransferring of, right, is that which men call contract." Then, "one of the contractors, may deliver the thing, cot~tractedfor on his part, and leave the other to perform his part at some determinate time, after, and in the meantime be trusted; and then the contract on his part, is called Pact, or, Covenant: or both parties may contract now, to perform hereafter; in which cases, he that is to, perform in time to come, being trusted, his performance is callid keeping ofpromise, or faith;, and the failing of performance, if it be voluntary, violation of faith"(Lev. ch. 14). Covenant, is, 011 this view, a special kind of contract which implies trust and promise for future performance., Some writers, like Samuel Pufendorf in the 17th Century and commentators like Jean Hampton, in our own time, have expressed the view that this distitlctio~lis of no great philosophical, importance. It only emphasises the idea of trust and faithful keeping of pronlises wl~ichHobbes', arguments presuppose., In order to secure their escape from the state of nature, individuals renounce their natural rights, to all things, and institute, by colnmon consent, a third person, or body of persons, conferring, all rights on l~itnfor enforcing the contract by using force and keeping them all in awe, and,, authorising all his action as their own. That the sovereign is not a party to tlie covenant renders, 11i1nfree from having any obligation. This is sovereignty by institution. Apart fro111this, Hobbes, also talks of sovereignty by acquisition or conquest. In this second form of creation of, , I, , I, , I, , ,, I

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cornn~onwealtllindividuals acqiriesce in tlie rule of tlie conqueror in exchange for security and, the victor, by in~plication,enters into a contract witli the valiq~~ished, to provide security in lieu, of obedience. According to Hobbes fear is no less a basis of obligation than free consent. In, fact, covenants without tlie sword are Inere words and "of no strength to secure a man at all"., "The bonds of words are two weak to bridle man's ambition, avarice, anger and other passions,, without the fear of sotile coercive power." But if it is only the fear of punishment that is the, ~~ltiniate, foundation of civiI society, what purpose does the idea of contract serve? It is not a, contract only in a Pickwickian sense? Some writers have made the concept of 'authorisation',, rather than of contract, tlie real basis of sovereign power. According to David Gauthier:, "authorisation, rather than covenant, is the dominant metaphor i11 Hobbes' poIitical thouglit, and, that authorisation is a much more adequate and illu~ninating~netapliorfor the formulation and, discussio~iof political relationship" (1 969: 171). Jean Hampton, however, thiriIts that Gauthier's, interpretation "would seein to make Hobbes into a king of whig" and bring him nearer to, Locke. Without entering into the details of this controversy, it is sufficient to note tliat a, con~~nonwealtl~,, according Hobbes, is "one person, of whose acts a great multitude, by rnutiral, covenants one with another, have 111adethe~nselvesevery one the author, to the end lie [nay use, tlie strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their pence and (;otii~non, defense." This com~~ionwealth, is the sovereign, the ilnity of all in one person., , 6.6, , RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE SOVEREIGN, , Sovereignty, according to Hobbes, is absolute, indivisible, inalienable and perpetual. It is not, limited either by the riglits of thc subjects or by customasy and statutory law. Sovereign is of, course obliged to act according to Natural Law, but he alone is the inteiyreter of this law and, none of his actions can be challenged on the ground that it is violative of reason and justice., Justice consists in acting in accordance wit11 promises made, and tlie sovereig~ihas made 110, promise. Hence his actions cannot be called unjust or ilijurious. In rclation to liis subjects, the, sovereign is always in the state of nature and enjoys all his natural rights. No onc call coniplain, tliat sovereign is acting wrongly, because everybody has autliorised him lo act 011liis belialc, his actions are the actions of his subjects and nobody can riglltly complain against his own, action. Sovereign has absolute right to declare war and ~nalcepeace, to levy taxes and inzpose, penalties. He is the ultimate source of all administrative, legislative and judicial authority. Law,, properly speaking, is the command of the sovereign, that is, "that person wllose precept contailis, in it the reason of obedience" (De Cive, Ch. 14.1). It is "to every subject, those r~lleswhich the, commonwealth has commanded him, by word, writing, 01.other sufficient sign of the will, to, make use of, for tlie distinction of right and wrong" (Lev, Ch. 26)., Nati~rallaw or custoi~~s, and co~lventio~ls, attain llie stati~sof Law only when willed and ordaincd, by the sovereign. Hobbes makes a radical departure from the medieval traclitio~land the position, of Sir Edward Coke who pleaded for the supreinacy of comnlon law, as against the authority, of both Parliament and the King. He brought to completion tlie process of subordinating the, church to the state which was initiated by Marsilio's demarcation between temporal a ~ spiritual, ~ d, powers, and swept aside the lilllitatio~isof Divine Law, of Constitutional law mid propel-ty, rights tliat Bodin had i~nposedon his sovereign. Hobbes' theory was further developed by the, alialytical jurists of the 19th and 20th centuries. Nor only John Austin and his school, but, Kelsen, Hart and many otlier positivists were at one with Hobbes in effecting a dean separatio~i, between law and morals., 'Libel-ty is the silence of law. 111other words, a citizen is free to clo or forbear what the sovereign, has not colnmanded or forbidden. However, the command of the sovereign cannot annul the

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subjects' right to self-preservation. If a sovereign commands some one to kill himself, he is not, bound to abide by it, for the sole purpose of the establisl~tnentof civil society is the preservation, of life. It is, of course, LIPto the sovereign to kill or not to kill a person in the interest of peace', but this does not imply that the subject himself is obliged, and security of tlie coi~i~~~onwealth,, to end his life, or any others' life when ordered to do so by the sovereign. "When therefore our, refusal to obey, frustrates the end for which sovereignty was ordained, then tliere is no liberty, to refuse: otllerwise there is.", , In Hobbes tliere is no general right to disobedience or rebellion. The authority of the sovereign, is absolute and irrevocable. To resist him is to commit what rnay be called a performative, contradiction. For the subjects have authorised all his actions as their own and 11obody can go, against llis own will. Moreover, to resist or disobey the sovereign is to opt for the state of, nature, where there is no right or wrong. However, it must be always rerneinbered that tlle, "obligation of the subject to the sovereign, is ullderstood to last as long, and no longer, than, the power lasteth, by w11icl1 he is able to protect theh." "For the right men have by nature to, protect themselves, when none else can protect them, call by no covenant be relinquished.", Hence, if tlie sovereign fails to put down a rebellion and the rebels succeed in establishing their, own regime and in giving the required security to their subjects, he ipsofacto loses his legitimacy, and the new regime becomes the real comn~onwealth.It was in this way tliat Hobbes sought, to justify the rule of Oliver Crotnwell. There can be no legitimate government without effective, power to back it. As Sabine puts it: "The aspiration for more justice and right seemed to him, (Hobbes) merely an intellectual confiision. Hatred of tyranny seemed tnere dislike of a particular, exercise of power, and enthusiasm for liberty seemed either sentimental vaporing or outright, hypocrisy" (1963 : 471)., ., , 6.7 THE CHURCH AND THE STATE, , ., , Tlle question of religious freedom and the relation between the Church and the State figure ., prominently in tlie political thouglzt of the 17th Century and Hobbes devotes allnost half of the, Levintha~?to it. He does believe in the fseedom of religious belief and knows full well that in, matters of coliscience nian cannot be coerced. But he says that the overt expression and practice, of religion in tlie form of worship and propagation of faith are matters of public concern and, corne under tlie jurisdiction of tlle political sovereign. The belief in the church as the Kingdom, of God h e regarded as a cardinal error, as irrational and pernicious as the metaphysical notion, of non-material substances wllicli was responsible for mucli of tlie obscurantism and superstition, in public life. I-Iis non~inalisttheory of knowledge made a clean sweep of all abstract notions,, l ~ "ghosts", e~", which were mere figments of imagination and which misled nien, of ' c e ~ ~ e ~and, into tlie "Kingdom of Darkness" and divided them into warring factions and groups. A churcli, is nothing Inore than a corporatioti governed by commonwealtl~like any other association tliat, comes under it. N o professioti of faith is lawful unless it is sanctioned by the sovereign. Hobbes, was highly critical of Papacy with its claim to exercise control over the subjects of a sovereign, ', state in ecclesiastical matters and he ridiculed it as "the gliost of the deceased Rotlian Empire,, sittirig crowned upon the grave thereof.", , ClVlL LAW AND NATURAL LAW, After the constitution of civil society, natusal law is for all practical purposes replaced by civil, law whicli is the creation of the sovereign. For I-lobbes the conflict between common law and, the statute law, and the constitutional crisis arising out of it, was the real problem to tackle and, lie was confident that this co~tldbe solved only by making the will of the sovereign suprerile, , .

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and the ultinlate point of reference in all legal and.political nlatters. To llitn it is reason, not, will, that makes law obligatory. In civil society Natural Law does not disappear; it is assimilated, to civil law., "The law of nature, and the civil law, contain each other, and are of equal extent, .... The law of nature therefore is a part of civil law in all con~tnotiwealthsof the, world. Reciprocally also, tlie civil law is a part of the dictates of nature. For, justice, that is to say, performance of covenant, and giving to every man his own,, is a dictate of law of nature ... Civil, and natural law are not different kinds, but, different parts of law ; whereof one paif being written, is called civil the other, unwritten, natural. But the light of nature, that is, the natural liberty of man, may, by tlie civil law be abridged, and restrained : nay, the end of making laws, is no, other, but such restraint; without tlie which there callnot possibly be any peace., And law was brought into the world for nothing else, but to limit the natural, liberty of particular men, in such manner, as they might not hurt, but assist one, another, and join together against a colnlnon enemy." (Lev. c11. 26)., This passage his been interpreted differently according to the degree of importatlce given to, natural law i n Hobbes' system. According to Plarnenatz, when I-Iobbes says that natural law and, civil law contain one another, "he is llot denying that inen may have good grounds for believing, that civil law is contrary to tlie law of nature; he is saying that they ought always to do what, they promised, wl~ichwas to accept sovereign's interpretation of natural law as alone valid., They must never use the law of ncture as an excuse for not obeying civil law" (Fontana: 4445). According to Warrender: "With the advent of sovereign authority and the civil law that it, provides, the laws of nature are not superseded, though their manner of operatiotl is altered., They persist in civil society together with civil law itself, and play, in Hobbes' theory, a part, in deter~niningthe patterns of obligation in civil society no less essential than their functions, in the State of Nature" (1957 : 146)., Hobbes' argument for the absol~itepower of the sovereign is by no means a plea for unadulterated, despotism. He consistently maintained that tlie object of the state was the safety and well-being, of 1ne11and for this the sovereigll was accountable to God. He also inaintained that by "safety, is not meant a bare Preservation, but also all other col~tentmentsof life, whicll every inan by, lawful Industry, without danger, or hurt to the common~wealth,shall acquire to himself'., Admirers of Hobbes have disceriied in this a distinct element of liberalism. But it would be, more appropriate to view it as a policy of ''enlightened despotistn.", , 1, , Two aspects of Hobbes' thought require special attention-his absolutism and his individualism., It is often asserted that tlie two are logically correlated. It is on the basis of his radical, individualis~nthat Hobbes builds his theory of political absolutism. And following this line of, theory is quintessentially a theory of liberalism., thought, it is also claimed that Hobbes' bo~itica~, Hobbes' emphasis on natural right, it is said, distinguisl~esIiim from the classical natural Law, theorists., But here a little caution is necessary, Natural right is the basis of Hobbes' theory; it is not its, conclusioa. Hobbes starts with natural rights of the i~ldividualbut severely restricts the111 to, found a viable civil society. He explicitly says: "The right of nature, that is, the natural liberty, of Inan, may by tlie civil law be abridged, and restrained; nay, the end of making laws, is no, other, but such restraint; without which there cannot possibly be any peace. And law was

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brought into the world for nothing else, but to limit the natural liberty of particular men, in such, manners, as tliey migllt not liurt, but assist one another, and join together against a comlnon, enemy (Lev. ch. 26). Natural rights lead to war and natural law brings peace and security. At, the end of Leviatha~Hobbes makes an observation which leaves no doubt on this part: "For, I ground the civil right of sovereigns, and both the duty and liberty of subjects, upon the known, natural inclinatio~~:, , f mankind, and upon the articles of the Law of nature; of wllich no man,, that pretends b!~treason enough to govern his private family, ohght to be ignorant.", Unlike liberal tilinkers like John Stuart Mill and Herbert Speticer in the 19th Century and, Nozick and Dworkin in the 20th Century. Hobbes does not espouse individual's right to limit, or resist the authority of the state. According to Dworkin: "Right-based theories treat code of, conduct as instrume~lted,perhaps necessary to protect the rights of others, but having no, essential value in themselves. The man at their centre is the man who benefits from others', compliance, not the man who leads the life of virtue by complying himself' (1999: 172). This, is the view that I-Tobbes would most resolutely reject. For Hobbes, a just man has innate, disposition to perfor111just action, and the Laws of Nature always oblige in foro interno, though, tiot always in "for0externo., Right is notl~ingbut the liberty of each man to use l ~ i s"natural faculties according to right, reason". I-Iobbes' "Reply to the Foole" tliat it is not ratiotlal to renege on one's promise is a, sufficient refutation of the arnoralist individualism of Dworkin and Mackie. IHobbesYtheory of, political obligation, despite its strong non-traditional, utilitarian bias, has a more solid, philosophical and ethical foundation than tlie so-called right-based morality of modem liberalism., Hobbes' philosophy is an elaborate architectonic system comprising different elements of reality;, physical, human and social, all assi~nilatedinto a close-knit uniform pattern by the application, of resolutive-co~~~positive, methodology of Galileo and the school of Padua and the geometricaldeductive reasoning of Descartes. It is paradigmatic of all those atomistic theories which, coi~ceivesociety or tlie state as an artificial creation, or aggregation, of self-subsistent selfenclosed, egoistic individuals who by ~ n u t ~ agreement, ~al, or covenant incorporate tllenlselves, into a collective unit or body politic for their personal benefit. The ontological and moral, priority of individual over the state is tlie basic presupposition of this theory and it has been, a pervasive feature of modern European thought. It stands in sharp contrast to the AI-istotelian, idea that the state is natural and prior to man. Hobbes7 political theory inarks tlie breakdown, of traditional institutions and values and denotes tlie decline of metaphysical wisdom, It heralds, tlie age of instrumental reason, material pursuits, secular norms, power politics and utilitarian, ethics. Under these conditio~~s, what holds man's ambition and avarice is the supreme power of, the sovereign, not tlie bond of human sylnpatity and natural harmony. It is a kind of society, which has been described by Ferdinand Tonnies as Gesellschuft as col~tradistinguisliedfrom, Gfiueinscl7aftthat existed in earlier days. It goes to tile credit of Hobbes that he caught the spirit, of tlie age most clearly and articulated it n~ostbrilliantly. But I1e underestitnates the more, sublilne and nobler aspects of human nature. It is true tliat he has been more sinned against than, sinning. But the fact remains that the tnain emphasis of his thinking was on the darker side of, human psychology. He was so much obsessed by his liypothetico-deductive n~ethodthat be took, little interest in the actual complex motives that guide men in society. This is the reason wlly, his theory, despite its wide scope and rigorous logic, remains philosopl~icallyinadequate and, morally uninspiring. Some of his most suggestive and fruitful ideas like his theary of political, obligatioll and tlie concept of sovereignty, are Inore or less independent of his mechanistic, pl~ilosophyand stand on their own merit.

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SUMMARY, Hobbes is generally regarded as the father of lnodern political science. His theories reflect, political ideology of the incipient capitalist market society characterised by the doctrine of, "possessive individualism" and the ethic of cut-throat competition and self-aggrandisement. His, method was deductive and geometrical rather than empirical and experimental. According to, Hobbes the root cause of conflict in the state of nature are the passiolls of desire and aversion., Since goods are limited, there is ruthless competition and a struggle for power to retain what, is acquired. Conflict is inherent in human nature in blind pursuit of self interest. Another thing, that Hobbes points out is that each Inan has liberty to use his own power as he will for, preservatiotl of his own nature and life. This he calls natural right. But at times he equates, nat~lralright wit11 power, at times with absence of obligations or with liberty to do that wl~ich, right reason prescribes., To escape this state of nature and to avoid war man is endowed with reason and rational selfpreservation, These are known as laws of nature which play an itnportant role to transfor111state, of nature into a civil society. In orAer to escape the state of nature, individuals renounce their, natural rights and institute a third person or body of persons conferring all rights on that person, or body, authorising all its action as their own. This colnlnon superior or sovereign has to be, created tllrough a covenant with the sovereign outside this covenant., Sovereignty is indivisible, inalienable and perpetual. The, Sovereign acts according to natural, law but he alone is the interpreter of ihis law and his action cannot be challenged. After the, constitution of civil society, natural law is assimilated into civil law., ,, E-Iobbesstarts with natural rights of individuals but restricts them to found a viable civil society., He restricts the natural liberty of men but does not espouse the individual's right to restrict, authority of the state., , 6.1 1 EXERCISES, 1) What is tnanYsnatural state of nature according to Hobbes?, 2) What are the ways in wllicll man niay escape the state of nature as explained by Hobbes?, Wllat paradoxes arise out of this way of escape?, , 3) Do you think Hobbes' stress on a sovereign power was an argu~nentin support of absolutist, desp~tism?Why?, , *