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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , INTRODUCING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, I WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, Human beings are essentially social beings. We stay with other and our actions,, thoughts, and feelings are affected by the presence of others. At the same time we influence, the behaviour of other individuals. This consists of large amount of human behaviour. Social, psychology is a discipline that tries to understand the human social behaviour., The study of individual in the social context is the subject matter of the field of psychology, called social psychology., Social psychology combines elements of psychology and social sciences and has a, complex genealogy, which includes strains from many disciplines. It came on scene about, 1900, after the way had been prepared by at least four groups of scholars: social philosophers,, pioneer anthropologists, British evolutionists and early sociologists., Definition:, Myers and Spencer (2006) define social psychology as the “scientific study of how, people think about, influence, and relate to one another”., Barron and Byrne (2007) defined social psychology as “the scientific field that seeks, to understand the nature and cause of individual behaviour and thought in social situations”., , A. Big questions in social psychology, Q How much of our social world is just in our heads?, Our social behaviour varies from social situation to how we interpret it, Social psychologists therefore deal with the factors that lead us to behave in a given, way in the presence of others, and look at the conditions under which certain behavior/actions, and feelings occur. Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings,, and behaviors are influenced by others. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include, all psychological variables that are measurable in a human being. It deals with questions, related to:, , 1

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , Social thinking, o How feelings, thoughts, beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed?, o How such psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others?, o How we perceive our self and other?, o What we believe?, o What judgement we make?, o What is the structure and functions of attitude?, o What is the relation between attitude and behaviour?, , Social influence, It occurs when a person's emotions, opinions, or behaviors are affected by, others. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer, pressure, obedience, leadership, persuasion etc, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad varieties of social influence, 1. Compliance is when people appear to agree with others but actually keep their, dissenting opinions private., 2. Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected,, such as a famous celebrity., 3. Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly, and privately., , 2

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , Social relationships, A social relation or social interaction is any relationship between two or more individuals., It deals with questions related to Aggression , prejudice. Attraction, helping, social isolation,, etc, , Q Would you be cruel if ordered?, Nazi germany killed 6 million jews on order, How and why people follow order even for cruel act ?, Q Why people help?or help oneself?, What makes people to be helpful or greedy?, Common thing is to be noted in in these question, It deals with how people view and, effect each other and that is social psychology, , B.Some big ideas in social psychology, Social psychology is a science that studies the influences of our situations, paying, special attention to how we view and affect one another. Also how people think, influence,, and relate to one another., According to Myers (2010), some of the big ideas in social psychology:, 1. we construct our social reality, 2. Social intuitions are powerful and sometimes perilous, 3. Attitude shapes and are shaped by behaviour, 4. Our behavior is shaped by our attitudes and social influences, 5. Dispositions shape our behavior, 6. Feelings and actions toward people can be negative and positive, 7. Biological behavior influences our social behavior, , 3

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , II SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES, The goal of social psychology is to identify universal properties of human nature that, make everyone – regardless of social class or culture susceptible to social influence. By contrast, political science, sociology and economics, cultural anthropology have a starting point in the, political, societal and cultural systems in which an individual lives while general psychology, studies learning processes, motivation and perception, intelligence. Social psychology studies, the behavior of individual in his face-to-face interaction with others, anthropology is concerned, with the culture of the group, its technology, its beliefs, values and so on, Thus, social, psychology tries to understand the influences which produces regularities and diversities in, human social behaviour. Its interest in the individual as a participant in the social relationships, and its emphasis is on the understanding of the social influence process underlying, relationships., , a) Social Psychology and Sociology, In sociology we study groups, society and institutions, whereas in social psychology, our attention is centered round the action and reactions of individuals. Individuals and groups, are naturally related to society. For example: studying ‘family’ as a whole and its structure and, function is the job of a sociologist but remains confined to ancient and aborigine races. A study, of a racial or cultural group in its detail to observe continuity of a tradition is a subject matter, 4

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , of anthropologist, but how the culture shapes the cognitive and affective tendency of an, individual is a matter of interest to a social psychologist. The anthropologist unlike the social, psychologist does not study an individual’s behaviour in the cultural or social background., However, it is now seen that sociologists have started taking interest in cultural studies along, with the study of some very important persons because of the life story of such important, persons which plays a vital role in the building of a particular culture. It will have to be admitted, that this kind of study conducted by anthropologists will remain incomplete without the help, of social psychology. This shows that anthropology and social psychology are inter-dependent, upto some extent., Edward Jones (1998) indicates in Handbook of Social Psychology that two scientific, disciplines known as social psychology are employed in both, one in psychology, and the other, in sociology. He suggests that the larger of the two is psychological branch: psychological, social psychology, and sociological social psychology. Social psychology focuses on the, influence of people on the individual, whereas Sociology downplays the role of individual and, focuses on societal variables like socio-economic-status (SES), people's social roles, cultural, norms, etc. On the other hand, social psychology concentrates on individual traits (personality, traits and temperament) and processes that occur at individual level, , b) Social Psychology and Personality Psychology, These both disciplines can be considered as allies as their focus is on individual., However, both disciplines are also different from each other on a few dimensions. For example,, personality psychologists are interested in individual differences, while social psychologists, focus on common humanity and in knowing that how people view and affect one another. An, illustrative example for the difference in both disciplines is that Personality psychologist may, be interested in that why some individuals are more aggressive than other, whereas a social, psychologist may be interested in knowing that how social situations can lead most individuals, to act kindly, cruelly, to conform., Personality and social psychology are both concerned with the study of individual and, social behavior, although each approaches this domain from a different perspective. Personality, psychology emphasizes the role of intrapersonal factors (within the person), whereas social, psychology emphasizes interpersonal ones (between people). Of course, there is a dynamic, interrelation between these perspectives, since people with different personalities may behave, differently when subjected to social or group forces., 5

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , c) Four levels of explanation, In this original survey of the nature of explanation in social psychology, Willem Doise, elaborates a novel conceptual framework, in order to provide a constructive way of integrating, the diverse range of analysis offered in the field. Doise describes four levels of analysis: the, intra-personal; the inter-personal; the positional; and the ideological. The levels thus defined, overlap in many studies, and Doise uses this interconnection of levels of explanation - which, he terms articulation - to put recent research in an exciting new perspective. The idea of, articulation is applied, in particular, to three areas of research in experimental social, psychology - social factors in cognitive development, social influence and intergroup relations, - which are usually explained in terms of only one level of analysis, but which, as Doise, convincingly demonstrates, can be enriched by also applying the other levels of explanation., 1., , The group level – behaviour is explained in terms of the biological or social groups, , people belong to and in terms of the processes that mold these groups. Examples of biological, groups are: species and the biological sexes. Examples of social groups are: socioeconomic, classes, cultural and ethnic groups, religious groups, gender. The family classifies as both a, biological and social group. Processes studied include biological evolution, cultural evolution,, and the effects and dynamics of social groups., 2., , The individual level – behavior is explained in terms of biological and environmental, , factors that influence the behavior of individuals. These factors can include biological factors, (heredity, genes, hormones, brain structure and physiology), past environmental factors (family, rearing, past rewards and punishments), and current environmental factors (the current social, setting, the people you are with)., , Processes studied include behavior genetics,, , neurophysiology, learning, development, and social psychological processes., , Social, , psychology emphasizes social settings, particularly the current social situation, as a cause, of behavior., 3., , Mediating variables – hypothetical factors that exist within individuals and that are, , inferred from behavior. These internal factors include: personality traits, intelligence, beliefs,, attitudes, emotional states, consciousness. Traditionally, social psychology’s preferred, mediating variables have been attitudes and beliefs. Today, social psychologists also, study personality traits, schemas, and emotions as mediating variables., , 6

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , 4. Psychologists try to predict and explain behavior; social psychologists in particular try to, predict and explain social forms of behavior; three aspects or components of behavior are:, thought (the cognitive side of behavior), feeling (the affective or emotional side of behavior),, and action (the observable part of behavior); social psychologists study, in particular, social, thought (e.g., how we think about other people), social emotions (e.g., love and attraction), and, social kinds of behavior (e.g., aggression, helping others), , III SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND HUMAN VALUES, Obvious Ways Values Enter Psychology, Social psychology reflects social history. Values enter psychology when psychologists choose, the things they want to research. Those things can vary depending on where the psychologist, is, what period in history and their own particular personality., •, , Values differ not only across time but also across cultures. Europe has given us a major, theory of “social identity,” whereas American social psychologists have focused more, on individuals., , •, , Values also influence the types of people who are attracted to various disciplines., Different types of people with different values are attracted to different areas of interest., , •, , Values enter the picture as the object of social-psychological analysis. Social, psychologists investigate how values form, why they change, and how they influence, attitudes and actions., , Not-So-Obvious Ways Values Enter Psychology, The subjective aspects of science., Scientists and philosophers now agree that science is not purely objective. Scientists do not, simply read the book of nature. Rather, they interpret nature, using their own mental categories., The tendency to prejudge reality based on our expectations is a basic fact about the human, mind. Because scholars at work in any given area often share a common viewpoint or come, from the same culture, their assumptions may go unchallenged. Feminists and Marxists, exposed some of social psychology’s unexamined assumptions and called attention to gender, and individualist biases., 7

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , ▪, , Culture: The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group, of people and transmitted from one generation to the next., , ▪, , Social representations:, Socially shared beliefs, widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and, cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of our world., , Psychological Concepts Contain Hidden Values, Examples of hidden values Maslow "self-actualized people"- his conclusion reflects his own, hidden values are the following, •, , Defining the Good Life: Values influence our idea of the best way to live our lives (e.g., Maslow)., , •, , Professional Advice- There advice contains their own personal values, , •, , Forming Concepts/Labeling- The way that a psychologist forms a concept an idea, reflects their own personal view. They can have different views, and label people, differently, , Values lie hidden within our cultural definitions of mental health, our psychological advice for, living, our concepts, and our psychological labels. The point is never that the implicit values, are necessarily bad. The point is that scientific interpretation, even at the level of labeling, phenomena, is a human activity. It is therefore natural and inevitable that prior beliefs and, values will influence what social psychologists think and write., , IV RESEARCH METHODS: HOW WE DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?, Social psychologists propose theories that organize their observations and imply, testable hypotheses and practical predictions. To test a hypothesis, social psychologists may do, research that predicts behavior using correlational studies, often conducted in natural settings., Or they may seek to explain behavior by conducting experiments that manipulate one or more, factors under controlled conditions. Once they have conducted a research study, they explore, ways to apply their findings to improve people’s everyday lives., , A. Forming and Testing Hypotheses, , 8

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , social psychologists struggle with human nature to pin down its secrets, they organize, ideas and findings into theories., A theory is an integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed events. Theories, not only summarize but also imply testable predictions, called hypotheses., Hypotheses Testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events., Hypotheses serve several purposes., •, , Allow us to test a theory (try to false), , •, , Give direction to research, , •, , The predictive feature of good theories can also make them practical. A complete, theory of aggression, for example, would predict when to expect aggression and how, to control it., , A good theory, •, , Effectively summarizes many observations, and, , •, , Makes clear predictions that we can use to, , •, , Confirm or modify the theory,, , •, , Generate new exploration, and, , •, , Suggest practical applications., , B.Correlational Research: Detecting Natural Associations, Social-psychological research varies, 1. Location., o The laboratory (a controlled situation), o The field (everyday situations). field research is done in natural, real-life, settings outside the laboratory, 2. Method—, o Correlational Naturally occurring relationships among variables: (asking, whether two or more factors are naturally associated), o Experimental Seeks clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or, more variables while controlling others: (manipulating some factor to see its, effect on another)., Correlation and Causation:, •, , Correlations indicate a relationship, but that relationship is not necessarily one of cause, and effect. Correlational research allows us to predict, but it cannot tell us whether, 9

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , changing one variable (such as social status) will cause changes in another (such as, health)., social status (X) ----------- health (Y), •, , When two variables correlate, any combination of three explanations is possible. Either, one may cause the other, or both may be affected by an underlying “third factor.”, Example: correlation—between self-esteem and academic achievement., Children with high self-esteem tend also to have high academic achievement., o As with any correlation, we can also state this the other way around: High, achievers tend to have high self-esteem., o Some people believe a “healthy self-concept” contributes to achievement., Thus, boosting a child’s self-image may also boost school achievement., , •, , The problem with correlational research is that it does not tell us whether changing, one variable CAUSES and change in the other. Knowing that two variables change, together (correlate) enables us to predict one when we know the other, but correlation, does not specify CAUSE AND EFFECT., ex. social status and how long you live (you don't know what the cause might be), , •, , Correlations quantify with a coefficient known as r,, The degree of relationship between 2 factors, +1 (go up or down together), 0 (no correlation), -1 (as one factors goes up the other goes down), , Time-lagged correlations, Advanced correlational techniques can, however, suggest cause-effect, relationships. It reveal the sequence of events. Researchers can also use statistical, techniques that extract the influence of confounded” variables., Confounded” variable: In correlations, you have to also understand whether, both the things that are correlated are affected by a third variable., ex : when the correlation between self-esteem and achievement evaporated after, extracting intelligence and family status., , Strength/ Weaknesses of Correlational Research:, Advantage: you can observe correlations in a real world setting, Disadvantages: Ambiguity in results., , 10

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , Survey Research, To measure variables such as status and health?, One way is surveying representative samples of people, which is done by a representative group, by taking a random sample, one in which every person in the population being studied has an, equal chance of inclusion., Random sample, Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal, chance of inclusion., Problems with Survey Research "give you bad answers", 1. Unrepresentative Samples, When the sample of people does not properly represent the people to be studied (for, example if you just sent a survey to everyone in new canaan that would not be, representative of the whole country), 2. Order of questions, Order of the questions that are asked can influence someones answer., 3. Response Options, Depending on the options given to the person answering the question can affect the, survey results., For example: which source of power do you prefer nuclear or coal vs. giving them more, options you will get different results., 4. Wording of Questions, The way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and, expressed opinions., , Experimental Research, Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more, factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant)., , Control: Manipulating Variables, o Independent Variable, The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates/ changes. The thing you are, changing., , 11

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , o Dependent Variable:, The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of, the independent variable., Social psychologists experiment by constructing social situations that simulate, important features of our daily lives. By varying just one or two factors at a time—called, independent variables —the experimenter pinpoints their influence. Historically, social, psychologists have used the experimental method to, , suggests possible cause effect, , explanations of correlational findings., Example:, 1. Correlational and experimental studies of prejudice against the obese, Obesity correlated with marital status and income., Experiment concerns prejudice against people who are obese. Prejudice and, discrimination were having an effect., 2. Correlational and experimental studies of TV violence, The more violent television children watch, the more aggressive they tend to be., , Good experiment: Essential ingredients for a good experiment, Random Assignment: The Great Equalizer, The process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all, persons have the same chance of being in a given condition (not the distinction between, random assignment in experiments and random sampling in surveys. Random, assignments help us infer cause and effect. Random sampling help us generalize, population., Experiments randomly assign people either to a condition that receives the, experimental treatment or to a control condition that does not. This gives the researcher, confidence that any later difference is somehow caused by the treatment. Random, assignment eliminates all such extraneous factors., , Ethics of Experimentation, 1. Mundane realism, Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations. Don't, have to make the experiment seem like a real-life situation which is mundane realism, Does not have to replicate reality, 12

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Mr.Azhar Patel, Maulana Azad College, , 2. Experimental, Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves participants. They wanted to set, up an experiment where the people feel engaged. For instance, giving shocks to other, people. People really thought they were shocking somebody. Achieving this, sometimes-required deceiving people with a plausible cover story., 3. Deception, In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the, study's methods and purposes., 4. Demand characteristics, Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected. Person, conducting the experiment has to be careful that they don't by accident give away, what it is they expect the result to be., 5. Informed consent, An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them, to choose whether they wish to participate., ▪, , Tell participants enough about the experiment to enable their informed, consent., , ▪, , Be truthful. Use deception only if essential and justified by a significant, purpose and not “about aspects that would affect their willingness to, participate.”, , ▪, , Protect participants from harm and significant discomfort., , ▪, , Treat information about the individual participants confidentially., , 6. Debriefing, Fully explain the experiment afterward, including any deception. In social, psychology, the post-experimental explanation of a study to its participants., Debriefing usually disclosures any deception and often queries participants regarding, their understandings and feelings., , 13