Page 1 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, KINGDOM – PLANTAE, • All the multicellular eukaryotic plants, are placed in Kingdom-Plantae.They are, autotrophic i.e. they manufacture their, food by photosynthesis., • All member of this family comprises of, true nucleus and advanced membrane, bound organelles., • The Kingdom Plantae contains about, 300,000 different species of plants., Characteristics:, • Most of the plants are eukaryotic and, chlorophyll containing organisms., • Cell walls of plant cells are comprised, of cellulose., • They have an ability to grow by cell, division., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 4 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, ALGAE, ▪ Phycology – Study of algae., ▪ Father of Phycology – Fristch., ▪ Father of Indian phycology – M.O.P., Iyengar, NATURE:, • Algae are found in both fresh and, marine water. Algae are found in many, forms like filamentous, colonial., • Algae are surrounded by mucilagenous, sheath and below the sheath cell wall is, present which is made up of Cellulose, and pectin but mainly made up of, Cellulose, galactans, mannans, and, Mineral like calcium carbonate., • On the basis of structure, algae are, thalloid, i.e., plant, body, is, not, differentiated into root, stem and leaves., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 10 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, Algae is divided into following classes, (1) CHLOROPHYCEAE, , - GREEN ALGAE, , (2) PHAEOPHYCEAE, , - BROWN ALGAE, , (3) RHODOPHYCEAE, , - RED ALGAE, , CHLOROPHYCEAE, (GREEN ALGAE), ▪ Green algae are the most advanced algae. It is believed, that green algae are the ancestors of the higher plants., , Habitat : Green algae are cosmopolitan in, nature., Structure : Green algae usually have a, rigid cell wall made up of an inner layer of, cellulose an outer layer of pectose., Green algae are found in many forms, (1) Unicellular :-, , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 12 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, Note : According to five kingdom system, the algae described above should be, placed in Protista but because their life, cycle is similar to green algae, they are, studied in Plantae., (2) Colonial :–, Some green algae are found in colonies., They form colony of cells. The number of, cells in a colony is fixed. Colony with, fixed number of cells called coenobium., eg. Volvox – Motile colony, , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 28 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • Hedwig is considered to be the father of, Bryology. But according to some, scientist it is believed that Cavers is the, father of Bryology., • Father of Indian Bryology is Prof. Shiv, Ram Kashyap., General characteristics :, 1. Bryophytes are the first land plant. It is, believed that, they originated from, aquatic plant and they come on land, through water. Because some bryophytes, have characters similar to aquatic plants, (eg. presence of air canal), 2. Bryophytes are known as amphibians of, the plant kingdom, because these plants, can live in soil but are dependent on, water for fertilization., 3. Bryophytes are not considered as the, successful land plants because vascular, Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 29 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, tissue is absent and they need water for, fertilization. Due to the absence of, vascular tissue bryophytes can not grow, very tall. The process of water conduction, in bryophytes takes place with the help, of parenchyma. Parenchyma is a living, tissue., 4. Roots are absent in bryophytes. Stem, like and leaf like structure of bryophytes, are functionally similar to the stem and, leaves of higher plants., 5., Bryophytes, are, sciophytes,, i.e., bryophytes prefer to grow in moist (wet), and shady places, Life cycle of Bryophytes :, • The main plant body of bryophyte is, haploid. It produces gametes, hence is, called a gametophyte., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 32 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, of bryophyta is not made of root, stem, and leaves, but it is made of foot, seta, and capsule, so it is known as, sporogonium., Some of cells present in capsule of, sporophyte function as spore mother, cells. Now meiosis takes place in, spore mother cells, result of it, haploid spores are formed., • The germination of spores is direct or, indirect. In Liverworts & Hornworts the, germination of spore is direct i.e. each, spore forms a gametophyte after, germination i.e. each spore forms one, thallus., But the germination of spores in, Mosses is indirect. In mosses a, multicellular filament is former After, the germination of spore. This, filament is known as protonema., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 39 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, BRYOPSIDA OR MUSCI – MOSSES, (3) All the Mosses are included in this, class. The plant body of mosses is, made up of stem like, leaf like and, rhizoids (roots like). The Rhizoids, present in the plants of this class are, multicellular, branched and obliquely, septate., Note – The presence of leaf like structure, in gametophyte is the unique character of, Moss because in plant kingdom any, gametophyte do not have leaf like, structure. They consist of upright slender, axis bearing spirally arranged leaves., 1. Vegetative reproduction in mosses is, by fragmentation and budding in the, secondary protonema., 2. During sexual reproduction, sex organs, are produced at the apex of the leafy, shoots., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 42 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, plants i.e. xylem and Phloem are present in, it. In pteridophytes, vessels in xylem and, companion cells in phloem are absent., 2. Pteridophytes are used for medicinal, purpose and as soil binders. They are also, frequently grown as ornamentals., 3. Pteridophytes are more adapted terrestrial, plants as compared to bryophytes. Because(i), Vascular, tissue, is, present, in, pteridophytes., (ii), , They have roots., , 4. Pteridophytes are not completely successful, terrestrial plants because they need water, for fertilization, so pteridophytes grow in, cool, shady and moist places., 5. In, pteridophyta,, the, plant, body, is, completely differentiated in to root, stem, and leaves., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 43 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • The primary root remains alive for short, period. After some time it is replaced by, adventitious roots., • Stem is erect or prostrate. When in, pteridophytes stem is underground,, which is known as rhizome., • On the basis of leaves, pteridophytes are, of two types –, ▪ First in which stem is smaller while, leaves are larger. They are known as, megaphyllous Pteridophytes., Eg. Ferns, ▪ Second, in which stem is larger and, leaves are smaller. They are called as, microphyllous Pteridophytes., Eg. Selaginella, LIFE CYCLE OF PTERIDOPHYTES, 1. Plant is sporophyte. i.e. diploid and they, reproduce by spore formation., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 45 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, cells, and, these, spores, start, the, gametophytic generation., 6. In pteridophyta, the germination of spores, is exosporic., 7. In soil, a inconspicuous, small and, multicellular gametophyte is formed by the, germination of each spore, which is known, as, prothallus., The, formation, of, gametophyte takes place in the soil, therefore it Is free (independent) and, mostly photosynthetic. These gametophyte, require cool, damp, shady places to grow., Because, of, this, specific, restricted, requirement and the need for water for, fertilisation,, the, spread, of, living, pteridophytes is limited and restricted to, narrow geographical regions., Note : In some pteriophytes prothallus is, saprophytic., 8. There is no relation between the main, sporophytic, plant, and, prothallus., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 50 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, 1. Psilopsida, , 2. Lycopsida, , 3. Sphenopsida, , 4. Pteropsida, , 1. Psilopsida :, The most ancient vascular plants are placed, in this class. The plants in this class have, many primitive, Characters –, Their plant body is differentiated in to, stem (rhizome), scaly leaves and, rhizoids., 2. Lycopsida :, (i), Club mosses are placed in this class., (ii), , The plant body of club mosses is, differentiated into root, stem and, leaves., Leaves, are, green, and, Photosynthetic, and, known, as, trophophylls., , (iii) Sporophylls are present in group at the, tip of plant. This groups is called as, strobilus or cone., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 52 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, (i), , In this class Horse tails are inincluded., , (ii), , The plant body of horse tails is, differentiated into root, stem or, rhizome & scaly leaves., , (iii) Silica is present in the epidermis of, these plants. Due to this, surface of, plant become rough. If two Horse tail, plants collide, then there is a, dangerous chance of fire in the forest., (iv) Cone (strobilus) is formed at the apical, part of aerial stem., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 54 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, (ii), , They are commonly called as ferns., Most of the pteridophytes are ferns., , (iii) Ferns, are, megaphyllous, (macrophyllous) i.e. rhizome is small, and leaves are comparatively larger, and these leaves are known as ‘Fronds’., (iv) Multicellular hair are present on the, young leaf and young rhizome of ferns, which are called as ramenta. They are, for protection., (v), , Cones are not produced in ferns., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 57 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • The gymnosperms are plants in which the, ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall, and remain exposed, both before and after, fertilisation., • The seeds that develop post-fertilisation,, are not covered, i.e., are naked. One of the, gymnosperms, the giant redwood tree, Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species., Roots:- Roots are generally tap roots. Roots in, some genera have fungal association in the, form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some, others (Cycas) small specialized roots called, coralloid roots are associated with N2- fixing, cyanobacteria., Stem:- The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or, branched (Pinus, Cedrus)., Leaves:- Simple or compound. In Cycas the, pinnate leaves persist for a few years. The, leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to, withstand, extremes, of, temperature,, humidity and wind. In conifers, the needlelike leaves reduce the surface area. Their, Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 59 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • The cones bearing megasporophylls with, ovules, or, megasporangia, are, called, macrosporangiate or female strobili., • The male or female cones or strobili may be, borne on the same tree (Pinus) or on, different trees (Cycas)., Ovule:- The megaspore mother cell is, differentiated from one of the cells of the, nucellus. The nucellus is protected by, envelopes and the composite structure is, called an ovule., • The ovules are borne on megasporophylls, which may be clustered to form the female, cones., • Fertilization:- The fusion of male and female, gametes., • Zygote develops into an embryo and the, ovules into seeds. These seeds are not, covered., , Angiosperms, (Flowering plants), Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 60 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, (GK. Angus-cover, sperms-seed), • Angiosperms are those seed plants in which, seeds are formed inside fruits and the, sporophylls are organised into flowers., • Angiosperms in the class Dicotyledoneae, grows into two seed-leaves (cotyledons)., e.g.: trees, shrubs, vines and flowers., Characters, • In the angiosperms or flowering plants, the, pollen grains and ovules are developed in, specialized structures called flowers. In, angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed by, fruits., • They range in size from tiny, almost, microscopic Wolfia (less then 01mm)to tall, trees of Eucalyptus (over 100 metres)., Plant Body:- Herbs, Shrubs, Trees, twiners., Root:- Tap Root., Stem:- Angiosperms are divided into two, classes:, Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 61 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, 1. Dicotyledons and 2. Monocotyledons, Reproduction:• Male Sex Organ:- The male sex organ in a, flower is the stamen. Each stamen consists, of a slender filament with an anther at the, tip. The anthers, following meiosis, produce, pollen grains., • Female Sex Organs:- The female sex organs, in a flower is the pistil or the carpel. Pistil, consists of an ovary enclosing one to many, ovules. Within ovules are present highly, reduced female gametophytes termed, embryo sacs. The embryo-sac formation is, preceded by meiosis. Hence, each of the cells, of an embryo-sac is haploid. Each embryosac has a three-celled egg apparatus – one, egg cell and two synergids, three antipodal, cells and two polar nuclei. The polar nuclei, eventually fuse to produce a diploid, secondary nucleus., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 62 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, , Pollination:- Pollen grains, after dispersal, from the anthers, are carried by wind or, various other agencies to the stigma of a, pistil. This is termed as pollination., Fertilization:, • The pollen grains germinate on the stigma, and the resulting pollen tubes grow through, the tissues of stigma and style and reach, the ovule., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 63 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • The pollen tubes enter the embryo-sac, where two male gametes are discharged., One of the male gametes fuses with the egg, cell to form a zygote (syngamy)., • The other male gamete fuses with the, diploid secondary nucleus to produce the, triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN)., Because of the involvement of two fusions,, this event is termed as double fertilisation,, an event unique to angiosperms., Embryo: • The zygote develops into an embryo (with, one or two cotyledons) and the PEN, develops into endosperm which provides, nourishment to the developing embryo., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 64 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • The synergids and antipodals degenerate, after fertilisation. During these events the, ovules develop into seeds and the ovaries, develop into fruit., , Fig.: Life cycle of angiosperm, PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF, GENERATIONS, • In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can, divide by mitosis., • This ability leads to the formation of, different plant bodies – haploid and diploid., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 65 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, • The haploid plant body produces gametes by, mitosis., • This plant body represents a gametophyte., Following fertilisation the zygote also divides, by mitosis to produce a diploid sporophytic, plant body. Haploid spores are produced by, this plant body by meiosis. These in turn,, divide by mitosis to form a haploid plant body, once again. Thus, during the life cycle of any, sexually reproducing plant, there is an, alternation of generations between gamete, producing haploid gametophyte and spore, producing diploid sporophyte., However, different plant groups, as well as, individuals representing them, differ in the, following patterns:, 1. Sporophytic, generation is, represented, only by the one-celled zygote.There are no, free-living sporophytes. Meiosis in the, zygote results in the formation of haploid, spores., The, haploid, spores, divide, mitotically and form the gametophyte., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 66 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, The dominant, photosynthetic phase in, such, plants, is, the, free-living, gametophyte. This kind of life cycle is, termed as haplontic. Many algae such as, Volvox, Spirogyra and some species of, Chlamydomomas represent this pattern., 2. On the other extreme, is the type wherein, the diploid sporophyte is the dominant,, photosynthetic, independent phase of the, plant., The, gametophytic, phase, is, represented by the single to few-celled, haploid gametophyte. This kind of lifecycle, is termed as diplontic. All seed-bearing, plants i.e. gymnosperms and angiosperms,, follow this pattern., 3. Bryophytes, and, pteridophytes,, interestingly, exhibit an intermediate, condition (Haplo-diplontic); both phases, are multicellular and often free-living., However, they differ in their dominant, phase, Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 68 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, than bacteria and they can pass through the, bacterial proof filters., • Beijerinck demonstrated that the extract of, the infected plants of tobacco could cause, infection in healthy Plants and called the, fluid, as, “Contagium, vivum, fluidum”, (Infectious living fluid), • Stanley crystallized TMV first time and, Nobel prize was awarded to him., CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF VIRUSES, 1. These are submicroscopic & non-cellular, organisms generally smaller than 200, mµ/200nm., 2. They are obligate intracellular parasites., 3. They have either RNA or DNA. No virus, contains both DNA and RNA., 4. They are inert out side their specific host, cell in crystalline form., , Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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Page 69 : BIOLOGY, BY- ANAND MOHAN, 5. They contain nucleic acid so they are, capable of protein synthesis by the help of, ribosomes of host cell., MORPHOLOGY AND STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES, Size of Viruses :, • TMV – 300 mm × 20 mm or 300 nm × 20 nm, SHAPE:, • Spherical – Influenza virus, HIV, • Rod shaped – TMV., Tadpole like – Bacteriophage, Chemical composition :, 1. Nucleic acid : Either RNA or DNA, • Generally in plant viruses, ssRNA is present, but in Cauliflower mosaic virus dsDNA is, present but Gemini viruses (curly top virus), have ssDNA., • Generally in animal viruses, double stranded, DNA is present but in some animal viruses,, RNA is present. Which is single or double, stranded., Mob- 6206589087,7277760257 /FB- Anand Mohan /
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