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Aim:,  To understand the concept on formation, geometry,, stability and applications of carbocation’s., , Objectives:,  Comparing the stability of 1°, 2°, 3°, allylic and benzylic, carbocation based on the effects.,  Explaining the importance of carbocation in various, chemical, , reactions, , rearrangement., , like, , addition,, , elimination, , and

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Outcome:, After completing this topic, you should be able to:,  Describe the geometry of a given carbocation.,  Describe the stability of the carbocation based on the, effects.,  Describe the reactions of carbocation., Prerequisites:, ,  Generation of the reactive intermediate carbocation.,  Stability of carbocation.,  Chemical reactions of carbocation.

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, , An organic species which has a carbon atom bearing only, six electrons in its outermost shell and has a positive, charge is called carbocation., , , , The positively charged carbon of the carbocation is sp2, hybridized., , , , The unhybridized p-orbital remains vacant., , , , They are highly reactive and act as reaction intermediate., , , , They are also called carbonium ion.

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, , A carbocation is an organic species, an intermediate, that, forms as a result of the loss of two valence electrons,, normally shared electrons, from a carbon atom that already, , has four bonds., , , This leads to the formation of a carbon atom bearing a, , positive charge and three bonds instead of four. The whole, molecule holding the positively charged carbon atom is, referred to as a carbocation intermediate.

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Empty Unhybridized 'p' orbital, 120°, , sp2 hybridized carbon, , • The positively charged carbon of the carbocation, , is sp2, , hybridized., • This carbon used the three sp2 hybridized orbitals for single, , bonding to 3 substituents., • The unhybridized p-orbital remains vacant., • Due to sp2 hybridization carbocation possesses planar structure, , with the bond angle of 120° between them.

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 Generally stability of carbocation depends upon, three factors:, , STABILITY, INDUCTIVE, EFFECT (+I), , RESONANCE, EFFECT, , HYPER, CONJUGATION

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1) Stability of alkyl carbocation:, Order of stability due to +I Effect:

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Inductive effect:, , +, e- - deficiency is reduced by the +I effect of alkyl group attached to the carbocation, , Hyperconjugation effect:, , +, , +, , +, , +, Four resonating structure due to hyper conjugation effect

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 Tertiary allylic carbocation:, , +, , Resonance effect:, , +, , +, Two resonating structures, , Inductive effect:, , +, e- - deficiency of the trivalent carbon is reduced by the two alkyl groups

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Hyperconjugation effect:, , +, , +, Totally seven resonating structures, , 3) Stability of benzyl carbocation:, Resonance effect of 1°-benzyl :, +, +, , +, +

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Resonance effect of 2°- benzyl :, +, , +, , Totally seven resonating structures, , Resonance effect of 3°- benzyl:, , +, , +, , Totally ten resonating structures

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Stability of Carbocation:, We have seen all the possible carbocation's like alkyl, allylic and, benzylic carbocation. In all the carbocation's the tertiary carbocation, found to be more stable based on the possible effects., , The role of substituents in the stability of the carbocation:, Consider an electron donating group has substituted in a carbocation,, for eg: methyl, methoxy group or hydroxy group etc., , Since the carbocation's are electron deficient, thus any group which, donates electron density to the carbocationic center of electron, poverty will help to stabilize it.

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+, , , , +, , Me, , , , +, , It is not accurate to say, however, that carbocations with higher, substitution are always more stable than those with less, substitution., Like electron donating, electron withdrawing group destabilize the, carbocation. For eg: carbonyl group, ester group etc.,, O, , O, , +, O, , O, , I, , +, II

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In the above structures, The structure – I is primary carbocation and, structure – II is secondary carbocation. Based on the effect, we expect, the structure – II is more stable. But in these case structure – I is more, stable. This is due to the presence of electron withdrawing carbonyl, group. In structure – II the carbocation is nearer or adjacent to the, electron withdrawing group, hence it destabilize the carbocation. Hence, structure – II is less stable compare to structure – I. The effect decreases, with distance., , Based on all the consideration the stability order of the carbocations is, as follows:, 1°alkyl < 2° alkyl = 1° allylic < 1° benzylic < 3° alkyl < 2° Allylic= 2°, Benzylic < 3° Allylic= 3° Benzylic.

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Reactions of Carbocation:, 1) Substitution Reaction:, , +, , +, , OH-, , OH, , All nucleophilic SN type reactions are best examples., , 2) Elimination Reaction:, , +, H, , -H+

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3) Rearrangement Reaction:, , +, , More Stable, , Less Stable, , OH, , +, , intra molecular, proton transfer, , OH, , OH, , H+, , +OH, , OH, , 2, , -H2O, , +, , intra molecular, methyl shift, OH, , O, , -H+, , +

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4) Addition Reaction:, Markovnikov’s rule:, The rule states that with the addition of a protic acid HX to an, asymmetric alkene, the acid hydrogen (H) gets attached to the carbon, , with, , more hydrogen substituents, and the halide (X), , group gets, , attached to the carbon with more alkyl substituents. Alternatively, the, rule can be stated that the hydrogen atom is added to the carbon with, the greatest number of hydrogen atoms while the X component is, added to the carbon with the least number of hydrogen atoms.

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Work Out Examples, 1) The hybridisation of carbocation is __________, a) Sp b) Sp2 c) Sp3 d) Sp3d, 2) The shape of carbocation is __________, a) Pyramidal b) Bent c) Linear d) Trigonal planar, 3) The formal charge at the carbocation is equal to __________, a) -1 b) 0 c) +1 d) +2, 4) Arrange the following carbocations in the order of increasing stability., a) Benzyl > 30 > 20 > 10 b) Benzyl > 10 > 20 > 30 c) 30 > 20 > 10 > Benzyl, d) 10 > 20 > 30 > Benzyl, 5) Which carbocation is the most stable?, , a), , b), , c), , d), , 6) Which of the following is most stable intermediate?, , a), , b), , c), , d)