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are not equally involved in all of their in-groups. One might, for example, be an radent admirer of a, nolitical party and be a rather indifferent Rotarian, Nor do the people feel equally distant from all, their out-groups. For example, member of the Bharathiya Janata Party will feel ideologically closer, to the Congress (I) party than to the communists., Sumner also stressed upon the fact that strong in-group solidarity and identity often lead to the, development of ethnocentric' attitudes. Strong sense of in-group loyalty may induce the members to, judge other people's behaviour from the standards of the in-group. Because of the ethnocentric, attitude, "out-groups are often shown in stereotyped ways which emphasise their imperfections.", [Horton and Hunt - page: 193], 6. PRIMARY GROUPS AND SECONDARY GROUPS, The classification of social groups into 'primary' and 'secondary' has become very popular, today. An American social psychologist Charles Horton Cooley has introduced the term 'primary, group' in his book “Social Organisation'. He has given a detailed analysis of the concept of primary, group and has not even mentioned the term 'secondary group' in his book. Sociologists like Kingsley, Davis, Ogburn, Maclver and others have popularised the concept of secondary group. According to, them, groups other than those of primary ones can be called 'secondary'. Hence, the secondary, groups are treated as a 'residual category'. This classification of groups into primary and secondary, is, however, made on the basis of the nature and character of social interaction. It means, it depends, on the nature of social contact and the degree of intimacy among the members concerned. Primary, groups are also called 'face-to-face' groups and secondary groups, the 'derivative group'., The classification of social groups into 'Primary' and 'Secondary' resembles Sumner's classi-, fication of 'In-groups' and 'Out-groups' and Ferdinand Tonnies' classification of groups into the, "Gemeinschaft [community] and the 'Gesellschaft [society]. But the distinction between primary, groups and secondary groups is only relative but not absolute. Both the kinds of groups are in a way, 'ideal types'. In the actual world the groups may not possess such distinct characteristics and satisfy, all the conditions. The groups that we call 'primary' are those in which we find the dominance of, primary relations and in the same way, the 'secondary' groups exhibit the dominance of secondary, relations. It is relevant here to make a distinction between two types of social contacts namely:, sympathetic contact' and 'categorical contact', which play an important role in the analysis of, primary groups' and 'secondary groups'., Sympathetic Contact and Categorical Contact, It is on the basis of the nature of social contacts and social relations that the groups can be, classified into "primary" and "secondary", 'in-groups', and 'out-groups', and so on. The social, contacts are of two types : Sympathetic Contact and Categorical Contact., (i) Sympathetic Contact. Sympathetic Contact is a kind of contact between two or more per-, sons characterised by some degree of mutual understanding and interest in the whole personality of, the other. It represents one's personal involvement in the affairs of another. Example: Contacts, between the mother and the child, parents and children, close relatives, close friends etc. represent, sympathetic contacts. Individuals among whom such type of contacts exist, are mutually helpful,, co-operative, sympathetic and merciful. The primary groups are characterised by sympathetic con-, tact., (ii) Categorical Contact. A categorical contact is a contact between two people whose inter-, action is governed by the positions which they occupy. The interaction is limited to what is appropri-, ate to these positions. Example : Contacts between lawyer and client, store-keeper and customer,, doctor and patient, bank officer and the peon, teacher and student and so on. Such a contact may be, bereft of intimacy, friendliness, sympathy and mutual helpfulness. It does not indicate one's per-, sonal interest in the other person. In the secondary groups the categorical contacts are predominantly, found., "Ethnocentrism" refers to the "tendency to judge other cultures by the standards of one's own" La, Robertson - Page - 64, Scanned by TapScanner

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Individual Culture and Society, (c) The Relationship is Personal.: In the primary group the interest of each is centered, 236, 7. THE PRIMARY GROUPS, The Meaning of Primary Group. The concept of 'primary groups' is a significant contrib, group is the nucleus of all social organisations. It is a small group in which a few persons come in, direct contact with one another. These persons meet face to face for mutual help, companionshin and, discussion of common questions., Cooley used the term 'primary groups' to mean a social group characterised by face to face, relationship, mutual aid and companionship. By primary groups, Cooley meant the intimate, per., sonal 'face to-face' groups in which we find our companions and comrades as the members of ou, family and our daily associates. These are the people with whom we enjoy the more intimate kinde, of social relations. The primary groups can be referred to as the 'We' groups. Cooley explained that, primary group involves the sort of sympathy and mutual identification for which 'We' is the natural, expression., Cooley writes-"By primary groups I means those characterised by intimate face-to-face asso, ciation and co-operation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental, in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual....", Primary groups are universal groups functioning in all states of cultural development. They are, the chief basis of what is universal in human nature and human ideals. The 'self' is developed and, moulded by the primary group relations. Primary groups socialise the individuals. As Maclver, they are 'the breeding ground of our mores and the nurse of our loyalties.' In primitive culture, and, even in advance cultures before the growth of cities, the majority of associations occurs in primary, groups. Example for primary groups : family, neighbourhood, children's play ground, local brother-, hood, friends' club, peer group etc., says, Chief Characteristics of Primary Groups, The characteristic features described below throw more light on the nature and character of, primary groups., 1. Dominance of Face-to-Face Relations. Primary groups are characterised by close and inti-, mate relationships. There exists a fact-to-face relationship among the members. In primary groups, everyone knows everyone else; one's name and fame, one's status, wealth, occupation, level of, education etc. Close contact between them increases intimacy among the members. Face-to-face, relations are commonly observed in small groups like family, children's playgroup, neighbourhood, and so on., The Character of Primary Relations, (a) Identity of Ends. Members of the primary groups have more or less identical desires and, attitudes. They work together for the attainment of their common ends without disagreement. They, look at the world through the same eyes. Every member of the group pursues, as one of his ends, ue, welfare of the other. The identification of ends is connected with the fusion of personalities withiu, the group., (b) The Relationship is an End in Itself. The primary relationship is regarded as an end ih, itself, but not a means to an end. It is neither utilitarian nor motivated by any economic gain. It, intrinsically enjoyable. True love between husband and wife or genuine friendship between two, individuals is for example, beyond the consideration of any selfish motive., (c) The Relationship is Personal.: In the primary group the interest of each is centered, in others as persons. The relationship disappears if the particular person disappears from it. A, Kingsley Davis says, 'the primary relationship is a matter of persons, it exists because of, person, not despite him'. The relationship is non- transferable and irreplaceable. For example, Scanned by TapScanner

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Hence, the group is unspecialised in character., interest of the people. On the other hand, the interests of primary groups are always comprehensive., rectly and in cooperation with each other to achieve their common interests. They do not act, munication between the members., 237, Swcial Groups, alionship between the husband and wife is such that no third person can replace any one of the, WO., (d) The Relationship is Inclusive. The individual in a personal relationship is not an abstrac-, ton Individuals are treated as complete human beings. All persons of the group are fused together, completely. Individuals know each other very well. Different sides of member's personality are, known to all the other members., (e) The Relationship is Spontaneous. A purely primary relationship is voluntary. It is not, planned. It is not based on any contract. Relationships develop between members naturally and, Spontaneously. The relationships that develop between the mother and the child, friend and a friend,, husband and wife, child and a child are, for example, purely voluntary, and spontaneous., 2. Small size. Primary Groups are smaller is size. Effective participation of the members is, possible only when the group is of a small size. Other factors being equal, the smaller the group, more intimate it is. The character of the group tends to change with its size. The increase in the size, of the group will have a negative effect on the intimacy of the members., 3. Physical Proximity or Nearness. Face-to-face relations can be found only when members, reside in a particular area more or less permanently. Seeing and talking with each other facilitates, the exchange of ideas, opinions and sentiments. It makes possible the 'conversation of gestures' of, which Mead speaks. Caressing, kissing, eating and dwelling together, playing, travelling,, studying together- all tend to be regarded as external symbols of close solidarity. Physical proximity, provides an opportunity for the very development of primary groups., 4. Stability of the Group. A primary group is relatively a permanent group. Other things being, equal, the longer the group remains together, the more numerous and deeper are the contacts be-, tween its members. Social ties deepen in time. Although a husband and wife may have quarrelled, for ten years, the very fact that they have lived together for that long, makes it hard for them to, do without each other., the, 5. Similarity of Background. The members of a primary group must have more or less the, same background. There must be some approximations in their levels of experience. Each must have, something to contribute, to give as well as to take. The person "who is too far above or below it,, disturbs the process of group participation". This is essential even for the easy interplay of personali-, ties in the family, the play group, the gang etc., 6. Limited Self-Interest. Members of the primary group subordinate their personal interests to, the interests of the group. The common interest of the group is strong enough to control individual, interest. The commonness of interests provides mental pleasure and contentment to the members., 7. Intensity of Shared Interest. The shared interests of the group also hold them together., The interest which is shared acquires a new significance, a new emphasis, a new valuation. It, nas a breadth of support. The group is relatively durable because of these shared interests. The, primary group sustains the interest of living itself., 8. Communication. Communication in the case of primary group like family or children's, play group, for example, is very quick and effective. Direct or face-to-face contact helps easy com-, 9. Unspecialised Character of the Primary Group. A primary group is not deliberately cre-, ated nor is it specialised in character. It has not come into being for the pursuit of any particular, Interest of the people. On the other hand, the interests of primary groups are always comprehensive., is unspecialised in character., 10. Direct Cooperation. Direct cooperation characterises primary group. Members work di-, ectly and in cooperation with each other to achieve their common interests. They do not act, independently, nor even interdependently, but all participate in the same process. Division of iabour, Scanned by TapScanner

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such experiences and attitudes spring the desire for democracy and freedom. The very democratic, the world around him. The attitudes of kindness, sympathy, love, tolerance, mutual help and sacri-, Primary groups help the individual to acquire basic attitudes towards people, social institutions and, Individual Culture and Society, 238, as it is understood in a complex industrial society, does not exist in a primary group. Work is essen., tially 'a mode of sharing a common experience'. The group is 'a unity in the performance of its, function'., 8. IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY GROUPS, individual as well as 'social importance. They are the medium, Primary groups are of great, through which we learn our culture. They prepare the individuals to lead a successful social life, They socialise individuals and give proper shape to their personality. Some of the primary, groups may secure certain external advantages such as better wages, production efficiency, workers', morale, counselling and guidance and so on., 1. Primary Group A Great Humanising Agent. The primary group enacts the role of a, humanising agency. Family is the immediate primary group in which a child finds itself as soon as it, is born. The family, peer groups and the neighbourhood play an important role in socialising or, humanising the child. Primary groups teach the child the social norms, standards, morals, beliefs,, values and ideas of the society. They introduce to the child the culture of the society. They emotion-, ally condition the child's personality. The animal drives of man become human only through con-, stant training. The primary groups, as Maclver says, are 'the nursery of human nature., 2. Development of Personality. C.H. Cooley is of the opinion that the primary group, particu-, larly the family, is the chief moulder of the human personality. The primary group is the source of, "our notions of love, freedom, justice and the like'. The qualities of behaviour that a child picks up, during the early years in primary groups find their expression in his adult life. Fair play, equality,, free expression, submission to the will of the group and willingness to sacrifice for it are character-, istics of family groups. These have a great impact on the personality development of the individuals., Primary groups mould our opinions, guide our affections, influence our actions, and in large mea-, sure determine our loyalties. These are not the groups in which we merely work or play. These are, the groups in which we live and have our being., 3. Satisfaction of Psychological Needs. Primary groups satisfy many psychological needs of, the individuals. Individuals get mental happiness, contentment and security from the primary, groups. They get the advantages of companionship, sympathy and exchange of thoughts and feel-, ings. They reduce mental tensions and emotional stresses and strains. An individual finds his nearest, and the dearest companions in the primary groups. He also realises from his experiences that the, primary group is his noble centre of human affection, love and sympathy., 4. Provision of Stimulus. The primary group not only provides satisfaction and happiness to, the individuals, but it also provides a stimulus to pursue their interests. With confidence and courage, the individual members work, strive and struggle to achieve their goals. Everyone feels that he is not, alone pursuing the interest but there are others who along with him are devoted to same pursuit. Tms, feeling stimulates him to keener efforts., 5. United in Process. The primary group is a cohesive group. Direct cooperation characterises, the face-to-face group. Hence the members participate in the same group process. The group, essentially a "mode of sharing a common experience". There is a unity in the performance of is, function. Hence it meets the physical as well as psychological needs of its members. It is better, equipped to face crisis also., 6. Strengthens the Democratic Spirit. The primary group serves the needs of society also, the world around him. The attitudes of kindness, sympathy, love, tolerance, mutual help and sacr, fice which provide the cementing force to social structure are developed in the primary groups., such experiences and attitudes spring the desire for democracy and freedom. The very democratic, spirit is developed and reinforced in primary groups., From, Scanned by TapScanner

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Social Groups, 239, 7. Acts as an Agent of Social Control. From the point of view of society the primary group, acts as an agency of social control. Primary groups not only provide security to the members but also, control their behaviour and regulate their relations. For example, family, neighbourhood, peer group, or friends' group control much of the activities of their members., 9. THE SECONDARY GROUPS, An understanding of the modern industrial society requires an understanding of the secondary, groups. The secondary groups are almost the opposite of primary groups. The social groups other, than those of primary groups may be termed as secondary groups'. They are a residual category., They are often called 'special interest groups'. MacIver and Page refer to them as 'great associa-, tions'. They are of the opinion that secondary groups have become almost inevitable today. Their, appearance is mainly due to the growing cultural complexity,, Primary groups are found predominantly in societies where life is relatively simple. With the, expansion in population and territory of a society, however, interests become diversified and other, types of relationships, which can be called 'secondary' or impersonal, become necessary. Interests, become differentiated. The service of experts is required. Techniques are elaborated, and the aver-, member has neither the time nor the energy nor the skill to attend to them. The new range of the, age, interests demands a complex organisation. The members are numerous and too scattered to conduct, their business through face-to-face relationships. Specially selected persons must act on behalf, of all and hence, arises a hierarchy of officials called 'bureaucracy'. These features characterise, the rise of the modern state, the great corporation, the large church, the factory, the, union, a university, a nationwide political party and so on. These are secondary groups., army,, the labour, Meaning of Secondary Group, Ogburn and Nimkoff say that the 'groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy' can be, called secondary groups., Frank D. Watson writes, 'the secondary group is larger and more formal, is specialised and, direct in its contacts and relies more for unity and continuance upon the stability of its social, organisation than does the primary group'., Characteristics, 1. Dominance of Secondary Relations. Secondary groups are characterised by indirect, im-, personal, contractual and non-inclusive relations. Relations are indirect because secondary groups, are bigger in size and the members may not stay together. Relations are contractual in the sense, they, are oriented towards certain interests or desires. Further, members are bound to one another by, mutual rights, duties and obligations for the realisation of their objectives or interests. Relations are, impersonal, because members are not very much interested in other members as 'persons'. They are, more concerned with their self-centered interests than with other persons. Relations are non-inclu-, sive, because thev are partial and have limited range. These kinds of relations among people can be, found in big factories, business corporations, governmental offices, banks, universities, political, parties, trade unions, international associations etc,, 2. Largeness of the Size. Secondary groups are relatively larger in size. City, nation, polítical, parties, trade unions, corporations, international associations, such as the Rotary Club, Lions, Club, Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Society of Jesus, etc., are, for example, bigger in size. They may, have thousands and lakhs of members. There may not be any limit to the membership in the case of, some secondary groups., 3. Membership. Membership in the case of secondarY groups is mainly voluntary, Individđuaks, áre at liberty to join or to go away from the groups. For example, they are at liberty to join polítical, parties, international associations like the Rotary Club, Lions Club, business corporations and s0 o, However, there are some secondary groups like the state whose membership is almost involuntary, 4. No Physical Basis. Secondary groups are not characterised by physical proximity, Many, Secondary groups are not limited to any definite area. There are some secondary groups like the, Scanned by TapScanner