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T, , o commemorate the 50th year of modern computing, and the Computer Society, the timeline on the following, pages traces the evolution of computing and computer, technology., Timeline research by Bob Carlson, Angela Burgess, and Christine Miller., Timeline design and production by Larry Bauer., We thank our reviewers: Ted Biggerstaff, George Cybenko,, Martin Campbell-Kelly, Alan Davis, Dan O’Leary, Edward Parrish,, and Michael Williams., , In 2012 the timeline was augmented through 2010 by the Society's History Committee. Janice Hall did the update graphics., , Timeline of Computing History

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250-230 B.C. The Sieve of, Eratosthenes is used to determine, prime numbers., , About 79 A.D. The “Antikythera, Device,” when set correctly, according to latitude and day, of the week, gives alternating, 29- and 30-day lunar months., , 4000 B.C. — 1300, , IBM Archives, , 3000 B.C. The abacus is invented, in Babylonia., The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, , 4000-1200 B.C., Inhabitants of, the first known, civilization in, Sumer keep, records of, commercial, transactions, on clay tablets., , About 1300 The more familiar, wire-and-bead abacus replaces, the Chinese calculating rods.

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1622 William Oughtred, invents the circular slide, rule on the basis of, Napier’s logarithms., , 1623 William (Wilhelm), Schickard designs a, “calculating clock” with, a gear-driven carry, mechanism to aid in, multiplication of, multi-digit numbers., , 1600s, , 1666 In, England,, Samuel, Morland, produces a, mechanical, calculator that, can add and, subtract., , The Computer Museum, , The Computer Museum, , 1612-1614 John Napier uses the, printed decimal point, devises, logarithms, and uses numbered sticks,, or Napiers Bones, for calculating., , 1642-1643 Blaise Pascal creates a, gear-driven adding machine called, the “Pascalene,” the first mechanical, adding machine.

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1801 A linked sequence of punched, cards controls the weaving of patterns, in Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom., , IBM Archives, , 1774 Philipp-Matthaus Hahn builds, and sells a small number of calculating, machines precise to 12 digits., , 1674 Gottfried Leibniz builds the, “Stepped Reckoner,” a calculator, using a stepped cylindrical gear., , 1786 J.H. Mueller envisions a, “difference engine” but cannot, get the funds to build it., , 1674 — 1801, , IBM Archives, , 1777 The third Earl of Stanhope, invents a multiplying calculator.

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1822 Charles Babbage, begins to design and build, the Difference Engine., , IBM Archives, , 1820 The Thomas, Arithmometer, based, on Leibniz’ steppeddrum principle, is, demonstrated to the, French Academy of, Science. It becomes the, first mass-produced, calculator and sells for, many years., 1811 Luddites destroy, machinery that threatens, to eliminate jobs., , 1811 — 1822

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IBM Archives, , 1829 William Austin Burt, patents an awkward but, workable typewriter, the, first writing machine in, America., , 1834-35 Babbage shifts his focus to, designing the Analytical Engine., , IBM Archives, , 1832 Babbage and, Joseph Clement, produce a portion of, the Difference Engine., , 1829 — 1838, , 1838 In January, Samuel Morse, and Alfred Vail, demonstrate, elements of the, telegraph system.

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1847-1849 Babbage completes 21 drawings, for the second version of the Difference, Engine but does not complete construction., , Smithsonian Institution Photo No. 89-22161, , The Computer Museum, , 1842-1843 Augusta, Ada, Countess of, Lovelace, translates, Luigi Menabrea’s, pamphlet on the, Analytical Engine,, adding her own, commentary., , 1844 Samuel Morse, sends a telegraph, message from, Washington to, Baltimore., , 1842 — 1854, , 1854 George Boole, publishes “An, Investigation, of the Laws of, Thought,” describing, a system for symbolic and logical, reasoning that will become the basis, for computer design.

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1876-1878 Baron, Kelvin builds a, harmonic analyzer, and tide predictor., , 1882 William S. Burroughs, leaves his bank clerk’s job, determined to invent an, adding machine., , 1861 A transcontinental, telegraph line connects the, Atlantic and Pacific coasts., Smithsonian Institution, , 1858 — 1882, , Charles Babbage Institute,, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, , 1876 Alexander, Graham Bell, invents and, patents the, telephone., , National Inventors Hall of Fame, , Smithsonian Institution Photo No., , 1858 A, telegraph, cable spans, the Atlantic, Ocean for, the first time, and provides, service for a, few days.

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1895 Guglielmo, Marconi transmits, a radio signal., 1889 Herman Hollerith’s Electric Tabulating, System outperforms the competition and in, the fall is selected for use in the 1890 census., , 1901 The, keypunch, appears and, changes very, little over the, next half, century., IBM Archives, , The Computer Museum, , 1893 The first, four-function, calculator is, invented., , 1896 Hollerith establishes the Tabulating, Machine Company., , 1889 — 1901

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1907 Gramophone music, constitutes the first regular radio, broadcasts from New York., 1908 British scientist, Campbell Swinton, describes an electronic, scanning method and, foreshadows use of the, cathode-ray tube for, television., , 1904 — 1911, , 1911 Hollerith’s Tabulating Machines Co. and, two other companies combine to form C-T-R—, Calculating,, Tabulating, and, Recording Co., , 1911 Dutch, physicist Kamerlingh, Onnes at Leiden, University discovers, superconductivity., , IBM Archives, , 1904 John A., Fleming patents, the diode, vacuum tube,, setting the stage, for better radio, communication., , Smithsonian Institution Photo No. 351, , 1906 Lee de Forest adds a third valve to, control current flow to Fleming’s diode to, create the three-electrode vacuum tube.

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1920-1921 The word “robot” (derived from, the Czech word for compulsory labor) is first, used by Karel Câpek in his play RUR, (Rossum’s Universal Robots)., , 1912 — 1924, , 1924 T.J. Watson, renames CTR to IBM, and popularizes the, “Think” slogan he, coined at National, Cash Register., , IBM Archives, , 1912 The Institute, of Radio Engineers,, which will eventually, merge with other, organizations to, form the IEEE,, is established., , 1919 Eccles and Jordan, US physicists,, invent the flip-flop electronic switching, circuit critical to high-speed electronic, counting systems., , IBM Archives, , 1915 Use of microchips is foreshadowed as, physicist Manson Benedicks discovers that, the germanium crystal can be used to, convert alternating current to direct current.

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1928 The quartz crystal clock, makes possible unprecedented, time-keeping accuracy., , 1929 Color television signals, are successfully transmitted., , Center for the History of Electrical Engineering, , 1927 Herbert Hoover’s face is, seen on screen during the first, demonstration of television in, the US. Accompanying voice, transmission uses telephone, wires., , 1930 The Differential, Analyzer, devised by, Vannevar Bush and, colleagues at MIT, solves, various differential, equations., 1931 Reynold B. Johnson,, a high school teacher in, Michigan, devises a way to, score multiple-choice tests by, sensing conductive pencil, marks on answer sheets. IBM, later buys the technology., , 1927 — 1934, , 1934 In Germany, Konrad, Zuse seeks to build a better, calculating machine than, those currently available.

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IBM Archives, , 1936 Konrad Zuse, realizes that programs, composed of bit, combinations can be, stored, and he files a, patent application in, Germany for the, automatic execution of, calculations, including a, “combination memory.”, , 1937 Howard Aiken submits, to IBM a proposal for a, digital calculating machine, capable of performing the, four fundamental operations, of arithmetic and operating, in a predetermined sequence., IBM Archives, , 1935 IBM introduces not, only the 601 multiplying, punch-card machine but, also an electric typewriter., , 1935 — 1937, , 1937 IClaude Shannon, publishes the principles for an, electric adder to the base two., 1937 George Stibitz, develops a binary circuit, based on Boolean algebra.

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1938 William Hewlett and, David Packard form, Hewlett-Packard in a garage, in Palo Alto, California., , 1937 — 1939, , 1938 Zuse, completes the Z1, electromechanical, binary computer, and refines the, design with the Z2., , Iowa State University, , 1937 John Vincent Atanasoff, spends the winter devising, the principles for an, electronic-digital computer., , 1939 Working from October through November,, John Vincent Atanasoff, with help from graduate, student Clifford E. Berry, builds a prototype, electronic-digital, computer that, uses binary, arithmetic., HP Company Archives, , Iowa State University, , 1937 Alan, Turing’s paper, “On Computable, Numbers”, presents the, concept of the, Turing machine.

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1940 Konrad Zuse completes the Z2,, which uses telephone relays instead, of mechanical logical circuits., , 1944 The Harvard Mark I (a.k.a. IBM, Automatic Sequence Controlled, Calculator [ASCC]), produced by, Howard Aiken, is dedicated at, Harvard University on August 7, 1944., , 1943 OIn December,, Colossus, a British, vacuum tube, computer, becomes, operational at Bletchley Park through the combined efforts, of Alan Turing, Tommy Flowers, and M.H.A. Newman. It is, considered the first all-electronic calculating device., , 1940 — 1944, , IBM Archives, , 1943 On May 31, 1943,, construction begins on the, ENIAC at the Moore School, of Electrical Engineering in, Philadelphia., , Bletchley Park Museum, , 1941 Zuse completes the Z3, the first, fully functional program-controlled, electromechanical digital computer.

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IEEE Annals of History of Computing, , 1945 J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly sign, a contract to build the, EDVAC (Electronic, Discrete Variable, Automatic Computer)., , 1945 By spring of, the year, ENIAC is, up and running., , 1945 John von Neumann, introduces the concept of, a stored program in a, June 30 draft report on, the EDVAC design., , 1945 Zuse’s Z4 survives, World War II and, helps launch postwar, development of scientific, computers in Germany., , 1945, , 1945 Working on a prototype of the Mark II,, in the summer Grace Murray Hopper finds, the first computer “bug,” a moth that had, caused a relay failure., 1945 In July, Vannevar Bush’s As, We May Think is published in the, Atlantic Monthly.

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1946, , The Computer Museum, , Center for the History of Electrical Engineering, , US Army Photo, , 1946 ENIAC, designed by J. Presper, Eckert and John Mauchly, is unveiled, at the University of Pennsylvania on, February 14., , 1946 Arthur, Burks, Herman, Goldstine, and, John von, Neumann write, “Preliminary, Discussion of the, Logical Design, of an Electronic, Computing, Instrument.”, , 1946 The American Institute of, Electrical Engineers establishes a, Subcommittee on Large-Scale, Calculating Devices—the origin of, today’s IEEE Computer Society., , 1946 Alan Turing publishes a report, on his design for ACE (Automatic, Computing Engine), featuring, random extraction of information.

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1947 On December 23,, Bell Labs management, is informed by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain that, along with William Shockley they have developed the, first transistor., , 1947 — 1948, , The Computer Museum, , IEEE Annals of History of Computing, , 1947-1948 The magnetic, drum memory is introduced, as a data storage device for, computers., , Bell Laboratories, , 1947 In July, Howard Aiken and his, team complete the Harvard Mark II.

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1948 On June 21, the Manchester Mark I, or, “baby” machine, becomes the first operational, stored-program digital computer. It used, vacuum tube, or valve, circuits., , 1948, , Bell Laboratories, , The Computer Museum, , Bell Laboratories, , 1948 Richard Hamming devises a way to find, and correct errors in blocks of data. The, Hamming code is subsequently used in, computer and telephone switching systems., , 1948 Claude, Shannon publishes, “A Mathematical, Theory of, Communication,”, formulating, the modern, understanding of, the communication, process.

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The Computer Museum, , IBM Archives, , 1948 The SSEC (Selective, Sequence Electronic Calculator),, using both electronics and relays,, is dedicated on January 24., , 1949 The, Whirlwind, computer,, constructed under, the leadership of, Jay Forrester at, MIT to be the first, real-time, computer, is, placed in service, during the third, quarter. It, contained 5,000, vacuum tubes., , 1948 — 1950, , 1949 EDSAC (Electronic Delayed Storage, Automatic Computer), a stored-program, computer built by Maurice Wilkes at, Cambridge University, England, performs, its first calculation on May 6., , 1949 Short Order Code, developed by, John Mauchly, is thought to be the first, high-level programming language., , 1950 The Pilot ACE is completed at, England’s National Physical Laboratory, and runs its first program on May 10.

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1950 Remington Rand buys the, Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation., , 1951 The first Univac I is delivered to, the US Census Bureau in March., , 1950 — 1951, , Center for the History of Electrical Engineering, , 1950 Alan Turing publishes an, article in the journal Mind, establishing the criteria for the, Turing Test of machine intelligence., , Smithsonian 0Institution, , 1950 The Standards Western, Automatic Computer (SWAC), built, under Harry Huskey’s leadership, is, dedicated at UCLA on August 17., , 1951 Jay Forrester files a patent, application for the matrix core, memory on May 11.

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Bell Laboratories, , 1951 David Wheeler,, Maurice Wilkes, and, Stanley Gill introduce, sub-programs and the, “Wheeler jump” as a, means to implement them., , 1951 William Shockley invents, the junction transistor., , 1951 Betty Holberton, creates a sort-merge, generator, a predecessor, of the compiler., , 1951 Maurice, Wilkes, originates, the concept, of microprogramming, a technique providing, an orderly approach to designing a, computer system’s control section., , 1951 — 1952, , 1951-1952 Grace Murray, Hopper develops A-0,, the first compiler.

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1952 Illiac I is built, at the University of, Illinois, UrbanaChampaign; Ordvac, is built by the US, Army. Both use von, Neumann architecture., , 1952, , 1952 John von, Neumann’s IAS, bit-parallel machine, is completed in June, for the Institute of, Advanced Studies at, Princeton, New, Jersey., , Institute for Advanced Study, , IEEE Annals of History of Computing, , 1952 The EDVAC runs its first, production program on January 28.

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1952 The Institute of Radio Engineers, initiates the Transactions of the I.R.E., Electronics Group on Electronic, Computers, a predecessor to the IEEE, Transactions on Computers., , 1952 On television, a Univac I predicts, the outcome of the presidential, election and expands the public, consciousness regarding computers., , 1952, , 1952 The IBM, 701—the Defense, Calculator—is, introduced in, December., IBM Archives, , IBM Archives, , 1952 Thomas Watson Jr., becomes president of IBM.

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1953 Kenneth Olsen uses Jay Forrester’s ferrite-core memory to, build the Memory Test computer., , 1953 — 1954, , 1954 Texas, Instruments, introduces the, silicon transistor,, pointing the, way to lower, manufacturing, costs., , Texas Intruments Incorporated, , 1953 After several years of development,, LEO, a commercial version of EDSAC built, by the Lyons Company in the UK, goes, into service., , 1954 Earl Masterson’s Uniprinter, or, line printer, developed for computers,, executes 600 lines per minute., , Digital Equipment Corporation, , IEEE Annals of History of Computing, , 1953 The IBM, 650, known, as the, Magnetic, Drum, Calculator,, debuts and, becomes the, first massproduced, computer.

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IBM Archives, , 1956-1957 IBM, introduces and, begins installing, the RAMAC, (random-access method of accounting, and control) for hard disk data storage., , 1956 Fuji Photo Film Co. in, Japan develops a 1,700vacuum-tube computer for, lens design calculations., 1956 A Univac with, transistors and designed, for commercial use is, introduced., , 1954 — 1957, , 1957 John Backus and, colleagues at IBM deliver, the first Fortran (formula, translator) compiler to, Westinghouse., http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , 1956 John McCarthy and, Marvin Minsky chair a, meeting at Dartmouth, College at which the, concept of artificial, intelligence is developed., , 1954 The Univac, 1103A becomes the, first commercial, machine with a, ferrite-core memory., , c, c c Hello, world., c c Hello, world., c Program Hello, Program Hello, implicit none, implicitDONE, none, logical, logical DONE, DO while (.NOT. DONE), DO while (.NOT. DONE), write(*,10), ENDwrite(*,10), DO, END DO, 1010format(‘Hello,, format(‘Hello,world.’), world.’), END END

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1957 The Atlas Guidance Computer, from Burroughs, one of the first, computers using transistors, helps, control the launch of the Atlas missile., , 1957 Control Data is incorporated on July 8., , 1957 Russia launches Sputnik I into orbit on, October 4, and the “space race” begins., , 1957-1958 Gordon Moore, Robert, Noyce, and others found Fairchild, Semiconductor., 1957 Japan’s Electrotechnical, Laboratory develops a transistor, computer, the ETL Mark III, that uses, 130 transistors and 1,700 diodes., , 1957 John McCarthy forms, MIT’s Artificial Intelligence, Department., , 1957, , 1957 Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corp., develops the Musasino-1, the first parametron, computer. It uses 519 vacuum tubes and 5,400, parametrons—logic elements based on the, principle of parametric excitation and, invented by Eiji Goto in 1954.

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1958 The Whirlwind project, is extended to produce an air, traffic control system., , 1958 Digital Equipment Corp. is, founded., , Bell Laboratories, , Texas Instruments Incorporated, , The Computer Museum, , 1958 At Texas Instruments, Jack Kilby, develops a prototype semiconductor IC, while Robert Noyce works separately, on ICs at Fairchild Semiconductor., , 1958 Bell’s development of the, modem data phone enables telephone, lines to transmit binary data., , 1958

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; LISP, ; LISPHELLO-WORLD (), (DEFUN, (DEFUN HELLO-WORLD, ()(LIST ‘HELLO ‘WORLD))), (PRINT, (PRINT (LIST ‘HELLO ‘WORLD))), , The Computer Museum, , http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , 000100 IDENTIFICATION DIVISION., 000100PROGRAM-ID., IDENTIFICATION, DIVISION., 000200, HELLOWORLD., 000200DATE-WRITTEN.02/05/96, PROGRAM-ID. HELLOWORLD., 000300, 21:04., 000300 DATE-WRITTEN.02/05/96, 000400*, AUTHOR JOHN JONES 21:04., 000400*, AUTHOR, JOHN JONES, 000500, ENVIRONMENT, DIVISION., 000500CONFIGURATION, ENVIRONMENT DIVISION., 000600, SECTION., 000600SOURCE-COMPUTER., CONFIGURATION SECTION., 000700, RM-COBOL., 000700OBJECT-COMPUTER., SOURCE-COMPUTER.RM-COBOL., RM-COBOL., 000800, 000800 OBJECT-COMPUTER. RM-COBOL., 000900, 000900DATA DIVISION., 001000, 001000FILE, DATASECTION., DIVISION., 001100, 001100 FILE SECTION., 001200, 001200PROCEDURE DIVISION., 100000, 100000 PROCEDURE DIVISION., 100100, 100100MAIN-LOGIC SECTION., 100200, 100200BEGIN., MAIN-LOGIC SECTION., 100300, 100300 BEGIN., 100400, DISPLAY “ ” LINE 1 POSITION 1 ERASE EOS., 100400 DISPLAY, DISPLAY“HELLO,, “ ” LINE, 1 POSITION, 1 ERASE, EOS.10., 100500, WORLD.”, LINE 15, POSITION, 100500 STOP, DISPLAY, 100600, RUN. “HELLO, WORLD.” LINE 15 POSITION 10., 100600MAIN-LOGIC-EXIT., STOP RUN., 100700, 100700 MAIN-LOGIC-EXIT., 100800, EXIT., 100800, EXIT., , 1959 The Committee on Data, Systems Languages (Codasyl) is, formed to create Cobol (Common, Business Oriented Language)., , 1959, , 1959 John McCarthy develops Lisp (list processing), for artificial intelligence applications., 1959 In June, Japan’s first commercial, transistor computer, NEC Corp.’s NEAC, 2201, is demonstrated at an exhibition, in Paris., 1959 Xerox introduces the first, commercial copy machine.

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1959 UNESCO sponsors the first major, international computer conference., , 1959 Jack Kilby at, Texas Instruments, designs a flip-flop IC., , 1959 General Electric produces the GE, ERMA to process checks in a banking, application via magnetic ink character, recognition., , 1959, , Charles Babbage institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, , Texas Instruments Incorporated, , 1959 On July 30, Robert Noyce and, Gordon Moore file a patent application for, integrated circuit technology on behalf of, the Fairchild Semiconductor Corp.

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BEGIN, FILE F (KIND=REMOTE);, EBCDIC ARRAY E [0:11];, REPLACE E BY “HELLO WORLD!”;, WHILE TRUE DO, BEGIN, WRITE (F, *, E);, END;, END., , 1960 Standards, for Algol 60 are, established jointly, by American and, European computer, scientists., , 1960 In November, DEC introduces the, PDP-1, the first commercial computer, with a monitor and keyboard input., , 1960 Working at Rand Corp.,, Paul Baran develops the, packet-switching principle, for data communications., , 1960 The Livermore Advance Research Computer, (LARC) by Remington Rand is designed for, scientific work and uses 60,000 transistors., 1960 At Cornell University, Frank Rosenblatt, builds a computer—the Perceptron—that can learn, by trial and error through a neural network., , 1960, , Digital Equipment Corporation, , Rand Corp., , http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml

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1961 IBM’s 7030, or, Stretch, computer is, completed and runs, about 30 times faster, than the 704, leading, to further exploration, of supercomputing., , 1961 Fernando Corbató at MIT, develops a way for multiple, users to share computer time., , 1961, , IBM Archives, , The Computer Museum, , 1961 Georg C. Devol, patents a robotic, device, which, Unimation soon, markets as the first, industrial robot., It is first used to, automate the, manufacture of, TV picture tubes.

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1962 The first video game is, invented by MIT graduate student, Steve Russell. It is soon played in, computer labs all over the US., , 1962 Max V. Mathews leads a Bell, Labs team in developing software, that can design, store, and edit, synthesized music., , 1962 Atlas, considered the world’s most, powerful computer, is inaugurated in, England on December 7. Its advances, include virtual memory and pipelined, operations., The Computer Museum, , 1962 Stanford and Purdue Universities, establish the first departments of, computer science., , 1962 H. Ross Perot founds Electronic Data, Systems, which will become the world’s, largest computer service bureau., , 1962 The Telstar communications satellite, is launched on July 10 and relays the first, transatlantic television pictures., , 1963 On the basis of an idea of Alan, Turing’s, Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT, develops a “mechanical psychiatrist” called, Eliza that appears to possess intelligence., , 1962 — 1963

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1963 The Institute of Radio, Engineers and the American, Institute of Electrical Engineers, merge to form the IEEE., , 1963, , 1963 At the, University of, California,, Berkeley, Lotfi, Zadeh begins, work on fuzzy, logic., , The Computer Museum, , 1963 The, American, National, Standards, Institute, accepts ASCII, 7-bit code for, information, exchange., , 1963 The SAGE system for military defense is, fully deployed at a total project cost of about $8, billion. Many of its technological advances prove, beneficial to the entire computer industry., , Center for the History of Electrical Engineering, , The Computer Museum, , 1963 In January, Ivan Sutherland, introduces Sketchpad, leading to the, consolidation of computer graphics.

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1964 IBM’s seven-year-long Sabre project,, allowing travel agents anywhere to make, airline reservations, is fully implemented., , IBM Archives, , 1964 Basic (Beginner’s, All-Purpose Symbolic, Instruction Code) is, developed at Dartmouth, by John Kemeny and, Thomas Kurtz. It spawns, many variations., , http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , 1964 IBM announces the System/360, “third-generation” line of computers., , 1964, , IBM Archives, , 10 print “Hello World!”, 20 goto 10

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1964 Doug Engelbart, invents the mouse., , 1964 IBM develops a computeraided design system., , 1964, , Bootstrap Institute, , University of Virginia, , 1964 With a speed, of 9 megaflops,, Control Data Corp.’s, CDC 6600, designed, by Seymour Cray,, claims the title of, first commercially, successful, supercomputer.

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1965 DEC debuts the first minicomputer,, the PDP-8, which used transistor circuitry, modules., 1965 Project MAC, a large collaborative, time-sharing project, leads to the Multics, operating system., , 1965, , 1965 Maurice Wilkes, proposes the use of a, cache memory on the, basis of an idea by, Gordon Scarott., , The Computer Museum, , The Computer Museum, The Computer Museum, , 1965 J.A. Robinson develops, unification, the underpinning, of logic programming and, important to many of today’s, programming technologies., , 1965 At the University of, Belgrade, Rajko Tomovic, makes one of the earliest, attempts to develop an, artificial limb with a, sense of touch.

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http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , Begin, while 1 = 1 do begin, outtext (“Hello World!”);, outimage;, end;, End;, , 1967 Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen, Nygaard at the Norwegian Computing, Centre complete a general-purpose, version of the language Simula, the, first object-oriented language., 1967 Fairchild introduces its, 3800 8-bit ALU chip., , 1967 At Texas Instruments,, Jack Kilby, Jerry Merryman,, and James Van Tassel invent, a four-function handheld, calculator., , 1968 A conference, sponsored by the NATO, Science Committee, addresses the “software, crisis” and introduces, the term “software, engineering.”, , 1967 Donald Knuth writes about, algorithms and data structures, as entities separate from the, programs they are used in., , 1967 — 1968, , 1968 Edsger, Dijkstra writes, about the harmful effects of the goto, statement, and interest in structured, programming burgeons.

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1968 The Seymour Cray-designed, CDC 7600 supercomputer achieves, 40-megaflops performance., , 1968 A Federal Information Processing, Standard encourages use of the six-digit, data format (YYMMDD) for information, interchange, sowing the seeds of the, “Year 2000 Crisis.”, , 1968 The Rand Corp. presents a, decentralized communications, network concept to ARPA., Intel Corporation, , 1968 The first computers to incorporate, integrated circuits—the B2500 and, B3500—are introduced by Burroughs., , 1968 Robert Noyce, Andy Grove,, and Gordon Moore establish Intel,, which is incorporated on July 18., , 1969

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The Computer Museum, , 1969 The RS-232-C standard is, introduced to facilitate data exchange, between computers and peripherals., , 1969 The US Department of Defense, commissions Arpanet for research, networking, and the first four nodes, become operational at UCLA, UC Santa, Barbara, SRI, and the University of Utah, using BBN-developed packet switches., , 1970 Winston Royce, publishes “Managing, the Development of, Large Software, Systems,” which, outlines the waterfall, development method., , 1969 — 1970, , The Computer Museum, , 1970 Shakey,, developed at SRI, International, is, the first robot to, use artificial, intelligence to, navigate.

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1970 The Computer Group News, becomes Computer, a monthly magazine, for all Computer Society members., , 1970 Xerox establishes the Palo, Alto Research Center at Stanford, University for computer research., , 1970 Unix is developed at Bell Labs by, Dennis Ritchie and Kenneth Thomson., , 1970 E.F. Codd describes the, relational model., , 1970, , IBM Archives, , Bell Laboratories, , Bell Laboratories, , 1970 RCA’s MOS (metal-oxide, semiconductor) technology, promises cheaper and smaller ICs., , 1970 The floppy disk and, the daisywheel printer, make their debut.

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http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , 1971 Don Hoefler writes a series of articles for Electronic, News called “Silicon Valley USA,” using in print the name, that had been adopted to describe the area., , 1971 The team of Ted Hoff,, S. Mazor, and F. Faggin, develops the Intel 4004, microprocessor—a, “computer on a chip.”, , Begin, Writeln (‘Hello World!’);, End., , 1971 Niklaus Wirth develops, Pascal, a predecessor to Modula-2., Bolt Beranek and Newman, , Intel Corporation, , 1971 David Parnas, describes the, principle of, information hiding., , Program Hello (Input, Output);, , 1971 Ray Tomlinson, of Bolt Beranek and, Newman sends the, first network e-mail, message., , 1971, , 1971 The IEEE, Computer Group, becomes the, IEEE Computer, Society.

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http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , HP Company Archives, , 1972 Intel’s 8008, the first 8-bit, microprocessor, appears but is, soon replaced by the 8080., , 1972 Nolan Bushnell’s Pong, video game is so successful, that he founds Atari., , #include, main(), {, for(;;), {, printf (“Hello World!\n”);, }, }, , 1972 Dennis Ritchie, develops C at Bell Labs,, so named because its, predecessor was, named B., , http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , 1972 Smalltalk, Transcript show: ‘Hello World’;cr, is developed by, Xerox PARC’s, Learning Research Group, based largely on the, ideas of Alan Kay., , 1972 Hand-held calculators, become popular, making the, slide rule obsolete., , 1972

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1972 Alain Colmerauer at the University of, Marseille develops Prolog, which popularizes, key logic programming concepts., Works with Sbp (prolog), , hello :printstring (“HELLO WORLD!!!!”), printstring ([]), printstring ([H|T]) :- put (H), printstring (T)., , 1972 In Wimbledon,, England, an experimental, computerized axial, tomography imager finds a, brain tumor in a patient., , http://www.latec.doc/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , 1972 Analytic complexity theory develops the idea of, NP-completeness, showing that a large class of, computing problems, such as the “traveling salesman, problem,” may be computationally intractable., , 1972, , The Computer Museum, , % HELLO WORLD, , 1972 Wang, VYDEC, and, Lexitron all introduce word, processing systems., , 1972 DEC’s PDP 11/45 is introduced, its, circuitry encased in chips.

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1973 Work begins on the, Transmission Control Protocol at, a Stanford University laboratory, headed by Vinton Cerf., 1973 Alan Kay develops a forerunner, of the PC. His “office computer,” based, on Smalltalk, employs icons, graphics,, and a mouse., , 1972 — 1973, , Xerox PARC, , The Computer Museum, , 1972 Steve, Wozniak builds a, “blue box” tone, generator to, make free phone, calls and sells, them in the dorm, at UC Berkeley., , 1973 Researchers at Xerox PARC, develop an experimental PC called, Alto that uses a mouse, Ethernet,, and a graphical user interface.

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1974 An article in, Radio Electronics, describes how to, build a “personal, minicomputer,”, the Mark-8., , 1973 John Vincent Atanasoff is recognized, as the creator of the modern computer, when a federal judge invalidates Eckert, and Mauchly’s ENIAC patent., , Robert Metcalfe, , 1973 Through a technique called largescale integration, 10,000 components, are placed on a 1-sq-cm chip., , 1973 Robert Metcalfe writes a memo on, “Ether Acquisition,” which describes the, Ethernet as a modified Alohanet., , 1973 — 1974, , 1974 At Xexoc, PARC, Charles, Simonyi writes the, first WYSIWYG, application, Bravo., , 1974 A 4-Kbit, D-RAM chip, becomes, commercially, available., , 1974 In Stockholm,, chess-playing, computers engage, in their first, tournament.

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1975 John Cocke works on the, 801 project at IBM to develop a, minicomputer with the, yet-unnamed RISC architecture., 1975 IBM introduces, the laser printer., , 1975, , 1975 Frederick, Brooks writes, The Mythical Man-Month, which describes software, development as “the mortal struggle of great beasts, in the tar pits” and advises that adding more people, to a late project only makes it later., , The George C. Page Museum, © LACMNH, , 1975 The first PC,, an Altair 8800,, available as a kit,, appears on the, cover of Popular, Electronics in, January., , The Computer Museum, , 1975 Michael Jackson describes a, method to treat a program’s structure, as a reflection of a problem’s, structure, a precursor to the Jackson, System Development method.

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The Computer Museum, , 1976 OnTyme, the first, commercial e-mail service,, finds a limited market, because the installed base of, potential users is too small., , 1976 The Cray-1 from Cray Research is, the first supercomputer with a vectorial, architecture., , 1976 IBM develops, the ink-jet printer., , 1976, , The Computer Museum, , 1976 Gary Kildall develops, the CP/M operating system, for 8-bit PCs., , 1976 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, design and build the Apple I , which, consists mostly of a circuit board.

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1977 Bill Gates and Paul Allen found, Microsoft, setting up shop first in, Albuquerque, New Mexico., , 1977 Several companies, begin experimenting with, fiber-optic cable., 1977 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, incorporate Apple Computer on January 3., , 1977, , Microsoft Archives, , Apple Computer, Inc., , 1977 The Apple II is announced, in the spring and establishes, the benchmark for personal, computers.

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Digital Equipment Corporation, , The Computer Museum, , The Computer Museum, , 1977 PCs from Tandy and, Commodore come with built-in, monitors and thus require no, television hookup., , 1978 DEC introduces the VAX 11/780, a, 32-bit computer that becomes popular, for technical and scientific applications., , 1977 — 1978

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1978 Tom DeMarco’s Structured, Analysis and System Specification, popularizes structured analysis., , 1978 Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and, Leonard Adelman propose the, RSA cipher as a public-key, cryptosystem for enciphering, digital transmissions., , 1978 Intel’s first 16-bit, processor, the 8086, debuts., , 1978 — 1979, , [email protected], , 1978 Wordstar is, introduced and goes, on to become a, widely used word, processor with CP/M, systems and later on, DOS computers., , 1979 Benoit Mandelbrot continues his, research into fractals by generating a, Mandelbrot set, derived from z(n + 1), = z(n) * z(n) - (0).

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1979 Motorola introduces the, 68000 chip, which will later, support the Macintosh., 1979 Digital videodisks, appear through the efforts, of Sony and Philips., , 1979, , © 1996 Motorola Museum of Electronics, , The Computer Museum, , 1979 The first electronic spreadsheet, program, Don Bricklin’s and Bob Franston’s, VisiCalc, is unveiled on May 11 and proves, to be the “killer app” for early PCs., , 1979 Cellular telephones are, tested in Japan and Chicago.

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http://www.latec.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml, , Microsoft Archives, , 1980 After a long, with i_o; use i_o;, procdure hello is, development, begin, period, the Ada, put (“Hello World!”);, language emerges. end Hello;, Developed by the, US Department of, Defense, it is designed for process, control and embedded applications., , 1980 IBM selects PC-DOS from, upstart Microsoft as the operating, system for its new PC., , 1980 Wayne Ratliff develops dBase II, the, first version of a PC database program. It, goes on to enjoy wide market success., , 1980, , 1980 The Osborne 1 “portable”, computer weighs 24 pounds and is, the size of a small suitcase.

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1981 Japan grabs a big piece of, the chip market by producing, chips with 64 Kbits of memory., 1980 David A. Patterson at UC, Berkeley begins using the term, “reduced-instruction set” and,, with John Hennessy at Stanford,, develops the concept., , 1981 Xerox introduces a, commercial version of the, Alto called the Xerox Star., , 1980 — 1981, , IBM Archives, , 1981 Barry Boehm devises Cocomo, (Constructive Cost Model), a, software cost-estimation model., , 1981 The open-architecture IBM PC is, launched in August, signaling to corporate, America that desktop computing is going, mainstream.

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1982 Time magazine, names the computer as, its “Man of the Year.”, , 1982, , Cray Research, , 1982 Autodesk is, founded and ships the, first version of AutoCAD, later that year., , 1982 John Warnock, develops the PostScript, page-description, language and with, Charles Geschke founds, Adobe Systems., Adobe Systems, Inc., , 1982 Columbia Data, Products produces the, first IBM PC “clone.”, Compaq soon follows, with its own version., , 1982 The Cray X-MP (two Cray-1, computers linked in parallel) proves, three times faster than a Cray-1.

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1982 Commercial e-mail service, begins among 25 cities., , 1982 In November, Compaq unveils, an IBM-compatible portable PC., , 1983 A Josephson junction is, developed on the basis of Brian, Josephson’s 1962 prediction,, bringing higher speed and lower, power dissipation to ICs., , Lotus, , 1982 Japan launches its “fifth, generation” computer project,, focusing on artificial intelligence., , 1983 By including, graphics such as pie, charts and bar graphs,, Lotus 1-2-3 does for, the IBM PC what, VisiCalc did for the, Apple II., , 1982 — 1983, , 1983 The IBM PC-XT heads for, market success, while the PC Junior, faces quick extinction., 1983 Completion of the TCP/IP, switchover marks the creation of, the global Internet.

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1984 In January, the Macintosh is, unveiled with a publicity campaign, that includes an Orwellian-themed ad, during the Super Bowl., , 1984 MIDI (Musical, Instrument Digital, Interface) standards are, developed for interfacing, computers and digital, music synthesizers., , 1984, , Smithsonian Institution Photo No., , Apple Computer, Inc., , Apple Computer, Inc., , 1984 Apple gives, computer graphics a, boost with its MacPaint, program., , 1984 The CD-ROM, introduced by Sony, and Philips, provides significantly, greater storage capacity for digital data.

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1984 NEC manufactures a, 256-Kbit chip, and IBM, introduces a 1-Mbit RAM chip., , 1984 Motorola introduces, the MC68020 with 250,000, transistors., , 1984 In Neuromancer,, novelist William Gibson, coins the term “cyberspace.”, , 1984, , 1984 Beginning, in August, Intel’s, 16-bit 80286, chip, installed in, IBM’s new PC AT,, expands desktop, computer, capabilities., , Intel Corporation, , © 1996 Motorola Museum of Electronics, , 1984 A motion picture, The, Last Starfighter, uses extensive, supercomputer-generated, graphics.

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1985 Inmos introduces, transputers, featuring, concurrent processing, architecture., , 1985, , The Computer Museum, , 1985 Supercomputer speeds reach 1 billion, operations per second with the release of, the Cray 2 and Thinking Machines’ parallelprocessor Connection Machine., , 1985 The National, Science Foundation, establishes, four national, supercomputing, centers., , 1985 With the development, of Windows 1.0, Microsoft, brings Macintosh-like, features to DOS-compatible, computers., , 1985 The Omnibot, 2000 from Tony, Kyogo can move,, talk, and carry, objects.

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1985, , Adobe Systems, Inc., , 1985 In October, Intel, introduces the 80386 chip with, 32-bit processing and on-chip, memory management., , Adobe Systems, Inc., , Intel Corporation, , 1985 Paul Brainard’s PageMaker, becomes the first PC desktop, publishing program and is widely, used, first on the Macintosh and, later on IBM compatibles.

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PROCESS EVOLUTION, , 1986 An article in the Wall Street, Journal helps to popularize the concept, and term CASE, for computer-aided, software engineering., , OPTIMIZING, , CONTROL, , 1987 Experimental 4-and, 16-Mbit chips areintroduced., , MANAGED, , MEASUREMENT, DEFINED, , DEFINITION, REPEATABLE, , 1986 The four-processor Cray XP, performs 713 million floating-point, operations per second., , 1987 Watts Humphrey, (pictured) and William, Sweet, of the Software, Engineering Institute,, publish a “process maturity framework,” which becomes, the Capability Maturity Model, designed to help predict, a developer’s ability to produce reliable software., CONTROL, , INITIAL, , 1986 — 1987

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1988 Motorola’s 32-bit 88000 series of, RISC microprocessors offer processing, speeds of up to 17 million instructions, per second., , 1988 Steve Jobs’ Next computer debuts but,, despite advanced features, attracts too few, buyers to compete in the market., , 1988 Barry Boehm publishes a description of, the spiral model of software development,, which recognizes the need to incrementally, build systems., , 1988, , Next Software, , 1988 Graduate student Robert, Morris Jr. reveals the need for, greater network security by, releasing a worm program into, the Internet on November 2.

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1989 The first set of SPEC, benchmarks is released, facilitating, machine performance comparisons, for scientific computation tasks., , 1989 Intel’s 80486 chip, with 1.2 million transistors, is introduced in April., 1989 Seymour Cray founds, Cray Computer Corp. and, begins developing the Cray 3, using gallium arsenide chips., , 1989 — 1990, , 1990 Microsoft, introduces, Windows 3.0, in May,, intensifying, its legal dispute with Apple over the, software’s “look and feel” resemblance to, the Macintosh operating system., , Microsoft Archives, , Massachusetts Institute of Technology, , 1989 Tim Berners-Lee proposes, the World Wide Web project to, CERN (European Council for, Nuclear Research).

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1990 Hewlett-Packard and IBM both, announce RISC-based computers., 1990 Intel’s i486 and iPSC/860, and, Motorola’s 68040 become available., 1990 Berners-Lee writes the initial, prototype for the World Wide Web,, which uses his other creations: URLs,, HTML, and HTTP., , 1990 Arpanet is officially, decommissioned., , 1991 The Japanese Ministry of Trade and, Industry abandons its program to build a, fifth-generation computer and plans, instead for a sixth-generation computer, to be based on neural networks., 1991 Cray Research unveils the Cray, Y-MP C90 with 16 processors and a, speed of 16 Gflops., , 1990 — 1991, , University of Virginia, , 1990 Scientists at Bell Labs, demonstrate the first all-optical, processor on January 29., , 1991 IBM, Motorola, and Apple’s, PowerPC alliance is announced on, July 30.

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Apple Computer, Inc./John Lund, , 1992 In March, the first M-bone, audio multicast is transmitted, on the Net., , Digital Equipment Corporation, , 1992 After generating great, concern in early March, the, Michelangelo virus results in, little actual damage., , 1992 DEC introduces the first, chip to implement its 64-bit RISC, Alpha architecture., , 1992 — 1993, , 1993 Apple, releases the, Newton, the, first popular personal digital assistant. It uses a, stylus pen, and the first generation suffers from, poor handwriting recognition.

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Intel Corporation, , University of Illinois Board of Trustees, , 1994 In April, Jim Clark and, Marc Andreesen found Netscape, Communications (originally, Mosaic Communications)., , 1993 Intel’s Pentium is, introduced in March., , 1994 Leonard Adleman of the, University of Southern California, demonstrates that DNA can be, used as a computing medium., 1993 Students and staff at the University of, Illinois’ National Center for Supercomputing, Applications create a graphical user interface, for Internet navigation called NCSA Mosaic., , 1993 — 1994, , 1994 Netscape’s first browser, becomes available in September, and creates a rapidly growing, body of Web surfers.

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JavaSoft, , JavaSoft, , 1995 Toy Story is the, first full-length, feature movie, completely computer, generated., , 1996 The Intel Pentium, Pro is announced., , Microsoft Archives, , 1995 The Java, programming, language, unveiled, in May, enables, platformindependent, application, development., “Duke” is the first, applet., , 1995 Amazon.com, went online., , 1995 Windows 95 is launched on, August 24 with great fanfare., , 1995 — 1996

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1997 IBM Deep Blue computer, beats world champion Gary, Kasparov in a chess match., , 1997 distributed.net, launched as a worldwide, distributed computing, effort attempting to solve, large scale problems using, otherwise idle computers., , 1997 — 1998, , 1998 Google incorporated., , 1998 Intel achieves 45 million, transistors in a CPU chip, a 100, MHz Pentium using photography, with 180-nanometer line widths.

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2000 C# programming language, announced with Anders Hejlsberg, being primary designer., , 1999 SETI@home launched as the, second large-scale distributed, computing project., 1999 Napster launched,, demonstrating the, potential for peer-to-peer, computing., , 2000 The Y2K problem, comes and goes., , 2000 First USB flash, drives sold., , 1999 — 2000

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2002 One billion PCs have been, sold (according to a Gartner study)., , 2001 Wikipedia founded, with, content from tens of thousands of, volunteers and substantially replacing, pre-digital-age encyclopedias., , 2001 iPod introduced, becoming, a "game changer" for the world, of portable music players., , 2002 Earth Simulator highly, parallel vector supercomputer, system developed by the Japanese, government for running global, climate models., , 2001 — 2002, , 2002 Indian computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal,, and Nitin Saxena discover the, "Agrawal-Kayal-Saxena class", of algorithms for finding primes, in polynomial time., , 2002 MIT OpenCourseware, introduced.

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2003 Skype introduced as, an inexpensive, easy-to-use, way to make video and, voice “phone calls” over the, Internet., , 2004 Mark Zuckerberg’s creation Facebook is, incorporated and over time gains more than a, billion users, becoming the communication, and sharing approach for young people of, the early 21st century., , 2003 iTunes store launched, bringing the recording industry, into the Internet age with billions of singles sold., 2003 Mozilla Foundation formed, a spin-out from Netscape., , 2003 — 2004, , 2004 Gmail introduced.

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2006 60th anniversary of, the IEEE Computer Society., , 2005 IBM sells it PC business to, Lenovo, maintaining only a minority, share in the technology and, business it originally created., , 2005 European Parliament rejects the, proposed "directive on the patentability, of computer-implemented inventions.", , 2005 YouTube incorporated,, providing a way for anyone to, publish videos to a potential, worldwide audience., , 2005 — 2006, , 2006 Twitter introduced,, allowing people to share, their thoughts minute by, minute.

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2007 Amazon, Kindle ebook, reader introduced,, contributing to, significant changes, in the publishing, industry., , 2007 802.11-2007, consolidation of, 802.11 in support, of continued, spread of wireless, communications., , 2007 60th anniversary, of the ACM., , 2007 iPhone introduced,, bringing technological and, competitive upheaval to, the smart phone industry., 2007 Estonia conducts a, general election allowing, voting via the Internet., , 2007 — 2008, , 2008 Hulu launched, a, significant instance of, integration of computing, and television, supporting a, variety of devices for "TV", viewing.

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2009 30th anniversary, of the Annals of the, History of Computing., , 2010 Computer, History Museum, exhibits "Revolution:, The First 2000 Years, of Computing.", , 2010 2 5 anniversary, of the revolutionary, TEX typesetting and, font design system., , 2010 iPad introduced,, invigorating the tablet, computer market., , 2009 — 2010

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Deep Blue, 1997-1998: used with permission of IBM., Anders Hejlsberg, 1999-2000: used with permission of Microsoft., Earth Simulator, 2001-2002: photo coprighted by the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and, Technology; used with permission of JAMSTEC., Kindle, 2007-2008: image by Matthias Bärwolff., Computer History Museum, 2009-2010: image provided by the CHM., TeX and Metafont book, 2009-2010: used with permission of the American Mathematical Society., Logos shown, 1997-2010: these belong to, respectively: distributed.net, Google, Napster,, SETI@home, Wikipedia, Skype, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and ACM., , The IEEE Computer Society History Committee members at the time of the committee's 2012, update of this timeline (through 2010) were Matthias Bärwolff, Stephen Diamond, Susan, Hayden (Society staff), Lars Heide, Anne Marie Kelly (Society staff), Stanley Mazor, Raymond, Miller, V. Rajaraman, Andrew Russell, Tom Van Vleck, Andreu Veà, David Walden (committee, chair), Michael Williams, Akihiko Yamada, and Jeffrey Yost., This committee emphasizes that their timeline selections are not a yearly "best of" list but rather, interesting examples of what was happening in the world of computing at the time. In particular,, during the update years (1997-2010) applications of computing came more readily to mind than, fundamental advances in technology., Send corrections and comments to [email protected], , Credits