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Preface, , Each pupil is different in terms of learning ability, academic standards, class room, learning and academic performance and each has his/her own pace of learning. The aim of, the remedial material is to provide learning support to pupils who lag far behind their, counterparts in school performance. This material strengthens their confidence, enhances, the effectiveness in learning and enable them to score high marks., This book is based on the NCERT text book on biology class XI and it contains the, basic tips for easy learning and model questions. The ultimate aim of this teaching material, is to help pupils who have fallen behind to learn to the best of their ability and to bring them, back into the mainstream classes as far as possible., Authors

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CONTENTS, B, BO, OT, TA, AN, NY, Y, 1. Biological Classification ……………………………………………………………...... B, , 1– 2, , 2. Plant Kingdom ………………………………………………………………………………. B, , 3, , 3. Morphology of Flowering Plants ………………………………………………….. B, , 4–6, , 4. Anatomy of Flowering Plants ………………………………………………………… B, , 7–9, , 5. Cell : The Unit of Life …………………………………………………………………….. B 10 – 12, 6. Cell Cycle and Cell Division ……………………………………………………………. B 13 – 14, 7. Transport in Plants ……………………………………………………………………….. B 15 – 19, 8. Mineral Nutrition …………………………………………………………………………. B 20 – 23, 9. Photosynthesis in higher plants ……………………………………………………. B 24 – 26, 10. Respiration in Plants …………………………………………………………………….. B 27 – 31, 11. Plant Growth and Development ……………………………………………………, , B 32 – 34, , Z, ZO, OO, OL, LO, OG, GY, Y, 12. The Living World …………………………………………………………………………… Z 36 – 37, 13. Animal Kingdom …………………………………………………………………………… Z 38 – 39, 14. Structural Organisation in Animals ……………………………………………….. Z 40 – 43, 15. Biomolecules ………………………………………………………………………………… Z 44 – 46, 16. Digestion and Absorption …………………………………………………………….. Z 47 – 50, 17. Breathing and Exchange of Gases …………………………………………………. Z 51 – 53, 18. Body Fluids and Circulation …………………………………………………………… Z 54 – 57, 19. Excretory products and their Elimination ……………………………………… Z 58 – 60, 20. Locomotion and Movement ………………………………………………………….. Z 61 – 63, 21. Neural Control and Coordination ………………………………………………….. Z 64 – 68, 22. Chemical Coordination and Integration ………………………………………… Z 69 – 71, M, MO, OD, DE, EL, LQ, QU, UE, ES, ST, TIIO, ON, NS, S, 23. Botany & Zoology …………………………………………………………………………. Q 73 – 112

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CHAPTER WEIGHTAGE, B, BO, OT, TA, AN, NY, Y, MARKS, , 1. Biological Classification ……………………………………………………………...... 1, 2. Plant Kingdom ………………………………………………………………………………. 2, 3. Morphology of Flowering Plants ………………………………………………….. 3, 4. Anatomy of Flowering Plants ………………………………………………………… 3, 5. Cell : The Unit of Life …………………………………………………………………….. 3, 6. Cell Cycle and Cell Division ……………………………………………………………. 3, 7. Transport in Plants ……………………………………………………………………….. 2, 8. Mineral Nutrition …………………………………………………………………………. 2, 9. Photosynthesis in higher plants ……………………………………………………. 4, 10. Respiration in Plants …………………………………………………………………….. 4, 11. Plant Growth and Development ……………………………………………………, , 3, , Z, ZO, OO, OL, LO, OG, GY, Y, 12. The Living World …………………………………………………………………………… 1, 13. Animal Kingdom …………………………………………………………………………… 5, 14. Structural Organisation in Animals ……………………………………………….. 3, 15. Biomolecules ………………………………………………………………………………… 4, 16. Digestion and Absorption …………………………………………………………….. 3, 17. Breathing and Exchange of Gases …………………………………………………. 2, 18. Body Fluids and Circulation …………………………………………………………… 3, 19. Excretory products and their Elimination ……………………………………… 2, 20. Locomotion and Movement ………………………………………………………….. 2, 21. Neural Control and Coordination ………………………………………………….. 3, 22. Chemical Coordination and Integration ………………………………………… 2

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Five kingdom classification, , CHAPTER 2, BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION, Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Animalia, , Proposed by R H Whittaker, Criteria, , 1.Cell structure,, 4.Reproduction, 2.Thallus / body organisation,, 5.Phylogenetic relationship, 3.Mode of nutrition,, ARCHAEBACTERIA, , THERMOACIDOPHILES, , HALOPHILES, , METHANOGENS, , Live in hot springs, , Live in salty areas, , Live in marshy areas, Produce methane., ( cooking gas)., , EUBACTERIA, True bacteria.Presence of rigid cell wall and if motile ,with flagellum., a) Cyanobacteria ( Blue green algae ), Eg : Nostoc, Anabaena, Photosynthetic autotrophs, Presence of gelatinous sheath., Nitrogen fixing cells called heterocyst, Forms algal blooms ( extensive growth of cyanobacteria ) in polluted, water bodies., b) Chemosynthetic bacteria, Oxidise various inorganic substances ( nitrates,nitrites and ammonia ), and use the released energy for their ATP production.Helps in nutrient recycling., c) Heterotrophic bacteria, Important decomposers,helpful in making curd from milk,, production of antibiotics., d) Mycoplasma, The smallest living cells known, lack cell wall, pathogenic,can survive without oxygen., PROTISTA, 1 Chrysophytes Eg : Diatoms, Chief producers in oceans, Indestructible cell wall (made up of silica ) deposits of diatoms form diatomaceous earth., It is used in polishing,filtration of oils and syrups., Eg : Gonyaulax, 2 Dinoflagellates, Forms red tide. Toxins kill fishes., 3 Euglenoids, Eg : Euglena, They are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight whereas heterotrophic, in absence of sunlight.They have pellicle instead of cell wall., 4 Slime moulds, Saprophytic protists.They form plasmodium under suitable conditions., During unfavourable conditions,plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies, bearing spores at its tip., 5 Protozoans, Group, Locomotary organ, Examples, Disease, Amoeboid, Pseudopodium, Amoeba, Amoebic dysentery, Flagellated, Flagella, Trypanosoma, Sleeping sickness, Ciliated, Cilia, Paramoecium, Sporozoan, Plasmodium, Malaria, , B-1

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Chapter 5, , MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS, MODIFICATION, , FUNCTION, ROOT MODIFICATION, , Prop Root, Stilt Root, Pneumatophores, Tubers, , Mechanical support, Mechanical support, Respiration, Storage, , EXAMPLE, , Banyan tree, Sugar cane, Maize, Rhizophora, Carrot, Sweet potato, , STEM MODIFICATION, , Underground Stem, Tendril, Thorn, Fleshy Flattened Structure, , Storage, Climbing, Protection, Photosynthesis, , Potato, Ginger & Turmeric, Gourds & Grape wine, Bougainvillea, Euphorbia & Opuntia, , LEAF MODIFICATION, , Tendril, Spine, Pitcher, , Climbing, Defence, Insectivorous, , Pea, Cacti, Pitcher Plant, Venus-fly trap, , Phyllotaxy :- The mode of arrangement of leaf on stem or branch. 3 Types, Alternate, , Opposite, , Single leaf in each node, , Whorled, , Two leaves in each node arranged in opposite, manner, Eg:- Calotropis & Guava, , More than two leaves in each, node, Eg:- Alstonia, , Eg :- China Rose,, Mustard, Inflorescence :- The arrangement of flowers on floral axis is called inflorescence. Two types, Racemose :- Flowers in acropetal succession, Cymose :- Flowers in basipetal order, Types of Flower, TYPES, , CHARACTER, , EXAMPLE, , Actinomorphic, , Can cut into two equal halves, through any radial plane, , Mustard, Chilli, A), , Zygomorphic, , Can cut into two equal halves, only through one vertical plane, Asymmetric, Cannot be cut into two equal, halves, A) Hypogynous Ovary superior, B) Perigynous Ovary half inferior, C) Epigynous, Ovary inferior, , Pea, Bean & Cassia, Canna, B), China rose, Mustard, Rose, Peach, Cucumber,, sunflower, , C), B-4

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Aestivation :- The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in a flower, Valvate, Twisted, Imbricate, Overlapping absent, Regular overlapping, Overlapping present,, one in and one out, Eg:- Calotropis, , Eg:- China rose & cotton, , Eg:- Cassia & Gulmohur, , Placentation :- Arrangement of ovules within the ovary, Marginal, Axile, Parietal, , Vexillary/Papilionaceous, 5 petals – 1 large standard, petal, 2 lateral wing petals, and 2 united keel petals, Eg:- Pea & bean, , Free central, , Basal, , Ovule present on, the margin of ovary, , Ovule present on the, central axis of ovary, , Ovule present on the, inner wall of ovary, , Ovule present on the, central axis without, septa of ovary, , Ovule present in, the base of ovary, , Eg:-Pea, , Eg:-China rose,, Lemon, , Eg:- Mustard, , Eg:-Dianthus, , Eg:-Sunflower, , Floral Characters, Calyx - composed of sepals; gamosepalous - Sepals united; Polysepalous – Free sepals, Corolla - composed of petals; gamopetalous, - Petals united; Polypetalous – Free petals, Perianth – composed of tepals., Androecium - composed of Stamens, Epipetalous – Stamen attached to petals; Epiphyllous – stamens, attached to perianth; Polyandrous – free stamens; Monoadelphous- Stamen united to form single bundle;, Diadelphous – Stamen united to form two bundles. Polyadelphous – Stamens in more than two bundle, Gynoecium – composed of carpels; Syncarpous – capels united; Apocarpous- Carpels free, , Symbols, K, C, , Expansion, Calyx, Corolla, , P, A, G, , Perianth, Androecium, Gynoecium, , G--, , superior ovary, hypogynous, flower, Inferior ovary, epigynous flower, Half Inferior ovary, perigynous, flower, Bisexual flower, , G-G--, , Symbols, , K(5), C(5), P3+3, C1+2+(2), A(9)+1, , Expansion, Actinomorphic flower, Zygomorphic flower, Calyx consist of 5 sepals, gamosepalous, Corolla consist of 5 petals,gamopetalous, Perianth consist of 6 tepals, arranged in, two whorls, 5 petals – 1 large standard petal, 2 lateral, wing petals and 2 united keel petals, , 10 stamens, diadelphous, Epipetalous stamens, Epiphyllous stamen, , Bicarpellary, syncarpous &, superior ovary, , 5 stamens, free stamens, B-5

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CHAPTER 6, ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS, Meristematic Tissue, , Apical Meristem, Present on the tip of stem & root, , Intercalary Meristem, Occupy between the mature tissue, , Produce primary tissue, Help to increase in length, , Help to increase in internode length, In grasses it regenerate the part, removed by grazing, , Lateral Meristem, Occupy in the mature tissue and, lateral in position, Involved in producing secondary, tissues in plants, Vascular cambium & cork, cambium are examples, , Permanent Tissues, Simple Permanent Tissue, (Only one types of cells), Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma, •Thin walled & Cellulosic • Cells thick walled at, • Dead, lignified &, corners, thick walled, •Cells spherical, circular, polygonal, oval or round • Cells spherical, oval or • Cells may be fibers or, polygonal, sclereids, • Protoplasm absent, •Photosynthesis, storage, & Secretion are the, functions, , • Mechanical support to • Mechanical support, growing part, to organs, , Epidermal Tissue System, Consist of, Epidermal cells, Stomata,, Trichomes & hairs, , Tissue System, Ground Tissue System, Ground tissue of leaf is called Mesophyll Tissue, , Complex Permanent Tissue, (More than one types of cells), Xylem, Phloem, •Consist of 4 types of •Consist of 4 types of, components, components, •Tracheids, •Sieve tube elements, •Vessels, •Companion cells, •Xylem Fibers, •phloem Fibers, •Xylem Parenchyma •phloem Parenchyma, •Conducting tissue, •Transport food, for water and, materials, minerals, Vascular Tissue System, Consist of, Xylem, Phloem, , Types of Vascular Bundles, Radial, , Xylem & phloem in, alternate manner, Eg: Vascular bundle of, Roots, , Conjoint, , Endarch, , Xylem & phloem are situated on the same, radius, Open, , Eg: Dicot stem, , Closed, , Eg: Monocot stem, , Exarch, , Protoxylem towards, the pith and, metaxylem towards, the periphery, , Metaxylem towards, the pith and, protoxylem towards, the periphery, , Eg: Vascular bundle, of stem, , Eg: Vascular bundle, of Roots, , Bulliform cells :- Large, empty and colourless cell present on the upper epidermis of grass leaves, During water stress bulliform cell minimize water loss by curling the leaf, , B-7

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Primary Characters of Stem, Root & Leaf, STEM, • Conjoint Vascular bundles, • Endarch Vascular bundles, Monocot Stem, • Sclerenchymatous, hypodermis., • Numerous vascular, bundles, , Dicot Stem, • Collenchymatous, hypodermis, • Limited number of, vascular bundles, , • Sclerenchymatous, bundle sheath present., • Vascular bundle are, scattered, • Closed vascular bundle, • Water containing, cavity present in xylem, , • Sclerenchymatous bundle, cap present., • Vascular bundle are, arranged in ring., • Open vascular bundle, • Pith present, , ROOT, • Radial Vascular bundles, • Exarch Vascular bundles, • Casparian thickening present in endodermis, Monocot Root, Dicot Root, • Numerous vascular, • Limitted number of, bundles, vascular bundle, • Pith is large, • Pith is small, • Secondary growth, • Secondary growth, absent, present, , LEAVES, • Chlorenchymatous mesophyll, Monocot Leaf, Dicot Leaf, • Isobilateral leaf, • Dorsiventral leaf, • Stomata on both upper & lower epidermis, • Stomata on lower epidermis only, • Mesophyll tissue is not differentiated, • Mesophyll tissue has upper palisade and lower, spongy parenchyma, Annual Rings :- Presence of two kinds of wood as concentric rings constitute annual ring., It help to estimate the age of trees, Early wood, Late wood, Cambium more active, produce large amount of Cambium less active, produce fewer xylem, xylem with wider cavity, elements with narrow cavity, Heartwood, The central hard, dark brown, durable part of, secondary xylem filled with resins, oils and tannin., Heartwood is resistant to attack of microorganism, and insects, so it is used for making furniture., , Sapwood, The peripheral light coloured portion of secondary, xylem involved in conduction of water., , B-8

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Lenticels, Lens shaped opening on periderm after secondary growth. It permit the exchange of gases., , Secondary Thickening, Dicot stem, A) Formation of cambial ring, • Cambial ring = Intrafascicular, cambium+Interfascicular cambium, • Cambial ring produce outer Secondary phloem, and inner Secondary xylem, B) Formation of Cork cambium or, phellogen, • Phellogen produce outer Phellem ( Cork) and, inner Phelloderm (Secondary cortex), • Periderm = Phellem+phellogen+phelloderm, , Dicot Root, • Cambial ring is wavy in nature, • Cambial ring completely secondary in orgin, , B-9

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CHAPTER 8, CELL- THE UNIT OF LIFE, Mesosomes – Infoldings of cell membrane in prokaryotic cells., Function is cell respiration., Polysomes / Polyribosomes, Many ribosomes attached to single mRNA, Function is protein synthesis, , Prokaryotic cell, , Eukaryotic cell, , 1 No well defined nucleus, 2 No membane bound organelles, 3 70 S ribosomes, , Well defined nucleus present, Membrane bound organelles, present, 80 S ribosomes, , Different Cell organelles, Cell organelles, Types / Features, , Function, , Rough ER( RER ), , Protein Synthesis, , Smooth ER ( SER ), , Lipid Synthesis, , Endoplasmic reticulum, , Cisternae -Flat ,disc shaped, Golgi bodies, Vesicles -Round or oval, , Packing of materials,, formation of glycoproteins, , Contain hydrolytic enzymes Digestion of lipids,, ( hydrolases ),active at, Carbohydrates & proteins., Lysosomes ( Suicidal bags ), acidic p H, 70 S in prokaryotes, , Ribosomes, , Protein synthesis, 80 S in eukaryotes, , Mitochondria, ( Power house of the cell ), , Double membraned, Infolding - Cristae, Chromoplast, , Plastids, , Leucoplast, Chloroplast, , B-10, , Aerobic respiration, ATP formation, Give colour to plant parts, Store carbohydrates,fats, or proteins, Photosynthesis

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Double membraneous organelles – Chloroplast, Mitochondria,Nucleus, Endomembrane system – ER, Golgi bodies,Lysosomes,Vacuoles, Non membraneous organlles - Ribosomes, Ribosomes are seen in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, , Fluid mosaic model by Singer and Nicolson, Plasma membrane consists of :, a) a lipid bilayer ( Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail ), b) Two types of proteins ( Peripheral proteins & Integral proteins ), , Types of Chromosomes, Types, , Position of centromere, Middle, , Metacentric, , Equal arms, Slightly away from the middle, , Sub metacentric, , One long and one short arm, Close to end, , Acrocentric, One long and one short arm, Telocentric, , At the tip, , B-12, , Diagram

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CHAPTER 10, CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION, Phases of cell cycle, G0 Phase/ Quiescent stage, Inactive stage of cell cycle., Cell do not divide further, Cells remain metabolically active., , 1 Interphase, , G1 phase, ( Gap 1), S phase, ( Synthetic ), G2 Phase, ( Gap 2 ), 2 Mitotic, , Cells metabolically active,, Cell grow in size, DNA synthesis, Protein synthesis, Cell growth continues, , phase / M Phase, , 1. Karyokinesis( Nuclear division ), 2. Cytokinesis ( Cytoplasmic division ), , Mitosis, Consists of 4 stages : Prophase,Metaphase,Anaphase and Telophase, , Metaphase, Chromosomes are arranged at the equatorial plane called metaphase plate, attached to kinetochore of chromosomes., , Anaphase, The centromere of the chromosome splits and the chromatids, separate., The separated chromatids move towards the respective poles., , Significance of mitosis, 1 Mitosis help in cell growth., 2 Maintenance of chromosome number., 3 Two daughter cells formed are identical to the parent cell., , B-13

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Meiosis, Prophase 1 of Meiosis, 1 Leptotene, 2 Zygotene, 3 Pachytene, 4 Diplotene, 5 Diakinesis, , Chromosomes are visible under a light microscope, Pairing of homologous chromosomes(Synapsis),Synaptonemal, complex, Crossing over takes place- Enzyme Recombinase,Recombination, nodule formation., Dissolution of synaptonemal complex,Chiasmata formation., Terminalisation of chiasmata, , 1 Significance of meiosis, 2 Four daughter cells are formed ., 3 Chromosome number is reduced to half of parent cell., 4 Meiosis causes variation of genetic character due to crossing over., , Mitosis, , Meiosis, , 1. Two daughter cells are formed, 2. Equational division, 3.Takes place in somatic cells, 4. Cell growth, , 1. Four daughter cells are formed, 2. Reduction division, 3. Takes place in reproductive cells., 4. Gamete formation, , B-14

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CHAPTER 11, TRANSPORT IN PLANTS, Xylem- Conduction of water and mineral nutrients ,unidirectional, (only upwards), Phloem- Translocation of prepared food materials ,bidirectional, ( Both upwards and downwards ), , PASSIVE TRANSPORT, , ACTIVE TRANSPORT, , Energy independent process, Molecules move from higher, , Energy dependent process, Molecules move from lower, , concenteration to lower concenteration, , concenteration to higher concenteration, , Diffusion :- Random movement of molecules from a region of higher conc to, , to a region of lower conc ( along conc gradient )., It does not require energy., Facilitated diffusion :- is a type of diffusion in which certain proteins, ( porins) helps to move across the membrane., Carrier proteins (porins) allow diffusion only if two types of, molecules move together.Eg : Aquaporins – Water channels, , FACILITATED DIFFUSION, Uniport :- Molecules move across the membrane independent of, other molecules., Antiport :- Both the molecules cross in opposite directions., Symport :- Both types of molecules cross the membrane in the, same direction., , Active transport :- Movement of substance from lower conc to higher, Conc ( against conc gradient ) . It requires energy. Eg :- Mineral ion, absorption, , B-15

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IMBIBITION, Absorbtion of water by solids / colloids thereby increase in volume., Dry seeds absorb water by imbibition., , Water potential, , It is the potential energy of water which helps, in the movement of water molecules., , Factors, Pressure potential, Solute potential, , of pure water = 0, When solute is added, , =, , decreases, , When pressure is applied = =, , increases, , is always negative, , is always positive, , Isotonic solution :- External solution has same concentration as that, of cytoplasm., Hypertonic solution :- External solution has more concentration than, cytoplasm., Hypotonic solution :-External solution has low concentration than, , cytoplasm., , B-16

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Osmosis :- Movement of water molecules from a region of higher conc, to a region of its lower conc through a semi permeable membrane., Endosmosis :- If a cell is placed in hypotonic solution,water enters into, the cell. Eg :- Grapes put it in pure water., Exosmosis :- If a cell is placed in hypertonic solution, water moves out, of the cell .Eg :- Fresh mango put it in salt water, If a cell is placed in isotonic solution , no net movement of water, into the cell or out of the cell., Osmosis experimentally proved by thistle funnel experiment., , Plasmolysis :- Shrinkage of protoplast from the cell wall due to exosmosis, when the cell is placed in hypertonic solution., Deplasmolysis :- When the plasmoysed cell is placed in pure water it, regains its original shape., , Two pathways of water transport, Apoplast pathway :- Movement of water through intercellular spaces, and cell wall., Most of the water flows through apoplast pathway., Symplast pathway :- Water moves through cytoplasm ie ,, through plasmodesmata., Endodermis is impervious to water because of casparian thickening, made up of suberin., , B-17

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Passage cell :- Some of the endodermal cells lack casparian thickening and, water enters the xylem through passage cell., Root hairs absorb water from the soil, , Pathway of water movement in root, , al, , Mycorrhiza :- Symbiotic association between fungus and roots of, higher plants.Eg :- Pinus ( Gymosperm), Fungus provide water & minerals to roots and roots provide, protection to fungi., Ascent of sap :- Upward movement of water from the root, towards the top of the plant through xylem., , Guttation :- Loss of water in the form of water droplets through, special openings on leaf endings due to root pressure., Transpiration :-Loss of water in the form of water vapour through, stomata on leaves ., , Stomata are minute pores present on the surface of leaves surrounded, by guard cells., Guard cells are surrounded by subsidiary cells., , B-18

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Theories of water translocation, Cohesion-tension / Transpiration pull theory proposed by, Dixon and Jolly., Cohesion :- Attraction between water molecules., Adhesion :- Attraction between water molecules and xylem, vessels., Transpiration pull exert a negative pressure ,tension is generated, in the xylem transmitted down to the root cause uptake of water, by the roots., , Capillarity :- Rise in water in tubes of small diameter., , Transpiration is a necessary evil because :, 1. Creates transpiration pull for absorption and transport, of water., 2. Supplies water for photosynthesis, 3. Transport minerals from soil, 4. Cools leaf surface, 5. Maintain shape and structure of plants by keeping cells turgid., Inspite of all these advantages loss of water is a curse to plants., Hence it is called a necessary evil., , Mass flow hypothesis /Pressure flow hypothesis, The translocation of sugars from source ( by photosynthesis ) to sink., Osmotic pressure builds up the phloem sap move to area of lower pressure., , B-19

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CHAPTER 12, MINERAL NUTRITION, Hydroponics :- The technique of growing plants in nutrient solution, or, Soil-less cultivation of plants., Hydroponics was demonstrated by Julius Von Sachs ( 1860 ), Importance of hydroponics :a) Essential elements and their deficiency symptoms of plants could, be identified., b) Commercial production of tomato, seedless cucumber and lettuce., Nutrient solution must be aerated to obtain optimum growth., , Essential mineral elements, Macro nutrients (C , H , O, N ,P ,K Ca ,S, Mg ), Present in large amounts, Micro nutrients ( Mn , Zn, Mo, B , Cu, Cl, Fe ,Ni ), Present in small amounts, Criteria of essentiality of elements, a) Element must be absolutely necessary for growth and reproduction., b) Requirement of the element must be specific and not replaced by, another element., c) The element must be directly involved in the metabolism of, the plant., , B-20

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Some important functions of elements, Element, Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorous, Sulphur, Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum, Chlorine, , Functions, Important constituent of proteins, nucleic acids,vitamins etc, Anion cation balance in cells, Opening and closing of stomata, Maintain turgidity of cells, Phosphorylation reactions, Constituent of amino acid, Present in chlorophyll pigment, Activates enzymes in photosynthesis and respiration, Maintain ribosome structure, Formation of middle lamella of cell wall, Synthesis of chlorophyll,activates catalase enzyme, Splitting of water to liberate oxygen during photosynthesis., Auxin synthesis,activates carboxylase enzyme., Involved in redox reactions,overall metabolism in plants., Pollen germination, Component of nitrogenase and nitrate reductase, which participate in nitrogen metabolism., Anion cation balance in cells, water splitting reaction., , Deficiency symptoms / Hunger signs, 1. Chlorosis, 2. Necrosis, 3. Stunted plant growth, 4. Premature fall of leaves and buds, 5. Inhibition of cell division, Chlorosis :- Loss of chlorophyll leading to yellowing of leaves, Necrosis :- Localised death of leaf tissue., Nitrogen cycle :- Movement of nitrogen from the atmosphere to, living organism and back to atmosphere, Nitrogen fixation :- Process of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen, into inorganic nitrogen compounds. Eg :- Rhizobium, Nitrification :- Conversion of ammonia into nitrates., , B-21

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Ammonification :-Decomposition of organic nitrogen of dead plants, and animals into NH3, Denitrification :- Process by which nitrates in the soil are reduced, , to molecular nitrogen Eg :- Pseudomonas, Nitrogen cycle, , Biological Nitrogen fixation :- Conversion of nitrogen into ammonia, by living organisms., , Biological nitrogen fixers, Aerobic, Freeliving Azotobacter, N 2 fixers, Beijernickia, Symbiotic, N 2 fixers, , Anaerobic, Rhodospirillum, , Cyanobacteria, Anabaena, Nostoc, , Rhizobium, Frankia, , Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of legumes., Frankia on the root nodules of non legumes, Nitrogen fixing enzyme - Nitrogenase., Nitrogenase is Mo-Fe protein. It catalyses the conversion of atmospheric, nitrogen to ammonia., Nitrogen fixing gene - Nif gene, , B-22

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Pink colour pigment in root nodules-Leg haemoglobin, Function of leg haemoglobin-O2 scavenger, Nitrogenase enzyme is highly sensitive to O 2.Leg haemoglobin keeps, O2 away from nitrogenase enzyme.Hence it is called O 2 scavenger., , Nodule formation, Rhizobia multiply and colonise the surroundings of roots, ↓, Rhizobia get attached to epidermal and root hair cells, ↓, Root hair curl, ↓, Bacteria invade root hair, ↓, Infection thread is produced carrying the bacteria into the cortex of root, ↓, Nodule formation in the cortex of root, ↓, Bacteria released from thread into cells which leads to the differentiation, of specialised nitrogen fixing cells., ↓, Nodule establishes vascular connection with the host for exchange of, nutrients., , Fate of ammonia in plants, 1 Reductive amination : Enzyme is glutamate dehydrogenase, 2 Transamination : Enzyme is transaminase, , B-23

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CHAPTER 13, PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS, Name of scientist, , Contribution, , Julius Von Sachs, , Production of glucose when plants grow, , Joseph Priestley, , Role of air in the growth of green plants, , Jan Ingenhousz, , Sunlight is essential to the plant process., Only green part of plants release oxygen., , Photosynthetic pigments, Chlorophyll a ,Chlorophyll b, Xanthophyll and Carotene, , Pigment Systems ( LHC ), Pigment System I - P 700 + Accessory pigments, Pigment System II - P 680 + Accessory pigments, Mechanism of Photosynthesis, Light Reaction- Takes place in grana of chloroplast., a Photophosphorylation-Synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi in the presence, of light., Cyclic Photophosphorylation, 1 Electrons travel in a cyclic manner, 2 Only ATP is formed, 3 Only PS I is involved, 4 No photolysis, , Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation, 1 Electrons travel in a non-cyclic manner, 2 Both ATP and NADPH are formed., 3 Both PS I and PSII are involved, 4 Photolysis takes place., , b) Photolysis of water-Light induced splitting of water into electrons,protons and oxygen., , B-24

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CHAPTER 14, RESPIRATION IN PLANTS, Anaerobic Respiration, , Aerobic Respiration, 1 Takes place in presence of O2, 2 Complete oxidation of pyruvic acid, 3 End products are CO2 and water, 4 36 ATP molecules are formed, , Takes place in absence of O2, Incomplete oxidation of pyruvic acid, End products are ethyl alcohol and CO2, 2 ATP Molecules are formed, , Glycolysis / EMP PATHWAY, Takes place in cytoplasm of cell, Proposed by Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas, Common to both aerobic and anaerobic respiration., , B-27

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Aerobic oxidation of pyruvic acid ( Acetyl Co A formation ), Pyruvic acid formed in the cytoplasm is transported to mitochondria, , Acetyl CoA Iis the connecting link between Glycolysis and Kreb's cycle, , Kreb's cycle / Citric acid cycle / T C A Cycle, Proposed by Hans Kreb, Takes place in mitochondria, The first stable compound in Kreb's Cycle is Citric acid ( 6 C ).So called, Citric acid cycle., , Net gain of ATP during Aerobic respiration, Glycolysis, Acetyl CoA formation, Kreb's cycle, , 8 ATP, 6 ATP, 24 ATP, 38 ATP, 36 ATP, , B-28, , For prokaryotes, For eukaryotes

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Electron Transport System ( E T S ), The metabolic pathway through which the electrons pass from one carrier to, another is called ETS., It takes place in inner mitochondrial membrane., , B-29

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Name, Complex, Complex, Complex, Complex, Complex, , Components, 1 FMN, 2 Fe-S centres, , 1 – NADH dehydrogenase, 2 – FADH2 dehydrogenase, 3 – Cytochrome b c1 complex, 4– Cytochrome c oxidase, 5 – ATP Synthase, , 1 Cyt b, 1 Fe-S, 1 Cyt C1, 1 Cyt c, 1 Cyt a- a3, F0-F1 Component, , NADH2 AND FADH2 are oxidised to release the energy stored in them in the form, of ATP. Electrons are passed from one carrier to another and finally to 0 2, resulting in the formation of H2O – Terminal Oxidation, , Final electron and proton acceptor in ETS is Oxygen, , Respiratory Quotient ( R Q ), , Respiratory Substrate R Q Value, Carbohydrate, , RQ = 1, , Fat ( Tripalmitin ), , R Q less than 1, , Protein, , R Q less than 1, , Organic acid, , R Q greater than 1, , 1, , Calculate the R Q value., , RQ, , =, , RQ, , =, , Volume of CO2 evolved, Volume of O2 consumed, 6, , =1, , 6, 2 A seed released 102 molecules of CO2 by utilizing 145 molecules of O2 at a stage of its, germination, RQ =, Volume of CO2 evolved, Calculate the R Q value., Volume of O2 consumed, Name the respiratory substrate., 102 CO2, RQ =, = 0.7, 145 O2, , B-30

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ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION, Takes place in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes., Incomplete oxidation of glucose in the absence of oxygen where pyruvic acid is, converted to CO2,ethyl alcohol or lactic acid., Alcoholic fermentation, End products are CO2 and ethyl alcohol, Enzyme is alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactic acid fermentation, End products are CO2 and lactic acid., Enzyme is lactate dehydrogenase., , B-31

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CHAPTER 15, PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, HORMONE SCIENTIST, NATURAL / ARTIFICIAL, F W WENT, (Oat coleoptile, Curvature ), , AUXIN, , E KUROSAWA, GIBBERELLINS, , Bakane disease of, rice caused by, Gibberella fujikuroi, , CYTOKININ, , F SKOOG, , Indole 3-acetic acid ( IAA ), Indole butyric acid ( IBA ), Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA ), 2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid., ( 2,4-D ), GA1, GA2, Most common is GA 3, GA3, and so on, Kinetin ( Coconut milk ), Zeatin ( Corn kernals ), , PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS, (PGR), A) PLANT GROWTH PROMOTERS, HORMONE, , 1, , Auxin, , 2, , Gibberellins, , 3, , Cytokinin, , FUNCTIONS, 1. Apical dominance- Growing apical bud, initiate the growth of axillary buds., 2. Initiate rootings., 3.Promote flowering ., 4.Induce parthenocarpy., 5. 2,4 D is a weedicide., 1.Bolting- Internode elongation just prior to, flowering., 2.Delay senescence., , 1.Promote cell division, 2. Overcome apical dominance, 3.Delay leaf senescence., , B) PLANT GROWTH INHIBITORS, HORMONE, FUNCTIONS, Ethylene, 4, , 5, , ( Gaseous phytohormone ), Artificial – Ethephon, , Abscisic acid ( ABA ), , 1. Fruit ripening ., 2. Break seed & bud dormancy., 3.Promote abscission & Senescence, 4.Promote female flowers in Cucumbers, to increase yield., 1.Stress hormone., 2. Closure of stomata, 3.Seed development,maturation, 4. Induce dormancy., 5. Promote abscission of leaves,fruits etc, 6. Antagonistic to gibberellins., , B-32

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Geometric curve / Sigmoid curve, , 3 Phases of Growth, 1 Lag Phase ( Slow phase ), 2 Log Phase ( Fast /Exponential phase ), 3 Stationary Phase ( Steady phase ), , Arithmetic growth curve /, LINEAR GROWTH, , B-33

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VERNALISATION, In some plants flowering is promoted by its exposure to low temperature., Eg ;- Winter and spring varieties of food crops., , PHOTOPERIODISM, The flowering response of plants to the relative durations of day and night., Based on photoperiodic responses flowering plants are of three types., 1 Short Day Plants :-Chrysanthemum,Tobacco, Sugarcane, 2 Long Day Plants :-Cabbage,Wheat, 3 Day Neutral Plants :-Sunflower,Tomato, , B-34

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Taxonomical Aids, Types, , Specimen, , Nature, , Herbarium, , Plants, , Dead, , Botanical Garden, , Plants, , Live, , Museum, , Plants/Animals, , Dead, , Zoological Parks, , Animals, , Live, , Important Botanical Gardens, Kew Garden, Indian Botanical Garden, National Botanical Research Institute -, , England, Howrah, Lucknow, , Flora, - Habitat and distribution of plants of a given area., Manuals, - Information for identification of names of species found in an area., Monographs - Contain information on any one taxon., , Z-37

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Chordata, Notochord Present, , Nonchordata, Notochord absent, , Chondrichthyes, All are marine fishes, , Nervous system dorsal,, hollow and single, Pharyngeal gill slit, present, Post anal tail present, , Nervous system ventral,, solid and double, Pharyngeal gill slit absent, , They have cartilaginous, endoskeleton, Mouth is ventral, , Post anal tail absent, , Ventral heart, , Dorsal heart, , Gill slits separate, without operculum, Skin contain placoid, scales, Air bladder absent, Eg:-Shark, Trygon, , Flight adaptations of Birds, 1. Presence of feathers, 3. Pneumatic bone (hollow with air cavity) present, , Osteichthyes, It include both marine and, fresh water fishes, They have bony endoskeleton, Mouth is terminal, Four pair of gills covered by, operculum, Skin is covered with, cycloid/ctenoid scales, Air bladder present, Eg:- Exocoetus, Clarius, , 2. The forelimbs are modified into wings, 4. Air sacs present in lungs, , Chordata, , Protochordata, , Urochordata, Eg:- Ascidia, Salpa, , Vertebrata, , Cephalochordata, Eg:- Amphioxus, , Agnatha(Jaws absent), , Class Cyclostomata, Eg:- Myxine & Petromyzon, , Class, , Gnathostomata (Jaws present), Super class, , Pisces (Bear fins) Tetrapoda(Bear limbs), Class, Class, , 1. Chondrichthyes, 2. Osteichthyes, , 1. Amphibia, 2. Reptilia, 3. Aves, 4. Mammals, , “All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates”, In vertebrata, notochord is present in the embryonic stage. It is replaced by bony vertebra in adult stage, Identify the figures and name the phylum/animals, , Z-39

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CHAPTER 7, , STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS, Animal Tissues, Epithelial Tissue, Connective Tissue, Muscular tissue, Neural Tissue, Epithelial Tissue, Type, Features, , Squamous Epithelium, Single layer of flattened cells, , Cuboidal Epithelium, Single layer of cube like, cells, , Location, , walls of blood vessels and air, sacs of lungs, , ducts of glands and tubular, parts of nephrons in kidneys, , Function, , Act as diffusing layer, , Help in secretion and, absorption, , Columnar Epithelium, Single layer of tall and, slender cells, lining of stomach and, intestine, Help in secretion and, absorption, , Ciliated epithelium, • Type of columnar or cuboidal epithelium, • Their free surface bear cilia., • Present in hollow organs like bronchioles and, fallopian tube., , Glandular epithelium, Columnar or cuboidal epithelium involved in secretion., They are Unicellular Eg:- goblet cells of alimentary canal., Multicellular Eg:- salivary gland, ., , Compound epithelium, Multilayered (more than one) epithelium, Provide protection against chemical, hemical and, mechanical stresses, , Z-40

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Cell junctions, The structural and functional link between two cells is called cell junction, They are of three types, • Tight junction – help to prevent leakage of material across tissues., • Adhering junction – Keep neighbouring cells together., • Gap junction – Provide connection between cytoplasm & help in transfer of materials., Connective Tissue, Type, Loose connective, , Dense connective, , Specialised, , Sub type, Areolar tissue, Adipose tissue, Dense regular, a) Tendon, b) Ligament, Dense irregular, a ) Bone, Cells are called, Osteocytes, b ) Cartilage, Cells are called, Chondrocytes, , Function, Support frame work for, Epithelium, Store fat, , Location, Beneath the skin, Beneath the skin, , Attach muscle to bone, Attach bone to bone, Hard, rich in Calcium salts, Collagen fibres give strength, , Limb bones, , Solid, pliable, , Tip of nose,, outer ear, joints., , C ) Blood, Blood is a fluid connective tissue, It contain Red blood cells (RBC), White blood cells (WBC) and Platelets, , Z-41

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Muscular tissue, Skeletal Muscle, Also called striated muscle, or striped muscle, Found attached to, skeleton, body wall etc, Cells are multinucleate, Voluntary in activity, Cells are cylindrical and, parallely arranged, , Smooth Muscle, Also called non striped, muscle, Occur in the wall of internal, Organs, Cells are uninucleate, Involuntary in activity, Cells are fusiform shape, , Cardiac Muscle, Also called heart muscle, Occur in the heart wall, Cells are uninucleate, Involuntary in activity, Branched, intercalated disc, present, , Neural tissue, Tissue that control and coordinate the body., Consist of excitable cells called neuron., Neuroglia – Associated cells of neuron that protect and support neuron., EARTHWORM, • Commonly known as friends of farmers., o They make burrows in soil and make it porous, o Increase soil fertility by vermicomposting, • Common Indian earthworm are Pheretima and, Lumbricus., • Animal show true metamerism., • Calciferous gland in the stomach neutralize the humic, acid present in humus, , • 14 to 16 segments are called clitellum, • Setae are the locomotary organ., • Typhlosole of the intestine increase the, surface area for absorption., • Haemoglobin is dissolved in plasma., • Nephridia are the excretory organ., , COCKROACH, •, •, •, , Common cockroach is Periplaneta americana, Trachea are the respiratory organ, Cockroach is an uricotelic animal, , Digestive System, Crop, - Storage of food, Gizzard, - Grinding of food, Hepatic caeca - Produce digestive juice, Malpighian tubules - excretory organ, , Z-42

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Z-43

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Phosphodiester bond- The bond between the two nucleotides is called phosphodiester bond, DNA Structure – Watson & Crick Model, (B- DNA Model), 1. DNA exist as double helix, 2. The two strands are antiparallel, 3. Sugar-phosphate- sugar form the backbone, 4. ‘A’ pair with ‘T’ by two hydrogen bond (A=T), 5. ‘G’ pair with ‘C’ by three hydrogen bond, 6. Each strand appear as helical strand, 7. One full turn contain ten base pairs, 8. Pitch of the helix is 34 Ao, Protein Structure, Primary Structure, Secondary Structure, Tertiary Structure, Quaternary, Structure, • The sequence of, • The helically coiled, • Folded structure of, • A complex, aminoacids in Protein, structure of protein, Protein, structure formed, by the association, • Give positional, • Only right handed helix is • Three dimensional, of more than one, information of, observed, structure of Protein, polypeptide., aminoacids, • Eg:- Haemoglobin, , Enzymes:- Enzymes are biocatalyst. All enzymes are protein, Ribozymes:- RNA act as enzymes, Mode of enzyme Action, • Each enzyme has a specific site for binding, substrate, • Substrate bind to the active site of the enzyme, • The Enzyme –substrate complex (ES) is formed, • The ES complex reduces the activation energy, • This helps to break the bond in substrate to, form Product, • Enzyme-Product complex (EP) is formed, • The enzyme releases the product, , Z-45

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Factors affecting Enzyme Action, Temperature/PH, • On increasing temperature or PH the enzyme, activity increases., • The temperature/pH at which the activity of, enzyme is maximum is called Optimum, Temperature/pH, • An increase in temperature/pH beyond optimum, level decreases its activity., , Substrate concentration, • Increasing the substrate concentration increases, the rate of enzyme action at first, • The rate of enzyme action reaches to maximum, value (Vmax) at particular concentration of, substrate, • This is due to the saturation of enzyme., , Competitive Inhibition of Enzyme Action:- If the inhibitor molecule closely resemble the substrate it bind to, the active site of the enzyme and inhibit the activity of enzyme, Eg:- Inhibition of Succinate dehydrogenase by Malonate, Classification & Nomenclature of enzymes, Type, , Activity, , Oxidoreductases/Dehydrogenases, , Catalyse the oxidation reduction, reaction, , Transferases, , Catalyse the transfer of group, , Reaction, S red. +S’ oxd., , Catalyse the hydrolysis of ester,, ether, C-C, C-halide or P-N bond, Catalyse the removal of group, from substrate, Catalyse the inter conversion of, isomers, Catalyses the linking of two, compounds, , Hydrolases, Lyases, Isomerases, Ligases, , S oxd. +S’ red., , S-G + S’, , S +S’-G, , cx-cy, , c=c + xy, , Components of Enzyme, , Apoenzyme (Protein Part), , Prosthetic group, Tightly bound organic molecule, Eg:- Haem in peroxidase, , Co-factor (Non- protein part), , Co-enzyme, Loosely bound organic molecule, Eg:- Niacin in NAD or NADP, , Z-46, , Metal ion, Inorganic ion, Eg:- Zn in carboxy peptidase

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CHAPTER 16, DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION, Digestion :- The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms., Digestive System, , Alimentary canal, , Associated Glands, , Alimentary canal of Man, Mouth, , Buccal cavity, , Pharynx, , Anus, Stomach, Cardiac, Fundus, Pyloric, , Oesophagus, , Large intestine, Small Intestine, Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum, , Stomach, , Small intestine, Large Intestine, Caecum, Colon, Rectum, , Human Dentition : - Type and arrangement of tooth in the jaws., Thecodont :- Tooth embedded in a socket of jaw bones., Diphyodont :- Two sets of teeth develop during life time. They are Temporary milk teeth (deciduous teeth) and, Permanent (adult teeth)., Heterodont :- Four different types of teeth present in the permanent teeth of man., They are Incisors (I), Canines (C), Premolars (PM) and Molars (M)., Dental formula of Permanent teeth in man, Arrangement of different types of teeth in each half of upper and lower jaw., , Wall layers of alimentary canal, Wall layers, Features, Serosa, Outermost layer made up of thin epithelium called mesothelium, Muscularis, Formed of smooth muscles with inner circular and outer longitudinal layer., Sub-mucosa Loose connective tissue containing nerve, blood and lymph vessels, Mucosa, Innermost layer lining the lumen of alimentary canal, Villi :Small finger like folding in small intestine, Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called the lacteal., Goblet Cells :- Cells of the mucosal epithelium that secrete mucus which help in lubrication., , Z-47

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T. S of alimentary canal, , A section of villi, , Digestive glands, , Salivary Glands, , Gastric glands, , Parotid gland, Submaxillary gland, Sublingual gland, , Liver, , Pancreas, , Intestinal gland, , Liver is the largest gland., Hepatic lobule are covered by connective tissue sheath called, Glisson’s capsule, Pancreas is a compound gland. It has both endocrine and, exocrine part., , Digestive gland and their secretions, secretions:Gland, Salivary gland, Gastric gland, , Liver, , Secretion, Saliva or salivary Juice, Gastric Juice, , Bile, , Pancreas, , Pancreatic Juice, , Intestine, , Succus entericus, Or, Intestinal Juice, , Content/Enzymes, Salivary amylase, Lysozyme (anti-bacterial), (anti, Pepsinogen (inactive), Rennin, Bile pigments, Bile salts, Cholesterol, Phospholipids, Trypsinogen (inactive), Chymotrypsinogen (inactive), Procarboxypeptidase (inactive), Amylases, Lipases, Nucleases, Disaccharidases (eg:- Maltases), Dipeptidases, Lipases, Nucleosidases, , Z-48

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Activation of protein digestive enzymes, Pepsinogen, , Pepsin, , Trypsinogen, , Trypsin, , Chymotrypsinogen, , $ %&, , Chymotrypsin, , $ %&, , Procarboxypeptidases, Carboxypeptidase, Digestion of Food, Digestion of Carbohydrates, Gland & Enzyme, Activity, Salivary gland, Salivary amylase, Pancreatic gland, Pancreatic amylase, , Gland & Enzyme, Intestinal gland, Maltase, Lactase, Sucrase, , Digestion of Carbohydrates, Activity, , Gland & Enzyme, Gastric Gland, Pepsin, Rennin, Pancreatic Gland, Trypsin, chymotrypsin & carboxypeptidase, , Digestion of Protein, Activity, , (Infants), , Intestinal Gland, Dipeptidases, , Liver, Bile, , Digestion of Lipids, Bile does not contain any digestive enzyme., It help in emulsification of fat, During emulsification, fat is broken down into small micelles., Bile activates lipase enzyme, , Pancreatic Gland, Pancreatic lipases, Intestinal Gland, Intestinal lipases, , Z-49

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Digestion of Nucleic Acids, Pancreatic Gland, Nucleases, Intestinal Gland, Nucleotidases, Nucleosidases, Absorption of Fatty acids and glycerol, Fatty acids and glycerol are first incorporated into small droplets called micelles., They are converted into protein coated fat globules called chylomicrons., Chylomicrons are transported to lymph vessel called lacteal., From lacteal they are transported to blood., , Z-50

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CHAPTER 17, , BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES, Breathing, The process of exchange of oxygen from the atmosphere with carbondioxide produced by cells., Respiratory organs in animals, Organ, Animals, Skin, Earthworm, Trachea, Insects, Gills, Aquatic arthropods, Molluscs & Fishes, Lungs, Terrestrial animals, Human respiratory system, External nostril, , Nasal cavity, , Alveolus, , Nasopharynx, , Bronchioles, , Pharynx, , Bronchi, , Larynx, , Trachea, , Lungs :- The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli forms the lung, Pleura :- The membrane Covering the lungs, Epiglottis :- Opening of trachea called glottis is covered by cartilaginous flap called epiglottis., It prevents the entry of food into trachea., Respiratory volumes, Inspiratory Reserve, volume, IRV, Additional volume of air, a person can inspire by, a forcible inspiration, 2500-3000ml, , Tidal Volume, , Expiratory Reserve Volume, , Residual volume, , TV, ERV, RV, Volume of air inspired, Additional volume of air, Volume of air remaining in, or expired during, a person can expire by a, the lung after forcible, normal respiration, forcible expiration, expiration, 500ml, 1000-1100 ml, 1100-1200 ml, Total Lung Capacity (TLC), Total volume of air accommodated in lungs at the end of forced inspiration TLC= IRV+TV+ERV+RV, Vital capacity (VC), The maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forced expiration, VC= IRV+TV+ERV, Inspiratory Capacity (IC), Total volume of air that a person can inspire after a, normal expiration IC= IRV+TV, Expiratory Capacity (EC), Total volume of air that a person can expire after a, normal inspiration EC= TV+ERV, Functional Residual Capacity (FRC), Volume of air remain in the lungs after a normal, expiration FRC = ERV+RV, , Z-51

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Mechanism of Breathing, Inspiration, Breathing in of atmospheric air, The diaphragm contract, External intercostal muscle contract and lift the ribs, Sternum raised, diaphragm flattened, Thoracic volume Increases, Pulmonary pressure decreases, , Expiration, Breathing out of alveolar air, The diaphragm relax and dome shaped, Intercostal muscle relax, Sternum return to orginal position, Thoracic volume decreases, Pulmonary pressure increases, , Exchange of Gases, Diffusion is the basic principle behind gas exchange, It depends on the partial pressure of oxygen and carbondioxide., Blood, Alveoli, Respiratory Gases, (Deoxygenated), (mm Hg), (mm Hg), , Blood, (Oxygenated), (mm Hg), , Tissue, (mm Hg), , PO2, , 104, , 40, , 95, , 40, , PCO2, , 40, , 45, , 40, , 45, , Transport of Gases, O2 Transport, , CO2 Transport, , By two methods, 97% transported by RBC (Oxyhaemoglobin), 3% dissolved through plasma, , By three methods, 70 % transported as bicarbonate, 20-25% transported by RBC (carbamino-haemoglobin), About 7% dissolved through plasma, , Oxyhaemoglobin :- oxygen bind with haemoglobin in reversible manner to form Oxyhaemoglobin, Oxygen Dissociation Curve, A sigmoid curve obtained when percentage saturation of, haemoglobin is plotted against partial pressure of oxygen., Factors favourable for, formation of oxyhaemoglobin, High pO2, Low pCO2, Lesser H+ ion concentration, Lower temperature, , Z-52, , Factors favourable for, dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin, Low pO2, High pCO2, High H+ ion concentration, Higher temperature

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Transport of Carbon dioxide, a. Carbamino-haemoglobin :- CO2 is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin., b. Carbonic anhydrase :- The enzyme present inside the RBC, which reversibly convert CO2 to bicarbonate., , Regulation of Respiration, Respiratory rhythm centre present in the medulla region is the primary centre for breathing, regulation., Pneumotaxic centre present on the pons region of brain moderate the activity of respiratory rhythm, centre., A chemosensitive area adjacent to rhythm centre is activated by high concentration, of CO2 and H+ ion., Chemosensitive area signal the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustment., Disorder of Respiratory System, 1. Asthma, 2. Occupational respiratory disorder, 3. Emphysema :Chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged, decreasing the respiratory surface area., Cigarette smoking is the major cause of emphysema., , Z-53

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Chapter 18, BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION, Blood, Blood is a fluid connective tissue consisting of plasma and formed elements., , Plasma (55%), , Formed Elements (45%), , 90-92% of plasma is water, 6-8% protein, Three types of proteins*, Fibrinogen- For clotting of blood, Globulin - For immunity response, Albumin- For osmotic balance, , LEUCOCYTES, , Erythrocytes, , Leucocytes, , Known as RBC, 5 -5.5 million in blood, Formed in the red bone marrow, Biconcave shape without nucleus, RBC contain haemoglobin, 12-16 gm of haemoglobin in, 100ml of blood, Life span is 120 days, Spleen is the graveyard of RBC, , GRANULOCYTES, Granules in cytoplasm, , Platelets, , Known as WBC, Colourless cells without haemoglobin, They are nucleated, 6000-8000 mm-3 in blood, They are short lived., They are two types, , AGRANULOCYTES, No granules in cytoplasm, , Neutrophils, , Eosinophils, , Basophils, , 60 – 65 % of WBC, Phagocytic function, Most abundant cells, , 2 – 3 % of WBC, Allergic response, , 0.5 – 1 % of WBC, Inflammatory response, Least percentage in WBC, Secrete histamine, heparin, , Lymphocytes, 20 – 25 % of WBC, Immune response, Two types, T- Lymphocytes, B- Lymphocytes, , Platelets (Thrombocytes):Platelets are also called thrombocytes., Blood normally contain 1,50,000 – 3,50,000 platelets., Platelets are involved in coagulation of blood., Lymph:Lymph is colourless fluid containing specialized cell called lymphocytes., Z-54, , Monocytes, 6- 8 % of WBC, Phagocytic function

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Blood Groups, ABO Grouping, ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of antigen A and antigen B on RBC., The plasma of blood contain two antibodies namely anti-A and anti-B., , Universal Donor: - O group blood can be given to person with any other blood group., Universal Recipient: - Person with AB blood group can accept blood from person with AB as well as, the other groups of blood., Rh Grouping, Erythroblastosis foetalis, o Presence or absence of Rh antigen on the, Rh incompatibility observed in Rh –ve blood of, RBC is the basis of Rh grouping, pregnant mother with Rh +ve foetus., During, the delivery of first child Rh +ve antigen mix, o Rh antigen is similar to one that is present in, with mother blood., Rhesus monkey and majority of humans., Mother’s blood start to prepare antibody against, o Those with Rh antigen are called Rh positive, Rh antigen., (Rh+ve)., During next pregnancy Rh antibody enter into, o Persons without Rh antigen are called Rh, foetal blood and destroy the foetal RBC., negative (Rh-ve)., This severe anaemic fatal condition is called, erythroblastosis foetalis., Coagulation of Blood, The formation of clot or coagulum on the wound to prevent excessive loss of blood., Damaged tissue + Platelets, , Circulatory Pathways, Open Circulation, Present in arthropods and molluscs., Heart pumps the blood into open spaces or, sinuses., , Thrombokinase, , Closed circulation, Present in Annelids and chordates., Blood pumped by heart always circulated, through blood vessels., Z-55

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Hearts in Vertebrates, Organisms, Fishes, Amphibians &, Reptiles, Crocodiles, Birds, & Mammals, , Number of chamber, 2 – chambered, 1 Auricle & 1 Ventricle, 3 – chambered, 2 Auricles & 1 Ventricle, 4 – chambered, 2 Auricles & 2 Ventricles, , Features, Single circulation., Incomplete double circulation., Double circulation present., , Human Heart, Human heart is protected by a double walled membrane called pericardium., Four chambered, two auricles and two ventricles., Inter auricular septum separate the two auricles., Inter ventricular septum separate the two ventricles., Atrio-ventricular septum separate auricle from ventricle., Right auriculo-ventricular septum is guarded by tricuspid valve., Left auriculo-ventricular septum is guarded by bicuspid or, mitral valve., , The opening of pulmonary artery and aorta are guarded with, semilunar valves, , Nodal tissues of Heart and Activity:- Myogenic because activity is controlled by muscle node, Nodal Tissue, Activity of Nodal tissue, Sino-atrial node (SAN):S A node, Muscular tissue present in the right upper, corner of right auricle., Action Potential, SAN is known as the pacemaker of the heart., Atrial systole, Atrio-ventricular node (AVN) :Muscular tissue seen on the lower left corner, of right atrium., Action potential to AV node, Atrio-ventricular bundle (AV bundle) :Bundle of nodal fiber from AVN to the inter, ventricular septum, Action potential to AV bundle, AV bundle branch to form the right and left, bundle, Purkinje fibres :Action potential to Bundle of His, Minute muscle fibres present on the wall of, ventricle, Bundle of HIS:Action potential to Purkinje fibres, The purkinje fibre along with right and left, bundle is called bundle of His, Ventricular systole, Z-56

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Cardiac Cycle (0.8 Second), The sequence of events in the heart which, is cyclically repeated is called cardiac cycle., Each cardiac cycle have 3 stages, Atrial systole, • Contraction of auricle, • Blood is pumped into, ventricle, Ventricular systole, • Contraction of ventricular, muscle, • Tricuspid and bicuspid valve, close, • Semilunar valve open, • Blood is pumped out from, heart, Joint diastole, • Simultaneous relaxation of, atria & ventricle, , Electrocardiogram (ECG), The graphical representation of the electrical activity of, heart, Recorded by the machine electro cardiograph., ECG have, P - wave, Excitation or depolarization of atria, QRS – complex, Depolarization or contraction of Ventricle, T – wave, Repolarisation of ventricle, It makes the end of systole, Any deviation in ECG indicate the abnormality of heart. So, it is clinically important., , Cardiac Output = Stroke volume (70 ml) x Heart rate (75/ min) = 5 litres, Double Circulation, Double circulation = pulmonary circulation + systemic circulation, pulmonary circulation, systemic circulation, Right, ventricle, , Pulmonary, artery, , Lungs, , Left atrium, , Pulmonary, vein, , Disorders of Heart, High Blood Pressure (hypertension), Blood pressure above normal level., Blood pressure in hypertension is 140/90 mm Hg, Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg, Coronary Artery Diseases (CAD), Commonly known as atherosclerosis., It is due to the deposition of calcium, fat and, Cholesterol into the lumen of coronary artery., , Left, ventricle, , Aorta, , Right, atrium, , Tissues, , Vena cavae, , Angina, Commonly known as angina pectoris., Acute chest pain due to low supply of oxygen., Heart Failure, Heart is not pumping blood effectively., , Z-57

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CHAPTER 19, , EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION, Types of excretion, Type, Ammonotelism, Uricotelism, Ureotelism, , Nitrogenous waste, Ammonia, Uric acid, Urea, , Example, Bony fishes, Aquatic amphibian, Aquatic insects, Reptiles, Birds, Land snail, Insects, Mammals, Terrestrial amphibians, Marine fishes, , Excretory organs in Animals, Excretory Structure, Animals/Phylum, Flame cells (Protonephridia), Platyhelminthes, Cephalochordata, Nephridia, Annelids- Earthworm, Malpighian tubule, Insects – Cockroaches, Antennal gland or Green gland, Crustaceans- Prawn, HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM, Consist of a pair of kidney, One pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra., Internal Structure of Kidney, Cortex (outer part), •, •, •, •, , Medulla(inner part), , Medulla have conical pyramid called medullary pyramids, Medullary pyramids project into the calyces, Cortex extend into the medullary pyramids as renal columns called column of Bertini, Medullary pyramid containing millions of nephrons, NEPHRON, , Glomerulus, • Tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent, arteriole, , Renal tubules, Consist of, Bowman’s capsule, Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT), Henle’s Loop, Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT), Collecting duct, Peritubular Capillaries :- Network of capillary around the renal tubules formed from the efferent arteriole, Vasa recta:- Blood capillary run parallel to Henle’s loop as ‘U’ shaped structure, Process Of Urine Formation, 3 Steps, GLOMERULAR FILTRATION, TUBULAR REABSORPTION, TUBULAR SECRETION, • Also called ultrafiltration, • Selective reabsorption of, • Active secretion of some, nutrients and ions from renal, substances from the renal, • Water and dissolved, tubule, tubule into the peritubular, component of blood filter out, capillaries, from glomerulus, • 99 percentage of the filtrate is, reabsorbed., • GFR- Glomerular filtration rate, 125ml/minute, Z-58

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Transport Properties of renal tubule, •, •, •, Henle’s Loop, •, •, Distal convoluted tubule, •, •, Collecting Duct, •, Proximal convoluted, tubule, , Reabsorb all essential nutrients, water, NaCl, K+ and HCO3Selective secretion of H+ and NH3, Descending limb is permeable to water and impermeable to salt, Ascending limb is permeable to salt and impermeable to water, Reabsorption of water, NaCl and HCO3Selective secretion of H+ and K+, Large amount of water is reabsorbed, Small amount of urea is secreted, , Mechanism of Production of Concentrated Urine, Two features of nephron help to produce concentrated urine, 1. By maintaining a counter current flow of primary urine and blood in the Henle’s loop and vasa recta, respectively., 2. By maintaining high osmolarity in the medullary interstitium by diffusing urea and NaCl from collecting, duct and ascending limb of Henle’s loop., Regulation of Kidney Activity., ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone), • ADH increase in blood, • Increase the permeability of renal tubule, • More water is reabsorbed from descending, limb, • Level of ADH will be high in summer because, water is more reabsorbed from renal tubule, , JGA Activity (Renin- Angiotensin Mechanism), When GFR is less, JGA release renin, Angiotensinogen (in blood), Renin, Angiotensin –I, Renin, Angiotensin –II, Increases glomerular, blood pressure, , Stimulate adrenal cortex, secrete aldosterone, reabsorb Na+and H2O from, renal tubule, Increases glomerular, Blood pressure, , ANF :- Atrial Natriuretic Factor from auricle of heart act opposite to renin-angiotensin mechanism, , Z-59

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Disorder of Excretory system, 1. Glomerulonephritis:- Inflammation of glomeruli of Kidney, 2. Uremia :- Accumulation of urea in blood due to kidney failure, Haemodialysis :- A clinical treatment for treatment of uremia., , Nephron, , Internal Structure – Kidney, , Z-60

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Type, Amoeboid, Ciliary, Muscular, Structure of Muscle, , Chapter 20, LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT, Types of Movement, Example, Amoeba, Macrophages, & leucocytes, In Trachea & female, reproductive tract, Vertebrates, , Consist of several bundles called fascicles (Muscle bundles), Each fascicle contain cylindrical unbranched structure called muscle fibres, Each muscle fibre has lining membrane named sarcolemma, Cytoplasm called sarcoplasm is with many nuclei (Syncitium), Sarcoplasmic reticulum – Endoplasmic reticulum of muscle fibre, Sarcomere, Sarcomere is the structural and functional unit of contraction in muscle, It is the space in between two Z- lines, Each sarcomere have, A-band(Anisotropic Band), - dark band consist of myosin filament, I-band (Isotropic Band) - Light band consist of an actin filament, H- zone, - Central part of A- band not overlapped by actin filament, Z- line, - An elastic fiber present at the centre of I- band, , Myofibrils Or Myoifilaments, Sarcoplasm contain parallely arranged protein filaments called myofibrils. They are two types, Actin, Myosin, Consist of 3 elements, F- actin- Made up of two helically, wound filament with G- actin units, Tropomyosin – two tropomyosin, filament run paralley with F-actin, Troponin - Small globular protein mask, the active site of actin, , Made up of meromyosin units, It has a globular head and tail, Head is called heavymeromyosin (HMM), Tail is called lightmeromyosin (LMM), Head contain two sites –, ATP binding site, Actin binding site, , Z-61

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Mechanism of Muscle Contraction, , Sliding Filament Theory, Signal reaches to the, neuromuscular junction, through motor neuron, , Signal from Central, Nervous system, , Release acetyl choline at, neuromuscular junction, , Active site of actin, expose, , Ca2+ bind to, troponin, , Sarcoplasmic, reticulum release, Ca2+, , Generate action, potential in, sarcolemma, , ATP converted into, ADP in myosin, head, , Myosin head binds, to active site of, actin (Cross bridge, formation, , ADP released from, myosin head, , myosin pull actin, filament over it, , Changes in the sarcomere during Muscle contraction, Z- line come pulled inwards, H-zone disappear, Length of sarcomere decreases, , Red Muscle, Reddish appearance, High amount of myoglobin, Large number of mitochondria present, Prolonged contraction without fatigue, , White Muscle, Whitish appearance, Low amount of myoglobin, Less number of mitochondria present, Soon become fatigue, , SKELETAL SYSTEM (206), Axial Skeleton (80), Skull, (22), Cranial (8), , Ear osscicles, (6), , Appendicular Skeleton (126), Hyoid, (1), , Vertebral column Sternum Ribs, Fore Limbs, (26), (1), (12 pairs) (60), , Facial(14), , Pectoral girdle (4), Z-62, , Hind Limbs, (60), Pelvic girdle (2)

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Vertebral column, Cervical (7), , Thoracic(12), , Lumbar(5), , Fore Limbs (2x30=60), Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges, , Wrist bones, Palm bones, Digits, , 1, 1, 1, 8, 5, 14, , Total, , 30, , Sacral(1), , Coccygeal(1), , Hind Limbs (2x30=60), Femur, Thigh bone, 1, Tibia, 1, Fibula, 1, Tarsals, Ankle bones, 7, Metatarsals, 5, Phalanges, Digits, 14, Patella, Knee cap, 1, Total, 30, , Cavities in Girdle Bones, Glenoid Cavity – Cavity present in the scapula of pectoral girdle, Acetabulum – Cavity present in the coxal bone of pelvic girdle, , Type, Fibrous Joint, Cartilaginous Joints, , JOINTS, Features, Do not allow any movement, Bones are joined with cartilage, Allow limited movements, , Example, Skull joints, Vertebral column, , Synovial Joints, Characterised by the fluid filled synovial cavity, Type, Example, Ball and Socket, Between humerus and pectoral girdle, Hinge joint, Knee Joint, Pivot Joint, Between atlas and axis, Gliding Joint, Between carpals, Saddle Joint, Between carpal and metacarpal, Disorders of Muscular Systems, Myasthenia gravis :- Autoimmune disorder of neuromuscular junction, Muscular Dystrophy :- Genetic disorder leading to degeneration of muscles, Arthritis :- Inflammation of joints, Osteoporosis :- Age related disorder leading to bone weakening, Low level of oestrogen is the reason, Gout :- Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid, , Z-63

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Chapter 21, , NEURAL CONTROL AND CO, COORDINATION, Human Neural Systems, , Central Neural System (CNS), , Brain, , Peripheral Neural System (PNS), (All neurons associated with ANS), , Spinal cord, Afferent Fibres, , Somatic Neural System, (Impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles), , Efferent Fibres, , Autonomic Neural System, (Impulses from CNS to smooth muscles), , Sympathetic Neural System, , Parasympathetic Neural System, , Structure of Neuron, Cell body called cyton contain cytoplasm with granular body called, Nissl’s granules., Short repeatedly branching fibres from cyton are called dendrites, Axon is the long fibre with branched distal ends., Axon transmit impulse away from cyton., Myelinated neuron, The nerve fibre is covered with, Schwann cells., Schwann cell produces myelin, sheath around the axon., Found in spinal and cranial, nerves., , Non-myelinated neuron, The nerve fibre is covered with, Schwann cells., Schwann cell does not, produces myelin sheath, around the axon., Found in autonomous and, somatic neural system., , Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse, Resting axonal membrane of neuron is polarized due to, • Axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and nearly impermeable to Na+ ions., • Axonal membrane is impermeable to negatively charged proteins present in axoplasm., • The sodium-potassium, potassium pump transport 3 Na+ outwards for 2 K+ ions into cells, This condition make the outer part of axonal membrane become positive and inner become negative. The, potential difference is called Resting Potential., , Z-64

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Membrane, , Polarised axonal, membrane (Resting, potential ), , Stimulus, , become freely, , nerve impulse, , Action, potential, , Depolarisation, of axonal, membrane, , Reversal of, polarity, , Depolarisation, to the next site, , Nerve impulse, transmitted, , permeable to, Na+, , Influx of Na+, , Reversal of, polarity, , Transmission of Nerve Impulse, Nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another neuron through junctions called synapses., synapses, Synapse has a pre-synaptic, synaptic neuron and post, post-synaptic neuron, The space in between the two neuron is called synaptic cleft, Synapses are of two types, Electrical synapses, Chemical synapses, Membranes of pre-synaptic, synaptic and post, post-synaptic, Membranes of pre-synaptic, synaptic and post-synaptic, neuron are very close, neuron are separated by fluid filled synaptic cleft., Electrical current flow from one neuron to another, Chemicals called neurotransmitter are involved in, for impulse transmission, impulse transmission., Impulse transmission is faster, Impulse transmission is slower., Transmission of nerve impulse in chemical synapse, , Impulse or action, potential at axon, terminal, , Movement of, synaptic vesicles, towards, membrane, , Synaptic vesicles, fuses with, plasmamembrane, , Neurotransmitter, released into the, synaptic cleft, , Binding opens, ion channel in, post synaptic, membrane, , Neurotransmitter, bind to the, specific receptors, , Action potential, generated in post, synaptic neuron, , Z-65

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Central Nervous system, Consist of brain and spinal cord, Brain is protected by skull, Brain is covered by cranial meninges, , Forebrain, Cerebrum, , Thalamus, , Meninges consist of three layers, • Outer – Dura mater, • Middle – Arachnoid, • Inner – Pia mater, BRAIN, , Midbrain, , Hindbrain, , Hypothalamus, , Pons, , Cerebellum, , Medulla, , Corpora quadrigemina, , Parts of Brain, Cerebrum, , Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic System, , Medulla, , Features/functions, Cerbrum has two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum., It has an outer grey matter and inner white matter., Grey matter have motor area, sensory area and association area., Thalamus is the major coordinating centre for sensory and motor, signaling., Control body temperature, urge for eating and drinking., Act as endocrine gland and secrete hormones., It contain inner part of cerebral cortex, amygdala & hippocampus, It is involved in regulation of sexual behaviour, expression of emotions and, motivation, Control respiration, gastric secretion & cardiovascular reflexes., , Reflex action:Rapid involuntary, unconscious response of the body to a stimulus is called reflex action., Reflex arc, , Stimulus, , Sensory organ, (Receptor), , Sensory neuron, (Afferent, neuron), , Inter neuron, , Effector organ, (Muscle/Gland), , Efferent neuron, (Motor neuron), , Eg:- Knee Jerk Reflex, , Z-66

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Eye, • The eye ball have three layers, Outer – Sclera, Middle – Choroid, Inner -Retina, • Cornea is the anterior portion of sclera, • Retina contain three layers of cells, Ganglion cell, bipolar cell & photoreceptor cells, • Two types of photoreceptor cells, namely rods, and cones., Rods, • Contain the pigment, rhodopsin (visual, purple), • Help in Scotopic vision, (twilight vision), , Cones, • Contain the pigment, iodopsin., • Help in photopic vision, (daylight vision), • Help in colour vision., , • Blind spot - At the medial part of retina where, photoreceptor cells are absent is called blind, spot., • Macula lutea – yellowish pigmented spot, lateral to blind spot., • Fovea – the central pit of macula lutea where, only cone cells are present. Visual activity is, maximum in this area., , Mechanism of vision, Light ray, focused on, retina, , Light, dissociate, retinal from, opsin (protein), , Vision, , Potential, difference is, generated in, photoreceptor, cell, , Membrane, permeabilty, changes, , Impulse to, visual cortex, of brain, , Action potential, pass through, optic nerve, , Action, potential is, generated in, bipolar cell, , Action potential, is generated in, ganglion cell, , EAR, Internal Structure, Outer ear, • Consist of pinna and ear canal, • Ear canal ends in ear drum, , Middle ear, , Inner ear, , • Consist of three ear ossicles., • Malleus, Incus & Stapes, • The stapes is attached to the, oval window., , • Consist of bony labyrinth &, membraneous labyrinth., • The coiled portion of membraneous, labyrinth is called cochlea., , Internal structure of Cochlea, Internally the cochlea contain three chambers namely scala vestibuli, scala media and scala tympani., Reissner’s membrane separate scala vestibuli from scala media., Basilar membrane separate scala media from scala tympani., The scala media is filled with endolymph., The scala vestibule end in oval window and scala tympani ends in round window., The basilar membrane contain Organ of corti which contain sensory hair cells., Tectorial membrane cover the sensory hair cells of organ of corti., , Z-67

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Vestibular apparatus, Vestibular apparatus is located above the cochlea., It consist of three semi-circular canal and otolith organ., The base of semicircular canal are is swollen called ampulla., Ampulla contain projecting ridge called crista ampullaris, The otolith organ contain saccule and utricle., The utricle and saccule have projecting ridge called macula, Ear is a dual organ, • The cochlea of ear is involved in hearing and vestibular apparatus is involved in balance of body., • Since ear perform the sense of hearing and maintain the balance of body it is called dual organ., Mechanism of hearing, , Sound waves, , nerve impulse, in afferent, neuron, , Nerve impulse, through auditory, neuron, , Ear canal, , Hair cells of, organ of corti, deflect, , auditory, cortex of brain, , ear drum, , Vibration of, ear ossicles, , Vibration on, oval window, , Waves on the, basilar, membrane, , Waves on the, endolymph of, scala media, , Waves on, perilymph of, cochlea, , Hearing, , Z-68

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GLAND, , CELL/PARTS, , PINEAL GLAND, , Thyroid Gland, , Parathyroid Gland, Thymus Gland, , Adrenal medulla, , HORMONE/COMMON NAME, MELATONIN, , • Regulate 24 hr rhythum of body, , 1. Tetraiodothyronine (T4), Or, Thyroxine, 2. Triiodothyronine (T3), Thyrocalcitonin (TCT), Hypocalcemic hormone, Para Thyroid Hormone (PTH), Hypercalcemic hormone, Thymosin, , • Regulation of BMR (Basal Metabolic, Rate), • Involved in RBC formation, , 1. Emergency hormone, (Hormones of Flight & Fight), a. Adrenaline (Epinephrine), b. Noradrenalin (Norepinephrine, 1. Cortisol (Glucocorticoid), , α- cells, , Β- cells, , Insulin, (Hypoglycemic hormone), , Pancreas, (Islets of Langerhans), , Testis, , 2. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid), , 3. Androgenic steroids, Glucagon, (Hyperglycemic hormone), , Leydig cells, (Interstitial cell), , DISORDER, , Goitre- hypothyroidism, Enlargement of thyroid gland, Deficiency of iodine leads to, goitre, , • Decrease the blood Ca2+ level, , Adrenal Gland, Adrenal cortex, , FUNCTION, , •, •, •, •, •, , Increase the blood Ca2+ level, Demineralisation of bone, Differentiation of T – lymphocytes, Involved in cell mediated immunity, Increases alertness, heart beat,, respiratory rate etc. (Stress situation), , • Regulate the balance of water and, electrolyte, • Help in RBC production, • Anti inflammatory reaction, • Gluconeogenesis, • Reabsorption of Na+ and water from, renal tubule, • Maintain blood pressure, electrolyte, balance & osmotic pressure, • Development of pubic and facial hair, • Increases the blood glucose level, • Stimulate glycogenolysis &, gluconeogenesis, • Decreases the blood glucose level, • Stimulate glycogenesis, • Devolopment, maturation and, activity of male sex organs, • Involved in spermatogenesis, , Androgens, Testosterone, , Z-70, , Diabetes mellitus – Prolonged, hyperglycemia due to low level, of insulin

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GLAND, , CELL/PARTS, Ovarian follicle, , Ovary, Corpus luteum, , Organ, Auricle of heart, JGA of Kidney, , Gastro Intestinal Tract, , HORMONE/COMMON NAME, , FUNCTION, , DISORDER, , • Stimulate the growth of activity of, female sex organ, • Involved in mammary gland, development, Progesterone (Pregnancy hormone), • Support pregnancy and help in milk, secretion, Other Hormones, Estrogen, , Hormone, , Act on, , ANF (Atrial Natriuretic Factor), , Blood vessel, , Erythropoietin, Gastrin, Secretin, Cholecystokinin (CCK), , Gastric gland, Pancreas, Pancreas, Gall Bladder, , Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP), , Gastric gland, , Function, •, •, •, •, •, •, •, , Decrease blood pressure, Erythropoiesis, thropoiesis (Formation of RBC), Secretion of HCl and pepsinogen, Secretion of water and bicarbonate ions, Secretion of pancreatic juice, Secretion of bile juice, Inhibit gastric secretion, , Mechanism of Steroid hormone action, , Mechanism of Protein hormone action, , Z-71

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Q U E S TI O N S

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CHAPTER 2, BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION, 1 Observe the relationship between the first pair of words and fill the blank spaceScore 1, , Archaebacteria growing in salty areas : Halophiles, Archaebacteria growing in hot springs : ..............., 2 Name one word for the following :, , Score 2, , a) Symbiotic association of algae and fungi., b) Viruses that attach bacteria., Score 2, , Fill in the blanks :, , 3 The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by ----------------4 ---------------- contain free RNA, lack protein coat., 5 “Diatoms ,the chief producers in oceans are useful to us even after their death.”Evaluate, , the statement., , Score 1, , 6 Observe the figure given below and identify the blue green algae., , Give scientific names :, , Score 1, , Score 2, , 7 Name the group of bacteria involved in the production of methane, 8 Name the photosynthetic autotrophs., 9 Match the following, , Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes, , Score 2, Agaricus, Rhizopus, Alternaria, Penicillium, , 10 A group of fungi is named as fungi imperfecti., , a)Name the group., b)Give reason., , Q-73, , Score 2

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CHAPTER 3, PLANT KINGDOM, 1 Complete the chart., , Score 2, , Types, , Pigment, , Stored food, , Chlorophyceae, ......................., Rhodophyceae, , ................, Chl a,c,fucoxanthin, Chl a, d, phycoerythrin, , .................., Mannitol,Laminarin, .................., , 2 Double fertilisation is an event unique to angiosperms., , Score 2, , a) Mention the two fusions involved in this., b)Name the products obtained as a result of these fusions., 3 Most pteridophytes are homosporous but there are exceptions., , a) Identify two heterosporous genera., Score 1, b) Heterospory is a precursor to seed habit.Point out any one character found in, heterospory and seed habit., Score 2, 4 Match the following, , A, A)Double fertilisation, B) Prothallus, C) Coralloid roots, D) Amphibians of, plant kingdom, , Score 2, B, , Bryophyte, Gymnosperms, Angiosperm, Pteridophyte, , 5 Plants with haplontic life cycle include dominant gametophyte while in diplontic, , life cycle sporophyte is the dominant phase. Name the type of life cycle that is, intermediate between the two., Score 1, 6 Categorise the following plants into Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and, , Score 3, Rhodophyceae, ( Spirogyra, Sargassum, Laminaria, Polysiphonia, Gracilaria, Chlamydomonas ), 7 During a field trip, students noticed some shade loving small plants with, , true roots, stem and leaves. ( Hint : They were the first terrestrial plants ), a. Identify the plant group, b. Write three other features of this plant group., 8 Agar is obtained from the algae called . ..........................., , Score 3, , Score 1, , 9 Following is a list of plants. Arrange them in the table given below., , (Volvox, Ginkgo , Adiantum, Cycas , Riccia, Chlorella, Funaria , Selaginella, ), Score 3, , Algae, , Bryophyte, , Pteridophyte, , Q-74, , Gymnosperm

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10 The photosynthetic thalloid gametophyte of pteridophyte is called ..........., a) Gemma, b) Prothallus, c) Protonema, d) Capsule, , Score 1, , 11 Based on the relationship,fill in the blanks., a) Artificial system : Linnaeus, Natural system : . ..............................., b) Cytotaxonomy : Based on cytological information, . .......................... : Based on chemical constituents., , Score 2, , 12 Given below is the pie chart prepared by students who visited a forest during, their study tour., , a) Identify the dominating group., b) Write any three distinguishable features of the dominating group., , Q-75, , Score 1, Score 1 1/2

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CHAPTER 5, MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS, 1 Identify the types of aestivation., , Score 2, , 2 Given below is the floral diagram of a family you have studied., a) Identify the family and aestivation of corolla., b) Describe two other floral characters using technical, terms., , Score 1, Score 2, , 3 Name the parts (1,2 ,3 & 4 ) of maize grain., , Score 2, , 4 Observe the diagram A & B and identify the, types of placentation., Give one example each., , Score 2, , Q-76

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Score 2, , 5 Differentiate the two flowers A & B, , 6 Normally,roots grow into the soil. But in some plants like Rhizophora, many roots come out, of the ground and grow vertically upwards.What are these roots called ? Give their function., , Score 2, 7 The main function of most of the stems is spreading out branches,bearing leaves,flowers and, fruits and conduction of materials.But there are exceptions to this.Justify the statement citing, Score 2, one example for each., 8 Give the scientific terms :, a) Arrangement of leaves on the stem., b) Stamens attached to perianth, c) Slender and spirally coiled structures used for climbing., , Score 1 1/2, , 9 Complete the chart, , Score 1 1/2, , Type, , Example, , Tuberous roots, ..............., Stilt roots, , ................, Banyan tree, ................, , 10 How can you differentiate a racemose inflorescence from a cymose inflorescence ., , Score 1, , 11 Identify the given floral formula., A) Write the family?, B) Write the characters of gynoecium in technical terms., , Score 1, Score 2, , Q-77

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CHAPTER 5, MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS, 1 Fill in the blanks :, , Score 2, , a) Root : Radial :: Stem :.............., b) Open vascular bundle : Dicot stem :: ................: Monocot stem., 2 In most woody trees,epidermis breaks to form a lens shaped opening., , Score 2, , a) Name the opening., b) Give its function., 3 Grasses are capable of regeneration in spite of continuous grazing by cattle.Suggest, , the reason for it ., , Score 1, , 4 What are bulliform cells ? Give its function., , Score 2, , 5 For constructing furniture like table,chair etc we usually take the dark coloured central, , portion of wood,but not the outer light coloured region.Give reason for this., , Score 1, , 6 The following figures show two types of vascular bundles., , a) Identify the vascular bundles A & B, b) Briefly explain A and B in one or two sentences., , Score 1, Score 2, , 7 Observe the given diagram and differentiate the two, , Score 2, , 8 Periderm is formed during the secondary growth in plants., , Score 1, a)Name the different layers of periderm., b) Name the meristems that causes secondary growth in vascular region & cortex., Score 1, Score 1, 9 A mature ______lacks a nucleus and are associated with ____________, , Q-78

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10 Analyse the table and arrange the matter in an appropriate order, , Monocot stem, , A, , B, Bulliform cell, , C, Casparian thickening, , Dicot stem, , Radial, , Protoxylem lacuna, , Isobilateral Leaf, , Closed, , Secondary thickening, , Dicot root, , Open, , Mesophyll tissue, , Score 3, , 11 In the anatomy lab, Rahul observed the following features in the T S of a plant part., , a) Radial and polyarch xylem., b) Homogenous cortex., c) Large pith., d) Epidermis with unicellular hairs., e) Pericycle, f) Endodermis with casparian strips., 1) Identify the plant part., Score 1, 2) Rearrange the given regions from the periphery to the cortex in their correct sequence., Score 2, 12 Write in scientific terms:, a) Protoxylem towards pith and metaxylem towards periphery, Score 1, b) Minute openings seen in young stem and leaves of plants., Score 1, 13 Complete the chart :, , Xylem, 1. X .............., 2. X............., 3. X .Fibres, 4. X. Parenchyma, , Score 2, Phloem, 1. Sieve tubes, 2.................., 3. ................, 4. P. Parenchyma, , Q-79

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CHAPTER 8, CELL -THE UNIT OF LIFE, 1 An accepted model of the structure of a plasma membrane was proposed by, , Score 2, Singer & Nicolson., a) Name the model., b) List the two major biomolecules present in this model of plasma membrane., , 2 The diagrams of different types of chromosomes A,B,C & D are given below. Score 2, , a) Identify A, B, C & D, b) Differentiate A & B ., , Score 1, , 3 Fill in the blanks:, , Score 2, , a) Starch : Amyloplast : :Protein : ............., b) RER : Protein synthesis :: ............. : Lipid synthesis., 4 State the reasons for the following :, , Score 1, , a) Mitochondria are called power house of the cell., 5 Infoldings of cell membrane in prokaryotic cells is called ............., , Score 1, , 6 Eukaryotic cells have many membrane bound organelles like endoplasmic reticulum,, , golgi bodies,mitochondria etc.Can you give an example of a non-membraneous, bound organelle., Score 1, 7 There is a clear division of labour within the chloroplast.Substantiate the given, , Score 2, , statement., 8 Match the following :, , A, Cristae, Cisternae, Thylakoids, Mesosome, , Score 2, B, , Plasma membrane, Chloroplast, Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, , Q-80

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9 Mention the functions of the following cell organelles, , Score 2, , a. Ribosome, b. Lysosome, c. Nucleus, d. Endoplasmic reticulum., 10 A non membrane bound cell organelle is common to both prokaryotes, , and eukaryotes., a. Which is that cell organelle ?, b. What is its function ?, c. Who discovered it ?, , Score, Score, Score, , 1/2, 1/2, 1/2, , 11 Due to the presence of a secondary constriction , a knob like small fragment appears, , in some chromosomes called ........., i) Kinetochore, 2) Histone, 3) Satellite, 4) Chiasmata, , Score, , 12 Differentiate a prokaryotic cell from an eukaryotic cell., , Prokaryotic cell, , 1/2, , Score 2, , Eukaryotic cell, , 13 Several ribosomes may attach to a single m RNA and form a chain called ...................., , Score, 14 Observe the figure given below. Identify the organelle and write its function., , Q-81, , 1/2

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CHAPTER 10, CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION, 1 Observe the diagram given below representing a stage of mitosis., a) Identify the stage., b) Label A & B, c) Mention the role of A in mitosis., , Score 1/2, Score 1, Score 1, , 2 A diagrammatic view of a cell cycle is given below., a) Identify the phase in which DNA synthesis takes place., b) Inactive stage of cell division where the cells do not divide further., , Score 1, Score 1, , 3 Pairing of homologous chromosomes is called. ................., , Score, , 4 Give the significance of meiosis., , Score 1, , 5 Differentiate mitosis and meiosis., , Score 2, , 6 Complete the table of prophase 1 of meiosis.( One character each ), , Score 2, , Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene, Diakinesis, , Q-82, , 1/2

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7 Find the relationship between first two pair of words and fill up the blanks., a)Fusion of cytoplasm ; plasmogamy, Fusion of nucleus, ; ----------------., , Score, , 1/2, , 8 Between two cell divisions, cells undergoes preparation for division., a) Name the stage between two mitotic divisions?, b) Name the stage at which protein synthesis occurs ?, , Score, Score, , 1/2, , 9 Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material between two, homologous chromosome., a. In which stage of meiosis, this phenomenon is seen ?, b. Give its significance., , Score 1/2, Score 1, , 1/2, , 10 Give the scientific terms for the following ., a) Exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of the, homologous chromosomes, b) The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase, , Score 2, , 11 Identify the stage of mitosis., Give two important features of this stage., , Score 1/2, Score 2, , Q-83

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CHAPTER 11, TRANSPORT IN PLANTS, 1 The diagram below shows that a few cells are placed in water., , Score 1, a) Name the process., b) When you place the same cells in a concenterated salt solutions,What change, will takes place ?Explain the process., Score 2, 2 Plants absorb water from soil through root hairs and move deep by two pathways., a) Name the two pathways of water movement., Score 1, b) Explain the type of water movement in the endodermis., Score 2, 3 Differentiate the three diagrams (1) ,(2) & (3)., , Score 2, , 4 In the early morning,droplets of water can be found at the tip of grass leaves.Name the, phenomenon.How does it differ from transpiration ?, Score 2, 5 We feel difficulty in opening and closing wooden doors & windows during rainy season., Why is it so?, Score 2, 6 How do passive transport differ from active transport?, , Q-84, , Score 2

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CHAPTER 12, MINERAL NUTRITION, 1 Observe the diagram and answer the following., a) Name the type of plant cultivation., b) Aeration is necessary for this type of cultivation.Why?, , Score 1, Score 1, , 2 Macronutrients and micronutrients are found to be absolutely essential for plant growth, Score 1, and metabolism.Name two macronutrients., 3 The root nodules of leguminous plants contain two necessary biochemical compounds, Score 2, for nitrogen fixation.Identify these compounds., 4 The plants show deficiency symptoms when the concentration of an essential element, is below the critical concentration.Write any four deficiency symptoms shown by plants., Score 2, 5 The following reactions shows the conversion of ammonia into nitrates., Score 1, a)Identify the following process, b)Name the organisms involved (1 ) and ( 2 ), Score 2, , 6 Nodule formation involves a sequence of multiple interaction between Rhizobium and, roots of the host plant., a. What are the steps involved in the formation of root nodule?, Score 2, b.What is the role of Nitrogenase enzyme in nitrogen fixation?, Score 1, , Q-85

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7 Chlorophyll contain a metallic element, a)Name the metallic element, , Score 1, , 8 Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plant growth. Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to, absorbable form by nitrogen fixation., a. Name the key enzyme in nitrogen fixation., Score 1, b. How may ATP molecules are needed for the formation of two ammonia molecules., Score 1, 9 Eventhough more than sixty elements are found in different plants,all are not essential., Write any two criteria for the essentiality of an element., Score 2, 10 a) Carotenoids are responsible for the pink colour of root nodules in pea plant. Correct, this false statement., Score 1/2, b) The pigment present in root nodule is called oxygen scavenger. Justify., Score 1 1/2, , Q-86

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CHAPTER 13, PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS, 1 Given below are the scientific terms related to photosynthesis.Classify them in, Score 1 1/2, appropriate manner in the given table., ( RuBisCO, Rice plant , Oxalo acetic acid, 3 PGA ,PEP Carboxylase,Maize plant.), , C3 plant, , Sl No, , C4 plant, , 1, 2, 3, 2 An anatomist observed a peculiar type of leaf anatomy in plants growing in tropical, regions., a) Name the type of anatomy., Score 1, b) Explain the physiological advantage in such type of plants., Score 1, 3 Photorespiration is a curse to plants.Evaluate the statement., Name the enzyme catalysing the process., , Score 1, , 4 Light reaction of photosynthesis is divided into two processes. In one process the, electrons emitted will return to the place from where it is emitted., a) Name the two processes., Score 1, b) What happens to the electrons in second process., Score 1, c) Explain it with schematic representation., Score 2, 5 Bio synthetic pathway (Calvin cycle ) of photosynthesis takes place in the stroma, of the chloroplast ., Score 1 1/2, a) Name three important steps in this cycle., b) Name the enzyme involved in the first step., Score 1, c) Identify the first stable compound in this cycle., 6 Splitting of water in presence of light is called ................, , Score 1, , 7 Complete the chart, , Score 2, , Feature, , C3 Plants, , C4 Plants, , 1 st stable product, Primary CO2 /O2 acceptor, , C2 Plants, 2 Phospho glycolate, , RuBP, , RuBP, RuBisCO &, PEP caboxylase, , Enzyme, , RuBisCO, , 8 Mention two differences between cyclic and non-cyclic photophoshorylations., 9 List out the factors affecting photosynthesis., , Score 2, Score 2, , 10 Fill in the blank, Score 1, , PS- I : P 700 ; PS – II : ....................., , Q-87

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CHAPTER 14, RESPIRATION IN PLANTS, 1 The breaking of the C-C bonds of complex compounds through oxidation within the, cells, leading to release of considerable amount of energy is called respiration., a) Name the two types of respiration, Score 1, b) Among the two types, which one is more efficient? Critically evaluate., Score 1, 2 Glycolysis and Kreb's cycle are the two important steps in aerobic respiration., Score 2, Suggest where exactly in the cell these events takes place., 3 Fill up the flow chart of glycolysis given below using the list of intermediary, compounds given in the brackets., ( 3-phosphoglyceric acid,fructose 6 phosphate,glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate,, Glucose 6 phosphate,2-phosphoglycerate,3 phosphoglyceric acid ), Score 2 1/2, , 4 Mention the fate of pyruvic acid in respiration.( Hint : Any two points ), , Score 1, , 5 A seed released 102 molecules of CO2 by utilising 145 molecules of O2 at a stage, of its germination.Calculate the R Q value., Add a note on RQ value., Score 2, , Q-88

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6 Diagrammatic representations of Kreb's cycle is given below with some omissions., a) Complete the diagrams by filling the gaps., Score 2, b) Who discovered this cycle., Score 1/2, , 7 List out the two types of anaerobic respiration., , Score 2, , 8 Match the following, , Score 1 1/2, , Glycolysis, Pyruvate oxidation, Kreb's cycle, , Acetyl Co A, CO2 & H2O, Pyruvic acid, , 24 ATP, 8 ATP, 6 ATP, , 9 In the laboratory ,you are supplied with Yeast and Chlorella to study the difference, in their mode of respiration., HINT : It is found that Yeast respire in the absence of oxygen but Chlorella respire, only in the presence of oxygen, Score 1/2, a. Name the mode of respiration in Yeast., Score 1/2, b. Name the mode of respiration in Chlorella., c. Is there any common reaction in both? If yes, name it., Score 1, d.What are the end products of respiration in Yeast., Score 1, , Q-89

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CHAPTER 15, PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, 1 Observe the given growth curve and answer the following questions., a) Name the growth curve., b) Name the three phases of growth curve., , Score 1, Score 2, , 2 Fill in the blanks, Cell division : Cytokinin : : Bolting : ................., F. W Went : Auxin : : E Kurosawa : ..................., , Score 1, Score 1, , 3 Shoot tips of tea plants are plucked in tea plantations., a) Why are the shoot tips plucked ?, b) Name the hormone present at the shoot tip ., c) Explain the phenomenon., , Score 1, Score 1/2, Score 1, , 4 Complete the chart ., , Score 2, , Hormones, , Function, , Ethylene, Abscisic acid, Auxins, Gibberellins, , ..................., ..................., ..................., ..................., , 5 Some wheat varieties are sown in the spring season and some are sown in, the autumn season.Mention the physiological phenomenon responsible for it., Score 2, 6 Arrange the following in a given table., (Indole 3 Acetic acid , Gibberellic acid , Gaseous hormone , Zeatin ,, Ripening of fruits , Bolting in cabbage , Promote apical dominance , increase, length of stem in sugarcane , Break seed and bud dormancy , ,, Promote nutrient mobilization ,Stress hormone ,Stimulate closure of stomata.), Score 3, Auxin, Gibberellin Cytokinin, Ethylene Abscisic acid, , Q-90

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Chapter 1, , THE LIVING WORLD, 1. Biological name of House fly is ---------------, , (½), , 2. Fill in the blanks, Kew : England ; National Botanical Research Institute : ………………….., , (½), , 2. Write the taxonamical categories of man in the ascending order of hierarchy., , (1), , 3. Write the scientific name of the following: -, , (1), , a) Mango b) Leopard, , 4. Rearrange the following in the correct sequence of taxonomic categories, (Family, Class, Species, Order, Genus, Kingdom, Phylum), , (1), , 5. Given below is the scientific name of wheat and man. Correct the mistakes if any and rewrite, properly., a) Tritium Aestivum, b) homo sapiens, (2), , 6. Expand the terms ICBN and ICZN., , (1), , 7. Find the odd one out and give reason., Herbarium, botanical garden, museum, aquarium., , (1), , 8. Zoological parks are different from museums. Give reason?, , (1), , 9. Show the hierarchical arrangement of taxonomic categories in ascending order., , (1), , 10. Given below is the taxonomic categories of man. Arrange the same in ascending order., Hominidae, Mammalia, Chordata, Primata, Homo, sapiens., , (1), , 11. Match the followingA, A Unit of classification, Lowest taxonomic category, Panthera, Highest Taxonomic category, , (1), B, Kingdom, Genus, Species, Taxon, , 12. A taxonomical aid used for identification of plants and animals based on similarities and, dissimilarities is ……………….., , (1), , 13. The Carolus Linnaeus introduced binomial nomenclature system., , a) What is binomial nomenclature, b) States the universal rules of binomial nomenclature., 14. Distinguish between flora and monograph, , (2), (2), , 15. A student wrote the scientific name of mango as mangiferaindica ., a. Is it correct?, b. Can you help him to write the scientific name correctly . (1), c. Which are the rules for writing the scientific name ?, (2), , Q-91

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CHAPTER 4, , ANIMAL KINGDOM, 1. a) Annelida : Parapodia : : ………………..: Comb plates, b) …………………….: Water vascular system:: Coelenterata : cnidoblast, , (1), , 2. All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.” Justify the statement., , (2), , 3. During a field trip Raju has collected some organisms with the following characters. Help him, to identify the phyla of those organisms., (2), (a) Metamerically segmented body., (b) Body covered with calcareous shell., (c) Dorsoventrally flattened leaf like body., (d) Body divided into head, thorax and abdomen., , 4. Malpighian tubule is the excretory organ of which phylum?, a) Phylum porifera, , b) Phylum arthropoda, , (1), , c) Phylum coelenterata d) Phylum mollusca, , 5. Phylum coelenterata is also Known as phylum cnidaria, a. What is the reason?, b. Give any three salient features of this phylum?, , (2), , 6. Identify the following diagram and list out the peculiar characters that helps in identifying it. (2), , 7. Note the relationship between the first two words and find a suitable word for the fourth place., a) Coelenterata: radial symmetry, platyhelminthes ………………, b) Lizard: Poikilotherm, crow…………………………, (1), 8. Pick out the odd one and justify …………………………………….., a) Gills, Trachea, Malpighian tubules, Book lungs, b) Dog, Platypus, Elephant, Rat, , (2), , 9. Arrange the following points in a two column table and give suitable heading for each column (2), a) Notochord present, d) Notochord absent, , b) Post anal tail absent, e) Post anal tail present, , c) Pharynx Perforated by gill slits, f) Gill slits are absent, , 10. Pick out the appropriate one from the terms given within bracket and put against the, corresponding phyla, , (4), , a. Porifera, b. Coelentrata, c. Platyhelminthes, d. Annelida, e. Arthropoda, f. Mollusca, g. Echinodermata, h. Chordata, (Hirudinaria, Flame cell, Choanocytes, Cnidoblast, Jointed legs, Radula, Notochord), 11. a)Which of the following animals exhibit metagenesis? (Ascaris, Obelia, Earth worm, Crab), b) To which phylum does it belong?, c) Write any two features of the phylum, (2), 12. Nithin is Studying in Std. XI. He collected some specimens during the field trip conducted by the, , Q-92

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Science Club of his School. Help Nithin to classify the Animals in respective Phyla, (Prawn, Slug worm, Butterfly, Pila, Grass Hopper, Crab), , (1), , 13. Identify the odd man out and justify your answer, a. Devil fish, Cuttle fish, Dog fish, Star fish, , (2), , 14. Write down any two adaptations of aves, , (1), , 15. Write down the functions of the following (any two) structures and assign their phyla., (a). Radula (b). Flame cells (c). Parapodia, , (1), , 16. Make differences between the osteichthyes and chondiriechthyes and give one example, for each., , (2), , 17. Complete the following, , (3), , Q-93

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CHAPTER 7, , STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN ANIMALS, 1. Give one word for the following, a Supporting nervous tissue found in the brain, c Fibrous connective tissue which connects bones &joints, , (1), , 2. The different types of epithelial tissue are given below. Find out the tissue that are present on the, inner surface of fallopian tube., (squamous, cuboidal, ciliated, columnar), (1), 3. Spot the odd one out and justify your answer., a) Cuboidal, adipose , squamous, columnar, , (1), , 4. Fill in the blanks suitably, a) Cuboidal epithelium : ……………, b) ……………………… : movement of particles, , (1), , 5. Identify and label the parts a , b in the diagram given below:-, , (1), , 6. a) Which among the following is the bone cell …………………, (Leucocyte, Chondrocyte, Osteocyte, Thrombocyte), b) In earthworm, segments 14 – 16 are called, (Setae, Clitellum, Typhlosole, None of these), , (1), , 7. Note the relationship between first two terms and write a suitable terms to the fourth place, a) Osteocytes : bone : : Chondrocytes: _______________, b) Ligament: bone to bone :: Tendon : __________________, , (1), , 8. Fill up the blanks., , 9. Match the following, I1) Nephridium, 2) Gizzard, 3) Typhlosole, 4) Hepatic caeca, , II, Grinding of food, Bone cell, Digestion, Earthworm, , 10. Mammals living in Polar Regions have more adipose tissue beneath their skin?, a. What is the advantage?, , Q-94, , (2)

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b. What is its main component?, 11. a) Identify the figures a, b & c, b) How they are functionally different from each others?, , (2), , 12. Earthworms are called farmers friends. Why?, , (2), , 13. Observe the diagram and answer the following questions, , (2), , a) Identify the tissue and write the location where it is found., , (2), , b) Mention its function., , 14. Blood cells of earth worm lack heamoglobin,But blood of earth worm is red colour. How do you, account for it, (1), , 15. Based on the colour, muscles are of two types., a. Name the two types of muscles., b. Why are they called so?, 16. Match the followings., A, Cuboidal epithelium, Squamous epithelium, Columnar epithelium, Ciliated epithelium, , (2), (4), , B, Fallopian tube, Ducts of glands, alveoli, intestine, , 17. From the following details draw a flow chart showing parts of alimentary canal, of cockroach. ( Rectum, crop,oesophagus,mesenteron,gizzard,ileum,hepatic caecae,colon), , (2), , 18. Observe the diagram., , (2), , a) Name the above connective tissue. Where they found in our body?, , Q-95

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CHAPTER 9, , BIO-MOLECULES, 1. Non protein part of Enzyme: Cofactors; Protein part of Enzyme : __________, , (½), , 2. An aminoacid under certain conditions would have both positive and negative charges, simultaneously in the same molecule. Such a form of aminoacid is called., , (½), , 3., , a) Identify the graph, b) What are the factors affecting energy activities?, , (2), , 4. a. What are the steps given above?, , b. Give a note on types of enzymes, , 5. Find out the differences between DNA and RNA and fill the table given below, DNA, RNA, ……………., Ribonucleotides, Deoxyribose Sugar, ………………., ………………, Single Strand, ………………….., 6. General formula of amino acid is given below. Prepare the amino acids – Glycine & Serine, using this formula?, R, H2N ─ C ─ COOH, H, , (3), (2), , (2), , 7. The activity of the enzyme is inhibited by certain chemicals having close resumblance to the, substrate in its molecular structure., a) Name the type of inhibition, b) Point out a suitable example, c) Mention the significance of this type of inhibition., , (3), , 8. a. Prepare a graph showing the action of temperature on enzyme activity, b. What is optimum temperature?, c. Why the enzyme activity decreases at too low and too high temperature?, , (3), , 9. Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil, are the nitrogen bases present in the living, organisms. Write their nucleosides and nucleotides., , (2), , 10. Compare a nucleotide with a nucleoside., , (1), , 11. Name the energy storing molecules in animals., , (1), , 12. Distinguish between prosthetic groups and cofactors., , (1), , Q-96

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13. Inhibition of succinic dehydrogenase by malonate is an example for……………., , (1), , 14. The following graph shows the relationship between substrate concentration and rate of enzymatic, reaction., a) What is the effect of subtrate concentration on rate of, reaction?, b) Identify ‘A’, , (1½), 15. Identify the class of enzymes which catalyse the following reaction., , 16. Two polymers are given. Identify the bond that help to link the monomers?, , (1), , 17. A portion of DNA double helix is given below. Copy the diagram and make correction if any (2), , 18. One full turn of the DNA double helix would involve, a) 8 steps, b) 10 steps, c) 20 steps, d) 12 steps, 19. Alkaloids, flavonoids, antibiotics, essential oils, rubber, sugar, amino acid, fats and oil., a) Classify the above as primary metabolites and secondary metabolites, b) Differentiate primary metabolites ad secondary metabolites, , Q-97, , (1), , (1½)

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CHAPTER 16, DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION, 1. Bile has no digestive enzyme in it; even then it is very essential for digestion. Substantiate?, , (1), , 2. From this which statement is correct?, a) Human dentition is heterodont, c) Fructose absorbed passively, , (1), , b) Fat is soluble in water, d) Small intestine devoid of villi, , 3. Label the parts, , (2), , 4. Major enzymes are enlisted below, (Amino peptidase, Ptyalin, Pepsin, Nucleosidase, Pancreatic lipase, Trypsin), a) Arrange the above enzymes in groups based on their functions, b) Bile contains no digestive enzymes but it is essential for digestion Give reason, , (2), , 5. Complete the table, , (2), Site, , Enzyme, , Products, , Mouth, , …………, , Maltose, , Pancreas, , Trypsin, , …………., , ……….., , …………., , Sucrose, , 6. Construct a flow chart showing the passage of food through the alimentary canal of man., , (2), , 7. Give below in brackets are the names of some digestive enzymes. Group them into, A– Gastric, B – Pancreatic and C – Intestinal, (Trypsin, Dipeptidase, Rennin, Maltase, Pepsin, Chymotrypsin, Nuclease, Amylase), , (2), , 8. The intestinal juice helps in digestion. Write two enzymes and their actions., , (2), , 9. Bile contains no digestive enzymes ,yet it is important for digestion.Why?, , (2), , 10. Write down any four steps with enzymes in protein digestion involved in the intestine of man (2), 11. Complete digestion and absorption takes place in the small intestine. Is this statement true ?, Give reasons., (2), 12. Amylase is secreted by two different glands., i) Name them., ii) What is the action of amylase on food., , Q-98, , (2)

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13. The following is a scheme showing the fate of Carbohydrates during digestion in human, alimentary canal. Identify the enzymes acting at stages indicated A, B, C and D., , (2), , 14. Complete the passage, , (1), , Fatty acids and glycerol are first incorporated into small droplets called--------------which move, into intestinal mucosa. They are reformed into very small-----------coated fat globules called----------------which are transported to the -------------in the villi., , Q-99

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CHAPTER 17, , BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES, 1. A person first inhales to his maximum capacity and exhales also to its maximum. What term, would you use for the volume of the air thus breathed out ?, (1), 2. A chronic disorder in which alveolar walls are damaged, due to cigarette smoking?, , (1), , 3. …….……… and ……………………… are the inspiratory muscles., , (1), , 4. The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a forceful expiration is called …….., , (1), , 5. These are the reactions that takes place in accordance with respiration., , (a) Where these reactions takes place, , (b) Which is the enzyme present here, , 6. What are the major transport mechanisms for CO2? Explain., , (2), (2), , 7. What is the percentage of O2 transported by Hb in the form of HbO2?, a) 67% b) 97% c) 32% d) 50%, 8. Observe the given graph, , (2), , a) Identify the graph, b) What are the factors favourable for formation of, oxyhaemoglobin, , 9. The given diagram shows the exchange of gases between alveolus and alveolar capillary., , (2), , a) Identify X and Y, b) Name the Physical Process involved in gas, exchange, , 10. Write in correct order (flow chart of inspiration), (1), (Alveoli, Atmospheric air, Trachea, Nostrils, Lungs, Bronchioles, Bronchi, Nasal cavity, Pharynx), 11. Define the following, a. Total lung capacity (T.L.C), , b. Vital capacity (V.C), , Q-100, , (3), c. Expiratory capacity (E.C)

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12. Fill in the table with appropriate heading values, , (2), , 13. CO2 concentration plays a major role in regulating respiration. Comment on this statement., , (2), , Q-101

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Chapter 18, BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION, , 1. The stroke volume of a normal person is 70 ml/beat. Find out his cardiac output., , (1), , 2. Name the incompatibility observed between the Rh –ve blood of a pregnant mother with, Rh +ve blood of the foetus., , (1), , 3. Leucocytes are the soldiers of the body. Justify?, , (1), , 4. Rhythmic heartbeat is maintained by a highly specialized excitatory and conductive System., The correct sequence of events will be, a) A V node→ Bundle of His → S A node → Purkinje fibers, b) Purkinje fibers→ A V node → S A node → Bundle of His, c) A V node → S A node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers, d) S A node → A V node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers, , (1), , 5. A team of students conducted a survey on Heart Disorders and found that in Kerala Heart, patients are increasing day by day.Can you find out the reasons behind it? (any four reasons) (2), 6. Complete the table., Plasma proteins, , (2), Albumin, Globulin, ?, , Osmotic balance, ?, Blood clotting, , 7. List out the events takes place during Cardiac Cycle., , (2), , 8. A doctor advised one of his patients to follow the following life style which are given below, , (3), , a. avoid fatty food. b. Control obesity. c. Stop smoking D. regular exercise., i. Mention the disease, person is suffering from?, ii. Mention how the advice of the doctor help the patient to keep the disease under control?, 9. The blood pressure of a person was found to be 140/90 mm of Hg., a) What do the above value indicate?, , b) What is the diseased condition called?, , (2), , 10. In a normal E.C.G, what does P wave,QRS complex & T wave stands for ?, , (3), , 11. Draw a schematic diagram showing the circulation of blood in man, starting from, left ventricle of heart and ending in the right auricle., a) Name the type of circulation, b) Mention the Significance of this circulation, , (2), , Q-102

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12. a. Name the parts A B C D in the figure; b. Human heart is myogenic. Give reason, , (2), , 13. By observing the below diagram write notes on the routes of blood circulation in man, , (2), , 14. Diagram of two types of WBCs are given below.Identify them & give function?, , (2), , 15. Complete the flow chart of blood coagulation in man starting from prothrombin., , (2), , 16. Study the table. Correct the mistakes to match column A , B & C, A, B, , (2), C, , Basophils, , Granulocyte, , Clotting of blood, , Monocyte, , Haemoglobin, , Secrete histamine, , Erythrocyte, , Agranulocyte, , Transport of gas, , Thrombocyte, , Megakaryocyte, , Phagocytosis, , Q-103

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CHAPTER 19, , EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION, 1. Fill in the blanks, Flame cells : Platyhelminthes; …………… : Insects, , (½), , 2. Which one of the following statements is incorrect ? correct it, (2), a) The medullary zone of kindney is divided into a few cortical masses called medullary, pyramids projecting into the calyces., b) Inside the kidney the cortical region extends in between the medullary pyramids are renal, pelvis., 3. a) Name the hormone which helps in reabsorption of water?, b) What is the significance of juxta glomerular apparatus in kidney function?, , (3), , 4. Observe the diagram., , (2), , (a) In which season ADH production is higher?, (b) Why the production of ADH varies in different seasons?, , 5. Peritubular capillaries and vasa recta helps in concentrating urine. How?, , (2), , 6. Complete the following sentences, a) Reabsorption of water from DCT is facilitated by the hormone................, b) Green gland are the excretory organ in ........................, c) Angiotensin ll activates the adrenal cortex to release................., d) In cases of Kidney failure, urea can be removed by the process called ................, , (2), , 7. The glomerular filtration rate in a healthy person is 125 ml/day. But the final urine out put is, 1.5 L/day- comment. ?, (2), 8. Name two mechanisms by which kidney function is regulated?, , (2), , 9. Pick out the correct word from the list provided, a) Autoimmune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction is ---------------------b) Reduce loss of water through urine is ----------------------------c) Accumulation of urea in blood is ----------------------------, , (1½), , 10. Match the column, A, Vasa recta, Bowman`s capsule, Micturition, ADH, Diabetes mellitus, , (2), B, Ultra filtration, water reabsorption, Counter current mechanism, Urinary bladder, , Q-104

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11. Complete the following chart Explain RAAS system?, JGA release renin, , (2), , ……..A…inogen (in blood), B, ……..C…………, Renin, Angiotensin –II, Increases glomerular Stimulate adrenal cortex, blood pressure, …D………, reabsorb Na+and H2O from, renal tubule, Increases glomerular, Blood pressure, , 12. On a hot day would you expect your blood levels of ADH to be high or low?, Explain your answer., , (2), , 13. Expand the following., , (3), , a) JGA b) RAAS c) ANF d) GFR, , 14. Rearrange the following words using table under appropriate heading, (3), (Urea, ammonotelic, uricotelic, bony fish, reptiles, ureotelic, mammals, ammonia, uricacid), 15. Observe the diagram and replaces the alphabets with suitable terms, , Q-105, , (3)

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Chapter 20, , LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT, 1. Shoulder joints are not very stable. But they are freely movable. Give reason?, , (1), , 2. The relationship between the first 2 words and find a suitable word in the fourth place., Cartilage – chondrocyte : Bone - …………….., Thin filament – actin : Thick filament - ………………, , (1), , 3. Red muscle fibers have greater capacity to do work for a prolonged period where as white, muscles suffer from fatique after a short time. Give reason, , (1), , 4. Leela has an inflammation in the joints due to accumulation of uric acid., Identify the disorder., , (1), , 5. Observe the table and fill in the blanks, , (2), , …………………., , 26, , Ribs, , …………….., , ………………………., , 6, , Skull, , ……………., , 6. Find the odd one out from each group and justify, a) Humerus, Ulna, Femur, Radius, Carpals, b)Parietal lobe, Frontal lobe, Occipital lobe, Olfactory lobe, 7. Match the column I with column II, Column I, Red muscle, A- band, Ischium, Troponin, 8. Match the following, A, Fixed joint, Cartilaginous joint, Hinge joint, Pivot joint, , (2), (2), , Column II, Pelvic girdle, Globular protein, Myosin, Myoglobin, Sternum, (2), , B, Hip joint, Knee joint, Sutures of skull, Shoulder joint, Joint between skull and back bone, Inter vertebral joint, , 9. The axial skeleton contains 80 bones. Make a table according to where it is seen and number, of bones present in each section., (2), 10. Name the types of joints between the following, a)Atlas/axis, b)Between Cranial bones, d)Between Humerus and pectoral girdle, , (2), c)Carpal /Metacarpal of thumb, , 11. Loss of bone tissue,results in bones that are brittle and susceptible to fracture., a. Name the defect?, b. This defect is common in women than in men . Why ?, , Q-106, , (2)

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12. a) Identify the diagrammatic representation, b)What happen to A – band, H zone and Z line after the contraction of sarcomere., , (2), , 13. Identify the diagram and label the parts, , (2), , 14. Diagrammatic representation of a muscle fibre.Name A,B,C & D., , (2), , 15., a) Identify the figure, b) Which theory explains the mechanism of, muscle contraction?, c) What is the role of calcium ions in muscle, contraction?, (3), 16. Draw the flowchart of important steps in muscle contraction (any 6 point in correct order), , Q-107, , (3)

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Chapter 21, , NEURAL CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION, 1. The nerve fibres that connect two cerebral hemispheres is -------------------, , (½), , 2. Differentiate Blindspot and Yellow spot, , (1), , 3. Observe the figure given below, , (1), a) Identify A & B, b) Write the main function of part A, , 4. a) Identify the figure, , b) Why the membrane of a neuron is polarized, , 5. a. Identify the Diagram, , b. Draw and label the parts, , (2), , (2), , 6. Draw a flow chart showing mechanism of hearing?, , (2), , 7. Write the difference between chemical synapse and electrical synapse, , (2), , 8. Observe the flow diagram of the pathway of a light ray entering the eye., (2½), Light rays→Lens→Pupil→Retina→Brain→Cornea→Optic nerve→Aqueous chamber, a) Correct the sequence, b) If the light ray falls on the blind spot, what will happen?, c) What vision will occur when the light ray falls in the yellow spot?, 9. Rearrange the following steps involved during synaptic transmission., a) Release of neurotransmitter at synaptic left., b) Generation of a new potential at post synaptic neuron, c) Arrival of impulse at the axon terminal, d) Binding of neurotransmitter with specific receptor, e) Movement of synaptic vesicle towards the membrane, , (2), , 10. Ear is a dual organ. Give reason, , (2), , 11. Prepare a flow chart showing the path way of sound waves transmitting from eardrum to the, endolymph of the internal ear in human?, (2), , Q-108

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12. Observe the diagram given above and identify the ‘A’ and ‘B’, , (2), , 13. Name the visual pigment in the eye and their function?, , (2), , 14. Copy the diagram , identify and label the parts and give one function, , (3), , 15. Observe the diagram and fill a,b,c,d,e and f, , (3), , When a stimulus is applied at a site on the polarised membrane,the membrane at the site A becomes, freely permeable to…(a)….. This leads to a rapid influx of that ion followed by the reversal of the, polarity at that site,i.e., the outer surface of the membrane becomes …(b)……..and the inner side, becomes …(c)…... The polarity of the membrane at the site A is thus reversed and hence ……(d)….., The electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane at the site A is called the……(e)……..,, which is in fact termed as a………f……, 16. How the pre-synaptic neurons transmit an impulse across the synaptic cleft to the post-synaptic, neuron?, (3), 17. What is the reason for the sudden withdrawal of a body part which comes in contact with objects, that are extremely hot? Draw the path of it also?, (3), 18. The components of a knee jerk reflex arc is given below:, (3), (Sensory neuron, muscle spindle, interneuron, efferent pathway, motor neuron,, motor end plate,stimulus, response, afferent pathway), (a) Prepare a flow chart of reflex action., (b) Write the function of any two components., 19. Classify the following into 3 groups and give appropriate headings., Thalamus, Corporaquadrigemina, Pons, hypothalamus, Cerebrum, Medulla oblongata., , Q-109, , (3)

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Chapter 22, , CHEMICAL CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION, 1. Cortisol is an example of ------------ hormone, (protein, steroid, iodothyronines, amino acid ), , (½), , 2. A patient consults a doctor with the following complaints., (Excess urine production, Excess thirst, Excess eating), a. Name the disorder, b. Name the deficient hormone, , (1), , 3. The product of pineal gland regulates diurnal rhythm. Name the hormone., , (1), , 4. Take the Odd one justify? GFR, JGA, ANF, ADH, TSH, , (1), , 5. Match the following., A, Pineal gland, Hypothyroidism, Thymus, Adrenal gland, , (2), , B, emergency hormone, immune system, melatonin, cretinism, , 6. To a patient doctor advised to inject insulin to reduce blood glucose level, a. What is his problem?, b. How it happened?, , (2), , 7. Human placenta is considered as an endocrine gland/ organ, justify?, , (1), , 8. A pregnant lady is admitted in a hospital for delivery. But the delivery is delayed than the expected, time. Doctor prescribed to take an injection,, a) Which hormone is injected to the lady? b) How this hormone helps in this process? (1½), 9. Anitha saw a poisonous snake on her way to school. She was frightened and her heart rate and, breathing rate increased., (2), a) Name the hormones which are dominant at that time in her blood, b) Which endocrine gland produces the hormone?, c) Which is the name given to these hormones?, d) To which organ this endocrine gland is attached?, 10. Note the relationship between first two words and suggest a suitable word for fourth place., a) Alpha cell : Glucagon - Beta cell : ___________, b) Glucocorticoids : Cortisol - Mineralocorticoids : ___________, , (2), , 11. A person approaches a doctor with the symptoms, such as increased thirst, excess urination,, delayed healing of wounds., a. Name the disease and name the hormone which is deficient., b. Give your advices to such a person to keep the disease under control., (2), 12. Copy and complete, a) Birth hormone: ……………, b) Infantile hormone : ……………………., c) Emergency hormone: …………. d) Pregnancy hormone : ………………….., , (2), , 13. Which hormone deficiency is responsible for the following diseases?, a) Diabetes Mellitus b) Goitre c) Cretinism d) Dwarfism, , (2), , 14. Insulin and Glucagon are antagonistic in function. Justify the statement giving reasons. ?, , (2), , Q-110

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15. Complete the columns, Hormones, a.Hypothalamic hormones, b.Thyrotropin (TSH), c.Corticotropin (ACTH), d.Gonadotropin (LH,FSH), , Target Glands, ………………….., …………………., ………………….., …………………., , 16. A boy witnessed an accident on his way to school. Following changes occurred in him., (Increased heart beat & respiration, profuse sweating, pupils dialated, shivering), a) Name the hormone responsible for these changes?, b) Name the gland which secretes this hormone?, 17. Read column A and using the terms given in bracket fill column B, (Progesterone, Testosterone, Glucagon, Glucocorticoids, Prolactin, Vasopressin,, Thyroxine,Thymosin, Adrenaline, Follicle Stimulating hormone), Endocrine Glands(A), Hormones(B), Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Thymus, Thyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Testis, Ovary, 18. Give examples of:, (a) Hypercalcemic hormones., (b) Gonadotrophic hormones., (c) Hypoglycemic hormone, (d) Pregnancy hormone., 19. Copy & complete the following:, Hormone, Target organ/ Site of Synthesis, ……………………. Gastric Gland, Secretin, …………………….., ……………………. Pancreas, Gall Bladder, …………………… Bone Marrow, 20. Identify the hormones and write down their glands, a) Stimulate renal reabsorption of Na+ ions, b) Stimulate contraction of uterine muscle during birth, , (2), , (2), , (2), , (2), (2), , Function/Effect, Secrete HCl, Secrete water & bicarbonate, Secrete Bile &Pancreatic enzyme, Production of R.B.C, (2), , 21. Match the following., A, Insulin, Thyroxine, Growth hormone, Adrenaline, , B, Thyroid gland, Pituitary gland, Adrenal gland, Pancreas, Thymus, , 22. Functions of certain hormones are given below. Identify the hormones., a) Regulation of BMR, b) Differentiation of ‘T’ cells, c) Stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and proteolysis., d) Support pregnancy and act on mammary gland and stimulate milk secretion, 23. Give the name of the hormone and related glands concerning the following diseases., , Q-111, , (2)

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Goitre, Diabetis mellites,, , (2), , 24. The figure represent the mechanism of hormone action, , a. What type of hormones are involved here ?, b.Give an example for this type of hormone., c. You noticed that the hormone is not entering into target cells, but generate second messengers, for creating biological response. Name two such second messengers., , Q-112, , (2)