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GEOGRAPHY, `` Physical, `` India, `` World

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B-130, , Geography, , , , Theories of Development, , Universe, , , , , , , , , , , , Big bang Theory, Steady State theory, Osclilating Universe Therory, , Galaxy, Solar Systems, Planets and Moons, Cosmic Bodies, , Seasons and Their Formation., Earth, Chronology of the Earth, , , , Geological Era, Internal Structure, , Geomorphology, Oceanography, , Rocks and their classification, Movement of Earth, , , , , , , , , , , , , Ocean Structure, Temperature, Salinity, Ocean Deposits, Ocean Tides, Ocean Currents, Coral Reef and Atolls, , , , , , Atmospheric Structure, Insolation and Heat Budget, Winds and their type, , Atmosphere, , PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY–MIND MAP, , , , , , , , , , , Factors Affecting movement of Earth, (Endogenetic and Exogenetic Forces), Outcomes of Earth's Movement (Folded, Mountains, Earthquake, Volcanoes), , Mountain, Plains, Plateau, , , , , , , Process of Formation and their types, , Planetary Wind (Polar winds, westerlies,, Trade winds), Seasonal Winds (Monsoon), Local Winds, , , , Cyclones and Anti Cyclones, , , , , , Air masses, Clouds and their types, Precipitation, , , , , , Recent Major Cyclones, , Conventional, Cyclonic, Orogenic

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B-131, , Geography, , UNIVERSE, •• All existing matters and space as, a whole forms Universe. It was, termed as cosmos when first, conceived as an orderly unit and, it study called as cosmology. It, is believed to be expanding since, its creation in the Big Bang about, 13 billion years ago., •• The word universe derives from, the old French word univers,, which in turn derives from the, Latin word universum. The Latin, word was used by Cicero and, later Latin authors in many of, the same senses as the modern, English word is used., Diameter, Volume, Mass, (ordinary, matter), Density, , Age, , Fast Fact, 8.8×1026 m (28.5, Gpc or 93 Gly), 4×1080 m3, 1053 kg, , •• Dark matters are neither, antimatter nor black hole. Back, holes are gravity lenses that bend, light. The instruments which, are used by the scientists for, these discoveries are cosmology, instrument (WMAP and Plank),, direct detection experiments, include CDMS, XENON, Zeplin,, WARP, ArDM and other; indirect, detection experiments like Gamma, ray detectors, antimatter detectors,, X-rays and radio facilities., , Theories of Development, Big Bang Theory, , 9.9×10–30 g/cm3, (equivalent to 6, protons per cubic, meter of space), 13.799±0.021 billion, years, 2.72548 K, , Average, temperature, Contents, ordinary (baryonic), matter (4.9%), dark matter (26.8%), dark energy (68.3%), • Normal matters all that are, visible (star, planet and galaxies), make up less than 5 % of the, total mass of the universe rest, are made of dark matters. These, dark matters are not seen by the, astronomers but can study their, effects., , •• Big bang theory was proposed, by Georges Lemaitre in1927., •• According to this theory billion, of years ago cosmic matters were, in highly compressed state and, expansion started with premordial, explosion which was bang in, superdense ball. These exploded, particles are still travelling at a, speed of thousands miles per, second and gave rise to our galaxies., Steady State Theory, •• The steady state theory was, governed by Hermann Boudi, and Thomas Gold., •• It is also known as theory of, continuos creation. According to, this theory universe has always, existed and will always exist, and will always look essentially, the same, so there is no over

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B-132, , all evolution thus balancing, the average density despite the, exapansion., •• As old galaxies move apart the, new galaxies are being formed., Oscillating Universe Theory, •• The Oscillating Universe Theory, was advocated by Dr. Alan, Sandage., •• This theory postulates that the, universe not only expands but it, also contracts. The time interval, between the two phases are, presumed to be billions of years., It is a mixture of both Big Bang, an Big Crunch theory., •• According to Dr. Sandage, the universe started with an, expolsion nearly 12 milion years, ago and continues to expand., He was of view that it would, expand for another 17 milion, years or more. The process of, contraction would intiate after, the completion of expansion and, would continue upto 41million, years. The stage of contraction is, called as ‘implosion’. compress, would result into extremely, suspended state and then it will, expolde once again. It is the, latest theory given on evolution, of Universe till now., , Galaxy, •• A Galaxy is a large collection of, stars, gas, dust, and dark matter, bounded by gravitational force., At times they are so big that they, are called as Island Universe., •• The studies related to the distant, spaces with optical and radio, telescopes indicate that about, 100 galaxies are visible universe., It can be group of clusters and, super clusters., , Geography, •• According to Michael McDonald, “Central galaxies have typically, been referred to as ‘red and dead’, - just a bunch of old stars orbiting, a massive black hole, and there’s, nothing new happening.”, Sturcture and composition of, Galaxy, Elliptical Galaxies :, •• Elliptical galaxies can be classified, on the basis of their ellipticity,, ranging from nearly spherical, (E0) to highly elongated (E7)., These have low portion of open, clusters and low rate of new star, formation., Spiral Galaxies:, •• Spiral galaxies have a central, nucleus with great spiral arms, trailing round it resembling pin, wheel Andromeda Galaxy and, Milky Way are the example of, such galaxies. The spiral arms are, thought to be areas of high-density, matter, or “density waves”., Irregular Galaxies:, •• Irregular galaxies are youthful in, nature with no sharp and boundary, thinning out gradually, these, galaxies contain large amount of, gas and dust. This type of galaxy, is the result of gravitational, interaction or collision between, formerly regular galaxies., , Solar System, •• Solar System constitute of, heavenly, bodies, revolving, around an average star known, as SUN., The measurement, unit used for large distance is, astronomical unit (AU). One, AU represents the distance of, 150 million Kms (the distance, between earth and sun)., •• Heliosphere is a region of space, of bubbles dominated by the Sun, extending beyond the orbit of it’s, planets. Bubble in Heliosphere is

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B-133, , Geography, created by sun wind, which is a, stream of charged gas blowing, out of sun., •• The area where sun wind, abruptly slows due to the pressure, from gas between the stars is, called as termination shock. The, entire Solar system consists of, devoius. Eight Planets (Mercury,, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) ;, Asteroids (planet like objects);, Meteors (Chunks of iron and, stones); Comets (bodies of the, dust and forign gases)., , Planets Superlatives, 1. Biggest Planet-Jupiter, 2. Biggest Satellite-Jupiter, 3. Blue Planet-Earth, 4. Green Planet-Uranus, 5. Brightest Planet-Venus, , 6. Brightest Planet outside Solar, System-Sirus, 7. Closest Star of Solar SystemProxima, 8. Coldest Planet-Neptune, 9. Evening Star-Venus, 10. Farthest Planet From Sun-Neptune, 11. Planet with maximum no. of, satellites-Saturn, 12. Fastest revolution in solar systemMercury, 13. Hottest Planet-Venus, 14. Densest Planet- Earth, 15. Fastest Rotation in Solar SystemJupiter, 16. Morning Star-Venus, 17. Nearest Planet to Earth-Venus, 18. Nearest Planet to Sun-Mercury, 19. Red Planet-Mars, 20. Slowest Revolution in Solar, System-Neptune, 21. Slowest Rotation in Solar, System-Venus, 22. Smallest Planet-Mercury, 23. Smallest Satellite-Deimos, 24. Earth’s Twin-Venus, 25. Atmosphere like Earth-Titan, , INFORMATION BULLETIN, •• Human population of the, Earth, •• World Population Growth, •• Countries of the world, •• Earth’s Circumference at the, Equator, •• Earth’s Circumference between, the North and South Poles, •• Earth’s Diameter at the, Equator, •• Average Distance from the, Earth to the Sun, •• Average Distance from the, Earth to the Moon, •• Highest Elevation on Earth, , : Seven billion as of No. 2011, 7.389, billion (as of Dec 2015), : 1.13% as of (2015-16) - 2014 estimate, : 196 (195 Excluding Taiwan), : 24,901.55 miles (40,075.16 km), : 24,859.82 miles (40,008 km), : 7,926.28 miles (12,756.1 km), : 92, 935, 700 miles, : 238.900 miles/384, 400 km, : Mt. Everest, Asia : 29,035 feet (8850 m)

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B-134, , Geography, , •• Tallest Mountain on Earth : Mauna Kea. Hawaii: 33,480 feet (rising, from Base to Peak, to 13.796 feet above sea level) (10204 m,, 4205 m), •• Point Farthest from the Center : The peak of the volcano chimborazo, of the Earth, in Ecoador at 20.561 feet (6267 m) is, farthest from the center of the Earth due, to its location near the equator and the, oblateness of the Earth., •• Lowest Elevation on Land, : Dead Sea: 1369 feet below sea level, (417,27 m), •• Deepest Point in he Ocean, : Challenger Deep. Mariana Trench., Western Pacific Ocean: 36,740 feet, (11022 m), •• Highest Temperature Recorded : 135.80F - A1 Aziziyah, Libya, Sep., 13,1922 (57.7°C), •• Lowest Temperature Recorded : –128.5°F - Vostok, Antarction. July 21,, 1983 (–89.2°C), •• Water Vs Land, : 4.5 to 4.6 billion years, •• Atmosphere content, : 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1%, traces of argon, carbon dioxide and, water., •• Rotation on Axis, : 23 hours and 56 minutes and 04.09053, second. But, it takes an additional four, minutes forthe earth to revolve to the, some position as the day before relative, to the sun (i.e., 24 hours), •• Revolution Around Sun, : 365 . 2425 day, •• Chemical Composition of the : 34.6% Iron, 29.5% Oxygen, 15.2% Silicon,, Earth, 12.7%, Magnesium, 2.4% Nickel, 1.9%, Suffer and 0.05% Titanium., , Cosmic World, Moon: 176, There are 181 known natural moons, orbiting planets in our Solar System., 173 moons orbit the “full-size”, planets, while 8 moons orbit the, smaller “dwarf planets”., Asteroid: 645,118, A small rocky body orbiting the sun, is termed as asteroid. Large numbers, of these, ranging enormously in, , size, are found between the orbits of, Mars and Jupiter, though some have, more eccentric orbits. The asteroid, is categorized by their spectra, with, most falling into three basic groups:, carbonaceous (C-type), silicate, (S-type), and metal-rich (M-type)., Meteor: A meteoroid is a small, rocky or metallic body travelling, through space and range in size from, small grains to 1 meter-wide objects.

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B-135, , Geography, When it enters the atmosphere to, become visible is called as a meteor., It is also known as “shooting star”, or “falling star.” One can see nearly, 20 million of meteors in a day. On, an average nearly each day nearly, one to two reaches Earth. In Huba, the largest meteorite was found, (Namibia – 60 tons)., The rings of Saturn are made, up of countless small particles,, ranging in size from micrometres, to metres and orbit about Saturn., They are most extensive planetary, ring system of any planet in the, Solar System. The ring particles are, made almost entirely of water ice,, with a trace component of rocky, material. There is still no consensus, as to their mechanism of formation;, some features of the rings suggest, a relatively recent origin, but, theoretical models indicate they are, likely to have formed early in the, Solar System’s history., A dwarf planet is a planetary-mass, object that is neither a planet nor a, natural satellite. It orbits the Sun,, and is massive enough for its shape, to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, under its own gravity, but has not, cleared the neighborhood around, its orbit. The term dwarf planet, was adopted in 2006. Currently, the, International Astronomical Union, (IAU) recognizes five dwarf planets:, Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake,, Seden and Eris., , Pluto as dwarf planet, Pluto is called a “dwarf planet.”, A dwarf planet orbits the sun, just like other planets, but it is, smaller. A dwarf planet is so, small it cannot clear other objects, out of its path. Similarly, Pluto, is in a region called the Kuiper, (KY-per) Belt. Thousands of, small, icy objects like Pluto are, in the Kuiper Belt. The orbit of, which Pluto follows takes 248, days to revolve round the sun, once and it oval in nature. There, are moments when it is nearest to, the sun causing the ice present on, the planet to melts. Pluto having, about one-fifteenth the gravity of, Earth, its atmospheres altitude, rises more than any other planet., Oort Clouds: roughly spherical,, shell of icy found in the outermost, reaches of the solar system is called, as, , Oort, , Clouds., , Astronomers, , believe that it is remains of the disc, of material that formed the Sun and, planets. Estimates put it at around 2, trillion. It is also referred to as TransNeptunian object applied to objects, in the Kuiper Belt. Astronomers, think that long-period comets have, their origins in the Oort Clouds.

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B-136, , Geography, , Seasons Formation, , the Sun, therefore experiencing, summer. The Southern Hemisphere, on the other hand, is tilted away, from the Sun and thus, experiences, winter. The opposite occurs around, the December Solstice, when the, Southern Hemisphere is tilted, towards the Sun, while the Northern, Hemisphere is tilted away., , Revolution of the Earth around the, Sun along with its spins around, its axis, which is tilted at an angle, of 23.5 degrees, is the main cause, of, , season’s, , formation., , Around, , the June Solstice, the Northern, Hemisphere, , is, , tilted, , towards, , Seasons and their Formation, Northern summer/Southern winter, , Northern fall/Southern spring, 21. March, Periapsis, ill., 3. January, Equinox 47 m, 1, m, k, , 21. June, , Line of Solstice, , es, , 21. December, , sid, , e, , Lin, , ap, of, , m, , k, ill., , 2m, , Apoapsis 3. July, , 15, , Northern summer/Southern winter, , 23. September, Northern fall/Southern spring, , There are four seasons: Summer, , tropic of cancer and secondly when, , when the Sun’s ray falls directly, , over tropic of Capricorn., , over the tropic of cancer. In autumn, , An eclipse is a natural phenomenon., , the Sun’s ray falls directly over the, , Eclipse is related to obscuring light, , equator. During winter it is over, , of the sun or the moon by any other, , tropic of Capricorn and during, , body. There are two types of eclipse., , spring it falls back on equator., , Lunar eclipse occurs when the earth, , Equinoxes are the days and nights, , comes in middle of the sun and the, , are equal. The sun’s ray falls directly, , moon. It occurs on full moon day but, , over equator. March 21 is called as, , not every full moon day experiences, , Vernal equinox and 23 September is, , lunar eclipse. Solar eclipse occurs, , autumnal equinox. In the same ways, , when the moon comes in middle of, , Solstice occurs when the difference, , the sun and the earth. it occurs on, , between the lengths of day and night, , the new moon day when the moon, , are maximum. Occurs twice in a, , is in line with sun., , rd, , year firstly when the sun’s ray falls

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B-137, , Geography, , Chronological age of the Earth, EON, , ERA, , PERIOD, , EPOCH, , Holocene, Pleistocene, Pliocene, Neogene, Miocene, Oligocene, Paleogene Eocene, Paleocene, Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic, Permian, , Mesozoic, , Paleozoic, , Proterozoic, , Mesoproterozoic, , Paleoproterozoic, , Archean, , Precambrian, , Neoproterozoic, , Charboniferous, , Phanerozoic, , Cenozoic, , Tertiary, , Quaternary, , Millions of, Years Ago, 0.011477, 1.806, 5.332, 23.03, 33.9, 55.8, 65.5, 145.5, 199.5, 251, 299, , Pennsylvanian, , 318.1, , Mississippian, , 359.2, , Devonian, Silurian, Ordiviclan, Cambrian, Ediacaran, Cryogenian, Tonian, Stenian, Ectasian, Calymmian, Statherian, Orosirian, Rhyacian, Siderian, , Neoarchean, Mesoarchean, Paleoarchean, Eoarchean, Hadean, , 416, 443.7, 488.3, 542, 630, 850, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600, 1800, 2050, 2300, 2500, 2800, 3200, 3600, 4000, 4567

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B-138, , Geography, , Internal Structure, The thickness and deepness of the earth is the study of seismology. The, interior structure of the Earth is layered in spherical shells. It was Edmund, Halley (1692) who put forth the idea of earth consisting of a hollow shell about, 500 miles thick, with two inner concentric shells around an innermost core. These, shells can be divided by mechanical properties such as Rheology, or chemically., Mechanically, are divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle,, outer core, and the inner core. The interior of Earth is divided into 5 important, layers. Chemically, are divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer, core, and inner core., Upper crust, er cr ust, Low, , Uppe, , m, 0k m, k, 20 m, k, 40, , r Mantl, e, , sphere, Meso, r Mantl, Lowe, e, , km, 400 km, 650, , D” Layer, , r Core, Oute, , m, 0k, 270 0 km, 289, m, , 0k, , 515, , r, Inne Core, , Depth (Km), Layers, 0-60, Lithosphere (locally varies between, 5 and 200 km) (density 2.9-3.3), 0-35, Crust (locally varies between 5, and 70 km), 35-60, Uppermost part of mantle, 35–2,890, Mantle, 100–200, Upper mesosphere (density 3.3-4.3), 660–2,890 Lower mesosphere (density 4.3-5.5), 2,890–5,150 Outer core (density 10.00-13.3), 5,150–6,360 Inner core (density 13.3-13.6), , 6378 km, , INTERIOR THE EARTH, Crust (6-11 km oceanic,, 25-90 km, continental), Lower, Mantle, id, qu, Li re, co, , 6300 km, 3500, km, 1200, km, , Solid, inner core, Fe Fe + Ni, +, S (?), , Upper, Mantle, down to, about, 100 km, (the upper, mantle, and crust, form the, rigid, lithosphere)

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B-139, , Geography, , GEOMORPHOLOGY, Rock, Rock is a naturally occurring mineral and relatively hard., Proportion of Elements Found in Rock in Rock, 5.5 % Others, 7 % Others, 3 % Sodium, 13 %, 8 % Aluminium, Magnesium, 28 % Silicon, 15 % Silicon, 30 % Oxygen, 47 % Oxygen, 35 % Iron, In Earth, , In Earth Crust, , Type of Rocks, Sedimentary Rocks : Sedimentary, rocks are formed through lithification,, compression and cementation of, sediments deposited in a particular, place mainly aquatic areas., Igneous / Primary Rocks : Igneous, rocks are formed from solidification, and cooling of magma. Usually this, magma is partial melts of pre-existing, rocks derived from mantle or crust, , of the earth. This melting of rocks, is caused by one or more processes, namely: increase in temperature,, decrease in pressure, or a change in, composition e.g. Basalt, Granite., Metamorphic Rocks : When the change, occurs in the form or composition, of the pre-existing rock (igneous or, sedimentary) without any disintegration, taking place is called as metamorphic, rock., , CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS, Sedimentary, , Igneous, , Metamorphic, , Intrusive, Extrusive, Chemical, Clastic, Biloggic, Foliated, Basalt, Gabbro, Limestone, Andesite, Diorite, Dolostone, Granodiorite Dacite, Evaporites, Rhyolite, Granite, Conglomerate Coal, Chert, Slate, Breccia, Schist, Sandstone, Gneiss, Siltstone, Mudstone Shale, , Non-foliated, , Quartzite, Marble

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B-140, , Geography, , Earth Movement, The forces affecting earth’s crust and the resultant movement can be, categorized into two broad categories and further into sub-categories. The, fig given below demonstrates different types of earth movement., Forces which affects the Earth’s Crust, , Endogenetic Forces, , Exogenetic Forces, , Diastrophic Forces, , Catastrophic Forces, , Epeirogenetic Forces Orogenetic Forces, Upward, Movement, (Emergence), , Volcanic, Eruption, , Eatthqukes, , Downward, Movement, (Submergence), Tensional forces, , Compressional Forces, , Crustsal Fracture, , Crustal Bending, , Cracking, , Faulting, (Faults), Upwarping, , Endogenetic Forces, The forces which originate within, the Earth surface are defined as, endogenetic forces. They can result, in both horizontal and vertical, movement of the earth surface., Internal heat causing chemical, reactions inside the earth and transfer, of rock materials on the surface of, the earth by external forces results in, release of endogenetic energy., Endogenetic forces are of two, types: Diastrophic movements and, Sudden movements., Sudden movement causes fold, fault,, earthquake and volcanic activities., , Warping, , Folding, (Folds), , Downwarping, , Folds are the wave like structure, formed in the crustal rock due, to tangential compressive force, resulting from horizontal movement, caused by endogenetic forces., Types of Folds, •• Symmetrical fold is the simple, fold, the limbs of which incline, uniformly., •• Asymmetrical Fold is the folds, with unequal and irregular, inclination and length., •• Monoclinal, Fold, is, the, folds with one limb inclined, moderately with regular slope, while the other limb inclines, steeply at right angle and the, slope is almost vertical.

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Geography, •• Isoclinical Fold is a fold where, compressive force, forces both, the limbs of the fold to become, parallel but not horizontal to its, axis., •• Recumbent Fold is formed when, compression force is strong, enough to make both the limbs, of the fold parallel as well as, horizontal to its axis., •• Faults are the slippage or, displacement occuring in the, crust along the fracture plane., Four types of faults: i) normal,, ii) reverse, iii) lateral and iv) step, faults., •• Volcano is a fissure or vent in, the earth’s crust communicating, with the interior, from which, flows of lava, rock fragments,, , B-141, , hot vapor and gases are ejected., A volcano begins to form when, magma, which is hot molten, rock from deep within the earth,, rises toward the earth’s surface, and collects in magma chambers., , Types of Volcanoes:, (a) Active Volcanoes: Alive now, (b) Dormant Volcanoes: have not, erupted for quite some time, (c) Extinct Volcanoes: have not, erupted for several centuries

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B-142, , •• Earthquake Motion ranging, from faint terror to wild shaking, of the earth surface is called as, earthquake. It occurs mainly, due to tectonic activities caused, by continuous endogenetic, processes inside earth’s crust., The place from where it starts, is called as focus or hypocenter, and the point directly above, it is known as epicenter. It, is measured in Richter scale, varying from 0 to 9. There are, five Seismic Zone in India., •• Primary Wave (P) is a wave, which travels both through solid, and liquid part of the earth, interior., •• Secondary Wave (S) is a wave, which travels only through the, solid the earth interior., •• Long Wave (L) is a wave, confined to the earth crust,, causing structural damage only., Plate Tectonic Theory: Our earth, surface is made up of plates which, are in motion due to the convection, current flowing beneath it. This, movement in the earth’s plate, is called as tectonic movement., This movement has been widely, accepted cause of continental drift,, earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains,, and oceanic trenches. There are, three type major types of plates, (i) Constructive Plates is a place, of divergent boundary where, two plates slide apart from each, other. Here seafloor spreading, occurs i.e. new plates are formed., (ii) Destructive Plates is a convergent, boundary where two (or more), tectonic plates move toward one, another and collide. E.g. The, east coast of Pacific Ocean near, South America., , Geography, (iii) Conservative/ Transform Plates, occur where two lithospheric, plates slide and grind past, each other along faults. Here, plates are neither created nor, destroyed., Types of Plates, Minor Plates, , Minor Plates, , Africa Plate, , Cocos Plate, , Pacific Plate, , Filipino Plate, , North American Juan de Fuca, Plate, Plate, Antarctic Plate Caribbean Plate, Eurasian Plate, , Scotia Plate, , Australian Plate Nazca Plate, South American Arabian Plate, Plate and, Indian Plant, Exogenetic/Denudational/, Destructional Forces, The forces which act above the earth, surface changing relief of earth surface, are known as exogenetic forces. These, processes are continuously engaged, in destructing the relief features, created by endogenetic forces. These, forces are carried on by the agents of, erosion such as wind, water, glacier, etc. the process through which these, agent work of the earth surface are, weathering and erosion., •• Weathering is a process in which, breaking down of the earth surface, takes place but the debris do not, move from their place., •• Erosion refers to the movement, in the weathered material, Denudation is a long-term sum of, processes that cause by weathering, leading to a reduction in elevation, and relief of landforms and landscapes, and erosion.

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B-143, , Geography, , Major Land Forms, Mountains are the second order relief, features having an abrupt natural rise, from the adjacent surrounding area., Collective system of long, narrow, elevated land for some distance is, a Mountain Ridge. Several parallel, long narrow mountains of different, period is called as Mountain, chain. Mountain Range is a series, of mountain ridges, peaks, and, summits and the valley of same age, but structurally different. Cordilleras, are the huge set of several mountain, groups and systems having different, ridges, ranges, mountain chains etc., Types of Mountain :, •• Folded Mountains are originated, by compressive forces. Young,, mature and old are its sub types., Its e.g. Alps in Europe, Rockies in, north America, Andes in South, America and the Himalayas in, Asia., •• Block fault Mountain are originated, by tensile and comperessional forces., E.g. Black forest mountains on the, boader of France and Germany., •• Dome Mountain are originated by, magnetic intrusion and unwraping, of the crustal surface., , •• Volcanic Mountain formed by, accumution ofvolcanic materials, e.g. Mount Mauna Loa in Hwaai,, Mt,Fuji Yoma in Japan and Mt., Popa in Central Myanmar., •• Residual, mountain, e.g., Vindhyacha, Aravalli, Eastern, and Western Ghats., Plateau, A second order relief feature, characterized by flat and rough top, surface and steep wall with a height, difference of at least 300 m from it, surrounding areas., Type of Plateau:, (i) Intermontane Plateau (Tibetan,, Bolivian, Peru, Columbian, Plateau, Mexiacan, Iranian), (ii) Piedmont Plateau (Appalachian, Piedmont Plateau. Patagonian, Plateau), (iii) Continental Plateau (Deccan, Plateau of India, Ranchi, Shillong), (iv) Coastal Plateau (Coromandal, Coastal upland of India), Lake, Lakes are static bodies of water, surrounded by land from all sides., These are not permanent features, on the earth surface. Sometimes, lakes are found near along the sea, coast. There are two type lakes e.g., freshwater lakes and saline lake., , OCEANOGRAPHY, Ocean Structure, •• Ocean can be divided into two, main groups (i) the ocean (ii) the, sea. Covers 70 per cent of the, earth surface and has an average, depth of more than 12,400 feet, •• Geographically ocean has been, divided into (i) the Pacific (ii), the Atlantic (iii) the Indian (iv), the Arctic., •• Pacific Ocean the largest and, oldest occupies 50% of the ocean, , would, followed by Atlantic, (29.9%), Indian (21%)., •• Arctic is strictly not an ocean, and not navigable., •• The longest mountain range in, the world is under water “MidOceanic Ridge”., Continental shelf, •• Continental margin submerged, under ocean water upto 100, fathoms (600 feet) with slope of

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B-144, , 1° to 3° and often determined, by the coastal reliefs. High, mountainous coast have narrow, self. In Atlantic Ocean it is 2 km, to 80 km., •• They are rich in plankton, it, forms food for fish. Thus they, are rich source of fish like Grand, Bank of New Foundland, North, Sea and Sunda Shelf., Continental slope, •• Steep slope, beyond continental, slope towards ocean are called as, continental self. Its slope varies, from 2° to 5° and depth of water, is 200 m to 2,000 m. Occupies, 8.5% of the total area of ocean, basin. Due to erosion, tectonic, and aggradations, Deep Sea Plain / Abyssal Plain, •• Most extensive relief, covering, 75.9% of the total area of ocean, basin. Flat and rolling submarine, having depth from 3000 m to, 6000 m. The greatest Deep in, Mariana Trench near Guam, Island is the deepest of all., Submarine Canyons, •• Long, narrow and very deep, valley or trenches, located on the, continent shelves and slope with, vertical walls, •• The continental shelf in Pacific, Ocean varies between 160 km to, 1600 km of width on an average, there it 80 km wide., •• On an average Indian ocean’s, continental shelf is 640 km wide, in the west and in the east near, Java and Sumatra is as narrow, as 160 km and further narrower, along the coast of Antarctica, , Temperature of Ocean, •• Ocean is divided into three layers, according to temperature., , Geography, (i) First layer upto 500 m from top, having temperature of 20° - 25°C, (ii) Thermocline layer - below 500 m, where temperature decreases at, a rapid rate with the increase in, depth., (iii) Third layer very cold and extend, upto deep ocean floor. Polar, region has only this layer from, surface to deep ocean form., Daily Range of temperature is, the difference of maximum and, minimum temperature of a day, which is 0.3°C Low latitude and 0.2°, to 0.3°C at higher latitudes., Annual Range of temperature:, Maximum temperature is recorded, in August and minimum in February, in northern hemisphere. Average, annual range of temperature of, ocean water is - 12°C usually., Factors affecting distribution of, temperature, •• Minor factors include: Latitude,, Unequal distribution of land and, sea, Prevailing wind and Ocean, current, •• Minor factors include: Submarine, ridges, local weather, location and, shape of sea., Horizontal distribution: average, temperature 26.7°C and gradual, decrease from equator towards poles,, 0.5° F per latitude., Vertical Distribution: Solar energy, effectively penetrates 20m and nearby, reach beyond 200 m depth., Increase in depth decrease the, temperature. And there is rapid fall, in temperature upto 200 m dividing, Ocean into two layers, (i) Photic/ Euphotic zone is the, upper surface upto the depth, of 200 m and receive solar, radiation.

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B-145, , Geography, (ii) Alphatic zone goes beyond, 200 m depth to the bottom and, receive no solar rays., , Density of Ocean, •• Amount of mass upper unit, volume of substance, measured, in g/cm3, •• Density of pure water is 1 g/cm3, at 4°C. and of ocean water is, 1.0278 g/cm3 (2-3% higher than, water) at 4°C., •• It increases with lowering of, temperature of ocean. Highest, density is recorded at -1.3°C., Density stratification of Ocean, Three layered structure: Surface layer,, Pychocline layer and Deep layer, , Salinity of the Ocean, •• Average salinity of ocean water, is 35%. Salinity of ocean water is, affected by marine organism, plant, community and physical properties, of ocean such as temperature density,, waves, pressure and currents., •• Highest salinity is observed, between 20° - 40° N (36%)., •• Boiling point of saline water is, higher than pure water., •• The line with same salinity is, joined by Isohalines., , Source of Salinity, Salts brought by rivers is the main, source It contains 60% of calcium, sulphate, 2% of sodium chloride, , Distribution of Salinity, Latitudinal zones, 70º- 70º N, 50º- 40º N, 40º- 15º N, 15º- 10º N, , salinity (%), 30-31, 33-34, 35-36, 34.5-35, , Latitudinal zones, 10º- 30º S, 30º- 50º S, 50º- 70º S, , Salinity (%), 35-36, 34-35, 33-34, , Ocean Deposits, One the bases of origin can be classified into the following groups:, Terrigenous deposits, (ii) Volcanic deposits, (iii) Biotic matter and deposits, (iv) Abiotic matter and deposit, , Coral Reefs and Atoll, , It is accumulated and compact skeleton of lime secreting organisms, known as coral polyps. They are confined between 25°N - 25°S latitude., They live on lime and in colony form. High mean annual temperature, between 68°F to 70°F (20°C - 21°C) is required for the growth of corals., They do not grow in more than 250 feet (60-77 m) of water as they require, oxygen and sunlight. Grow in open sea as fresh water is harmful for corals, Types of Coral Reef: (i) fringing reef (ii) barren reef and (iii) atoll, •• Average salinity of the sea water : 35%, •• Average salinity of Atlantic Ocean : 35.67%, •• Maximum salinity of occurs between : 20° N and 40° Nand 10° S and 30°S, •• Highest salinity is found : Lake Van (330%), •• Average temperature of Pacific Ocean : 19.10°C, •• Average temperature of Indian Ocean : 17°C, •• Average temperature of Atlantic Ocean : 16.91°C, •• Average annual temperature of oceans : 17.2°C, •• Average temperature of surface water : 26.7°C

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B-146, , Ocean Tide, •• Alternative rise and fall in, the sea level is known as tide., The rise of sea water and its, movement towards coast is a tide, is high tide. The fall of seawater, and moving towards sea is called, ebb/low tide. The difference, between high and low is water is, called as tidal range., •• The variation in the height of, both low and high tide from, place to place depends on depth, of ocean water, configuration, of sea coasts and coastlines and, openness or closeness of the, sea. Everyday tide is delayed by, 26 minutes., Types of Tide, (i) Spring tide: When the sun, the, moon and the earth are n the, same line, there is formation of, spring tide. The position when, all three are in a straight line is, called as syzygy. When the sun,, the moon and the earth are in, sequential order in a straight line, is called as conjunction. It occurs, on new moon day. When the, earth is in between the moon and, the sun are called as opposition., It occurs on full moon day., (ii) Neap tide: It’s a quadrature (90o), position between the earth, the, sun and the moon on seventh, or eighth day of the fortnight., During this time the forces of, the sun and the moon acts in, Opposite direction, , Ocean Currents, The movement of a mass of ocean, water parallel to the coast is called as, ocean current., Currents are of two types on the, bases to temperature., , Geography, (i) Warm current and (ii) Cold, current, On the bases of velocity, dimension, and direction., (i) Drift (ii) Current and (iii) Streams, Pacific Ocean, 1. North Equatorial Current (Warm), 2. South Equatorial Current (Warm), 3. Counter Equatorial Current, (Warm), 4. Kuroshio System (warm), (i) Kuroshio Current, (iii) North Pacific Drift, (iv) Tsushima Current, (v) Counter Kuroshio Current, 5. Oyashio Current (Cold), 6. California Current (Cold), 7. Peur Current (Cold), 8. El Nino or Counter Current, (warm), 9. Eastern Australian Current (warm), 10. West Wind Drift (Cold), Origin of Currents, Origin of ocean current occurs due, to following factors, (i) Rotation of earth, (ii) Temperature difference in ocean, (iii) Salinity difference in ocean, (iv) Density Difference, (v) Air pressure and wind, (vi) Rainfall and Evaporation, (vii) Direction,, shape, and, configuration of coast, (viii)Bottom relief, (ix) Seasonal variation, Atlantic Ocean, 1. North Equatorial Current, (warm), 2. South Equatorial Current, (warm), 3. Counter Equatorial Current, (warm), 4. Gulf stream (warm), 1. Gulf stream, 2. Gulf stream, 3. North Atlantic Current, 5. Conary Current (Cold)

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B-147, , Geography, 6. Labraclor Current (Cold), 7. Brazil Current (Cold), 8. Talk land Current (Cold), 9. South Atlantic Drift (Cold), 10. Benguela Current (Cold), Name, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, , Length, (square miles), 64,196,000, 33,400,000, , Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Arabian Sea, South China Sea, Caribbean Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Bering Sea, , 28,400,000, 20,327,000, 5,100,000, 1,491,000, 1,148,000, 971,000, 969,000, 873,000, , ATMOSPHERE, The gaseous envelop which covers, a celestial body or planet is called, as its atmosphere. Air is a mixture, of gases in various proportions. It, has a mass of 5.15 × 1018 kg. ¾ of, which are concentrated within 11, km of the surface of the earth. The, gravity plays a vital role in holding, the atmosphere close to the earth., Gases which contributes to the, formation of atmosphere are Nitrogen, (78.084%) Oxygen (20.946%), Argon, (0.93%), Carbon dioxide (0.0397),, Neon (0.001818), Helium (0.000024),, Methane (0.000179) along with water, vapour (0.001% – 0.005%)., Proportion of gas in, the Atmosphere, other, 1%, , Oxygen, 21%, , Nitrogen, 78 %, , Structure of Atmosphere, Troposphere, The first layer of atmosphere from the, earth surface is known as troposphere., It is at the height of 12 km from the, , earth surface, generally associated, with 90 % atmospheric phenomena., Here temperature decreases at the rate, of 6.5°C per km with the increase in, height. This is called normal lapse, rate. The transition layer separating, troposphere from stratosphere is, known as tropopause which is between, 16 km at equator to 8 km at pole., Stratosphere, The layer which extends from 18, to 50 km above the earth surface is, called as stratosphere. In this layer, temperature increases as altitude, increases as the ultra violet ray by, ozone. Ozone forms to be the outer, limit for this layer. Turbulence free, zone hence is ideal for flying of jet, air crafts., Mesosphere, Mesosphere lies from 50 to 80 km, above the ground level with the, temperature below – 100°C at 80 km., Even pressure drops to 1 mb at 50 km, to 0.01 mb at 90 km. Mesopause are, the upper transitional layer separating, mesosphere from ionosphere. It is the, zone of meteorites activities., Ionosphere, The layer between mesosphere, and thermosphere is known as, ionosphere., Aurora, Austrialis, and Aurora Borealis occur due to

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B-148, , penetration of ionizing particles in, this layer. Temperatures rise with, increasing height here owing to the, absorption of ultra-violet radiation, by atomic oxygen. Above 100 km the, atmosphere is increasingly affected, by solar X-rays and ultra-violet, radiation, which causes ionization., Thermosphere, The thermosphere is the second, highest layer of earth’s atmosphere, just above mesopause. It forms lower, boundary of exosphere is known, as exobase. Gradual increase of, temperature is witnessed with height, reaching up to 1500°C (2700°F)., Exoshpere, Outer most layer extending between, of 700 km to 10000 km. Gases like, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide, are found. No meteorological, phenomenon is possible. Sometimes, Aurora Borialis and Aurora, Austrialis occur overlapping into the, thermosphere., , Insolation, •• The sun is primary source of, energy on earth. It enters earth’s, atmosphere in the form of, short waves. This is known as, insolation. The earth receives, solar radiation at the rate of 1.94, calories per cm2/m., •• The amount of solar radiation, received by earth is affected by, four factors which are as follows:, 1. Solar Constant: is rate at which, incoming solar radiation is received, per unit area of earth surface when, the sun is at its mean distance, from the earth. Increase in the sunspot increases the amount of solar, radiation hence affecting insolation, as well., , Geography, 2. Distance from Sun: The path, that is followed by the earth around, the sun is not at the same distance, throughout the year. The orbit of, the earth is elliptical in shape. The, shortest distance of the earth from, the sun is called as Perihelion (147, million km) and Apehelion is time, when the earth farthest from the, sun. The former occurs in January, and the latter in July., 3. Altitude of the Sun: Solar, altitude is this relative angle of the, sun with respect to earth’s horizon., The angle formed between the sun, and the earth surface varies with the, latitude at which a place is situated., The area closer to equators receive, greater amount of solar insolation, than at poles., 4. Length of Day: the amount of, insolation received by place also, depends on the length the day. Longer, the duration of the day more will be, the amount of radiation received., , Heat Budget:, Earth balances the incoming, solar radiation with the outgoing, terrestrial radiation and is called as, heat budget. The energy received if, not returned back to the space in the, form of long waves would increase, the temperature of the earth surface., This balancing of heat affects the, amount of insolation absorbed., , Adiabatic Changes, When the air parcel moving towards, a low pressure zone without the, exchange of heat with surrounding, air. It increases volume and reduces, the heat available per unit volume, and hence temperature falls. Such, a change of temperature, where, neither addition nor subtraction of, heat involves is known as ‘adiabatic, change’.

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B-149, , Geography, , Inversion of Temperatures, It refers to a condition where, temperature, increases, with, increasing height of the atmosphere., There five causes of inversion of, temperature are radiation, drainage,, frontal, advection, subsidence., •• General, tendency, to, decrease in temperature with, increasing latitude is known as, ‘temperature gradient’. Not, only the temperature but even its, nature with latitude changes. The, rate of change of temperature, is comparatively low between, tropics. On the other hand the, gradient is high at the poles., Isotherms : The line which, joining places having equal, temperature is called ‘Isotherms’., , Atmospheric Pressure, •• Atmospheric pressure is the, pressure exerted by the weight of, air in the atmosphere of Earth., The standard air pressure at sea, level is 1013.25 mb. Air pressure, decreases with increase is altitude, at the rate of 0.1 inch or 3.4 mb, per 600 feet. The rate of decrease, is confined to the height of few, thousand feet. Line joining places, with equal pressure at sea level are, called isobars., •• The areas affect by high pressure, are called as High Pressure zone or, Anticyclones and the low pressure, are called as Low or depression or, Cyclone. There are seven pressure, belts across the globes., •• Equatorial Low Pressure Belt :, The region geographical situated, between 5° N to 5°S is known as, Equatorial Low Pressure Belt., This belt gets longer duration of, sunshine and sun’s ray falls at a, straight angle on earth surface., Intense heat is received by the, , earth surface causing thermal, induced atmosphere. It is also, a convergences zone of northeast and south-east trade winds., The area is calm with no wind, movement thus known as Belt of, Calm or Doldrums., •• Sub-Tropical High Pressure:, The sub tropical high pressure, belt extends between 25° to 35°, in both the hemisphere. The air, upraises in equatorial region., They start descending as they, become heavy after cooling at a, certain height and are deflected, towards poles because of earth’s, rotation causing a zone of high, pressure., •• Sub Polar Low Pressure Belt: The, zone is situated between 60° to, 65° in both the hemisphere. The, temperature of this area is generally, low throughout the year. It is a, convergence zone where winds, from sub-tropical low and polar high, meets together to produce Polar, front., •• Polar High: The Polar High, Pressure zone is situated near, the pole. As the name suggests the, zone is originated due to thermally, induced factor as very low, temperature is solely responsible, for the creation of a high pressure, zone over the polar areas., , Major Pressure

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B-150, , Geography, , Wind Belts, Wind can be defined as the movement large volume of gases from, high pressure area to low pressure area. There are two types of winds 1), Permanent/ Prevailing Winds (blow throughout the year) and 2) Seasonal, Wind (blow in particular period of the year), , Permanent/ Planetary/Prevailing Winds, Types, , Sub Types, , Characteristics, , Tropical Doldrum (5 •• It is called as “equatorial calms” because wind, Winds N - 50 S), over there has no motion and cumulonimbus, Equatorial, cloud are formed bring daily rainfall., westerlies •• It is not continues belt. Equatorial fronts are, (150N –, formed and equatorial westerlies blow there. It is, 350N), associated with strong atmospheric disturbances, or cyclonic storm., Trade, •• A wind flowing from subtropical high pressure, Winds, to equatorial low pressure belt is termed as Trade, Winds. It moves in north east and south east in, north and south hemisphere respectively., Sub, Westerlies Blowing from subtropical high pressure belt (300, Tropical (350-650N, -350 N and S) to the sub polar low pressure belt (600, wind, and S), -650 N and S) is called Westerlies. In the northern, hemisphere these wind blow from south west to, north east and in southern hemisphere from north, west to south east. 400S to 500S-Roaring Forties,, 500S to 600S- Furious Fifties and 600S onwards –, Shriecking Sixties are its name., Polar, •• A low pressure zone is created in between 600 to, Wind, 650 in both the hemisphere due to the dynamic, factor of the earth., •• It blows from north easterly and south easterlies, in northern and southern hemisphere respectively., 0, , Variable Wind, Sub Types, Seasonal Winds Characteristics, Monsoon, •• It blows from the south west in summer and from north, east in winter. It is consistent and bi-directional regular, flow of wind over a year. It is thermally induced complex, air circulation where all layers of air circulation that is, surface, middle and upper layer are involve., Local Winds, Sea Breeze •• During the day time land is heated quickly than the sea, water. Low pressure is created over the land and wind rise, and Land, up creating vacuum over land. Thus the wind from sea, Breeze, rushes to take its place. This breeze is called as Sea Breeze.

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Geography, , B-151, , •• It blows during night as the land losses the heat faster than, the sea, this cool and denser wind rushes towards sea. This, breeze is called as land breeze., •• During day time sunlight warms the mountain slope more, Valley and, than mountain valley. Thus a high pressure is created on, Mountain, the top of mountain. The cold wind from the valley rushes, Breeze, up. This movement of air is called as valley breeze giving, precipitation through cumulus cloud., •• After sunset the air above the mountain cools faster due to, density than the air in the valley and descends down into, the valley is called as mountain breeze causing inversion, of temperature., Chinook and It blowing on the leeward side of the mountain in USA and, Foehn, is called as Foehn in Switzerland. It’s a warm air (4.40 C) and, melts snow (Snow Eater)., Harmattan This is a warm and dry wind blows from north to east and, east to west over Sahara desert. Harmattan is known to be, the Doctor in Guinea Coastal Area of western Africa., Sirocco, A warm, dry and dusty wind blows in the north easterly, direction from Sahara Desert. As it crosses Mediterranean, picks up water vapour and yield rainfall southern part of, Italy. It is called as “blood rain” rain fall laden with red sand, from Africa Desert., Mistral, Mistral is a cold local wind blowing over Spain and France in, north-west to south-east direction during winters creates high, pressure over Europe and low pressure over Mediterranean, Sea. It average velocity is 56-64 km/hour., Bora, Extremely cold and dry north-easterly wind blows along, the coast of Adriatic Sea. The velocity of the wind ranges, between 128 to 196 km/hr, Blizzard, It is a violent stormy wind that carries large amount of dry, snow, mainly prevalent over both north and south poles. Its, velocity ranges from 80-96km an hour., Abrolhos, An Abrolhos squall blow from May through August (austral, squall, winter) near the Abrolhos Islands off the coast of eastern, Brazil near 18°S latitude., Pampero, The pampero is a burst of cold polar air from the west,, southwest or south on the pampas in the south of Brazil,, Argentina and Uruguay. It is common during winter in the, southern hemisphere (principally between May and August)., Maestral or Maestral or maestro is mostly northwestern wind in the, maestro, Adriatic Sea blowing in summer characteristic for beautiful, and stable weather

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B-152, , Levante, , Norte, Etesian, , Helm, Buran/, Purga, , Geography, , It blows in western Mediterranean, near to the Strait of, Gibraltar. It is called as the Viento de Levante or the Levanter, and even Solano. It blows moderately or strongly bringing, rain and damp smell to the region., The Norte is a strong cold northeasterly wind which blows in, Mexico along the Gulf of Mexico. It results from an outbreak, of cold air from the north., Etesians blow as winds of northeasterly to northerly direction, over Northern Agean Sea while, in the southern Aegean, along with the Cretan and the Carpathian Sea, they blow as, northern westerlies., Generally seen in Columbia and England these strong northeasterly wind blows down the south –west slope of the Cross, Fell Escarpment, Extremely cold wind full of ice and snow blowing across, Russia and eastern Asia. In tundra region, it is also known as, Purga. In Alaska this severe north-easterly wind is known as, Burga bringing snow and ice pellets., , Brickfielder It is a hot and dry summer wind blowing in coastal regions, of South Australian desert. Blows strongly, for several days, at a time, along with dust, and parching all vegetation. In one, sense it is a healthy wind, as it destroys many injurious germs, due to its hotness., , Air Mass, A large volume of air defined by constant physical properties i.e. temperature, and water vapor, spreading over hundreds or thousands of square miles is, called as air mass., Types of Air mass, Continental Polar (cP) forms over cold and dry land mass during winter, near poles north of 50-600N., Maritime Polar (mP) is associated with cool or cold, damp and gray day’s, weather, near polar coastal areas., Continental tropical (cT) form over deserts and plains. It is hot and dry, during summer and only dry during winter., Maritime Tropical (mT) is hot and humid sticky weather on the tropical, coastal regions., , Cyclones, Cyclones are the low pressure centers surrounded by closed isobars having pressure, increasing outwards. Blows inward from high pressure to low pressure and hence, wind movement is anti-clockwise in northern hemisphere and clock wise in southern, hemisphere. They are also termed as atmospheric disturbances. There shape varied, from circular to elliptical and sometimes even V shaped. On basis of place of origin, there are two types cyclones which are as follows:

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Geography, , Tropical Cyclone, The tropical cyclones have a thermal, origin, exclusively over the tropical, seas., A low pressure zone is created due to, extreme heat and further intensifies, with the increase in temperature, (above 270C) The winds from, surrounding high pressure region, rushes to the central low pressure, (eye) area developing a powerful and, destructive storm. The velocity of the, cyclone varies from 32-180 km/hour., Its velocity decreases and finally, decays as they cross more land mass., Usually ends with heavy down pour, rain and wind bringing devastation to, the coastal areas., , Clouds, Clouds are the visible mass of, condensed water vapour floating in, the atmosphere, typically high above, the general level of the ground. It, plays a major role in the heat budget, of the earth and the atmosphere as, they reflect, absorb and diffuse the, incoming short wave and outgoing, long wave terrestrial radiation., According to the height there are, three type of cloud such as (i)High, Clouds (height 6 km to 20 km), (ii), Medium Clouds (height 2.5 km to, 6 km) and (iii)Low Clouds (height, ground surface to 2.5 km), •• A cloud is a mass of small water, droplets or thin ice crystals., •• Different types of clouds are as, follow:, •• Cirrus : Feather like, •• Cirrocumulus : Ripples like, •• Cirrostratus : Transparent sheet, like causes sun and moonto have, ‘halos’., •• Altocumulus : Have bumpy-look, •• Altostratus : Sheet like, , B-153, , Temperate / Extra-tropical cyclone, Formed in middle or high latitudes,, due to the development of front (350650 N and S)., Develops when a frontal surface, separates two opposing air masses, (warm and cold). As the amplitude, of the wave increases, the pressure, at the centre of disturbance falls,, eventually intensifying to the point at, which a cyclonic circulation begins., , When the cold air from the poles, sweeps off all the warm tropical air, and entire cyclone is composed of the, cold air mass temperate cyclone dies., •• Stratocumulus : Large globular, masses, •• Nimbostratus : Dark grey and, rainy looking give continuous, rain., •• Stratus : low clouds foggy in, appearance, •• Cumulus : Round topped and, flat based, •• Cumulonimbus : special type of, cumulous clouds spread out in, form of an anvil. Often indicate, convectional rain,lightening and, thunder., Precipitations, It is a process in wherein water in the, form of droplets which condenses, from water vapor after reaching a, height and falls when they become, heavy enough in the form of rain., Rain is a major component of the, water cycle and is responsible for, depositing most of the fresh water, on the Earth. Different forms of, precipitation are rain, snowfall, hale, storm and drizzle. Precipitation, occurs through different processes, which are Convectional, Cyclonic, and Orographic.

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B-154, , Geography, , India, Physiography, , , , , , , , , INDIAN GEOGRAPHY–MIND MAP, , , , Drainage, , Himalayan Mountain Range, Indian Desert, Northen Plain, Coastal Plain, Peninsular Plateau, Island, Himalayan Rivers (The Indus, The Ganges & The, Brahmaputra), , , , Peninsular Rivers (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna,, Cauvery, Narmada, Tapi), Lakes in India, , Soil, , , , , , , Alluvial, Red, Black, Laterite, , Climate, , , , , Factors Affecting Climate in India, State wise Rainfall Distribution, , Natural, Vegetation, Language, , Agriculture, , , , , , , , , Arid, Saline, Peaty and Marshy, Mountain and Forest, ,  Classification of Natural Vegetation,  Spatial Distribution of Natural Vegetation in India,  Languages spoken in different parts of India, , , , , , Major Crops, Land use Pattern, Agro-Climatic Zone, Major Growing Season and its Associated, Crops, , Industry, ,  Major Industrial Regions in of India,  Types of Industry, , Minerals, ,  Minerals & their distribution, , Energy, , , , , , , Conventional Energy, Hydroelectricity, Thermal Electricity, Wind Energy, , Census, 2011, , , , , , Population density and Sex Ratio, ST & SC Population, Rural Urban Distribution

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B-155, , Geography, , INFORMATION BULLETIN, 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., , 7., ••, , ••, , Official name: Republic of India, Capital: New Delhi, Nationality: Indian, Continent: Asia, Region: South Asia Indian, subcontinent, Area: Ranked 7th, •• Total 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219, sq mi), •• Land 90.08%, •• Water 9.92%, Borders : Total land borders :, 15,106.70 km (9,386.87 mi), Bang ladesh : 4,096.70 km, (2,545.57 mi), Bordering States - West Bengal,, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and, Mizoram, China (PRC) : 3,488 km (2,167 mi), Bordering States - Jammu &, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, and, Arunachal Pradesh), , •• Pakistan : 2,910 km (1,808 mi), Bordering States- Jammu and, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat, •• Nepal : 1,751 km (1,088 mi), B o r d e r i n g S t a t e s – B i h a r,, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,, Sikkim, and West Bengal, •• Myanmar : 1,643 km (1,021 mi), Bordering States – Manipur and, Nagaland, •• Bhutan : 699 km (434 mi), Bordering States : West Bengal,, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, 8. Highest point: K2 or Godwin, Au s t i n ( c l a i m e d ) 8 , 6 1 1 m, (28,251.3 ft), 9. Kangchenjunga (administered), 8,598 m (28,208.7 ft), 10. Lowest point : Kuttanad; –2.2 m, (–7.2 ft), 11. L o n g e s t r i ve r : G a n g e s,, Brahmaputra, 12. Largest lake : Chilka Lake, , MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISONS, The landmass of India can be divided, into following major physiographic, divisions:, , The Himalayan Mountains, The Himalayas are the youngest, mountains in the world. They are, structurally folded mountains, form, an arc of about 2,400 km long from, west to east. The width varies from, 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in, Arunachal Pradesh. The altitudinal, variations are greater in the eastern, part than in the western part., , There are four parallel ranges in its, longitudinal extent. Zaskar range, lies west of Himalayas and Indus, gorge is beyond it.

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B-156, , •• The Great or Inner Himalayas:, Known as ‘Himadri, it is the, most continuous range with, loftiest peaks. Average height, of peaks here is 6,000 meters., Asymmetrical folds having, granite in the core are snow, covered throughout the year., •• The Lesser Himalaya or, Himachal: This lies south of the, Great Himalayas and north of, Shiwalik with altitude varying, from 3,700 m to 4,500 m., Average width of this range is, 60-80 km. This range is mainly, composed of highly compressed, and altered rocks. Pir Panjal,, Dhaula Dhar, Mahabharat and, Mussorie ranges are found as we, move west to east., , •• The, Shiwaliks, outer, Himalayas: It is an outermost, range and is also known as, lesser Himalayas. The altitude, varies between 900 - 1100, km and the width varies, between 10 -50 km in this, range. The longitudinal valleys, lying between the Himachal, and Shiwaliks are called, ‘Dun’ and are composed of, unconsolidated sediments., •• Trans Himalayas : It includes, Karakoram and Laddakh, Ranges. Karakoram Range, (Krishnagiri) lies north of, Indus. Extended from Pamir, crossing Gilgit river reaches, Laddakh. Elevation is above, 5500 m and width is 120-140, Km. Laddakh Range is situated, in Kashmir between Indus and, its tributary Shyok. Highest, peak is Mt. Rakaposhi (7880)., , Geography, MAJOR MOUNTAIN PEAKS OF INDIA, Peak, , Country Height, in, meters, Mt. Everest, Nepal, 8848, Kanchenjunga India, 8598, Makalu, Nepal, 8481, Dhaulagire, Nepal, 8172, Nanga Parbat, India, 8126, Annapurna, Nepal, 8078, Nanda Devi, India, 7817, Kamet, India, 7756, Namcha Barwa India, 7756, Gurla Mandhata Nepal, 7728, , The Northern Plain, The northern plain of India is, formed by three river systems,, viz. the Indus, the Ganga and the, Brahmaputra along with their, tributaries. Alluvial soil has been, deposited over millions of years., The total area of the northern plain, is about 7 lakh square kilometer. It, is about 2400 km long and about, 240 to 320 km broad. The northern, plain is divided into three sections,, viz. the Punjab Plain, the Ganga, Plain and the Brahmaputra Plain., , •• Punjab Plains: western part, most part of the northern plain., Formed by the Indus and its, tributaries like Jhelum, Chenab,, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej., •• Ganga Plains: This plain, extends between Ghaggar and, Tista rivers. The northern states,, Haryana, Delhi, UP, Bihar, part, of Jharkhand and West Bengal, lie in the Ganga plains., •• Brahmaputra Plains: This plain, forms the eastern part of the, northern plain and lies in Assam.

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B-157, , Geography, •• Based on the relief features the, northern plain can be divided, into four regions, viz. bhabar,, terai, bhangar and khadar., , The Peninsular Plateau, The peninsular plateau is a tableland., It is composed of the oldest rocks, and drifted from Gondwana land, with elevation of 600-900 Km., Broad and shallow valleys with, rounded hills are the characteristic, features of this plateau. The plateau, can be broadly divided into two, regions, viz. the Central Highlands, and the Deccan Plateau. The slope, of the Deccan Plateau is from west, to east as the rivers flows., •• The Central Highlands: lies to the, north of Narmada river (Satpura, range), covering portion of Malwa, plateau. It is wider in west and, narrower in east. Bundelkhand, and Baghelkhand mark the, eastward extension. The plateau, further extends eastwards into the, Chhotanagpur plateau. Touches, Aravilli in the west covering, Rajasthan uplands., •• The Deccan Plateau: Triangular, in shape, Satpura range makes, its northern boundary. The, Mahadev, Kaimur Hills and, Maikal ranges make its eastern, part. It extends into the north east, which encompasses Meghalaya,, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North, Cachar Hills. Garo, Khasi and, Jaintia hills are the prominent, ranges starting from west to east., •• The Western and the Eastern, Ghats: The average elevation, of Western Ghats is 900 – 1600, metres compared to 600 metres, in case of Eastern Ghats. The, Eastern Ghats stretch from, Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris, in the south., , The Indian Desert, It lies towards the western, margins of the Aravali Hills., This region gets scanty rainfall, which is less than 150 mm in a, year. Hence the climate is arid, and vegetation is scanty., The Coastal Plains, Towards the west and east of, Peninsular stretches narrow coastal, strips are situated. They run along, the Arabian Sea in west and along, the Bay of Bengal in east. The, western coast lies between the, Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea., It is divided into three sections. The, Konkan is northern part, comprised, of Mumbai and Goa. The Kannada, Plain makes the central part and the, Malabar coast is the southernmost, coast. The eastern coastal plain is, wider and runs along the Bay of, Bengal., , The Islands, The Lakshadweep Islands are in the, Arabian Sea. Its area is 32 sq km., This group of islands is rich in terms, of biodiversity. The Andaman and, Nicobar Islands group of islands, can be divided into two groups., The Andaman is in the north and, the Nicobar is in the south. These, islands too have rich biodiversity., , ISLANDS OF INDIA

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B-158, , Geography, , DRAINAGE IN INDIA, The pattern of Drainage in India, is mostly influenced by its varied, physiological divisions. Thus they, are classified into three major types, such as:, , Himalayan Rivers, The Himalayan Rivers are mostly, originated from Himalayan mountain, range. These are mostly perennial in, nature which means availability of, water throughout the year as they, , Peninsular Rivers, The Peninsular Rivers are mostly, having their origin from Western, Ghats running parallel with western, coast from north to south. They are, seasonal in nature as the source of, water is rainfall only. The rivers form, deltas at their mouth. Some of the, rivers such as Mahanadi, Godavari,, Krishna and Cauvery are drained, into the Bay of Bengal where as the, other prominent rivers like Narmada, and Tapi both fall into the Arabian, Sea., , obtain water from the large ice cover, of great Himalayan range. Major, rivers of this section are the Indus, the, Ganges and the Brahmaputra. Other, important tributaries of this section, are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and, Sutlej of Indus river system, Yamuna,, Son, Ramganga, Ghaghara, Gantak,, Kosi of the Ganges river System, and, Tista, Lohit, Manas, Subansiri River,, Dhansiri River of the Brahmaputra, River System., , Lakes, Lakes of India are of high, importance as they prevent, flooding during high rain and, on the other hand it stimulate an, even water flow during dry seasons., India is bestowed with some really, beautiful lakes which are not only, of geomorphologic importance but, also attracts a large no of tourists, every year. Many such lakes are Dal, Lake,Wular, Chilka, Loktak, Nakki,, Kodaikanal, Sukhna, Puskar, Nakki,, Sukhna, Manasbal, Bhojtal, Hussain, Sagar, Tam dil, Pulicat etc.

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B-159, , Geography, , SOIL, As a prime natural resource soil plays, an important role in the in the growth, of human activities of a specific, location. The type of soil found in, India can be classified in number of, ways but as per All India Soil Survey, Committee of Indian Council of, Agricultural Research there are 8, types of soil found in India., Alluvial soil, •• Spatial Distribution: wide, spread in northern plains and, river valleys such as Indus-GangaBrahmaputhra plain, NarmadaTapi plain, deltas and estuaries, of Peninsular India., •• Property: Mixture of Humus,, lime and organic matters and, hence highly fertile., •• Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey., •• Texture: Sandy to silty loam or, clay., •• Suitable for: Production of, Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane,, pulses, oilseed., Red soil, •• Spatial Distribution: Mainly, found in the areas of low, rainfall. The states with red, soils are Tamilnadu, Karnatake,, South-east part of Maharashtra,, Eastern Part of Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh, Chota, Nagpur in Jharkhand, Orissa,, Chhattishgarh Parts of South, Bihar, Birbhum and Bankura, districts of West Bengal, Mirzapur,, Jhansi, Banda, Hamirpur district, of UP, Aravali Hills and eastern, half of Rajasthan., •• Property: Abundance of Ferric, oxide Absence of lime matters, and hence highly fertile., •• Colour: Red, , •• Texture: Sandy to clay and, loamy., •• Suitable for: Production of, Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco,, oilseeds, potato., Black / Regur soil, •• Spatial Distribution: Most of, the Deccan is occupied by Black, soil., •• Property: Mature soil with, high water retaining capacity,, become sticky when wet and, shrinks when dried. Iron, lime,, calcium, potassium, aluminum, and magnesium., •• Colour: Deep black to light black., •• Texture: Clayey., •• Suitable for: Best soil for cotton, production., Arid / Desert soil, •• Spatial, Distribution:, Seen, widely under Arid and Semi-Arid, conditions such as Rajasthan,, Parts of Haryana and Punjab., •• Property: Lack of moisture and, Humus and contains impure, Calcium Carbonate., •• Colour: Red to Brown., •• Texture: Sandy, •• Suitable for: Salt tolerant crops, like barley , rape, wheat , millet,, maize., Laterite soil, •• Spatial Distribution: mostly, found in Eastern Ghats, the, Rajmahal, Hills,, Vidhyas,, Satpura and Malwa Plateau., •• Property: Prone to leaching of, lime and silica from soil, rich, iron and aluminum,, •• Deficient in Nitrogen, Potash,, Potassium, Lime, Humus, •• Colour: Red colour due to iron, oxide

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B-160, , Geography, , •• Texture: Clayey rocky, •• Suitable for: Rice, Ragi,, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are, cultivated mainly., Saline soil, •• Spatial Distribution: mostly, found Andhra Pradesh and, Karnatak, in Drier parts of Bihar,, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. In, Gujrat the area around gulf of, Khamart, vast estuaries of the, Narmada, Tapi and Mahi river, •• Property: mainly saline and, alkaline in nature, rich in sodium,, magnesium, and calcium salt,, and sulphurous acid., •• Not Suitable for agricultural, productivity., Peaty/marshy soil, •• Spatial Distribution: generally, found Coastal areas of Orissa, , and Tamilnadu, Sunderbans of, West Bengal, Bihar and Almora, district of Uttaranchal, •• Property: heavy and highly, acidic in Nature, deficient in, Potash and Phosphate., •• Colour: Black, •• Suitable for: paddy Cultivation., Forest soil and Mountain Soil, •• Spatial Distribution: Mostly, found in Himalayan Region, mainly in valley basins, and, Western and Eastern Ghats of, Penninsular India, •• Property: rich in humus,, deficient in Potash, Phosphorous, and lime., •• Suitable for: wheat, maize,, barley in southern India and, temperate fruit in Jammu &, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and, Uttaranchal, , CLIMATE, Although India is basically a tropical, country, it experiences wide variation, in climatic condition depending, upon the altitude, latitude, distance, from sea and relief. The variability, can be observed in number of factors, such as:, •• Western Rajasthan experiences, a high temperature during, June where as the areas close, to Kashmir are relatively, experiencing a much lower, temperature. The coastal lands, are comparatively having a, moderate climate due to the, nearness of sea., •• The amount of rainfall also, varies throughout the country., The rainfall in India is primarily, governed by Monsoon wind, , which which generally hits, the south west coast of India, generally in June and known, as onset of Monsoon. The, wind then starts circulating via, the Bay of Bengal covering the, entire eastern, north eastern, and parts of central India. The, highest rainfall is experienced, in Mawsynram in Meghalaya, i.e. 1221 cm of annual rainfall, every year. On the other hand, in the month of October and, November the monsoon trough, of Low pressure starts receding, from Northern Plain results into, rain in Southern India. About, 50% to 60% of rainfall in Tamil, Nadu is caused due to Retreat, of Monsoon form North East.

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B-161, , Geography, , Rain fall Distribution in India, Amount Heavy Rainfall, of Rain, (> 200cm), fall, States, West coasts,, on the western, Ghats, SubHimalayan, areas in North, East and, Meghalaya, Hills. Assam,, West Bengal,, Southern slopes, of eastern, Himalayas., , Moderately, Heavy Rainfall, (100-200 cm), Southern Parts, of Gujarat, East, Tamil Nadu,, North-eastern, Peninsular,, Western, Ghats, eastern, Maharashtra,, Madhya Pradesh,, Orrisa, the middle, Ganga valley., , Less Rainfall, (50-100 cm), , Scanty, Rainfall, <50cms, Upper Ganga Northern, valley, eastern part of, Kashmir,, Rajasthan,, Western, Punjab,, Southern, Rajasthan,, Punjab and, Plateau of, Deccan, Karnataka,, Andhra, Plateau, Pradessh and, Tamil Nadu., , NATURAL VEGETATION, Natural Vegetations or the forest type of India vary from place to place, depending upon several factors such as climate, soil, rainfall, temperature, as well as their seasonal variation along with varied edaphic and biotic, conditions. Various botanist and ecologist have given different classification, on the basis of climatic and adaptive factors. On the basis of such suggestion, a generalised classification can be done with 5 main types and 16 sub types, of vegetation., , Classification of Natural Vegetation, Type, , Sub- Types, , Moist Tropical Forest, , •• Tropical wet Evergreen, •• Tropical semi evergreen, •• Tropical Moist Deciduous, •• Littoral and Swamp, , Dry Tropical Forest, , •• Tropical dry evergreen, •• Tropical dry deciduous, •• Tropical Thorn, , Montane Sub –tropical •• Sub tropic Broad leaved hill, Forest, •• Sub tropical Moist hills (pine), •• Sub tropic dry evergreen, Montane Temperate, Forest, , •• Montane Wet Temperate, •• Himalayan Moist Temperate, •• Himalayan Dry Temperate, , Alpine Forest, , •• Sub- Alpine, •• Moist – Alpine Scrub, •• Dry Alpine Scrub

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B-162, , Geography, , Spatial Distribution of Natural vegetation in India, , LANGUAGES, According to the schedule eight, of our constitution, there are 22, officially recognized languages in, India; among all, Hindi dominates, the scene as it is spoken by 41.03, per cent of people followed by, Bengali (8.11 %), Telugu (7.19 %),, Marathi (6.99), Tamil (5.91 %), and Urdu (5.01%). Sanskrit, Bodo,, , Manipur, Dogari and Konkani, are the languages which have least, speakers in India. Bodo, Dogri,, Maithili and Santali were added to, the Eighth Schedule with the passing, of the 100th Amendment to the, Constitution of India in 2003, taking, the total number of Scheduled, languages to 22 in 2001. There are

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B-163, , Geography, total 234 identifiable mother tongues, which have returned 10,000 or more, speakers each at the all-India level,, comprising 93 mother tongues, grouped under the Scheduled, Languages (Part A) and 141 mother, tongues grouped under the NonScheduled languages (Part B). Those, mother tongues which have returned, less than 10,000 speakers each and, which have been classified under a, , particular language are included in, “others” under that language., Official languages in India: Article, 343 of the Indian Constitution, considers Hindi to be the official, language of the country along, with English to be an additional, language. Other than these two, French and Portuguese are the, official languages of Ponducherry, and Goa respectively., , AGRICULTURE IN INDIA, A wide range of crops can be grown, in India as the land is supported by, element essential for crop growth, such as relief, soil, climate, abundant, sun shine and long growing seasons., The major Indian crop can be, divided into following categories., Food Crops: Rice, Wheat, Maize,, Millet,Jower, Bajra, Ragi, and pulses, like Gram, Tur (Arhar), Cash Crops: Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane,, Tobacco, Oilseeds, Ground Nut,, Linseed, Sesame, Castor seed, Rape, seed, Mustard, Plantation Crops: Tea, Coffee,, Spices, Cardamom, Chilles, Ginger,, Turmeric, Coconut, Areca nut and, Rubber, Horticulture: Apple, Peach, Pear,, Apricot, Almond, Strawberr y,, Walnut, Mango, Banana, Citrus Fruit,, Vegetables., , Land Use Pattern in India, Reporting area for land utilisation, statistics in India was recorded to be, 305611, out of which only 45.84 per, cent of it is net sown area. 17.07 are, sown more than ones in a year. Total, cropped area accounted for 62.89, per cent., , Agro-climatic Regions, (i) Western Himalayan Region:, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal, , Pradesh and the hill region of, Uttarakhand fall into it. Valley, floors grow rice, while the hilly, tracts grow maize in the kharif, season. Winter crops are barley,, oats, and wheat. Apple orchards, and other temperate fruits such, as peaches, apricot, pears,, cherry, almond, litchis, walnut,, etc. Saffron is grown in this, region., (ii) Eastern Himalayan Region:, Arunachal Pradesh, hills of, Assam, Sikkim, Meghalaya,, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,, Tripura, and the Darjeeling, district of West Bengal come, into this region. Annual rainfall, is 200-400 cm. The main crops, are rice, maize, potato, tea., Orchards of pineapple, litchi,, oranges and lime are also found., (iii) Lower Gangetic Plain Region:, located in West Bengal (except, the hilly areas), eastern Bihar, and the Brahmaputra valley lie, in this region with the rainfall of, 100 cm-200 cm. Rice is the main, crop which at times yields three, successive crops (Aman, Aus, and Boro) in a year. Jute, maize,, potato, and pulses are other, important crops.

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B-164, , Geography, , (iv) Middle Gangetic Plain Region:, large parts of Uttar Pradesh and, Bihar are covered and recieve100, cm and 200 cm of rainfall. Rice,, maize, millets grow in kharif;, wheat, gram, barley, peas,, mustard and potato in rabi are, important crops., , (v) Upper Gangetic Plains Region:, Central and western parts of Uttar, Pradesh and Hardwar and Udham, Nagar districts of Uttarakhand fall, into it. Rainfall is between 75 cm150 cm. Wheat, rice, sugarcane,, millets, maize, gram, barley,, oilseeds, pulses and cotton are, the main crops., , AGRO-CLIMATIC, ZONES OF INDIA, , I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., , Western Himalayan Region, Eastern Himalayan Region, Lower Gangetic Plain Region, Middle Gangetic Plain Region, Upper Gangetic Plains Region, Trans-Ganga Plains Region, Eastern Plateau and Hills, Central Plateau and Hills, , (vi) Trans-Ganga Plains Region:, Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh,, Delhi and the Ganganagar, district of Rajasthan come under, it. Rainfall varies between 65 cm, and 125 cm. The main crops are, wheat, sugarcane, cotton, rice,, gram, maize, millets, pulses and, , IX., X., XI., XII., XIII., XIV., XV., , Western Plateau and Hills, Southem Plateau and Hills, Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills, Western Coastal Plains and Ghats, Gujarat Plains and Hills, Western Dry Region, Island Region, , oilseeds etc. The region faces the, threat of water logging, salinity,, alkalinity, soil erosion and fall of, water table., (vii) Eastern Plateau and Hills:, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Dandakaranya come under, it. 80 cm-150 cm of annual

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Geography, rainfall is received. Rice, millets,, maize, oilseeds, ragi, gram,, potato, tur, groundnut and, soyabean grow on rainfed areas., (viii) Central Plateau and Hills:, Bundelkhand, Baghelkhand,, Bhander Plateau, Malwa, Plateau, and Vindhyachal Hills, receive rainfall 50 cm-100 cm., Crops like millets, wheat, gram,, oilseeds, cotton and sunflower, grow in this region., (ix) Western Plateau and Hills:, Malwa plateau and Deccan, plateau (Maharashtra), 25 cm75 cm. Wheat, gram, millets,, cotton, pulses, groundnut, and, oilseeds are the main crops in, the rain-fed areas, while in the, irrigated areas, sugarcane, rice,, and wheat, are cultivated., (x) Southern Plateau and Hills:, Interior Deccan includes parts, of southern Maharashtra, the, greater parts of Karnataka,, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil, Nadu uplands from Adilabad, district in the north to Madurai, district in the south. Annual, rainfall is between 50 cm and, 100 cm. Millets, oilseeds, pulses, grows here., (xi) Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills:, Coromandal and northern Circar, coasts of Andhra Pradesh and, Orissa come into it. Annual, rainfall here varies between 75 cm, and 150 cm. Main crops include, rice, jute, tobacco, sugarcane,, maize, millets, groundnut and, oilseeds. Cultivation of spices, (pepper and cardamom) and, development of fisheries is also, done., (xii) Western Coastal Plains and, Ghats: Malabar and Konkan, coastal plains and the Sahyadris, are included in it. Annual, rainfall is more than 200, , B-165, , cm. Rice, coconut, oilseeds,, sugarcane, millets, pulses and, cotton are the main crops. The, region is famous for plantation, crops and spices., (xiii) Gujarat Plains and Hills: They, includes hills and plains of, Kathiawar, and the fertile valleys, of Mahi and Sabarmati rivers., Annual rainfall varies between, 50 cm and 100 cm. Groundnut,, cotton, rice, millets, oilseeds,, wheat and tobacco are the main, crops. It is an important oilseed, producing region., (xiv) Western Dry Region: Extended, over Rajasthan, West of the, Aravallis, this region has an, erratic rainfall of an annual, average of less than 25 cm., Horticultural crops like water, melon, guava and date palm, grow here., (xv) Island Region: It includes, Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweep which have typically, equatorial climate (annual, rainfall less than 300 cm). Main, crops are rice, maize, millets,, pulses, turmeric and cassava., Nearly half of the cropped area, is under coconut. The area is, covered with thick forests and, agriculture is in backward stage., , Major Growing Seasons in India:, Kharif (July to October): Major, crops are rice, maize, sorghum,, pearl millet/bajra, finger millet/ragi, (cereals), arhar (pulses), soyabean,, groundnut (oilseeds), cotton etc., Rabi (October to March): Major, crops wheat, barley, oats (cereals),, chickpea/gram (pulses), linseed,, mustard (oilseeds) etc., Zaid (March to June): Muskmelon,, Watermelon,, Vegetables, of, cucurbitacae family such as bitter, gourd, pumpkin, ridged gourd etc.

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B-166, , Geography, , INDUSTRY, Major Industrial Regions of India, There are eight major industrial regions in India., 1. Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region, 2. Hugli Industrial Region, 3. Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Industrial Region, 4. Gujarat Industrial Region, 5. Chotanagpur Industrial Region, 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region, 7. Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Industrial Region, 8. Kolfam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region

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B-167, , Geography, , Major Industrial Type, As per the type raw materials used, in the industry and its finished, product, the categories of Indian, Industry can be divided into:, •• Agro Based Industry, ¾¾ Cotton Textile, ¾¾ Jute Textile, ¾¾ Sugar, ¾¾ Silk, , •• Metallurgical Industry, ¾¾ Iron and Steel Industry, ¾¾ Aluminum smelting Industry, •• Engineering Industry, •• Fertilizer Industry, •• Aircraft Industry, •• Glass Industry, •• Cement Industry, •• Chemical Industry, , MINERALS IN INDIA, Minerals are the natural resources, which are used in many industries as, raw materials. Iron ore, manganese,, bauxite, copper, etc. are such minerals., Minerals are of two types: metallic and, non-metallic. Iron ore and copper are, metallic minerals while limestone and, dolomite are non-metallic minerals., Metallic minerals are further, sub-divided into ferrous and, non-ferrous minerals. Those metallic, minerals which have iron content, belong to ferrous group. The metallic, minerals belonging to non-ferrous, group do not have iron content., India is rich in iron, mica, manganese,, bauxite; self sufficient in antimony,, Mineral, Iron, , Ore, Magnetite—the best, quality of iron ore and, contains 72% pure iron., Haematite-contains, 60 to 70% pure iron., Limonite-contains, 40 to 60% pure iron., Siderite-contains many, impurities and has just, 40 to 50% pure iron., , building materials, cement materials,, clay, chromite, lime, dolomite, and, gold, but deficient in copper, lead,, mercury, zinc, tin, nickel, petroleum, products, rock phosphate, sulphur,, and tungsten., Mineral resources like potassium are, totally absent and have to be imported., Minerals like crude petroleum (which, accounts for about 80 per cent of, the total value of Indian imports), diamonds (uncut), sulphur, and rock, phosphorus are imported., The state with the highest, mineral output is Jharkhand., India is rich in ferrrous metals but its, reserves of non-ferrous metals are poor., , Found in, Odisha (Sonai, Mayubhanj,, Keonjhar), Jharkhand, and Bihar (Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau,, Shahbad), Chhattisgarh and, Madhya Pradesh (Raipur,, Durg, Bastar, Raigarh,, Bilaspur, Jabalpur, Balaghat),, Andhra Pradesh (Krishna,, Kurnool, Chittor, Cuddapha,, Warangal, Guntur), Tamil, Nadu (Salem,, Tiruchirapalli), Karnataka, (Ballary, Chitradurg,, Chikmagalur), Maharashtra, (Ratnagiri, Chanda), Goa, , Features, India has the, world’s largest, reserves,, approximately, one-fourth of, world’s known, reserves;, Jharkhand, has the largest, reserves, accounting, for about 25%, of the total, reserves of, iron ore in, India.

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B-170, , Geography, , CENSUS 2011, The 15th Indian National census, was conducted in two phases,, houselisting, and, population, enumeration., Information, for, National Population Register was, also collected in the first phase,, which will be used to issue a 12-digit, unique identification number to, all registered Indians by Unique, Identification Authority of India., According to the provisional reports, released on March 31, 2011, the, Indian population increased to 1.21, , billion with a decadal growth of, 17.64%. Adult literacy rate increased, to 70.04% with a decadal growth of, 9.21%., The exercise, conducted every 10, years, faced big challenges, not least, India’s vast area and diversity of, cultures and opposition from the, manpower is involved. Information, on castes was included in the census, following demands from several, ruling coalition and opposition, parties., , Census Data, Population, Total Population, Males, Females, Ratio, Decadal Growth (2001-2011), Density of Population, Literacy (in percent), , Statistics, 1,21,01,93,422 (persons), 62,37,24,248, 58,64,69,174, 940 Females/1000 Males, 18,14,55,986 (17.64%), 382 per sq. km., Total; 74.04, Males: 82.14, Females: 65.46, , HIGHEST/LOWEST POPULATION, State with Highest Population, State with Lowest Population, UT with Highest Population, UT with Lowest Population, District with Highest Population, District with Lowest Population, , Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Delhi, Lakshadweep, Medinipur (West Bengal), Yanam (Pondicherry), , 166,197,921, 540,851, 13,850,507, 60,650, 9,610,788, 31,394, , Population Density Persons/Sq. Km., India, State with highest Population Density, West Bengal, State with lowest Population Density, Arunachal Pradesh, UT with Highest Population Density, Delhi, UT with Lowest Population Density, Andaman & Nicobar, Islands, District with Highest Population Density North East (Delhi), District with Lowest Population Density Lahul & Spiti, (Himachal Pradesh), , 325, 903, 13, 9,340, 43, 29,468, 2

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B-171, , Geography, , Sex Ratio (Females per Thousand Males), India, Rural, Urban, State with Highest Female Sex Ratio Kerala, State with Lowest Female Sex Ratio Haryana, UT with Highest Female Sex Ratio Pondicherry, UT with Lowest Female Sex Ratio Daman & Diu, District with Highest Female Sex Ratio Mahe (Pondicherry), District with Lowest Female Sex Ratio Daman (Daman & Diu), , 933, 946, 900, 1,058, 861, 1,001, 710, 1,147, 591, , Scheduled Castes & Scheduled Tribes Population, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, , Population, 166,635,700, 84,326,240, , Percentage, 16.2%, 8.2%, , Scheduled Castes, State with highest proportion of Scheduled Castes, State with lowest proportion of Scheduled Castes, UT with highest proportion of Scheduled Castes, UT with lowest proportion of Scheduled Castes, District with highest proportion of Scheduled Castes, District with lowest proportion of Scheduled Castes, Lawngtlai, , Punjab (28.9%), Mizoram (0.03%), Chandigarh (17.5%), D&N Haveli (1.9%), Koch-Bihar (50.1%), Mizoram (0.01%), , Scheduled Tribes, State with highest proportion of Scheduled Tribes, State with lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes, UT with highest proportion of Scheduled Tribes, UT with lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes, District with highest proportion of Scheduled Tribes, District with lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes, , Mizoram (94.5%), Goa (0.04%), Lakshadweep (94.5%), A & N Islands (8.3%), Sarchhip, Mizoram (98.1%), Hathras, Uttar Pradesh (0.01%), , Religion Based Data, Religious, Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Other Religions & Persuasions, Religion not stated, Total *, , Composition, 827,578,868, 138,188,240, 24,080,016, 19,215,730, 7,955,207, 4,225,053, 6,639,626, 727,588, 1,028,610,328, , Population * (%), 80.5, 13.4, 2.3, 1.9, 0.8, 0.4, 0.6, 0.1, 100

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B-172, , Geography, , Rural Urban Distribution, Rural-Urban Distribution, , Population, , (%), , Rural, Urban, State with highest proportion of Urban Population, State with lowest proportion of Urban Population, UT with highest proportion of Urban Population, UT with lowest proportion of Urban Population, , 742,490,639, 286,119,689, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Dadra & Nagar, Haveli, , 72.18%, 27.82%, 49.8, 9.8, 93.2, 22.9, , QUICK FACTS, •• India’s population has jumped to, 1.21 billion, an increase of more, than 181 million during 2001-11,, according to provisional data of, Census 2011 released., •• Though the population is, almost equal to the combined, population of the U.S, Indonesia,, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh and, Japan (1,214.3 million)., •• The percentage decadal growth, rates of the six most populous, States have declined during 200111 compared with 1991-2001., •• The overall sex ratio nationwide, has, increased, by, seven, percentage points to 940 against, 933 in Census 2001. Sex ratio is, defined as the number of females, per 1,000 males. An increase in, sex ratio was observed in 29, States/Union Territories. Kerala, with 1,084 has the highest sex, ratio followed by Puducherry, with 1.038. With 618, Daman, and Diu has the lowest ratio., •• An increasing trend in the child, sex ratio was seen in Punjab,, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram, and the Andaman and Nicobar, Islands, but in the remaining, States/UTs, the ratio showed, a decline. The total number of, , children in the age group of 0–6, is now 158.8 million, less by five, million since 2001., •• The literacy rate has gone up, from 64.83 per cent in 2001 to, 74.04 per cent, an increase of, 9.21 percentage points., •• Kerala, with 93.91 per cent,, continues to occupy the top, position among States as far, as literacy is concerned, while, Mizoram’s Serchhip district, (98.76 per cent) and Aizawl, (98.50 per cent) recorded the, highest literacy rates among, districts. Madhya Pradesh’s, Alirapur district has the lowest, literacy rate of 37.22 per cent, as also the naxalite-affected, Chhattisgarh’s Bijapur district,, where the literacy rate is 41.58, per cent. Lakshadweep followed, kerala with a literacy level of, 92.28 per cent, while Bihar, remained at the bottom of the, ladder at 63.82 per cent, followed, by Arunachal Pradesh at 66.95, per cent., •• A significant milestone reached, in the 2011 census is the fall in the, number of illiterate persons by, 31,196,847. Of the total decrease, in the number of illiterates,, women comprise 17,122,197, and men, 14,074,650.

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B-173, , Language, , , , , , , , Chinese, Spanish, English, Hindi, Arabic, , Religion, , , , , , , , Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese Folk Religion, Buddhism, , Climatic, Zone, , , , , , , , , Equatorial Zone, Hot Zone, Warm Temperate Zone, Cool Temperate Zone, Cold Zone, Alpine Zone, , Industrial, Region, , , , , , USA and Canada Industrial Region, European Industrial region, Asian Major Industrial Region, , Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Japanese, Javanese, , Continents, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia, Antarctica, , Things to Remember, , WORLD GEOGRAPHY–MIND MAP, , Geography, , , , , , , , , , , , Continent’s Highest & Largest Points, Highest Mountain Peaks, Deepest Oceans, Some important Boundary lines, Longest Rivers, Deepest Lakes, Largest Deserts, Deepest Trenches, Some important Tribes and their Homeland

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B-174, , Geography, , INFORMATION BULLETIN, •• Total Surface Area - 510,, 072,000 km², •• Land Area - 148,094,000 km², •• Water Area - 361,132,000 km², •• Percentage of Land - 29.2%, •• Percentage of Water - 70.8%, •• Water Type - 97% salt water, 3%, fresh water, •• Circumference - 40,066 km at, Equator, 39,992 km at Poles, •• Continents - 7 recognized, •• Countries - 193 recognized, •• Oceans - 5, •• Population - 7,214,958,996 (2015), •• Largest continent - Asia (43,810,582, km²), •• Most populated continent - Asia, (4,361,416,312) 2015, •• Smallest continent - Australasia/, Oceania (8,112,000 km²), , •• Least, populated, continentAntarctica (no native population), •• Largest country - Russia, (17,075,400 km²), •• Most populated country - China, (1,401,586,609) 2015, •• Smallest country - Vatican City, (0.44 km²), •• Least populated country Vatican City (842) 2014, •• Highest point - Mount Everest, (8,848 m), •• Lowest point - Dead Sea (-409 m), •• Largest, Ocean, Pacific, (155,557,000 km²), •• Smallest, Ocean, Arctic, (14,056,000 km²), •• Largest Sea - South China, (2,974,600 km²), •• Largest Lake - Caspian Sea, (371,000 km²), •• Longest River - Nile (6,695 km), , LANGUAGES, There are numerous languages in, the world but they have varying, number of speakers for each one, of them. Approximately 2,300, languages are spoken in Asia, 2,140,, in Africa, 1,300 in the Pacific, 1,060, in the Americas, and 280 in Europe, (2015). Their existence depends on, the number of speakers the language, has. There are chances that nearly, 90% of the 7, 080 languages would, extinct. Chinese tops the list of most, popular world languages, with over, one billion speakers. English trails, in third place, with 335 million, speakers. This data represents firstlanguage speakers., , Major Languages Spoken in the, World, Language, , Approx. number, of speakers, , 1. Chinese, , 1,197,000,000, , 2. Spanish, , 414,000,000, , 3. English, , 335,000,000, , 4. Hindi, , 260,000,000, , 5. Arabic, , 237,000,000, , 6. Portuguese, , 203,000,000, , 7. Bengali, , 193,000,000, , 8. Russian, , 167,000,000, , 9. Japanese, , 122,000,000, , 10. Javanese, , 84,300,000

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B-175, , Geography, , MAJOR RELIGION OF THE WORLD, Religion, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Chinese folk religion, Buddhism, , Followers (in millions), 2,200, 1,600, 1,100, 754 — 1,000, 488 — 535, , WORLD CLIMATIC TYPES, Climate, Zone, Equatorial, zone, Hot Zone, , Latitude, 0°-10°N, and S, 10°-30°N, and S, , Warm, 30° - 45°N, Temperate and S, zone, , Cool, 48°-65°N, Temperate and S, zone, , Cold zone 65°-90°N, and S, Alpine, Zone, , Climate Type, , Rainfall, Regime, 1. Hot we equatorial Rainfall all year, 2. (a) Tropical round, Monsoon, Heavy summer, (b) Tropical Marine rain, 3. Sudan Type, Much summer, 4. Desert : (a) Sahara rain, type (b) Mid70 inches, latitude type, Rain mainly in, summer, 30 inches, Little, rain : 5 inches, 5. Western Margin, Winter rain : 35, (Mediterranean, inches, types), Light summer, 6. Central Continental rain, (Stepe type), 20 inches, 7. Eastern Margin, Heavier, (a) China type, summer rain :, (b) Gulf type, 45 inches, (c) Netal type, 8. Western Margin, More rain in, (British type), autumn and, 9. Central Continental winter, 30, (Siberian type), inches, 10. Eastern Margin, Light summer, (Laurentian type) rain:, 25 inches, Moderate, summer rain, 40 inches, 11. Arctic or Polar, Very light, summer rain, 10 inches, 12. Mountain climate Heavy rainfall, (variable), , Natural Veg, Equatorial, rain, forests, Monsoon forests, Savana (Tropical, grassland), Desert vegetation, and scrub, , Mediterranean, forests and shrub, Steppe or, temperate, grassland, Warm, wet forests, bamboo, , Deciduous forests, Evergreen, confierous forests, Mixed forests, (coniferous and, deciduous), , Tundra, mosses, lichens, Alpine, mosses, lichens Alpine, pastures, conifers,, fern, snow

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B-176, , Geography, , MAJOR INDUSTRIAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD, Industrial regions are those areas,, where the focus of industries has, occurred due to favourable geoeconomic conditions. These are areas, where manufacturing industries, are carried out on a relatively large, scale and employ a relatively large, proportion of population. The, industrial regions of the world are, very unevenly distributed. With the, development of machinery, many, industrial centres have come up, where there is abundance of coal,, iron, and extensive water-power are, in abundance., The major industrial regions of the, world are as follows:, •• USA and Canada Industrial, Regions, Industrial region of USA and, Canada comprises the New, England Regions, The New York, - Mid-Atlantic Region, North Eastern Region. The Southern, Region, Western Region &, Pacific Region. These regions, include several major American, industrial cities & Metropolitans, like Hartford, New Havan, areas, from New York to Baltimore, with New Jersey, Chicago,, Detroit, Houston, etc., •• European Industrial Region, – Western, Europe, major, industrial regions., – United Kingdom’s industrial, regions are located in, Lancashire, London's basin,, Scotland, Midland,SouthWales,, etc., producing, manufacturing, products, like engineering, ferrous,, chemical textile,food &, beverages, etc., , – The Saar Region, the, Hamburg Region, Berlin, Region & Leipzig Region, with iron & steel heavy, chemicals, textiles & different, consumer goods Industries., – France’s industrial region, produces iron & steel, textile,, glass, leather, automobiles, with Northern, Lorraine, & Paris Industrial Regions., Other European countries, like, Italy,, Switzerland,, Holland, Belgium, and, Sweden are industrial giants., – Eastern Europe has six, major industrial regions, Out of which four are in, Russia, one in Ukraine, and, one in southern Poland and, northern Czech Republic., •• Asian major, – China is most dominant, and powerful industrial, agglomerations of Asia., The regions of Manchurian, region, Yangtze region,, North-china region, South, China region, etc. with, manymanufacturing units, producing, steel,, heavy, chemical's textiles, paper,, cement, automobiles, toys,, etc are major industrial, regions., – Japan has several industrial, cities, producing, steel,, Pedro-chemical,, cement,, footwear. toys, etc. at TokyaYokohama region, Osaka Kobe region, north Kyushu, region., – India’s, conurbation, of, Calcutta,, the, MumbaiPune, Industrial, belt,

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B-177, , Geography, , Ahemadabad-Vadodara belt, Southern industrial regions with, Chennai, Coimbatore, Bangalore industrial belt, Damodar Valley, industrial belt, Northern regions with centers like Delhi, Ambala,, Gaziabad, Mathura, etc. Other major industrial regions include, Allahadad, Varanasi, Hyderabad, Patiala, Jaipur, Bilaspur,, Jullundhar, Meerut, Lucknow, Kanpur, etc., , MAJOR INDUSTRIAL CENTRES OF THE WORLD, Country, Britain, (Midland is the, largest Industrial, , Major Industrial Centers, Birmingham, Coventry, Burton-on-Trent, , region centered, at Birmingham), , Stoke-on-Trent, New Castle, Middlesbrough, Bradford, Halifax, Leeds, Shefield (World’s largest, cutlery town), Manchester, (Lancashire region), Liverpool & Birkenhead, Along Manchester Canal, Glosgow, Hamilton, Motherwell, Coatbridge, , France, , Germany, (Ruhr-Westphalia, region, served by, Rhine River, is the, largest industrial, , Industries, Iron & Steel, Heavy Machinery, Automobile, Brewing (largest brewery town, of, Britain), Pottery (Pottery capital of, Britain), Shipbuilding, Iron & Steel, Worsted textile, Garments, Cutlery, Iron & Steel, , Cotton textile, Shipbuilding, Heavy chemicals, Iron & Steel, , Pot Glasgow, Belfast region (Main, industrial region of Ireland), Lille, Dunkirus, St. Etienne, Limoges, Lyone, Marseilles, Paris, Champaque, Lorrensar, , Shipbuilding, Shipbuilding &, Linen industry, Textiles, Iron & Steel, Armaments & Bicycle, Pottery, Silk making, Oil refineries, Aircraft & Transport, Wine, Iron & Steel, , Frankfurt, Mainz, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, , Railway engineering, Leather, Brewing, Engineering, Chemical, electrical engineering, Iron & Steel.

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B-178, , Geography, , region of Germany, This industrial, Hamburg, region is connected Munich, to North sea by, Dortmund-Ems, canal), Stuttgart, Aachen, Leipzig, Jena Zeiss, Dresden, Karl Marx Stadt, Belgium, Liege, Antwerp, Ghent, Luxemberg, Luxemberg city, Netherland, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Arnhem, Sweden, Goteborg, Stockhom, Switzerland, Zurich, Basel, Baden, Denmark, Kopenhagen, Italy, Milan (main industrial region), Turin (Detroit of Italy), U.S.A., Boston, (Great Lake region) Pittsburg, is the most, important industrial, region, Akron, , Detroi, Pontiac, Flint, Gary, Chicago, Toledo, Birmingham, Troy, Buffalo, , Shipbuilding, Photographic equipment, Musical, instrument, , Automobile, Iron & Steel, Textile, Optical instrument, Photographic equipment, Porcelain, Textiles, Iron & Steel, Guns, pistols &, other firearms, Diamond cutting, Linen textiles, Engineering, Shipbuilding and marine engineering, Diamond cutting, Tin smelting, Shipbuilding, Shipbuilding, Engineering and Textiles, Engineering, Dairy, Silk textile, Motor Car, Shipbuilding, Iron and Steel, (Iron & Steel capital of the, world), World’s largest synthetic, rubber and tyre making centre, Motor car and Aeroplane, Cars and it’s spare parts, Iron and Steel, , Automobile, Iron and Steel, Garment, Iron and Steel, Machine, (It is also the largest flour, milling centre of U.S.A.), San Fransisco (Silicon Valley) Oil refining, Shipbuilding,, Computer technology

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B-179, , Geography, , Canada, , Russia, , Ukraine, Argentina, China, , Japan, , Los Angels (Hollywood), Montreal, Toronto, Otawa, Hamilton Birmingham), of Canada), Quebec, , Film and Aircraft, Shipbuilding and Aircraft, Engineering and Automobile, Paper, Iron and Steel, Engineering, , Shipbuilding, &, Marine, Engineering, Moscow and Gorky, Iron and Steel, Chemicals, Magnitogost, Iron and Steel, Oil refining, Leningrad (St. Petersberg), Textile, Chemical, Paper, Krivoyrog, Iron & Steel and Heavy, Machinery, Bueons Aires, Shipbuilding, Shanghai, Textile and Machinery, Wuhan, Textile, Machinery,, Shipbuilding,, Iron and Steel, Nagoya (Detroit of Japan), Aircraft, Car, Machinery, Osaka (Manchester of Japan) Shipbuilding, Textile, Iron &, Steel, Kyoto and Kobe, Shipbuilding, Testtile, Iron &, Steel, Tokyo, Shipbuilding, Engineering, and, Textile, Nagasaki, Shipbuilding, Iron and Steel,, Machinery, , CONTINENTS OF WORLD, A continent is one of the large landmasses on Earth generally identified by, convention rather than any strict criteria, with up to seven regions commonly, regarded as continents. They are Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, south, America, Australia and Antarctica., Continent, 1. Asia, , % of Earth Area Continents (by the number, of countries), 29.5, 44, , 2. Africa, , 20.4, , 54, , 3. North America, , 16.3, , 23, , 4. South America, , 11.8, , 12, , 5. Europe, , 7.1, , 46, , 6. Australia or oceania, , 5.3, , 14, , 7. Antarctica, , 9.6

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B-180, , Asia, Asia is the world’s largest continent,, having an area of 44,444,100 sq km., Asia covers to the east of the Suez, Canal, the Ural River, and the Ural, M o u n t a i n s,, and south of, the Caucasus, Mountains, and, the, Caspian and, Black Seas. It, is bounded, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on, the south by the Indian Ocean and, on the north by the Arctic Ocean., Physical Features, Region-wise it can be classified, into 6 regions which are as follow:, •• Central Asia : Kazakhstanb,, Kyrgyzstan,, Tajikistan,, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, •• Eastern Asia :China, Hong Kong,, Japan, North Korea, South Korea,, Macau, Mongolia, Taiwan, •• Northern Asia : Russia, •• Southeastern Asia: Brunei,, Myanmar, Cambodia, Indonesia,, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines,, Singapore, Thailand, Timor-Leste,, Vietnam, •• Southern Asia: Afghanistan,, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, •• Western Asia : Armeniae,, Azerbaijana, Bahrain, Cypruse,, Georgiaa, Iran, Iraq, Israel,, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman,, State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi, Arabia, Syria, Turkeya, United, Arab Emirates,Yemen., Natural Vegetation of Asia, •• The Tundra, •• The Taiga, •• Temperate, Grasslands,, the, Steppes, •• Mediterranean Scrubland and, Forest, , Geography, ••, ••, ••, ••, , Desert Vegetation, Monsoon Region:, Tropical Rainforest, Vegetation in the Mountains, , Africa, Africa is the second largest continent, in area (30,330,000 sq Km), covers, six percent of, Earth's total, surface area, and, 20.4, percent of its, total, land, area. Algeria, is Africa's largest country by area,, and Nigeria by population. Africa's, population is the youngest among all, the continents; 50% of Africans are, 19 years old or younger. Separated, from Europe by the Mediterranean, Sea, it is joined to Asia at its, northeast extremity by the Isthmus, of Suez 163 km wide., Physical Features, Region-wise it can be classified into, 6 regions which are listed below., •• Northern Africa : Algeria,, Canary Islands, Santa Cruz de, Tenerife, Ceuta, Egypt, Libya,, Madeira, Melilla, Morocco,, Sudan, Tunisia, Western Sahara., •• Northeast Africa : Djibouti,, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, •• Eastern Africa : Burundi,, Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar,, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte,, Mozambique, Reunion, Rwanda,, Seychelles, South Sudan,, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia,, Zimbabwe., •• Central Africa : Angola,, Cameroon, Central African, Republic, Chad, Republic of the, Congo, Democratic Republic of, the Congo, Equatorial Guinea,, Gabon, São Tomé and Príncipe.

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B-181, , Geography, •• Southern Africa: Botswana,, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa,, Swaziland, •• Western Africa: Benin, Burkina, Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia,, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory, Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania,, Niger, Nigeria, Saint Helena,, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Natural Vegetation of Africa, ••, ••, ••, ••, ••, ••, , Tropical Rain Forests, Tropical Savannas, Tropical Steppes and Deserts, Mediterranean Forests, Montane Forests, Mangrove Forests, , Europe, The continent comprises the, westernmost part of Eurasia bordered, by Arctic Ocean in north, the Atlantic, Ocean in west, and the Mediterranean, Sea to the south. To the east and, southeast, it is separated from Asia, by the watershed divides of the Ural, and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural, River,, the, Caspian and, Black Seas,, and, the, waterways of, the Turkish, Straits. The, coastline of Europe is 80500 km,, which is longer than Africa. It is the, second smallest continent in the world., Physical Features, Region-wise classification of, Europe can be as follows, •• European High lands, •• Western Uplands : Landscape of, Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden,, and Denmark), Finland, Iceland,, Scotland, Ireland, the Brittany, , region of France, Spain, and, Portugal., •• Central Uplands : Central, Europe and include western, France and Belgium, southern, Germany, the Czech Republic,, and parts of northern Switzerland, and Austria., •• Alpine Mountains : The Italian, and Balkan peninsulas, northern, Spain, and southern France. The, region includes the mountains of, the Alps, Pyrenees, Apennines,, Dinaric Alps, Balkans, and, Carpathians., •• North European Plain : France,, Belgium, the Netherlands,, Germany, Denmark, Poland, the, Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and, Lithuania), and Belarus., •• Island : British Isles, Corsica,, Alba, Sardinia, Crete , Malta ,, Cyprus, are some of the major, Islands of Europe., •• Deserts : Accona Desert,, Bardenas Reales, Bdowska, Desert, The Stone Desert, Larzac,, Santorini and Anafi, Piscinas, are some of the major deserts, of Europe, Natural Vegetation of Africa, •• Sub tropical dry forest, •• Subtropical Mountain Forest, •• Temperate Oceanic Forest, •• Temperate continental Forest, •• Boreal Coniferous forest, •• Boreal Tundra Forest, •• Boreal Mountain, , North America, North America covers about 4.8%, of the planet's surface or about, 16.5% of its land area, having the, population of 565 million (2013) in, 23 independent states. It is the third

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B-182, , largest continent by area, following, Asia, and, Africa, and, fourth largest, in terms of, population, with, the, density of 24, million/sq km. It extends from 7o N, to 85o N latitudinal-wise and, longitude-wise 20oW to 179oW. It, has 5 time zones., Physical Features, Region-wise it can be classified into, 5 regions which are listed below., •• Western Region : Young, Mountains rise in the west. The, most familiar of these mountains, are probably the Rockies, North, America’s largest chain. They, stretch from the province of, British Columbia, Canada, to, the U.S.state of New Mexico., •• Great Plains : In the middle, of the continent lies the Grate, Plain. Deep, rich soil blankets, large areas of the plains in, Canada and the United States., Grain grown in this region,, called the “Bread basket of, North America,” feeding a large, part of the world., •• Canadian, Shield, :, The, Canadian Shield is a raised but, relatively flat plateau. It extends, over eastern, central, and north, western Canada. The Canadian, Shield is characterized by a, rocky landscape pocked by an, astounding number of lakes., •• Eastern Region : This varied, region includes the Appalachian, Mountains and the Atlantic, coastal plain. NorthAmerica’s, older mountain ranges, including, the Appalachians, rise near the, east coast of the United States, and Canada, •• Caribbean Region : The, Caribbean Region includes more, , Geography, than 7,000 islands, islets, reefs,, and cays. The region’s islands, and smaller islets are varied in, their topography., Natural Vegetation of Africa, •• Arctic/ Tundra Forests:, •• Boreal, Forests/, Taiga/, Coniferous forests:, •• Eastern Deciduous Forests:, •• Grasslands:, •• Desert Scrub:, •• Mediterranean and Madrean, Scrublands and Woodlands:, •• Pacific Coast Coniferous Forests, •• Western Montane Coniferous, Forests:, •• Tidal Wetlands, , South America, This is a triangular shape continent,, stretching from 12° N to 55°S, latitude. Towards its west lies Pacific, Ocean, Atlantic Ocean on the east, and, North, America and, the Caribbean, Sea lie to the, northwest. It, is the fourth, l a r g e s t, continent of the world with smooth, and inlet coastline., Physical Features, Region-wise it can be classified into, 5 regions which are listed below., •• The Pacific coastal strip lies, between the west Pacific and, Andes., •• The Andes stretches through, entire continent in length, running in north-south direction, from Isthmus of Panama to, Strait of Magellan., •• The Central Lowland: two great, river system are covered under it, namely the Amazon-Orinoco, and Parana-Paraguay rivers.

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B-183, , Geography, •• The Eastern Highland consists, of, Brazilian and Guiana, Highlands along with Patagonia., Natural Vegetation of South America, •• Equatorial Forest, •• Temperate Forests, •• Mediterranean Forests, •• Savanna Grasslands, •• Pampas, •• Desert, , Australia, Thousands of islands combined, form Oceania region, mostly, covering the, Central and, South Pacific, Ocean. The, region, is, dominated by, w o r l d ’ s, biggest island, and two other major landmasses,, micro-continent, of, Zealandia, (including New Zealand) and the, western half of the island of New, Guinea, made up of the nation of, Papua New Guinea. Oceania also, includes three island regions:, Melanesia,, Micronesia,, and, Polynesia (including the U.S. state of, Hawaii). It stretches from the Strait, of Malacca to the coast of Americas., Tropic of Capricorn divides it into, almost two halves., There are 28 countries and Island, groups in Australasia/Oceania, covering 5.3% of the Earth's land, and 1.5% of the Earth's surface. The, largest cities of this region includes:, Jakarta, Manila, Sydney, Bandung,, Melbourne, Surabaya, Medan etc., Physical Features, Region-wise it can be classified, into 3 regions such as:, • The great western Plateau, covers two third of Australia, , •, , The central lowland extends, from the shallow Gulf of, Carpentaria in the north to the, Southern Ocean., • The eastern highlands stretch, along the eastern edge of, Australia, all the way from Cape, York to Tasmania., Natural Vegetation, •• The tropical Rain forest, •• The deciduous forest Savanna, •• The dry desert and desert scrub, , Antarctica, The continent of Antarctica is the, fifth–largest, continent in, term s of, geographical, area, and it is, situated in a, remote cold, location of Southern. The continent, covers approximately 20 percent of, the hemisphere., As such there are no countries in, this continent except some parts, of few nations such,New Zealand,, Australia, France, Norway, the, United Kingdom, Chile, and, Argentina., Physical Features, As a frozen continent it has only a, few prominent physiographic units, such as:, •• Trans – Antarctic Mountain, dividing the continent into West, Antarctica and East Antarctica., •• The Antarctic Peninsula, •• The islands of the Antarctic, region which contains South, Orkney Islands, South Shetland, Islands, South Georgia, and, the South Sandwich Islands, all, claimed by the United Kingdom.

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B-184, , Geography, , THINGS TO REMEMBER, CONTINENT’S HIGHEST AND LOWEST POINTS, Continent, 1. Asia, , Highest Point, Everest (8848 m), , Lowest Point, Dead Sea (–396.8m), , 2. Africa, , Kilimanjaro (5894 m), , Lake Assai (–156.1 m), , 3. North America, , Mckinley (6194 m), , Death Valley (–85.9 m), , 4. South America, , Aconcagua (6960 m), , Valdis Penin (–39.9 m), , 5. Europe, , Elbrus (5663 m), , Caspian Sea (–28.0 m), , 6. Australia, , Koscisko (2228 m), , Lake Eyre (–15.8 m), , 7. Antarctica, , Vinson Massif (5140 m), , (Unexplored), , HIGHEST MOUNTAIN PEAKS (WORLD), Name, 1. Mount Everest, 2. K2 (Godwin Austen), 3. Kanchenjunga, 4. Lhotse, 5. Makalu I, 6. Dhaulagiri I, 7. Manaslu I, 8. Cho Uyo, 9. Nanga Parvat, 8. Annapurana I, , Height (in metres), 8848, 8611, 8598, 8511, 8481, 8167, 8156, 8153, 8126, 8091, , Range, Himalayas, Karakoram, Himalayas, Himalayas, Himalayas, Himalayas, Himalayas, Himalayas, Himalayas, Himalayas, , THREE DEEPEST OCEANS, Name, 1. Pacific Ocean, 2. Atlantic Ocean, 3. Indian Ocean, , Greatest depth (in metres) Greatest depth location, 11,033, Mariana Trench, 9,460, Puerto Rico Trench, 7,542, Java Trench, , SOME IMPORTANT BOUNDARY LINES, Durand Line, Hindenberg Line, 49th Parallel, Mac Mahon Line, Maginot Line, 38th Parallel, Oder Neisse Line, Radcliffe Line, 17th Parallel, , between Pakistan and Afghanistan, between Germany and Poland, between USA and Canada, between India and Tibet/China, between France and Germany, between North and South Korea, between Germany and Poland, between India and Pakistan, between India and Pakistan (as claimed by Pakistan)

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B-185, , Geography, , LONGEST RIVERS, Name, Nation/Continent, Length in kms, Nile Africa, 6695, Amazon, South America, 6516, Yangtze Kiang, China, 6380, Mississippi Missouri, USA, 5959, Ob Irtysh, Russia, 5568, Yenisey Angari a Selenga, Asia, 5550, Yellow (Hwang Ho), China, 5464, Congo (Zaire), Africa, 4667, Parana Rio de la Plata, S. Am, 4500, Irtysh, Asia, 4440, Mekong, Asia, 4425, India, Indus, Asia, Brahmaputra, Asia, Ganga-Hooghly-Padma, India, Godawari, India, Sutlej, India, Krishna, India, Narmada, India, Chenab, India, Ghaghara, India, Shortest River, Europe Ombia river, Croatia, North America, Roe River, Montana, USA, South America – Azvis River, Brazil, , Basin Area m2km, 3.25, 6.14, 1.72, 3.20, 2.97, 2.55, –, –, 2.58, –, –, , Deepest Lakes, Baikal, Russian Fedn, Tanganyika, Africa, Caspian Sea, Asia-Europe, Malawi of Nyasa, Africa, Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan, , 3180, 2948, 2620, 1465, 1372, 1300, 1289, 1086, 1080, (metres), 30, 61, 147, 1620 m, 1463 m, 1025 m, 706 m, 702 m, , LARGEST DESERTS OF THE WORLD, Subtropical, Sahara, North Africa, Arabian, Middle East, Great Victoria, Australia, Kalahari, Southern Africa, Chihuahuan, Mexico, Thar, India/Pakistan, Great Sandy, Australia, , 8,600,650 sq. km, 2,300,000 sq. km, 647,475 sq. km, 582,727 sq. km, 453,232 sq. km, 453,232 sq. km, 388,485 sq. km

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B-186, , Geography, , Gibson, Australia, Sonoran, S.W. USA, Simpson/Stony, N Africa, Mohave, S.W. USA, Cool Coastal, Atacama, Chile SA, Namib, S.W. Africa, Cold Winter, Gobi, China, Patagonian, Argentina, Great Basin, S.W. USA, Kara-kum, West Asia, Colorado, Western USA, also called the Painted Desert, Kyzyl-kum, West Asia, Taklamakan, China, Iranian, Iran, , 310,788 sq. km, 310,788 sq. km, 145,034 sq. km, 139,854 sq. km, 139,854 sq. km, 33,668 sq. km, 1,166,450 sq km, 673,374 sq km, 492,081 sq. km, 349,636 sq. km, 336,687 sq. km, 297,838 sq. km, 271,939 sq. km, 258,990 sq. km, , DEEP-SEA TRENCHES, Name, Mariana*, Tonga Kermadec (S. Pacific), Kuril-Kamchatka, Philippine, Java-Indian**, , Length, 2250, 2575, 2250, 1350, 2250, , Depth, 10.924, 10.850, 10.542, 10.539, 7725, , Deepest Pt., Challenger Deep, Vityaz 11 (Tonga), Galathea Deep, Planet Deep, , SOME IMPORTANT TRIBES AND THEIR HOME AND (WORLD), Aleuts : Alaska, Ainus : Japan, Aeta : Phillip Cines, Bushman : Kalahari, Buryak : Central Asia, Berbers : N. Africa, Bedouin : Sahara and Middle East, Bindibu or Aborigins : Australia, Chukchi : N.E. Asia, U.S.S.R.,, North Siberia, Eskimos : Greenland, North, Canada, Alaska, N. Siberia, Fulani : Western Africa, Gobi Mongols : Gobi, Guicas : Amazon forest area, Hausa : North Nigeria, Hotten tots : Hot tropical Africa, Ibans : Equatorial rain forest region, of South-East Asia, India Tribes : Amazon basin, , Koryaks : N. Siberia, Eurassian, Tunda, N.E. Asia, Kalmuk : Central Asia, Kareus or Meos : Myanmar, Kirghiz : Asiatic steppes, Kazakhs : Kazakhistan, Lapps : N. Finland, Scandinavian,, country, Maoris : New Zealand, Masai : East and Central Africa, Orange Asli : Malaysia, Pygmies : Congo basin, Zaire, Red Indian : N. America, Somoyeds : Siberia, Semangs : East Sumatra, Turregs : Sahara, Tapiro : Papua New Guinea, Yoakuts : Siberia, Zulus : South Africa