Page 1 :
Science, Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the, form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The word, science comes from the Latin word ‘scientia’, meaning “knowledge”., The, popular, backronyms, for, the, word, SCIENCE, is:, → Systematic and Comprehensive Investigation and Exploration of Nature’s, Causes and Effects, Fitzpatrick has defined science as a cumulative and endless series of empirical, observations which help in forming various concepts and theories. According to, him, with further empirical observations and studies, changes or alterations can, be brought about in both concepts and theories. Thus, he defined science as, body of knowledge as well as process through which it is being acquired., , Nature of Science, Science education has defined tenets (characteristics) of the nature of science, that are understandable by students and important for all citizens to know, •, •, •, •, •, , Scientific knowledge is tentative (subject to change)., Science is empirically based (based on or derived from observation of the, natural world)., Science is inferential, imaginative and creative., Science is subjective and theory laden., Science is socially and culturally embedded., , The tentative nature of scientific knowledge, Although it is reliable and durable, scientific knowledge is neither set in, concrete nor perfect. Rather, it is subject to change in the light of, new evidence or new interpretation of existing evidence. Because of, its tentative nature, we cannot claim ‘absolute truth’ in science. The tentative, nature of scientific knowledge also means that laws and theories may change.

Page 2 :
The empirical nature of science, This means that science is based on and derived from observations of the world, around us from which interpretations are made. Scientists depend, on empirical evidence to produce scientific knowledge. Any scientific, explanation must be consistent with empirical evidence, and new evidence, brings the revision of scientific knowledge., The inferential, imaginative and creative nature of science, Science isn’t simply the accumulation of observable evidence and the orderly, gathering of knowledge. All observations require interpretation and inference by, scientists. To do this, scientists require imagination and creativity to make, inferential statements about what they see. In fact, imagination and creativity, are needed in every aspect of a scientist’s work – making sense of observations,, making the creative leap from data to possible explanation, coming up with new, ideas, designing investigations and looking at old data in a new light., The subjective and theory-laden nature of science, Scientists do strive to be objective, but it is just not possible to make truly, objective observations and interpretations without any bias. A scientist’s mind, is not a blank slate. Individual scientists have their prior knowledge, theoretical, beliefs, experiences, cultural background, training, expectations and biases,, each of which will affect their observations and conclusions. All observation is, preceded by theory and conceptual knowledge. Science tries to overcome this, lack of pure objectivity through the scientific community, which scrutinises, scientific work and helps balance individual scientists’ leanings., The socially and culturally embedded nature of science, All scientific knowledge is produced within a larger society and culture. This, means that the social and cultural elements such as politics,, economics, power structures, religion and philosophy will affect the science, knowledge produced and how it is accepted. This also means that the direction, and the products of science will be greatly influenced by the society and, the culture in which the science is conducted., As societies change, so do scientific priorities. For example, during the first half, of the 20th century, two World Wars dominated society and so governments, made funding available for research with wartime applications. Science moved, in that direction and nuclear energy was unlocked. Science changes to reflect, shifts in society and its priorities.

Page 3 :
Science Education in India, Science as a separate subject was included in school curriculum in the, beginning of nineteenth century. It was then referred to as general science. After, acquiring political independence in 1947, Indian government set up the, University Education Commission I under the Chairmanship of Dr. Radha, Krishnan in 1948. Through, the Commission was to report primarily on, university education, it made valuable suggestions for secondary education also., The Commission recommended inclusion of General Science as a course of, study in secondary schools. During 1947-52 the system of Basic Education,, accepted as a national system of education visualized the General Science, approach to teach science at elementary stage., Mudaliar Commission - 1953, The first genuine attempt for making teaching of General Science as a, compulsory subject in secondary school, was made in the recommendation of, the report of Secondary Education Commission 1953 (Mudaliar Commission)., The Commission suggested compulsory inclusion of General Science at middle, and secondary level. It also suggested diversification of courses having science, group subject as optional channels at higher secondary level., A thorough discussion on all aspects of science education, viz., syllabus,, equipment and materials teaching aids, text books, science clubs, museums, and, methods of examinations etc. was held at All India Seminar on Teaching of, Science in Secondary Schools held at Tara Devi in 1956. It had suggested a, uniform system of science education for the entire country, suitable to its needs, and resources. It had also suggested organization of content of science under (i), environment centred topics (ii) life-centred topics and (iii) a combination of, both to bring about integration among the various branches of science. The, major and minor concepts should be related to facts and events of everyday life,, include necessary practical work and outdoor activities., In 1961, the Government of India established theNationa1 Council of, Educational Research and Training to look after the school education. In 196 1,, the Indian parliamentary and Scientific Committee was set up. The Committee, took up the study of 'Science Education in Schools'. The Committee found a gap, between what was being taught and what ought to be taught. The Department of, Education in Science and Mathematics in NCERT undertook the responsibility, of development of science and mathematics curriculum at secondary level. A, team of experts from UNESCO arrived in India to advice and assist

Page 4 :
restructuring science education at school level. They suggested experimentation, and inquiry based teaching methods to improve science education., Kothari Commission -1966, In the meantime, the report of the Education Commission (1 964-66) under the, chairmanship of Dr. Kothari was also published. The Commission, recommended that science and mathematics should be taught on compulsory, basis to all pupils, as a part of General education up to first ten years of, schooling., It recommended that:, At lower primary classes, science teaching should be related to child's, environment. L t, At upper primary level, emphasis should be on acquisition of knowledge, ability, to think logically, to draw conclusions and to make decisions, At lower secondary level, science should be developed as a discipline of mind., The newer concepts in Physics, Chemistry and Biology and the experimental, approach to the learning of science should be stressed., Science teaching should be linked to agriculture in rural areas and to technology, in urban areas., The method of teaching science should be modernized, stressing the, investigatory approach and understanding of the basic principles., Guide materials should be made available to help teachers adopt investigator, approach., There should be flexibility in the curriculum in order to cater to the special, needs of the gifted children., As a follow up to the report, a top level conference on Science Education was, convened under the Chairmanship of Dr. Kothari. It was held to plan an, effective programme for the development of total curriculum of science, education at different stages. The Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, appointed an expert group in 1973 to develop curriculum for 10 + 2 pattern., "The Curriculum for the Ten Year School -A Framework", published by, NCERT was developed by the expert group under the chairmanship of Prof., Rais Ahmad. These model curricula recommended the school science to be

Page 5 :
taught as 'Environmental Studies' at primary stage and as 'Integrated Course' at, middle stage. A review Committee was appointed in 1977 under the, chairmanship of Shri Ishwar Bhai Patel. The Committee suggested the, strengthening of abilities under affective domain through curriculum. The, curriculum should not be too bookish. 10 + 2 system of school education, recommended by Kothari Commission became the National System of, Education., , Science curriculum, as you will find, are always developed keeping objectives, and national development goals in view. These courses are designed by NCERT, at national level for various stages of school education. The new framework, document of the Ten Year School, titled 'National Curriculum for Primary and, Secondary Education –A Framework' developed by NCERT is a fore runner of, the National Policy on Education - 1986. NCERT develops its courses through, various workshops and seminars in which academicians and experts from, various institutions take part. Personnel like school teachers, subject experts, from colleges and universities, teachers from vocational and professional, institutions, teacher educators, state representatives and experts from NCERT, also take part in curriculum construction. Experts review these curricula, periodically and make it, Scope of Science:, Science is a body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon observation., Observation is authentic and that it is only through the senses of man that, observations can be made. Thus, anything outside the limits of man’s senses is, outside the limits of science. In other words, science deals with the universe and, galaxies in the forms of matter and energy which is in the form of living and, non-living., Science employs a number of instruments to extend man’s senses to the, extremely minute to very vast, to the short-time duration or long-time duration,, to dilute or to concentrate and so on and so forth which does not alter the, conclusion that science is limited to that which is observable., Thus, as in any other discipline contemporary experimental techniques set up, some practical limitations but these are not to be confused with the intrinsic, limitations inherent in the very nature of science. The knowledge of science is, tested and retested and also reinvented.

Page 6 :
Today the disciplines of Science and Social Sciences are drawing into each, other. Behavioural zoologists study the sociology and psychology of animals., Archaeologists derive new insights from the rapid advances in chemical and, physical analysis. Hence sciences should be understood with interdisciplinary, approach within science as a whole. Biology draws on chemistry, physics and, geology., , Science as a process and product, Science has two important approaches., (a) Science as a Product., (b)Science as a Process., Various laws, theories, principles etc., are included in the category of science as, a product where as scientific attitude, scientific method etc., form part of, science as a process through both aspects are important in their own way but to, attain the aims of science education in schools more emphasis will be places on, process approach., , PROCESS, Scientific Method, Observation, Experimentation, Reasoning, PRODUCT, , Scientific Information, Facts

Page 7 :
Concepts, Generalisations, , Fact:, In science, an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and for all, practical purposes is accepted as “true.” Truth in science, however, is never, final and what is accepted as a fact today may be modified or even discarded, tomorrow., Concepts, The relationship between facts is called a concept. Therefore a concept is an, abstraction of events, or phenomenon that seems to have certain properties, or attributes in common. A concept has five attributes/elements. These are:, 1.name 2.definition 3.attributes 4.values 5.examples, , Principles, Principles are ideas based on scientific rules and laws that are generally accepted by, scientists. They are fundamental truths that are the foundation for other studies., Principles are qualitative., They aren't really rules that can be written down with mathematical symbols. They, are more like guiding ideas that scientists use to make predictions and develop new, laws., , Theory and Law, In general, a scientific law is the description of an observed phenomenon. It, doesn't explain why the phenomenon exists or what causes it. The explanation, of a phenomenon is called a scientific theory. It is a misconception that theories, turn into laws with enough research. A scientific theory is an in-depth, explanation of the observed phenomenon. A law is a statement about an, observed phenomenon or a unifying concept,

Page 8 :
Hypothesis:, A tentative statement about the natural world leading to deductions that can be, tested. If the deductions are verified, the hypothesis is provisionally, corroborated. If the deductions are incorrect, the original hypothesis is proved, false and must be abandoned or modified. Hypotheses can be used to build more, complex inferences and explanations., , Science as a process and product, , The products (concepts, facts etc..) are derived from process, (observation and experimentation) and that these products lead to, further process. Thus, science is a continuous search for “knowledge, through continuous inquiry. Thus we can summarise the above, relationships by saying that Science is both a body of knowledge, (Product) and method of inquiry (Process)". It is one of the, specialized characteristics of science., Values of teaching Science, , Today science has a prime place in school curriculum as a compulsory subject, in almost all nations. The reason is simple - - the multifarious values and, functions of science to the individual and to the society. The important, values/functions of science are discussed below., 1. Intellectual value, Scientific knowledge helps to develop intellectual honesty among learners. This, helps in developing an unbiased attitude towards scientific enterprise. It makes a, person systematic, and efficient to face hardships and failures in life. Science, does not accept anything, which cannot be proved by actual observation,, reasoning, and experimentation. Science helps one to solve problems with sharp, intelligence and wisdom. Thus, study of science helps to achieve higher mental, faculties such as reasoning, analysis, interpretation, logical thinking, etc.

Page 9 :
2. Disciplinary value, The learning of science develops certain powers of clear and vigorous thinking, of coherent and logical deduction, of exact and accurate observation - - a mental, discipline characteristic of science. Habits of this kind acquired through science, learning will automatically be generalised and transferred to wider concerns of, natural life. These qualities are the outcomes of science .Learning of science, trains one in scientific method and develops scientific attitude consisting of, traits such as open-mindedness, patience, accuracy, cleanliness, punctuality, etc., The mental power acquired by learning science will enable one to discipline, oneself and thus help to be a useful member of the society., 3. Utilitarian Value, This is the age of science and technology and the role of science in our daily, affairs are innumerable. Science today has come to play an increasingly, important part in our everyday life and an appreciation of its significance, of its, findings, of its major trends, of its proper use of appliances are essential to the, welfare of individuals in the present and the human race in the future. Science, has attained a significant role in the different aspects of human life. There is a, miraculous change in the ways and means of work and style of life. Science has, revolutionised our way of living. It is now essential for everyone not only to, understand science but also to manage day-to-day affairs., 4. Recreational Value, Recreation of body and mind is one of the important aspects that need attention, in modern life, which is full of tension and frustration. Learning of science can, cater to the recreational needs of individuals especially during leisure hours. It, develops interests, tastes and appreciations in pupils by offering a large number, of opportunities such as hobbies, games and puzzles. Science provides through, technology a number of recreational gadgets and facilities such as movies,, television, computer, audio-video equipments and musical instruments, which, are inevitable and of great recreational value in modern life. Science can create, sensitiveness to the beauties of nature and an intellectual appreciation of the, great discoveries and inventions of science.

Page 10 :
5. Cultural Value, Culture is the way of life, which is handed over to society from one generation, to another in the form of accumulated customs, habits, and mode of living., Culture is the ‘way of life’ or ‘the finer things of life’ those we could cultivate, through education. The learning of science develops in us a logical mind, a, critical judgment, and a capacity for scientific organisation, which is essential, for solving the problems in our life. The welfare of our society is dependent, upon scientific progress and thus helps the formation of a culture of our own, , 6. Vocational Value, Science becomes the primary requirement for a number of vocations and, vocational studies. To enter the field of medicine, engineering, agriculture,, information technology, etc., the basic criterion is the interest and knowledge of, science only. That is why science is considered as an inevitable part of our, school curriculum., , 7. Aesthetic Value, Science offers a large number of opportunities for the development of refined, tastes. Knowledge of science develops in man a passion for truth and beauty in, nature. The duty of science is peeping into the mysteries of nature, which is the, treasure house of all beautiful things. Thus, teaching of science is essential for, developing sensitiveness to the beauty of nature and thereby develops an, intellectual appreciation of great discoveries and inventions of science. The, difference between a scientist and an artist is that artist aims more deliberately, at beauty and a scientist attains and enjoys beauty through reasoning and truth., , 8. Social Value, Science is of great value to society from the very beginning. Science has helped, a child to become a useful citizen. Today’s society stands on pillars of scientific, techniques and knowledge. All our social activities depend upon science.

Page 11 :
Science has provided easy and effective means for transportation and, communication, led to increased agricultural and industrial production,, sophisticated medical and space research, etc. With these advancements, the, society has progressively changed in all dimensions. Thus, science has been, functioning as an instrument for social change., 9. Moral Value, , The moral integrity caused by the pursuit of science is mainly due to, the nature of science. The "Moral Values" of scientists could be, maintained only when they express the truths without any fear or bias., Scientific Attitude, In psychology, an attitude refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours, toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. Attitudes are often the result, of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over, behaviour, Psychologists define attitudes as a learned tendency to evaluate things in a, certain way. This can include evaluations of people, issues, objects, or events., Such evaluations are often positive or negative, but they can also be uncertain at, times., , Scientific attitude: Definition:, Scientific attitude can be defined as, “open mindedness, a desire for accurate, knowledge, confidence in procedures for seeking knowledge and the, expectation that the solution of the problem will come through the use of, verified knowledge”, , The characteristics of scientific attitude:, A man with scientific attitude has, I .is critical in observation and thought,, Ii. Respects other’s point of views and is ready to change his decision on, presentation of new and convincing evidence,, Iii. is curious to know more about the things around him wants to know whys,

Page 12 :
what’s and how’s of things he observes,, Iv. Does not believe in superstitions and false beliefs., V. suspends judgments until suitable support is obtained,, Vi. believes in cause and effect relationship,, Vii. Accepts no conclusions as final or ultimate,, Viii. Seeks to adopt various techniques and procedures to solve the problem., Ix. seeks the facts and avoids exaggeration., , Development of scientific attitude, The sole responsibility of developing scientific attitude among the students lies, on the teacher who can manipulate all the situations to instil in pupils the, characteristic features of scientific attitude and at the same time present himself, as an example to the students .This will create a favourable and permanent, impression on the students to adopt the same attitude which their teacher has., The development of scientific attitudes among the students or learners is one of, the main objectives of science teaching. This objective can be fulfilled by, making use of following things or keeping following points in the mind., Analysis of wrong believes, As known that even till now, a large number of people in our nation have not, freed themselves from the clutches of superstitions and wrong beliefs. In this, kind of situation, children are more bound to get infected by such beliefs as they, have very tender kind of mind., Science teacher will encourage the students to investigate some common, superstitions and beliefs practically. All the students should be engaged in, works which are intended to find out the buses on which such myths of wrong, beliefs are based

Page 13 :
Using Personal Examples, As said that students consider teacher as their role model and try to imitate him, in every possible respect. Teacher should make use of scientific methods for, imparting information regarding scientific facts and concepts. Not only this, he, should make use of his personal experiences during the teaching process, Therefore t is necessary that science teacher himself must be free from biases, and prejudices of all kinds while dealing with the students. All the students, should be provided with equal opportunities by him and he should pot make his, judgements on the basis of other's views and beliefs, Planning Exercises, Today one can find number of magazines and literary works which are devoted, to science and provide exercises through which certain kind of attitude can be, developed among students. Teacher should have thorough knowledge of such, magazines or books and during teaching process, should make use of such, sources at frequent intervals, Thus, by making use of planned exercises, students can play an important role, in developing scientific attitudes among the students to considerable extent., , Inclusion of Co Curricular Activities in Science, For developing the Level of science knowledge among the students and to, encourage them to function independently n various functions it is necessary for, the science teacher to organise seminars and discussions in the school from time, to time, Provision of arranging science exhibition should be made by the science teacher, and the responsibility to arrange such exhibitions should be laid on the, shoulders of students, Through such co-curricular actives, science teacher not only can play an, effective role in developing the level of science knowledge among the students, but also can get their level of confidence developed to considerable extent

Page 14 :
Effective use of Laboratory Period, Teacher should make use of obtained time in such a way that students can get, opportunities to get involved in various experimentation processes conducted in, the laboratory of the school.Scence teacher should understand the fact that as, science is a practical subject, laboratory period can offer various opportunities, for the students to learn certain elements of scientific attitude in them, Making Use of Scientific Literature, It has been found that students who remain engaged in reading scientific, literature and other books get scientific attitude in themselves developed more, easily and quickly in comparison to those who do not engage in such activities., Science teacher should encourage the students to read supplementary and, reference books written on science., Developing appropriate classroom atmosphere, Teacher should encourage spirit of friendly criticism of procedures, hypotheses,, and results among students., While imparting knowledge the teacher should make sure that all the students, are giving due consideration to information provided by him and they are, playing an active role in getting more and more information by asking various, kinds of intelligent questions., , Scientific Aptitude, Aptitude refers to an individual’s inborn potentialities or capacities which are, indicative of some special abilities. Aptitude is the potential of a person to do, certain things due to the innate ability or accumulated knowledge and, experience., Scientific aptitude is the inherent ability in the fields of science which helps in, acquiring required skills and proficiency in the field of science.

Page 15 :
Significance of Science, , Development of scientific temperament and its application in daily life, Engagement in scientific methods like observation, experimentation,, data collection, “interpretation of data, analysis, theorising, examining, for construction of knowledge, Nurturing the ability to examine scientifically the problems of daily life, as well as social issues and seeking logical solution, Recognizing and developing one's own interests and abilities in, technical and vocational fields, Encouraging the development of logical thinking, Imbibing a humanistic outlook and developing a world view based on it, Recognizing the importance of understanding historical development of, ideas, Nurturing lateral thinking ability for enabling the learners to look at, things from different perspectives and to seek new solutions, Developing scientific literacy that provides for building awareness of, scientific process.

Page 16 :
Branches of Science, Science describes an area of knowledge, typically about something in the, physical world that can be explained in terms of scientific observation or the, scientific method., The sciences that describe the physical universe are categorized in different, ways. The largest distinction in science is whether a science is pure, or, theoretical, or whether it is applied, or practical. Pure science explains a, phenomenon, while applied science determines how a particular phenomenon, may be put to use. In general, pure science is divided into the following, categories:, •, , •, •, , Physical sciences, which deal with matter and energy and allow us to, describe the material universe in terms of weight, mass, volume, and, other standard, objective measures., Earth sciences, which explain the phenomena of Earth, its atmosphere,, and the solar system to which it belongs., Life sciences, which describe living organisms, their internal processes,, and their relationship to each other and the environment., , However, these three categories of pure science have areas of overlap, where, one type of phenomenon may be associated with another. For this reason,, distinctions between pure sciences, and even between pure and applied sciences,, can blur, and a new compound science can develop., Physical sciences, , Life sciences Earth sciences, , Physics, Kinetics, Mechanics, Electromagnetics, Thermodynamics, , Biology, Botany, Zoology, , Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, , Geology, Meteorology, Astronomy

Page 17 :
Emerging branches of Science, Biotechnology, Biotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms, or parts of this to develop or create different products. At its simplest,, biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses, cellular and bio-molecular processes to develop technologies and products that, help improve our lives and the health of our planet., Biotechnology covers many different disciplines (eg. genetics, biochemistry,, molecular biology, etc.). New technologies and products are developed every, year within the areas of eg. medicine (development of new medicines and, therapies), agriculture (development of genetically modified plants, biofuels,, biological treatment) or industrial biotechnology (production of chemicals,, paper, textiles and food)., Nanotechnology, Nanotechnology is a field of research and innovation concerned with building, 'things' - generally, materials and devices - on the scale of atoms and molecules., A nanometre is one-billionth of a metre: ten times the diameter of a hydrogen, atom.

Page 18 :
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely, small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as, chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering., How It Started, The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a, talk entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom” by physicist Richard, Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of, Technology (CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long before the term, nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman described a process in which, scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and, molecules. Over a decade later, in his explorations of ultra precision machining,, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981,, with the development of the scanning tunnelling microscope that could "see", individual atoms that modern nanotechnology began., Nanotechnology is hailed as having the potential to increase the efficiency of, energy consumption, help clean the environment, and solve major health, problems. It is said to be able to massively increase manufacturing production at, significantly reduced costs. Products of nanotechnology will be smaller,, cheaper, lighter yet more functional and require less energy and fewer raw, materials to manufacture, claim nanotech advocates., , Bioinformatics, Bioinformatics, as a new emerging discipline, combines mathematics,, information science, and biology and helps answer biological questions. It is the, application of computer technology to the management of biological, information. Computers are used to gather store, analyze, and integrate, biological and genetic information which can then be applied to gene based, drug discovery and development. A major activity in bioinformatics is to, develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge., Geoinformatics, Geoinformatics is that branch of science which uses the infrastructure of science, to address the problems of geography, cartography, geosciences and related

Page 19 :
branches of science and engineering. It collects and organise the data and then, analyse it through computation and geo-visualization., Scope of the Geoinformatics, The term 'Geoinformatics' is a combination of two words- Geology or, Geography and Informatics. The realm of Geoinformatics is very broad because, it comprises of subjects like Remote sensing, GPS, GIS, cartography,, hydrology, climatology, Aerial photography, photogrammetry etc., , Information Technology, Information technology (IT) covers any form of technology, that is, any, equipment or technique used by a company, institution, or any other, organization which handles information. It incorporates computing,, telecommunication technologies, and includes consumer electronics and, broadcasting as it is getting more and more digitized. The term information, technology is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer, networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies, such as television and telephones. Several products or services within an, economy are associated with information technology, including computer, hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment,, and e-commerce.