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A eye sructre ls formed by Inlrecion of -OH group of Ce with ~CHO, ‘xbians sbvence of sehyde group on glucose The to eye reture of hse, , , , , , °, —, Soe | n-8 Hoe, a On 3 H On on, HO H = HO H at sa 2 # o SS, H ou n 4 4-08, Hn H ¥ eel, CH,On Sere or :, &—D ~ (4) - Ctucose B-D- (+) — Gucose,, , of glucose: The six membered cyclic strudhire of glucose is called pyranose structure, (e- or B+), in analogy with pyran. Pyran is a cyslic organic compound with one oxygen atom and five, carbon atoms in the ring. The cyclic structure of glucose is more correttly represented by Haworth structure, as given below. ce, , , , ‘cHoH ‘cHe a, , H On H, H 4H, Son on, HO. on HO H, K oH, , a@-D-(+)-Glucopyranose §-D - (+) - Glucopyranose, , , , , , | Giucose is correctly named as D(+)-glucose*\D' before the name of glucose represents the configuration, whereas ‘(+)’ represents dextrorotatory nature of the molecule., , . Itmay be remembered that.‘D' and ‘L’ have no relation with the optical activity of the compound., , | Glyceraldehyde contains one asymmetric C- atom and so exists in two enantiomeric forms as shown below., , CHO CHO, u + Ou HO -|- H, CHOH : CH,OH, i) +) - Glyceraidehyde ©) - Olyceraldehyde, , , , + Al those compounds which Gan'be chemically correlated to (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have, D-configuration whereas those which can be correlated to (-) isomer of glyceraldehyde are said to have, L-+onfiguration. As ‘the glucose is correlated to (+) isomer of glyceraldehyde so the D notation is given., , ISE (C;H,,O,): Fructose is an important ketohexose. It is obtained by the hydrolysis of sucrose. It, to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound., , , , , , , , , , , , es 1 a |, , c=0 HOH,C-C-OH Ho -C-CH,OH, HO-7— H Ho“}-H O note a8, u—- OH H -4- OH uo 4 on, H-}- OH H a] H-3, , CH,O CH,OH °CH,OH, , __D-(- Fructose @-D-()-Fruciofuranose 6 D ~ +) ~ Fruetofuranose
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ye membered ring is named as furanose with analogy to the, red cyclic compound with one oxygen and four carbon atoms. Th, :, ictose are represented by Haworth structures as ee, , 1 6, 0. CH,OH HOH,C oO. OH, H On HOH, a OH ANIg GHLOH, : OH .H OH oH, @-D-( - Fructofuranose £-D - (4) - Fructofuranose, , , , e disaccharides are formed by two units of monosaccharides. Thé two monosaccha, , “are joined together by an oxide linkage called. as glycosidic linkage. This is formed by the loss of a a ., molecule, ‘ a, , (i) Maltose: Maltose is called malt sugar. Maltose is composed of two a-D (+) -glucose units in which C i, one glucose is linked to C, of another glucose unit . The free aldehyde group can be produced at c, , second glucose in solution and so it is a reducing sugar. a ‘ _, : _ CraHa201; + H20_, , , , CeHy205. + CoH 206 |, , , , , , Maltese ~ a- D (#)-Giuca8e ~~ a- D.(+) Glucose =, ° oe, CH,OH . CHOH, On, rn“ ies cog, IK oH HS o, HONG! oi Sa, B on wn, o an, @—D— Glucose a-D-— Glucose, , ii) Sucrose : It is commonly called as cane sugar.Sucrose on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(4,., glucose and D-(-) fructose. : :, i C42H2204, + HO —-—--——---—--— CgHi205 + CeH1206, Sucrose a-D(+)Glucose - D(-) fructose, These two monosaccharides are held together by.a glycosidic linkage between C; of a-glucose and C; ofp., fructose. Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation,, sucrose is a non reducing sugar:, , , , , , n,0n é, °. Oo., e = ee at, HO ieee aS 1 : cron, ree otek, @- D=Giucose B-D — Fructose, , Sucrose, Inversion of cane sugar : Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and, laévorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (-92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of glucose (+, 52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of, rotation, from dextro.(+) to laevo (=) and the product is named as invert sugar., , (iii) Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk. It is, composed of B-D-galactose and B-D-glucose.The linkage is between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose., , _Hence it is also a reducing suigar., , , , , , , , , , e 6, CH,OH CH,OH, , rey, uo _4~8 See ou, K on HY 2 SoH HY, uN 27 iS H, H on Ho > foes, , ——#—D-—Galactose—_______#@=D-Gicose, Lactose, , , , , , Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by, glycosidic linkages. These are the most common carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as.the food, storage or structural materials.
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starch: Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. Iti, Dr beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, foots, ion ant onan oe, + _Itis'a polymer of a-glucose and consists of two components— Amylose and ‘Amylopectin., « Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes about 15-20% of starch. It is a long, un-branched chain with 200-1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units held by C1— C4 glycosidic linkage., « Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80- 85% of starch. It is a branched chain, polymer of a-D-glucose units in which chain is formed by C1-C4 a-glycosidic linkage whereas, , branching occurs by C1-C6 a-glycosidic linkage. ¥ oH H, Jee col cays cs : h 4 { _-- bronchi, , ° 6 o- ~ ae CHO}, al ow gy Get yg WAR gh Wh eH, Wl ong aa LG Ge Gis, Ary lose. : Ay lopeitiy 4 } a oy, , nt-organic substance in plant, lulose is a straight chainlinkage between C1 of, , i Cellulose: Cellulose Oceurs exclusively in plants and itis the most ‘abunda, kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant: cells...Ce, polysaccharide made up only by B-D-glucose units which are joined by B -glycosidic, one glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit. ,, , ast, , cyo4 oH, 4 °., ~, OK iG ph WAS, on oy Ho, , (ili) Glycogen: The glycogen is stored food material in animal body. It is. also known as animal starch, because its structure is similar to amylopectin but highly branched: It is present in liver, muscles and brain., When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen into glucose. Glycogen is also found in yeast, , and fungi., , Importance of Carbohydrates :, These are essential for life in both plants & animals. They form a major portion of our food., , * Honey is using as‘an instant source of energy by. ‘Vaids’ in ayurvedic system of medicine., , * These are used.as storage molecules’as starch in plants & glycogen in animals., , * Cell wall of bacteria & plants is made‘up of cellulose. The furniture,& the cloth cotton fibre is made, up of cellulose, z, , * These provide raw materials for may important industries like textiles, paper, lacquers etc., , « Two aldopentoses viz. D-ribose and 2-deoxy-D-ribose are present in nucleic acids., , * Carbohydrates are found in. biosystem in combination with many proteins and lipids., , Proteins: Proteins are high molecular’ weight polymers of a - amino acids which are joined by peptide, bond. Chief sources of proteins are,milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish, meat, etc. They occur in every part, of the body and form the fundamental basis of structure and functions of life. They are also required for, growth and maintenance of body. The word “proteios" means primary importance., , Amino acids : Amino acids are simple organic molecules having both amino (-NH2) and carboxy (COOH), group. And about 20 a-amino acids are found in proteins. The a-amino acids have general structure., HH, i, R-CH-COOH, , Classification of Amino Acids : arming audL, , , , 4) Depending upon the nature the amino acids are classified into three types., , a) Acidic amino acids: These amino acids contain more carboxylic (-COOH) group than amino (-NH2), groups .Ex : aspartic acid , glutamic acid. :, , b) Basic amino acids: These amino acids contain more amino (-NH)) group than groups carboxylic (COOH) group. Ex; Lysine, Histidine. :
