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Contents, INDIAN CHURCH HISTORY, 1. Elements of the History of St. Thomas Christians ............... 5, Title:, Published by:, , Published on:, Editorial Board:, , Office Assistance:, , Indian Church History, The Director, Alpha Institute, Archdiocese of Tellicherry, Sandesa Bhavan, Tellicherry, 670101, Kannur, Kerala, Ph: 0490 - 2344727, 2343707, 27th March 2016 (Easter), Rev. Dr. Joseph Pamplany, Rev. Dr. Thomas Kochukarottu, Rev. Fr. Joseph Kakkaramattathil, , Bro. Shanet Chiranackal, Mr. Renjith KC, Mrs. Anitha Vijayan, Mrs. Jeshitha Vijesh, Design & Layout: Mr. Midhun Thomas, Printing:, Vimala Offset Press, Thalassery, Copy Right:, © All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any, means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, , 2. The Saint Thomas Christians in India (52 to 1687 AD) ..... 30, 3. The Arrival of the Western Missionaries ........................... 44, 4. Synod of Diamper ............................................................... 49, 5. The Coonan Cross Oath (January 3, 1653) ........................ 50, 6. Historical Divisions of Mar Thoma Nasranis ..................... 60, 7. Syro-Malankara Catholic Church ....................................... 74, 8. The Southists (Knanaya) .................................................... 82, 9. Non-Catholic Eastern Churches in India ...........................100, 10. Various Christians Missions in India .................................. 110, 11. Indian Christian Dalits .......................................................120, 12. Indian Church: Chances and Challenges ...........................130

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 1, , Elements of the History of, St. Thomas Christians, , C, , Published for the use of the students of Alpha Institute of Theology and Science, , 4, , ontacts between Mediterranean world,, Mesopotamia, Persia and India began before fourth, millennium BC. During the third and second millennium, BC Indus valley and Sumer had very flourishing, civilizations. Ancient tablets discovered from Ur the, home town of the ancestors of Abraham indicates the, existence of trade between Sumer and Indus valley. The, Brahmi script of India and Sumerian are related., Gradually Dravidians from the Indus Valley were pushed, to the south and north India underwent Arianization. The, contacts between Phoenicia and South India go back to, second millennium BC. Jews came into contact with, south India in the tenth century BC following the, commercial enterprises of Solomon. They were, following the footsteps of Phoenicians from the Tsur, and Sidon. The king Hiram of Tsur, the contemporary, of Solomon (972-932 BC) promoted international trade, with South Indian Coast. Spices like pepper, ginger,, precious gems, ivory, gold, peacocks, apes etc. were, 5

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Indian Church History, , exotic attractions from South India. According to Koder, the first, Jewish colony of South India goes back to the days of King Solomon1., After Solomon, Jews underwent the exiles in Assyria in 734-732 BC, and Babylonia in sixth and fifth centuries BC. Gradually the deported, Jews began to engage in international commerce especially with South, India. Ordinary Jews forgot Hebrew and became speakers of, Aramaic, the language of international trade. Babylon of this period, was the greatest international market of the world. It was dependent, and related to South India by sea route which extended even up to, southern China., In the seventh century BC South India served as meeting point, between traders from East and West. Teakwood, sandal, rice, and, other articles mentioned above were fascinating items in this trade., Teakwood from South India had been excavated in the Moon temple, of Ur. Palace of Nebuchadenazzar (604-562 BC) was decorated, with Indian wood2. Babylonian captivity of the Jews was terminated, by Persian emperor Cyrus in 539 BC. But many of the Jews interested, in international commercial enterprises remained in Babylon. Some, of them settled in Malabar Coast3. Jewish exiles of Assyria were, scattered among many peoples and countries. Some of them got settled, in different parts of India. These two groups of exilic Jews were, Aramaic speakers. In the second and first centuries BC, another group, of Jews migrated to South India. So we see a pre-exilic, exilic, and, post-exilic Jewish emigration in South India., The Roman army conquered Egypt in 30 BC and took over the, control of international commerce through Egypt. 120 ships used to, sail every year from Red sea to the Malabar Coast. Within 40 days, the Monsoon winds brought them to the Coast. With the help of opposite, Monsoons these ships used to return to Egypt in the same year., Emperors Augustus (27 BC-14 AD) and Tiberius (14-37 AD) promoted, trade between Egypt and Malabar Coast. More than 500 coins of, Augustus have been discovered in South India. The coins of Emperor, Tiberius from South India number over 1000. These are clear indication, of the flourishing trade in the first century BC and the first century, AD. The Persian, Arab, and the Egyptian navigators already knew, the course of Monsoon winds. These already-existing knowledge was, “discovered” by the Greek Hippalus. Thus a long kept secret was, divulged probably during the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes (146-116, 6, , Indian Church History, , BC). Later the so-called discovery of Hippalus was divulged to, Romans in the first half of the first century AD. According to, Peutinger tablets from the second century AD Egypt, there is a temple, of Augustus at Muziris near modern Kodungallur region4. The new, discoveries from the archaeological excavations of Pattanam (a part, of ancient Muziris) in 2007 have necessitated the rewriting of the, history of Malabar Coast5. Naturally many Aramaic speaking Jewish, settlers and traders were in Malabar Coast during this period. Roman, trade expansion accelerated the presence of Jewish settlers and, traders. Their forefathers were already familiar with Aramaic even, in the pre-exilic period as we hear from many Old Testament texts., Alexander’s invasion of India resulted in further cultural and, commercial contacts. An offshoot of official Aramaic (circa. 700300 BC) appeared as Biblical Aramaic (Gen. 31:47, Jer. 10:18, Dan., 2:4-7:28, Ezra 4:8-6:8, 7:12-26). Edicts of Ashoka (272-232 BC) have, been discovered in middle Aramaic (circa. 300 BC onwards) from, Afghanistan. Then we find late Aramaic from which Christian Aramaic, or Syriac, Targumic Aramaic developed. Finally, modern Aramaic, appeared by 14th century AD6., The apostles of Jesus Christ were commanded to bring the message, of the gospel to scattered Jews living in different parts of the world., The Apostle Thomas undertook his first mission throughout the Persian, region (including North West India) where he found many Aramaic, speaking Jewish communities. In AD 50 he undertook the second, mission which was prompted by the Aramaic speaking Jewish, settlements of South India. Jews of the Malabar Coast readily, accepted the message of the gospel. It is surprising that the seven, Christian communities established by him were in the vicinity of Jewish, settlements. Most of the then Aramaic-speaking Jews became, Christians. The arrival of Thomas on the Malabar Coast was guided, by the Jewish merchant Habban. The apostle was received and, recognized first by a Jewish flute girl in the Chera royal capital. All, these we hear from the first Acts of Thomas composed in the late, second or early third century. Song of Ramban (revised and simplified, in the year 1601 AD) also supports this. It speaks of 40 families of, Jews converted by Thomas in the royal capital. Similarly he might, have converted other Jewish settlements of Malabar. In AD 70 the, Roman army destroyed Jerusalem temple and the Jews were, scattered. Some of them came to settle in the Malabar Coast. The, 7

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Indian Church History, , Bar Cochba war (AD 132-35) resulted in other series of Jewish, emigration to South India. Gradually they all became St Thomas, Christians. Meanwhile their language Aramaic evolved into Christian, Aramaic or Syriac. So there was a Judeo-Christian and Aramaic, connection and continuity between the Persian Church and the South, Indian Church right from the very beginning. This is how Christian, Aramaic or Syriac became the liturgical language of St Thomas, Christians. It was not at all later import by anybody as it is propagated, by some interested groups. There was a cordial relation between the, St Thomas Christians and Jewish settlers until the European colonialists, came to the scene. The Pesaha celebration, ablutions, purifications, after death, Aramaisms of their Syriac, purification of mother and, child after child birth, the beginning and end of the day in the typical, Jewish fashion, all point towards the Judeo-Christian roots of the past., Old Testament names were very popular among the St Thomas, Christians which annoyed Portuguese missionaries. There were no, statues or even pictures in the Churches of St Thomas Christians, which might be a latent Jewish heritage as well as East Syrian tradition., Christians of Kaduthuruthy closed their eyes in anger and anguish, as they were shown a statue of Blessed Mary. They admit only the, cross in their Churches7., The relation between South Indian Church and Persian Church, goes back to the days of Apostle Thomas. The Persian Church was, the fruit of his first mission. His second mission resulted in the, emergence of St Thomas Christians in South India. These two, Churches were culturally and linguistically connected. These relations, continued ever since. In the late third century Mar David of Basra, came to South India to help the St Thomas Christians. During the, persecutions of Christians in the Persian Empire many Christian, communities immigrated to South India and merged with the St Thomas, Christians. In the fifth and sixth centuries some Indian Christian, students and scholars had been associated with the School of Edessa, and Nisibis. The series of Persian Christian migrations took place, between fourth and ninth centuries to Malabar because of Persian, and Islamic persecutions. One of the latest of these groups became, Southists because of the appearance of caste system which was, unheard of among the St Thomas Christians. By seventh century, hierarchical intervention of Selucia-Ctesiphon took over. Until then, 8, , Indian Church History, , South India had hierarchical relations with the Persia proper. By ninth, century this takeover was complete. It was voluntary undertaking, from the part of St Thomas Christians rather than an imposition by, the Persians or East Syrians. The Church of St Thomas Christians, was more congregational than Episcopal. The ruling authority was in, the hands of Palliyogam presided by the Archdeacon and the Gate, of all India. Bishop was only a spiritual and monastic head for them.8, All the manuscripts burned by Diamper indicate that the Church, of St Thomas Christians was theologically, spiritually, liturgically,, canonically an East Syrian Church. The famous library and Episcopal, archives of Angamaly were systematically burned. Menezes visited, and burned Syriac books in at least 59 Churches. After Angamaly, library, the Syriac collections of Cheppadu and Chengannur which, were also burned, were the most prominent ones. Individual collections, of all parishes too underwent this or similar misfortune. Evidently this, is the greatest tragedy of Saint Thomas Christians’ spiritual heritage., One can compare it only to the destruction of the Alexandrian library, by the Muslim conquerors in 641 AD. Angamaly collection built up, over many centuries was the most important intellectual centre of, Saint Thomas Christians who had a theological University there. We, do not find practically any historical record or document concerning, the pre-Portuguese history of Saint Thomas Christians. So we depend, on the testimony of non-Indian authors to describe the situation of this, apostolic Christian community., Select Patristic Testimonies, Herewith I give only a few sample opinions of some of the Syriac,, Greek and Latin Fathers who speak of the mission of Apostle Thomas, in India or an apostolic origin of Indian Christianity. An exhaustive, patristic view on the issue is out of my scope., 1. Pantaenus, There are two texts associated with this scholar of the second, century Alexandria. Both of them adequately attest the existence of, apostolic Christianity in India in the second century. Moreover they, possess a gospel text written in the spoken language of Jews popularly, called Hebrew, but in fact Aramaic. Pantaenus the head of the, Alexandrian school is said to have visited South Indian Christians, about the year 190 AD at the invitation by the Indians. He found, 9

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Indian Church History, , among them a gospel text which he brought back to Alexandria., Eusebius the Father of Church History writes in the fourth century, “Pantaenus is said to have gone among the Indians, where as is, reported, He found the gospel according to Matthew among some, people there who had already acquired some knowledge of Christ, before his arrival. For Bartholomew, one of the Apostles, had preached, to them and had left them these writing of Matthew in the Hebrew, (Aramaic) language, which they had preserved till then.” Biblical, scholar Jerome writes, “Pantaenus, a Stoic philosopher, renowned, as an outstanding scholar, was sent to India by Demetrius, the Bishop, of Alexandria to preach Christ to the Brahmans and the philosophers, of that nation. And he found there that Bartholomew, one of the twelve, Apostles, had preached the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ according, to the gospel of Matthew.”, 2. Acts of Judas Thomas (early 3rd century), This apocryphal work speaks of Thomas’ mission in North West, India (including Parthia proper) and South India. Legends and traces, of history are rolled together in this work. But the kernel of the mission, stories originated in South India which was reported back to Edessa., The double mission of Thomas is made into a single Indian mission., 3. Origen (c. 185-254 AD), “The holy Apostles and disciples of our Savior were scattered, throughout the whole world, Thomas, as tradition relates, obtained by, lot Parthia,…”.9 The first mission of Thomas is what is meant here., Parthia is North West India during that period. The Mauryan Empire, of India comprised also Afghanistan and parts of Iran, which was, later broken up as Indo-Parthian kingdoms. The Alexandrian tradition, reported by Origen does not distinguish between the first (North West, Indian) and second (South Indian) missions of Thomas., 4. The Doctrine of the Apostles (3rd cent), This 3rd century Syriac apocryphal work writes: “India and all its, own countries, and those bordering on it, even to the farthest sea,, received the Apostle’s hand of Priesthood from Judas Thomas, who, was Guide and Ruler in the church which he built and ministered, there.”10 This fact is confirmed by the oral traditions of India, especially, those behind Ramban Song., 10, , Indian Church History, , 5. Clementine Recognitions (3rd cent), This third century work speaks about the first or Parthian mission, of Apostle Thomas. “As Thomas wrote to us, among the Parthians to, whom he preached the Gospel, polygamy is disappearing” (evidently, due to Christian influence). 11, 6. Ephrem (c.306-373), He is the greatest of Syriac authors, poets and theologians., According to him India is the mission field of Thomas who died and, was buried there. The relics of Thomas were brought to Edessa by a, Christian merchant. Miracles take place in India where his tomb is,, and at Edessa. In his Nisibian Hymns (written between the years, 360-365) hymn number 42 Ephrem writes on this in great detail. The, passages are too long to be quoted., 7. Gregory of Nazianzus (c.329-c.390), This Greek Father writes about the apostles: “Were not the Apostles, aliens among the many nations and countries entrusted to them?..., What had Paul in common with the gentiles, Luke with Achaea,, Andrew with Epirus, John with Ephesus, THOMAS WITH INDIA, Mark, with Italy?12, 8. Cyrillona (late 4th cent), This gifted Syriac poet speaks of the mission of Thomas in India:, “Behold THOMAS TEACHES IN INDIA and Simon preaches in Rome”.13, 9. Ambrose of Milan (c.335-397), Ambrose the Latin Father mentions India as the field of Thomas:, ‘As the Lord Jesus said to the Apostles, ‘Go and teach all nations,’, even the kingdoms closed by rugged mountains were open to them,, AS INDIA TO THOMAS…”.14, 10. John Chrysostom (347-407), This Greek Father speaks about the apostolic origin of Indian, Christianity: “(The Apostles) erected altars in the land of Romans,, Persians, Scythians, Moors, and INDIANS”.15 He alludes to the, well-known tomb of Thomas (in India)., 11

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Indian Church History, , 11. Gaudentius of Brescia (+c.410), “It is said that John (the Baptist) finished his course in Sebaste, a, town in the province of Palestine, THOMAS AMONG THE INDIANS,, Andrew and Luke in the city of Patras in Achaea”16 Sermo 17, PL, 20, 963., He had their relics deposited in one of his churches. He alludes to, the martyrdom and burial of Thomas in India., 12. Jerome (c.345-c.419), The scholarly Latin Father writes: “As it is handed down to us by, tradition, apostle Thomas preached the Lord’s gospel to the Parthians,, Medes, Persians, Carmans, Hyrcanians, Bactrians and the Magians., HE SLEPT IN THE CITY OF CALAMINA, WHICH IS IN INDIA”.17 Jerome, continues: “(Jesus) was present in all the places WITH THOMAS IN, INDIA, with Peter in Rome, with Paul in Illyria, with Titus in Crete,, with Andrew in Achaea, with each apostle in each and every, country”.18, 13. Paulinus of Nola (353-431), This Latin poet speaks about the mission of the apostles in various, countries: “Thus he gave care of Patras to Andrew, To John that of, Ephesus along with Europe and Asia, Their dire darkness to dispel, with the brightest light, Parthia embraces Matthew, AS INDIA DOES, THOMAS”,19, 14. Jacob of Sarug (451-521), This great Syriac poet-theologian describes the mission and, martyrdom of Thomas in India in three long metrical homilies.20 Living, close to Edessa he had easy access to the Edessan traditions regarding, Thomas., 15. Gregory of Tours (538-594), “It is said in the history of his martyrdom, that the Apostle Thomas, suffered martyrdom in India… His blessed body was taken out after, a long time and transferred to a city called Edessa by the Syrians and, was interred there. In that part of India where it first rested stands a, monastery and a church of striking dimensions, well decorated and, structured. Now, it is in this edifice that God shows a great miracle., 12, , Indian Church History, , The fire kept burning there before the tomb of the Apostle shines, without fail day and night by divine will, without anyone supplying oil, or twig… This has been narrated to me by Theodore, who personally, visited the place.” 21, 16. Gregory the Great (c.540-604), Pope (590-604) and Latin theologian speaks of the Apostle Thomas;, “At night, the Lord appeared to Thomas in a vision and told him:, Don’t fear to go to India.”22 In the second coming of Christ Peter will, appear with converts from Judea, Paul with his Gentile converts,, Andrew with Achaea, John with Asia, THOMAS WITH INDIA.23, 17. Isidore of Seville (560-636), Last of the Latin Fathers writes: “This Thomas preached to the, Parthians, Medes, Persians, Hyrcanians, Bactrians, and to the, INDIANS OF THE ORIENTAL REGION. He sealed his preaching by his, passion. Transfixed with a lance, he died at Calamina, a city in India, where he was buried with honour”.24, The Syro-Malabar Church, The name Syro-Malabar is a misnomer invented and given by, Rome in 1887 when the oriental catholic St Thomas Christians were, separated from Latin or Roman Catholics of India. The term Syro, stands for Syriac or Christian Aramaic the liturgical language of the, community until 1968. The appendage Malabar is only the Syriac, rendering of Malankara the traditional name of the Church. Ever since, the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 St Thomas Christians were, unofficially and informally leaning towards communion with Rome,, though with some reluctance and resistance when they realized the, loss of Syriac heritage. Since this is a debated issue among various, groups I do not discuss it here. But officially imposed communion began, with Diamper in 1599 and this lasted until Koonan Cross Oath in 1653., Following the Oath we find two groups (Pazhayakur in communion, with Rome and Puthenkur in communion with Antioch), but both groups, following the same latinizations of Diamper. Antiochean traditions and, West Syriac were introduced very gradually among the Puthenkur., In this short essay it is impossible to give the details about the, emergence of the present Syro Malabar Church which got liberated, from the interim jurisdiction of Portuguese Padroado and Propaganda, 13

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Indian Church History, , of Rome. But more can be learned from the chronicle given below., 400 years of struggle for identity, native bishops, Syriac liturgical, spirituality and local Indian traditions, should be seen behind. By 1896, the period of alienation and foreign rule is over, but at a great cost and, as result of many struggles for native rule. But what we find at the, end is an oriental and Indian Church Latinized to the very core. Instead, of liturgical spirituality, a group of Latin and Occidental devotions like, rosary, veneration of statues, various novenas, way of the cross,, adoration of Eucharist took over and the latter serve to nourish the, spiritual needs of Catholic Nazranis. So there is an ongoing inner, tension to recover, restore, renew from within. At present it has a, hybrid nature because of Western influence. But who can forget the, tremendous spiritual and material progress of Syro-Malabar Church, ever since 1896? Who can also neglect the fact that some seventy, five percent of the Roman or Latin Catholic missionary personnel in, India even today comes from the Syro-Malabar Church? Who can, overlook the original apostolic credentials of this Indian Church with, Syriac spiritual heritage?, 16th Century, In the first half of the 16th century cordial relations between, Portuguese missionaries and Thomas Christians existed to some extent., But already we find elements of friction because of the Latinizing, efforts of many missionaries. It is clear that during this period the, communion with Roman Catholic Church was introduced without much, opposition from the part of Nazranis. Many of the East Syrian bishops, were influenced and forced to do this. But surprise and fascination, gave way to anxiety and worry during the second half of the 16th, century as Latinzation began to destroy the East Syriac traditions. In, 1552 a group of East Syrians of Mesopotamia established communion, with Rome under Mar Sulaqa. Since then East Syrian bishops belonging, to both groups seem to have come to Malabar Coast and Nazranis, were ready to accept any East Syrian bishop without prejudice to, their communion. Gradually we find highhanded Latinization and open, resistance. The climax of this we see in the so-called Diamper Synod, (1599) which was illicit and invalid from the viewpoint of Nazranis., 17th Century, Latinizing policies of Jesuit Bishops who took over the Church of, St Thomas Christians ended up in a tragic split within the community., 14, , Indian Church History, , Bishops Francis Roz (1599-1624), Stephen Brito (1624-1641) and, Francis Garcia (1641-1659) were responsible for this predicament., The role of the Arkadiacon was belittled and neglected. The once, All India jurisdiction of an Apostolic and Catholic Church was reduced, to a small corner. East Syriac connections were declared heretical by, the European missionaries. This eventually led to the Koonan cross, oath of 1653 at Mattancherry. Koonan cross oath is interpreted as, declaration of independence from colonizing intruders. It was not a, rebellion against Rome, but against the Jesuits. That is why most of, the Nazranis came again under Rome through Carmelites sent by, Propaganda. The Carmelites came as a commission for reconciliation, in 1655. But Sebastiani their leader came back as bishop of, Pazhayakur (Old party) in 1661. When the Dutch captured Kochi in, 1662 Sebastiani was forced to consecrate Parambil Chandy, the native, leader of the Pazhayakur. Unfortunately after him no native was given, episcopal consecration and Pazhayakur fell prey to double jurisdiction, under Padroado and Propaganda. Pazhayakur under Rome became, more and more latinized, whereas Puthenkur (New party) underwent, Antiochianization (Jacobitism) and a gradual polarization. Puthenkur, began to accept West Syrian liturgy after 1665, at first with resistance., This transition of Puthenkur from East Syriac to West Syriac tradition, is very gradual., 18th Century, Troubles for Nazranis began to abound under the Carmelites and, Propaganda. A series of reunion efforts between Puthenkur and, Pazhayakur were thwarted by Carmelite missionaries. In 1778 the, Pazhayakur sent Kariyattil Yausep Malpan and Paremmakkal Thoma, Kathanar to Lisbon and Rome for reunion of Puthenkur. Their miseries,, adventures and achievements are recorded in Varthamanapusthakam, written in 1786. Kariyattil was consecrated as archbishop in 1783., But he expired in Goa under dubious circumstances and foul play. To, pacify the anger of Nazranis, Paremmakkal was tolerated as, Administrator. These two heroic and saintly sons of Pazhayakur wrote, a glorious chapter towards reunion and identity of the Church. A, noble layman Thachil Mathu Tharakan did his best for Nazrani, reunion. Though reunion took place in 1799 it fell apart due to the, apathy and intrigues., 15

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Indian Church History, , 19th Century, After the rule of Paremmakkal the Pahayakur fell between, Padroado and Propaganda. When Padroado was abolished in 1838, they all came under Propaganda. But the fire of self-rule fanned by, Varthamanapusthakam did not die out. Two heroic leaders of Nazranis, were Kudakkachira Anthony Kathanar and Nidhirikal Mani Kathanar, of legendary fame. Arrival of two Chaldean bishops Rokos (18611862) and Mellus (1874-1882) created a furore and Padroado got, restored in 1864. Repeated petitions centred around Mananam resulted, in ousting the so-called Seven Dolours (Ezhu Vyakulangal). All these, brought about a kind of end to Carmelite rule over Nazranis in 1887, and finally by 1896., Traditions Raditions Immemotial, Concept of the Church, St Thomas Christians held on to original, primitive, apostolic, teachings of the pre-Nicene period. Church is the worshiping, community keeping the Way of Jesus brought to India by Apostle, Thomas. Church is called “Palli”, a Buddhist term for believing, community. For St Thomas Christians Church is not at all a building, or place of worship; instead it is an assembly of people. When they, say St Thomas established seven Churches in Malabar Coast they do, not primarily mean that he built seven buildings as places of worship;, rather they intend that he gathered seven communities who were to, come together to a spot symbolized by Sliva. The term Sliva in Syriac, means the CRUCIFIED ONE. Victory of the Crucified one became, symbol of Christianity everywhere. In the second and third century, Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles erection of a Cross by the Apostle, missionary is a common item. Naturally St Thomas too erected Seven, Crosses so that community could come together to it for worship., Later on the worshiping assembly (Palli or Church) itself got identified, with the place or building. Buddhism and Jainism were the most popular, religions of South India when Thomas came here. Sometimes we, find the appellation of Buddha for Christ and St Thomas; also Mar, Thoma Nazranis were termed Buddhists. These we find in the postSankara period. Until the Southists got separated from the Northists,, sometime between 8th and 10th century the Christian community was, only one. The Northists joined the St Thomas Christians and the latter, 16, , Indian Church History, , too began to be called Northists because of polarization of some bitter, division within one and the same community. The caste system, developed by the time of Sankaracharya influenced this separation., Those who broke the rule went out as outcastes., Margam, Those who became the followers of the Way (Margam) of Jesus, Christ through the Way (Margam) of St Thomas the Apostle (Mar, Thoma Shliha) used to say to their children: “We are the children of, St Thomas the Apostle” (Njangal mar thoma shlihayude makkal, aakunnu). Traditionally they were called Mar Thoma Nazranis. The, name Nazranis is a very popular name for those who follow Jesus the, Nazarene. In the pre -sixth century Syriac literature we find it, for, example in the writings of Ephrem (c.306- 373). It stood for Christians, with a Judeo- Aramaic background. With the arrival of Islam on the, scene it became rather derogatory in the Mesopotamian milieu. But, the term remained very popular and acceptable in India. It is the, European travellers who came across these Malankara Mar Thoma, Nazranis, who began to call them St Thomas Christians of Malabar., With the arrival of European Latin missionaries the term Syrian, Christians came to everyday use to distinguish the Nazranis from, Latin Christians., Administration, The Church or Palli was ruled by Palliyogam, a democratic group, of elders on the local, regional and national level. It was a decision, making body of elders presided over by the eldest priest. On the, national level it was called Malankara Yogam which was presided, over by the Arkadiacon of All India who enjoyed the status of a, Christian prince and ruler. His voice was final for the Christians. The, bishop remained a pastoral and spiritual head who usually left the, administration of the Church to the Arkadiacon and Palliyogam. Church, was more congregational than Episcopal. Bishops came from Persia, and Mesopotamia and they did not interfere in the day to day worldly, administration of the Church. Local leaders were efficient and happy, to play such a role. All important matters of individual members, priests, and community were discussed and decided by Palliyogam. Some, European travellers describe this system as “a Christian Republic”. It, was local apostolic tradition that grew up into the rule of Palliyogam., 17

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Indian Church History, , Participation and co-operation of the laity was paramount in, Palliyogam. But during the Latinization period (1498-1896) this selfgoverning system got very weakened and redundant among Catholic, groups. Among non-catholic groups it became a platform of battle, between laity and clergy. At present the Palliyogam of the SyroMalabar Church is an advisory rather than a decision making body., The role of the Arkadiacon has disappeared among the Catholic and, non-Catholic groups., Priests were ordained for a community with the written permission, of Palliyogam. The community gave financial contributions and gifts, to support their clergy. Though most of the clergy were married some, priests remained celibate monks who were respected as Rambans, and Malpans. The wedge between laity and clergy was unheard of;, in and through Palliyogam they were equal partners. Future priests, were trained in the pastoral and liturgical context of important parishes, by select Malpans. Kammiz was the clerical dress worn only on official, and liturgical occasions. Otherwise the married priests dressed like, the laity and lived in their own families. But celibate Rambans and, Malpans used to put on black dress. Usually priests earned their living, by personal labour like the laity though they received contributions, from the community they served. Celibacy and seminary system were, introduced only in the 16th century by European missionaries., Agape, Local native customs and cultural elements were harmoniously, blended together with Christian faith. Agape of Apostolic times is, kept up even today to some extent. Different food items (eg. Food, nerchas like razakanji, thamuku, kozhukkatta, kallappam,, neyyappam, unniyappam, aval, kanji, rice, pachor, puzhuku ,, etc.), were offered and distributed in the Church. All are eager to, participate in this kind of sacred meal in or around the Church in, connection with worship. Both rich and poor, young and old offer and, share this nercha agape. One tenth (passaram) of wealth was offered, to the common needs of the Church. Muthiyutt and Kal kazhukiyutt, were also widely practised at homes. In Muthiyutt a little boy, an old, lady and an old man (representing child Jesus, Mary and Joseph), were given a sumptuous meal. Kal kazhukiyutt involves feeding, twelve boys and a priest (representing the twelve Apostles and Jesus)., In some villages we observe these even today., 18, , Indian Church History, , Fasting, On fasting days of Lent and advent Nazranis used to take only a, single meal after the evening prayers. All those who were staying, near the Church came for evening and morning prayers. Some came, even for the midnight prayers. Those who were far away made these, three prayers at home. Even children were woken up for midnight, prayers. Many pious Nazranis ate only a few pieces of “indari” and, “kozhukatta” from Maundy Thursday (Pesaha) until the following, Saturday evening. Many kept silent vigil during these days. Even, children were to keep silence; if at all they speak only in a very small, voice. Some used to sit in the Church ( bhajanamirickal) on these, days and other important days of fasting. There were some who did, not eat anything for Three Days Lent. Fasting and abstinence on, Fridays and Wednesdays (as prescribed in the first century work, Didache) were a common apostolic practise among Nazranis. 50 Days, Fast of Lent, 25 Days Fast of Advent, 50 Days Fast of the Apostles,, 15 Days Fast, Fast of 12 Fridays after Christmas, 3 Days Fast of, Ninevites, 8 Days Fast, Fast of the Virgins, Fast of Elijah, Fast of, Transfiguration and other vigil fasts are an indication towards the, intense ascetic orientation of Nazranis. Once we avoid overlapping, days, the total fasting days come 225 per year! Fasting meant total, abstinence from meat, fish, egg, milk and milk products, alcohol, sexual, life, smoking, chewing betel, etc.25, Pilgrimages, Nazranis were fond of making pilgrimages to places associated, with Apostle Thomas’ mission work in South India. Mylapur being, the spot of his martyrdom and tomb was one of the most prominent, locations. St Thomas Christians from the Malabar Coast used to, walk all the way to pray there. Usually it took twenty five days for, pilgrimage to Mylapur. They went for this only after at least 21 days, of spiritual preparations, fasting, abstinence, etc. All the seven, Churches started by Thomas were also favourite places for, pilgrimage. On Dukrana (July 3rd), many used to visit Paravur, Church for participating in the Chatham of Apostle Thomas. It seems, that Paravur inherited this legacy after 1341. In the past all the, churches and even families used to conduct the Chatham of Thomas, for those unable to go to Paravur., 19

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Indian Church History, , Another regular pilgrimage to Paravur was on November 21st, the, day on which Thomas landed at Maliamkara. Malayatur was another, important pilgrim centre. Most of the ancient Churches were dedicated, to St Mary and St Thomas. But Kuravilangad remained the most, famous place because of the first Marian apparitions in history. Even, today all the above mentioned pilgrim centres are very popular among, Nazranis and members of other religions., Rakuli perunnal, In the middle of the night of Denha (Epiphany) all St Thomas, Christians used to take a public bath in nearby river or pond before, entering the Church. This ritual bath is a reminder of the Baptism of, Jesus in Jordan. On the same day at homes they celebrated, “pindikuthiperunnal”. Oil lamps were arranged on the stem of, plantain or banana trees and Nazranis went around it shouting, repeatedly, EL PAYYA (meaning God is Light). In some places both, these celebrations exist even today., Pesaha Appam, St Thomas Christians celebrate the Pesaha in a Christianized manner., On Maundy Thursday evening they “break the bread” and “drink milk”., This unleavened bread is called “kurishappam”. It is to be broken and, distributed by the senior most male member of the family. Only Christians, will be given a piece of this bread. So too they share a special thick, drink made from coconut - milk. This bread and milk they make only, for Pesaha. If a death has occurred in the family it will not make, “kurishappam” that year. But relatives or neighbour bake two loaves, of bread, one for itself and the extra one for this family., Naming, Most of the St Thomas Christian names were borrowed from Old, Testament and New Testament. Names of early saints from the, patristic period were also popular. The eldest boy is named after, paternal grandfather; the eldest girl receives the name of paternal, grandmother; the second boy and girl get the names of maternal, grandfather and maternal grandmother respectively. Thus four names, were always inherited in the family with great pride and joy. One, could choose the name of the fifth child, though the choice was often, that of an uncle, aunt, parent, etc. Thus we can say that most of the, 20, , Indian Church History, , names among St Thomas Christians are inherited from generation to, generation. Even in modern times they rarely break this naming, tradition. Often pet names are developed from baptismal names, but, need not necessarily. All St Thomas Christians have their own family, names which are always meaningful; this could be a historical,, professional, geographical term which describes something about that, family. These family names could be changed by emigration or some, other reason. Nowadays these family or house names are termed as, surnames because of European influence., Burial, All Nazranis were dressed white. This is only a symbol of the, white garment of baptism. Even at funeral the dead is wrapped in, white clothes. The crown of baptism, crown of marriage and crown, of life (at funeral) are other meaningful symbols of religious identity., Nazranis like all other oriental Christians used to pray facing the east., It was a reminder of Paradise, Christ’s second coming and the morning, of resurrection. At death bed a dying person’s head is to face east, and the bed is arranged accordingly. Laity is buried with their head, westwards so that their face ever ready to look at resurrection. But, the clergy is buried just the opposite way as they are to come with, Christ to welcome or judge their flock., Nazranis dwelling far away from the Church used to bury their, dead near their house. They used to erect a burial stone with oil lamps., Every evening they used to pour oil and light these lamps. Occasionally, priests used to visit and pray at these private family tombs. This was, known as ‘kuzhimaada sewa’ (service of the tomb). Those who, lived closer to the Church buried their dead in the south, west and, north sides of its courtyard, but never at the east side. Cemetery, burial is a Portuguese introduction. Many private family tombs marked, by tomb stones and lamps could easily be seen even in the twentieth, century near Kuravilangad area. Recent cultivation of rubber, plantations have destroyed practically most of them. Neither the, political nor ecclesiastical authorities took any care in preserving these, religious and historical monuments of St Thomas Christians. Most of, them were pre-Portuguese., No food is prepared or eaten in the house before the funeral. But, children are fed by neighbours. A simple vegetarian meal called, 21

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Indian Church History, , ‘pattinikanji’ is served after the funeral. All the close relatives take, an ascetical vow for abstinence. They take only vegetarian meals, until the death anniversary. This is very notable in the case of one or, more adult sons (usually unmarried) of the deceased. He begins to, grow beard for an year. He will not marry until the death anniversary., Eleven days after death there were special prayers at the tomb and a, vegetarian meal at home. These were repeated at various intervals, until death anniversary. Year after year the death anniversary was, celebrated with special prayers, in the Church, at the tomb and home,, culminated by ‘aanduchatham’, a sumptuous meal. This meal starts, with an antique custom. First of all two plantains are served to every, participant. All eat them as the very first item. This symbolizes the, fall of our first parents, Adam and Eve. They fell prey to death by, plucking and eating the forbidden fruit. As the second item everyone, is given three ‘neyyappams’ or three ‘unniyappams’ each. All eat, these small delicious, sweet cake-like pieces of bread, symbolizing, Eucharist, baptism, Christ and Trinity - life and resurrection. In this, connection the Nazranis used to say: “That which came through eating, of the fruit is gone by eating of the bread.” (Pazhathale wannathu, appathale poyi). After observing this unique and ancient custom St, Thomas Christians proceed to the death anniversary meal. It is the, privilege of married daughters of the family to bring ‘neyyappams’, or ‘unniyappams’ for this occasion., Growth and Education, Even before official baptism the new born is considered to be a, member of the community by the very birth from Nazrani parents., Forty days after the birth of a boy (but eighty days for a girl) the, mother will not go the Church. Afterwards she goes to the Church, with her child. Baptism was sometimes postponed for the sake of, convenience. Soon after birth the name of Jesus Christ is whispered, into the ear of the child. It is interesting to note that the name of Jesus, Christ is whispered into the ear of any dying member of the Nazrani, community. “Isho Msihayku sthuthi ayirikkatte” (Praise be to Jesus, Christ) is the phrase with which the members greeted their parents,, clergy, teachers, respectable elders, etc. With this greeting they used, to kiss the hand as a sign of welcome and respect. Every day after, family prayers children used to practise this ritual before parents and, 22, , Indian Church History, , elder members present there. The greeting was accepted by the, recipients with a reply “Eppozhum stuthi ayirikkatte” (Praise be, forever)., The newborn baby is fed with a few drops of honey mixed with, milk, gold powder and a herb vayampu. In the 11th month after birth, the parents bring the child to ‘chorutt’ or first feeding with sweet, rice. The priest feeds the child with a little sweet rice three times., Some years later the child undergoes “Ezhuthinu iruthu” (sitting for, writing/learning). The child is seated in the lap of a teacher who,, reciting some prayers, makes the child to write the letters of the, alphabet. There begins a lifelong relationship between the child as, disciple and the teacher as guide. On all important occasions the, disciple is visited and blessed by the teacher. The disciple gives presents, to his teacher on every such occasion. On the day before marriage, this was very common sight in the past. The students used to treat, their teachers like their parents with great respect., Marriage, Marriages were well planned and arranged between two families, according to their social, economic, cultural, educational, political status., Individuals were less important than the family and community., Betrothal was in the family; but the crowning took place in the Church., The elaborate rituals and functions in the houses of both bride and, bridegroom are worth exploring and this we have to skip here. In one, word they imply the socio-cultural status of St Thomas Christians in, the past. Many native customs were adopted after Christianizing them., “Thalikettu” is a typical example. A golden leaf (in shape of ‘aalila’), containing a cross made of twenty one gold globes is the ‘thali’ of, Nazrani bride. Three or seven threads are taken from ‘manthrakodi’, (bridal vestment) in order to form one thread to tie the ‘thali’ around, the neck of the bride. As long as the married woman is alive she will, not part with the ‘thali’. When she dies it is deposited in the coffer of, the Church; often the portion with twenty one crosses is broken for, this offering in the Church. The thread and the ‘kozha’ (hole or handle), are buried with her. This symbolizes the sacredness and indissolubility, of Nazrani marriage. Divorce and adultery were unheard of among, traditional St Thomas Christians. So too the evils like murder, alcoholism,, theft, etc. were frowned upon., 23

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Indian Church History, , Chronicle: Early Period, AD 50 November St Thomas the Apostle lands at Maliamkara near, Kodungalloor the Chera royal capital. He converts a few and after a week, goes to Chola Kingdom and China., AD 51 November St Thomas arrives again at Maliamkara., AD 52 Conversions and establishment of Church (= a fully fledged ecclesial, unit with liturgical leaders) at the Chera royal city of Maliamkara. He, starts such Churches or communities at Kollam, Thrikpaleswaram, Chayal,, Niranam, Kokamangalam, Kottakayal, Palur. Thrikpaleswaram was shifted, to Niranam because of adversities., AD 59 St Thomas goes to Mylapur and Chola Kingdom, conversions, and establishment of Church., AD 62 St Thomas returns to Malankara coast via Malayatur where he, establishes ‘the half Church’ (a small Christian community dependant on, the Church of Maliamkara)., AD 69 St Thomas goes to Pandi and other kingdoms, AD 72 July 3 St Thomas martyred at Mylapur., AD 50-100: Thomas stories and legends develop in South India. The, most famous develop orally in the so called Seven and half Churches., Christian persecutions result in emigrations to Angamaly, Pallipuram,, Kaduthuruthy and Kuravilangad. Marian apparitions at Kuravilangad., AD 100-180 South Indian Thomas stories reach Persia, Mesopotamia, and especially Edessa., AD 190 Pantaenus visits South India at the invitation of Christians there., 200-250 Relics of Thomas arrives in Edessa from Mylapur. A revised, version of the Acts of Judas Thomas written in Syriac., 295 Mar David of Basra leaves for South India., 325 Council of Nicaea, 363-365 Mar Aprem describes the powerful relics of Thomas in Edessa, brought from India by a Christian merchant., 381 Council of Constantinople, 440 Daniel the Indian scholar helps the translation works at the School of, Edessa., 470 Mar Ma’na of Riwardashir sends liturgical and hymn books in Persian, and Syriac to India., 500-1000 Crosses of Mylapur, Kodungallur (two crosses now at Kottayam, Valiyapally), Kaduthuruthy (two crosses), Alangad, Muttuchira,, Kothanallur and Kadamattam, and Goa. Two similar crosses are from, Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka) and Singanfou (China). To call them ‘Persian, Crosses’ would be a misnomer. Excavations will result in the discovery of, similar crosses from Malabar., 522 Cosmas Indicopleustes visits the Indian and East Syrian Christians, here., 24, , Indian Church History, , 660 East Syrian Patriarch Isho Yahb III rebukes Mar Simeon of Riwardashir, for neglect of sending bishops to India., 760 Church of India reconstituted under the Metropolitan and Gate of, All India., 813 Arrival of Persian bishops Mar Sapor and Mar Proth at Kollam., 1002 Oldest Syriac inscription so far discovered, at the step of the altar at, the old Cathedral of Palai., 1291 John Monte Corvino visits India., 1295 Marco Polo visits Malabar and Mylapur., 1301 Fourteen year old Deacon Scaria son of Yawsep son of Scaria writes, Vat Syr 22 at the Church of Mar Kuriakose at Kodungallur. It is an East, Syriac lectionary on Pauline letters. Metropolitan Mar Yakob sits on, “The Throne St Thomas” and Yahb Allaha III is the Patriarch. This is the, oldest surviving Syriac manuscript of Indian origin., 1321 Four Franciscans martyred at Thane near Mumbai., 1321 Dominican Jordanus Catalani visits India., 1329 Pope John XXII sends bishop Jordanus Catalani to Kollam., 1341 Ancient city of Kodungallur (Muchiri) disappears in natural calamity., 1350 Papal Nuncio John Maringoly visits Kollam., 1425 Nicolo Conti visits the East Syriac Christians at Mylapur., 1496 East Syrian bishops Mar Thoma and Mar Yohannan arrive from, Mesopotamia., Period of Latinization, 1498 Vasco de Gama lands at Kozhikod (Calicut)., 1502 Joseph the Indian priest visits Portugal and Rome., 1503 Kochi under Portuguese rule., 1504 East Syrian bishops Mar Thoma, Mar Yahb Alaha, Mar Denha and, Mar Yakob arrive in Malabar., 1504 Kodungallur captured by the Portuguese. Syrian Christians begin, to leave Kodungallur. 1510 Portuguese Franciscans arrive in India., 1540 Franciscans start a seminary at Kodungallur., 1541 Jesuits start St Paul’s seminary at Goa., 1542 Francis Xavier and Jesuits in Malabar., 1547 St Thomas Cross discovered at Mylapur., 1552 Hierarchy in Goa., 1558 Chaldean bishops Mar Abraham and Mar Joseph in Malabar. 1565, Angamaly Archdiocese., 1577 Vypinkotta Seminary., 1597 Death of Mar Abraham the last Chaldean Metropolitan of India., 1599 Udayamperur (Diamper) Synod. Latin rule forced upon St Thomas, 25

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 2, , The Saint Thomas Christians, in India (52 to 1687 AD), , I, , n the picture above: One of the most impressive, granite crosses of Kerala, which stands in front of the, Syro-Malabar Catholic church of Angamaly (by now, the ancient church has been demolished). These granite, crosses normally stood, as they now partly stand, in front, of the Western entrance to the church. Although they, are undatable, many of them, such as this one, may have, been erected in the pre-Portuguese period. On this, picture one may clearly see the most important symbolic, representations of the Saint Thomas Christians: in the, middle, the “Saint Thomas Cross,” the shape of which, goes back to reliquary crosses said to have been carved, by Saint Thomas himself; underneath, an angel in, worship; the wings of the cross end in lotus buds., 1. On the St Thomas Christians, The Saint Thomas Christians refer to themselves in, this way because their tradition holds that their ancestors,, who all came from the high castes of Hindu society,, 30, , were converted by the Apostle Saint Thomas, who landed in India in, the year 52 AD. At present there is no way to scientifically prove or, disprove this tradition. One thing is certain: ever since the discovery, of the monsoon winds in 45 AD by Hippalos, an Alexandrian shipcaptain, the land and sea routes were open from the Mediterranean, via the Persian Gulf to India, and there were indeed intense contacts, between these areas. One after the other, Roman coins of the first, century AD are being unearthed in southern India., Be that as it may, the tradition of Christ’s Apostle doing missionary, work in India is the principal formative element of the identity of a, large and flourishing (at present seven million-strong) community. At, a certain stage of its history, this community entered into intense, contacts with the Syrian Christian world. Tradition also tells us that, this happened in 345 AD, when Thomas of Kana, a rich Syrian, merchant from Persia, also landed in Cranganore, accompanied by, seventy families. Their descendants, the endogamous Knanaya, community, boast of having preserved pure Syrian blood. Thomas of, Kana and the bishops who accompanied him established a permanent, contact with the Syrian Church. So, if we are to believe tradition,, ever since Thomas of Kana the Malabar Church, consisting of an, Indian and a Syrian component, has ecclesiastically and culturally, belonged to the Syrian Christian world. Thus the St Thomas Christians, constitute an unique community, whose native tongue is Malayalam,, whose everyday culture and customs are typically Indian and whose, language of worship and of high culture has been Syriac for many, centuries., In fact, for this high-caste Indian Christian community Syriac had, the same social function as Sanskrit had for the neighbouring Hindu, high-caste society., 2. Traditions about St Thomas the Apostle, According to tradition, Christianity in Kerala was founded by Saint, Thomas the Apostle, who landed on the Malabar Coast, at Maliankara, near Cranganore (Kodungallur), in 52 AD. Why precisely in 52 is, difficult to say, but this date is firmly held in the presenttraditio, communis of the St Thomas Christians. For how long the date has, been established is an interesting question in itself. The modern, Malayalam ballad Thomas Ramban Pattu (“The Song of the Lord, 31

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Indian Church History, , Thomas”), which gives absolutely precise data about the details of, the Apostle’s activity, dates his arrival to 50 AD, in the month of, Dhanu (December), and his death in Mylapore (Mailapuram) to 72, AD, on the 3rd day of the month of Karkadakam (July), corresponding, to the traditional memorial day of the Apostle in the Syrian Churches,, at 4:50 p.m. However, this apparently reflects a later tradition., Recently we found an earlier tradition in a palm-leaf manuscript, belonging to the collection of the Syro-Malabar Major Archbishop’s, House in Ernakulam, which, among eighteen Malayalam apocrypha,, also contains the Malayalam version of the Acts of Thomas. The, seventeenth-century redactor’s note to this apocryphon dates the death, of Saint Thomas to December 21 and says that on that very day the, Apostle’s memorial day (Dukhrana) was universally celebrated in, the Malankara Church., On his arrival - so tradition holds - the Apostle converted several, Brahmin families, from whom a good part of the present-day, Nazranies descend, and founded seven churches: Maliankara, (Kodungallur or Cranganore), Palayur, Kottakavu (North Parur),, Kokamangalam (Pallipuram), Niranam, Chayal and Kollam (Quilon)., There is a beautiful story vividly recounted among the local Christians, and invoked in many books about the foundation of the Palayur church,, not far from Cranganore where Saint Thomas is believed to have, landed, and close to Guruvayur, the famous centre of Krishna worship., According to this tradition, the Apostle arrived there and found, several nambudhiri (or namputhiri) Brahmins (that is, Kerala Brahmins), bathing in a tank and throwing up handfuls of water as an offering to, their sun-god. He asked them whether they were able to throw the, water up so that it could stay suspended in the air without falling back, down, as a proof that their god had accepted it. The Brahmins replied, this was impossible; the Apostle performed a miracle and the water, remained in the air, proving that Christ had accepted the offering., This convinced the Brahmins, who accepted baptism from the Apostle, in the same tank. Their temple was transformed into a Christian church,, while those who stuck to their Hindu faith fled from the place. They, cursed the land and called it Chapakatt (Chowghat in the Anglicised, version, now Chavakkad), “the Cursed Forest.”, Some sixteenth-century Portuguese sources, partly edited but for, the most part unedited, studied by the very learned Fr. Mathias, 32, , Indian Church History, , Mundadan, the doyen of Indian Church history, speak about converted, kings, from whom another name of the community, Tarijanel, which, tradition interprets as “sons of kings,” derives. Later the Apostle went, to the eastern Coromandel Coast, where he also converted people,, and finally died on the Little Mount in Mylapore, nowadays a suburb, of Chennai (Madras). There are several versions of the details of the, Apostle’s death, the most fantastic of which states that one day a, hunter out hunting peacocks saw a group of them seated on a flat, stone. He shot an arrow at the leader of the group, which was, transformed into a man and fell down dead. This was the Apostle., Other accounts, emphasising the point that Saint Thomas died a, martyr’s death, speak about furious Brahmins who pierced the Apostle, with a lance, either when he was praying in rapture in a cave or when, he destroyed, by means of his cross, a temple dedicated to the goddess, Kali. His tomb is venerated in Mylapore up to the present day, and, pilgrimage to the tomb has always been an important element in the, religious life of the St Thomas Christian community., The tradition that locates the Apostle’s activity in two places, Kerala, on the western and Coromandel on the eastern coast of southern, India, corresponds to the historical existence of two communities., However, some calamities have destroyed the eastern community,, which at some time (differently specified in the different sources), had to migrate westward and to unite with the one in Kerala. A version, of the tradition transmitted by Francisco Roz, the first Latin bishop, (residing in Angamaly) of the St Thomas Christians, does not know, about the preaching of the Apostle on the Malabar Coast, but holds, that all the St Thomas Christians emigrated there from the east. An, interesting element of the local traditions is that - at least in Portuguese, times - the same stories were told on the western and on the eastern, coast, but connected to different localities. At present there is no, autochthonous Christian community on the Coromandel Coast., In Kerala almost every village has its local Saint Thomas tradition,, full of miraculous elements. Just to collect them would be a very, important task of anthropological research., Most of the literature on the question treats the historicity of the, Apostle’s presence and activities in India, trying to combine the different, western and eastern testimonies with elements of local tradition and, 33

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Indian Church History, , archaeological findings. The general outcome of these investigations, is that the question of the historicity of the tradition is unsolvable by, means of the scholarly methods that we have at our disposal. The, strongest argument in favour of the historicity remains nothing other, than the tradition itself, an unanimous tradition held not only in India,, but also in the whole Christian Orient. Here we also face something, quite extraordinary, which deserves a different approach. In fact, the, very existence of the traditions concerning the Apostle, divergent in, their details but unanimous in their core message, and the role of, these traditions shaping the self-identity of the community, is a matter, of objective fact. Setting aside the question of how true historically, the tradition is, we should recognise the St Thomas traditions as, constituting an important, if not the most important, factor in the, formation of the Nazranies’ communal identity. The tradition of Saint, Thomas preaching and converting in India and apparently converting, nobody but members of the higher castes expresses both the Nazranies’, embeddedness in the surrounding majority Hindu society and their, separation. It explains why they find themselves integrated into the, Indian culture, speaking the same language - Malayalam - as their, neighbours. But it also explains why they are separate, professing a, different faith, Christianity. It also explains their ambiguous but, traditionally well-established position in the society. Being, Christians, they believe in the absolute truth and the sole saving, power of their religion. At the same time, they live in a society, that has been able to accept them as one among its organic strata,, while also accepting Christ and the saints as belonging to the, community of the many divinities legitimately worshipped by the, different segments of the Hindu society. It considered the Christians, as one element belonging to the same society, and permitted them, to practise their professions (mainly trade and agriculture and, to, a lesser extent, military service), which were highly regarded by, others. The Hindus also venerated the Christian holy places, and, they still hold the priests of the St Thomas Christians in high esteem,, considering them as holy men. This might not have always been, the case, and the remembrances in the tradition about earlier, persecutions may point to less tolerant periods and neighbourhoods., All this and much more is admirably expressed in the founding, traditions of the community, connected to Saint Thomas., 34, , Indian Church History, , 3. Traditions of Thomas of Kana and the Earliest Syrian, Connections, The identity of the St Thomas Christians is not exhausted by their, being Indian and Christian. They are also Syrian. As Placid Podipara, says in an emblematic writing of his, “they are Hindu or Indian in, culture, Christian in religion and Syro-Oriental in worship.” How they, came under Syrian influence is again told by stories preserved by the, oral tradition. This speaks about the arrival of another Thomas, Thomas, of Kana (Knayi Thomman in Malayalam), a rich Syrian merchant, from Persia according to one version, but a Christian Jew originating, from Kana in Palestine, a relative of Jesus himself, according to others., The Kerala tradition, which connects its events to absolutely precise, dates, knows that this happened in 345 AD. Normally this date is, taken for granted both in oral conversation and in writing. However,, the early Portuguese witnesses give a wide range of datings. According, to some, this Thomas of Kana came even earlier, so that he could still, meet a servant of Saint Thomas, while others hold that he came later,, namely in 752 AD, some 700 years after the Apostle. The date 345, seems to come from or at least to be documented by a Syriac text, written by a certain Father Matthew, in Malabar, in 1730. With Thomas, came seventy or seventy-two families (this number representing the, totality of a people, as in the case of the translators of the Septuagint, or in that of the greater circle of the apostles). It is said that Thomas, found the St Thomas Christians in great spiritual need, and so he, reorganised them and put them under the jurisdiction of the Persian, Church. In this way the jurisdictional link of the Malabar Coast with, the Syrian Churches would originate from this time., An important element of the tradition is the famous copper plates, that Thomas of Kana is said to have received from the King of, Malabar, the Cheruman Perumal. In Kerala in the Middle Ages royal, charters on privileges were written on copper plates, generally in, Grandha or Vattezhuttu (literally, “round script”) characters., Communities belonging to different religions possess their own copper, plates - so also the Jews, the Christians and the Muslims. At present, some of the Christian copper plates are kept at some important, ecclesiastical centres, such as the Metropolitanate of the Mar Thoma, Church in Tiruvalla and the Syrian Orthodox Catholicosate in, Kottayam. The copper plates are not shown to visitors. Several, 35

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Indian Church History, , mutually contradictory decipherings of them have been published. In, Portuguese times there seem to have existed the very copper plates, that were claimed to contain the privileges that the Cheruman Perumal, king gave to Thomas of Kana. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Portuguese acquired them, but by the end of the same century, they were lost. According to a tradition noted by the Portuguese,, these plates briefly related the story of Thomas of Kana arriving in, Cranganore and receiving royal privileges from the king. These, privileges were the following: he gave his own name, Coquarangon,, to Thomas, and he also gave him the “City of the Great Idol,”, Magoderpattanam or Mahadevarpatnam, and a great forest for, possession forever, then seven kinds of musical instruments and, together with them all honours for the Christians to speak and behave, as kings do, so that their brides may whistle during their wedding, ceremony, just as the women of the kingly families do, to spread, carpets on the grounds, to wear sandals, and to ride elephants. Besides, this he gave Thomas and his people the right to five different taxes, that they couldcollect., Be that as it may, these traditions are also important formative, elements of the Kerala Christians’ identity and have an explicative, value for their social reality. In fact, it is these traditions that explain, not only the Syrian affiliation, but also a division between the Indian, Christians, that is, the division between two endogamous groups, the, “Southists” (thekkumbhagar) and the “Northists” (vadakkumbhagar)., Both groups claim legitimate descent from Thomas of Kana and the, families that accompanied him, but only the Southists say that they, have conserved pure Syrian blood. The names are believed to come, from the fact that once the two groups inhabited respectively the, northern and the southern part of the Christian quarter of Cranganore., Thus, it is to the time of Thomas of Kana that the tight jurisdictional, and cultural relationship between the Church of Malabar and the, Persian Church is traced back. According to some historians, this, relationship meant purely and simply an allegiance to the Church of, the East; according to others, the Malabar Christians were under the, impression that the whole Orient belonged to the Patriarchate of, Antioch, so that the Catholicos of Seleucia-Ctesiphon would be a, representative of the Patriarch of Antioch. This debate is theoretically, 36, , Indian Church History, , unsolvable, but concrete research into the extant documents will surely, decide about the merits of each opinion., 4. Church Governance before the Portuguese Period, According to the traditional structure, the Indian diocese of the, Church of the East was governed by a Metropolitan sent by the, Catholicos Patriarch, from Seleucia-Ctesiphon. At the same time, on, the local level, in India Church affairs were governed by the, Malabar yogam, that is, Assembly. There was also an indigenous head, of the Church of Malabar, called in Malayalam Jatikku Karthavian,, which, according to Jacob Kollaparambil, means “the head of the, caste,” that is, the head of the St Thomas Christians, but also the, “Archdeacon of All India.” Apparently, in his person an indigenous, function, characteristic of the St Thomas Christian community, was, combined with an existing function of the Church of the East. According, to the canons of the latter Church, the Archdeacon is the highest, priestly rank: he is the head of all the clerics belonging to a bishopric;, he is responsible for the whole worship of the cathedral church and, represents the will of the bishop in his absence. One clearly understands, how the appointment of an indigenous Archdeacon of All India served, the needs of the ecclesiastical organisation of the Church of the East., While the Catholicos Patriarch of Seleucia-Ctesiphon reserved for, himself the right to send his own prelates originating from Iraq to the, Indian diocese, the continuous governance of his Indian flock was, secured by the indigenous Archdeacon serving as the head of all the, priests in Malabar and representing the bishop’s will., However, from the local point of view, the rank of the Archdeacon, was more important than this; not only was he the most important, priest of the community, but he also fulfilled the role of an Ethnarch., He was “the prince and head of the Christians of Saint Thomas” and, had such titles as “Archdeacon and Gate of All India, Governor of, India.” The origin and the meaning of the term “Gate” is mysterious., One might suppose that it is a Christological title: “I am the Gate of, the sheep” (Jn 10:7). While originally the Archdeacon in the Church, of the East was elected by the bishop according to merit, the office of, the Archdeacon of India seems to have been hereditary. It was the, privilege of the Pakalomattam family, at least from the sixteenth, century onwards. Indeed, we know about a number of Pakalomattam, 37

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Indian Church History, , Archdeacons, beginning with 1502, when Metropolitan John of India, appointed George Pakalomattam. The name of the family varies, and, the family seems to be identical with the Parambil family, translated, into Portuguese as De Campo. The Archdeacon had all the attributes, of a secular leader and was normally escorted by a number, sometimes, several thousands, of soldiers. It is important to note that while there, could be several bishops appointed for the Malabar Diocese, there, was always only one Archdeacon, a custom contrary to the canons, of the Church of the East. This situation is best explained by the fact, that from the point of view of the East Syrian Church structure the, Archdeacon was an ecclesiastical function, but from that of the St, Thomas Christian community it was also a socio-political, princely, function, representing the unity of the Christian nation, or caste(s), of, Hendo (India)., 5. The Early Portuguese Period, For any element whatsoever, such as the ones mentioned before,, of the history of the St Thomas Christian community before the arrival, of the Portuguese colonisers, one has barely any sources other than, local traditions and traditions. Documented history seems to begin, with the arrival of the Portuguese. The European documentation, beginning with this period already permits a fairly detailed picture of, the social status, the life and the customs of the Christians whom they, found upon their arrival in southern India, and in principle all the, following, colonial, history of the community can be traced. However,, here as well, although to a lesser extent, history is inextricably, interwoven with oral tradition., At the moment when the Portuguese arrived on the Malabar Coast,, the Christian communities that they found there had had longstanding, traditional links with the East Syrian Christians in Mesopotamia. During, the subsequent period, in 1552, a split occurred within the Church of, the East. Part of it joined Rome, so that besides the “Nestorian”, Catholicosate of the East another, “Chaldaean,” Patriarchate was, founded, headed by the Patriarch Mar John Sulaqa (1553-1555),, claiming to be the rightful heir to the East Syrian tradition. It is very, difficult to see the precise influence of this schism on the Church of, Malabar. Apparently, both parties sent bishops to India. Over against, earlier, somewhat romantic views, which took it for granted that there, 38, , Indian Church History, , was a continuous line of Chaldaean bishops, without any Nestorian, interference, by now it has become clear that the real situation was, the following. The last pre-schism East Syrian Metropolitan, Mar Jacob, (1504-1552), died just when the schism occurred. Apparently the first, among the two Patriarchs to send a prelate to India was the Nestorian, Catholicos, Simeon VII Denkha. The person whom he sent was Mar, Abraham, who, later, was to be the last Syrian Metropolitan of Malabar,, after having gone over to the Chaldaean side. When he arrived in, Malabar is not known, but he must have been there already in 1556., Approximately at the same time, Abdisho IV (1555-1567), the, successor of John Sulaqa (murdered in 1555), sent the brother of, John, Mar Joseph, to Malabar as a Chaldaean bishop; although, consecrated in 1555 or 1556, Mar Joseph could not reach India before, the end of 1556, nor Malabar before 1558, when the Portuguese were, finally alerted by the presence of Mar Abraham and allowed Mar, Joseph, accompanied by another Chaldaean bishop, Mar Eliah, to very briefly - occupy his see, before the Inquisition also sent him to, Lisbon in 1562. In this way, nominally there were two rival Syrian, Metropolitans in Kerala until 1558, when Mar Abraham was captured,, forced to confess the Catholic faith in Cochin and sent back to, Mesopotamia, to the Chaldaean Patriarch Abdisho, who (re-), consecrated him Metropolitan and sent him to Rome. There Mar, Abraham was ordained Metropolitan a third time in 1565 by Pope, Pius IV. The Pope wanted Mar Abraham to reign jointly with Mar, Joseph, who in the meantime had returned to Malabar in 1564, only to, be deported a second time in 1567 and die in Rome in 1569. From, Rome, Mar Abraham returned to Mesopotamia and reached the, Malabar Coast for the second time in 1568. Although he was once, again detained in Goa, in 1570 he managed to escape, and governed, the Malabar Christians until his death in 1597., Taking into account the fact that Mar Abraham had gone over to, the Chaldaeans, the Nestorian Catholicos Patriarch, Mar Eliah VIII, (1576-1591), sent another bishop, Mar Simeon, to Kerala. Mar Simeon, probably arrived there in 1576. He stayed there until 1584, when he, was captured and sent to Rome, where it was discovered that he was, a Nestorian and, on account of this fact, his ordination as priest and, bishop was declared invalid. He was confined to a Franciscan friary, in Lisbon, where he died in 1599., 39

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Indian Church History, , It is reported that before leaving Malabar, Mar Simeon appointed a, priest as his “vicar general,” Jacob by name, who, according to the, Portuguese testimonies, resisted all the Latin innovations introduced, under Mar Abraham and was finally excommunicated by Archbishop, Menezes of Goa before he died in 1596. However, as this priest is also, called Archdeacon, I would suggest that his role should be reconsidered., The Chaldaean Archdeacon during the first part of the reign of Mar, Abraham was George of Christ, who was on friendly terms with the, Latin missionaries and was to be appointed the successor of Mar, Abraham as Metropolitan of India. Thus he should have become,, according to the plans of Mar Abraham, supported by the Jesuits, the, first indigenous Chaldaean Metropolitan of the St Thomas Christians., However, the last letter of Mar Abraham, where he requests the Pope, to confirm George’s ordination as Bishop of Palur and his coadjutor, is, dated January 13, 1584, while from another letter of the same Mar, Abraham we learn that the consecration of George failed because of, the latter’s death. After this, we hear about an Archdeacon with Roman, allegiance, perhaps John, the brother of George of Christ, appointed in, 1591. As Archdeacon Jacob appears on the scene as a leader of the, Church of Malabar in 1584, I would suggest that he was the one who, inherited the office of the Archdeacon from George. Rather than being, appointed by Mar Simeon, the Nestorian Metropolitan, he inherited the, office by family right and sided with Mar Simeon against Mar Abraham,, which resulted in a very tense situation. The Roman side seems to have, tried to solve this problem by appointing a rival Archdeacon, the first one, in 1591 and the second, George of the Cross, in 1593. In this way, although, from 1552 rival Metropolitans sent by the two East Syrian Patriarchs, contended for the allegiance of the St Thomas Christians, still, until 1656,, the date of the consecration of Kunju Mathai (Matthew) as Archdeacon, of the Latin allegiance against Mar Thoma, the former Archdeacon now, in revolt, there was only a very brief period (between 1591 and 1596), when two rival Archdeacons contended against each other., 6. The Synod of Diamper and the Syrian Orthodox Mission, in India, Alexis de Menezes, Archbishop of Goa from 1595 until his death, in 1617, together with his Jesuit advisers, decided to bring the Kerala, Christians to obedience, an obedience that they conceived as complete, conformity to the Roman or ‘Latin’ customs. This meant separating, 40, , Indian Church History, , the Nazranies not only from the Nestorian Catholicosate of SeleuciaCtesiphon, but also from the Chaldaean Patriarchate of Babylon, and, subjecting them directly to the Latin Archbishopric of Goa. The most, important stage of their activity was the famous Synod of Diamper, (Udayamperur) in 1599, when the local Christians’ customs were, officially anathematised as heretical and their manuscripts were, condemned to be either corrected or burnt. The oppressive rule of, the Portuguesepadroado (’patronage’) provoked a violent reaction on, the part of the indigenous Christian community. This was the Kunan, Kurishu Satyam (Bent Cross Oath) in Matancherry, Cochin, in 1653,, when the rebels, headed by their Archdeacon, made a vow not to, accept any allegiance unless to a Syrian Church. In the same year,, Archdeacon Thomas was ordained, by the laying on of hands of twelve, priests, as the first indigenous Metropolitan of Kerala, under the name, Mar Thoma I. Later, in 1665, on the arrival of Mor Grigorios Abd alJalil, a bishop sent by the Antiochian Syrian Orthodox Patriarch, this, movement resulted in the Mar Thoma party’s joining the Antiochian, Patriarchate and in the gradual introduction of the West Syrian liturgy,, customs and script on the Malabar Coast., 7. The Background and the Aftermath of These Events, During the entire period beginning with the intervention of, Archbishop Menezes of Goa in the affairs of the Church of Malabar, in 1598, up to the consecration of Archdeacon Thomas as Mar Thoma, I in 1653 and his joining the Antiochian (Syrian Orthodox) Patriarchate, in 1665, events were dominated by a constant tension between the, Latin Archbishops designated by the Portuguese and the Archdeacons, leading the St Thomas Christian community. In 1597, Mar Abraham,, the last Chaldaean Metropolitan of India, died. Mar Abraham, although, originally a Nestorian and accused by the Jesuit Francisco Roz of, holding ‘Nestorian’ views, seems to have remained a faithful, Chaldaean bishop, that is, in sincere community with Rome, as attested, by his copy of the Nomocanon of Abdisho bar Brikha of Nisibis, which, he carried to Malabar and which is still preserved in the Library of, the Major Catholic Archbishop’s House in Ernakulam. Already the, scribe who copied the Nomocanon for Mar Abraham included the, Nicaeo-Constantinopolitan Creed in its Latin form, with the Filioque,, and on the first folio of the book one can read a anathema by Mar, Abraham on Nestorius., 41

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Indian Church History, , Thus, if there was strife between the Portuguese missionaries and, the indigenous Christians and their Iraqi prelates, it was not of a truly, doctrinal, but of an ecclesiological and jurisdictional character., However, something else was also involved: the identity of the St, Thomas Christians. In their striving to preserve their identity, after, the death of Mar Abraham in 1597, the most important role was given, to Archdeacon George of the Cross, appointed by Mar Abraham in, 1593. Archbishop Alexis de Menezes, who was both an ambitious, and indeed violent person and a very able Church politician, succeeded, in bringing the Archdeacon to obedience and in abolishing the, Chaldaean jurisdiction on the Malabar Coast. How perfectly he, succeeded is another question, where legends once again begin to, play their role. Be that as it may, under his immediate successors this, apparent success proved to be more ephemeral and less complete, than it appeared after the Synod of Diamper in 1599., The strife between the Latin Archbishops and the Archdeacons –, first George of the Cross and then his nephew, Thomas Parambil (de, Campo) – continued and resulted in several revolts of the latter against, the former, whenever the Archbishop tried to curtail the traditional, rights of the Archdeacon. In this way George of the Cross revolted, against Francisco Roz, Archbishop of Angamali (1601-1624), first in, 1609, when the latter excommunicated him, and also in 1618. Although, George had more friendly relations with Roz’s successor, Stephen, Britto (1624-1641), he also revolted against the latter in 1632. The, rule of the next Archbishop, Francis Garcia (1641-1659), was again, dominated by constant tension between him and the Archdeacon,, Thomas Parambil, until the latter apparently decided definitively to, break away from Roman jurisdiction. In 1648-1649 he sent a number, of letters to several Oriental Patriarchs and thus to the Coptic Patriarch, of Alexandria, to the Syrian Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch and most, probably also to the Chaldaean Patriarch of Babylon, requesting them, to send bishops to Malabar., , Indian Church History, , Cochin, and swore an oath not to obey the Franks, that is, the, Portuguese, but only the Archdeacon, who on May 22 of the same, year was ordained bishop, under the name Mar Thoma, twelve priests, laying their hands on him. This was the famous Bent Cross Oath,, during which almost the entire St Thomas Christian community, seceded from Rome. From the history preceding this event, it is rather, clear that this secession cannot be explained by its immediate pretext,, that is, the detention of Mar A’tallah, but was the fulfilment of a longnurtured wish of the Archdeacon, who could not accept his subjugation,, and of the local Christians, who wanted to preserve their traditions, and autonomy., This event was followed by a rather troubled period, further, complicated by the fact that the Dutch gradually conquered the Malabar, Coast. In 1663 they conquered Cochin and expelled all the Portuguese, and other European missionaries, with the exception of some, Franciscans. At this moment the Apostolic Commissary, Bishop Joseph, Sebastiani, had no other choice than to consecrate an indigenous prelate, for the remaining party that did not obey Mar Thoma, the former, Archdeacon and current bishop. For this purpose he could not but, choose another member of the same Parambil family, considered as, the leader of the community: Alexander de Campo, or Mar Chandy, Parambil, who was the cousin of Mar Thoma and originally one of, his main four helpers or advisers during the Bent Cross Oath. He, made Mar Chandy Parambil a Vicar Apostolic and a titular bishop, only, but Mar Chandy Parambil considered himself a Metropolitan, and signed his documents as “Metropolitan of All India.” Moreover,, in 1678, he also appointed an Archdeacon, who happened to be his, own nephew, Mathew Parambil (or De Campo). Thus, at this point,, due to the binding force of the events and the strategic thought of, Bishop Sebastiani, there were to be found two bishops of the St Thomas, Christian community, who were close relatives of each other, both, from the traditional leading family of the Nazarenes., , As an answer to these letters, a certain Mar A’tallah, a bishop, who called himself Mor Ignatius, Patriarch of India and China, arrived, in India, but the Portuguese detained him in Mylapore and the rumour, spread that he had been drowned in the sea. His detention so enraged, the Archdeacon and his party that they revolted against the Jesuits., On January 3, 1653, a mass of people gathered in Matancherry in, 42, , 43

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 3, , The Arrival of the Western, Missionaries, , T, , he French or Catalan Dominican missionary, Jordanus Catalani was the first European to start, conversion in India. He arrived in Surat in 1320. After, his ministry in Gujarat he reached Quilonin 1323. He not, only revived Christianity but also brought thousands to, the Christian fold. He brought a message of good will, from the Pope to the local rulers. As the first bishop in, India, he was also entrusted with the spiritual nourishment, of the Christian community in Calicut, Mangalore, Thane, and Broach (north of Thane)., In 1453, the fall of Constantinople, a bastion of, Christianity in Asia Minor to Islamic Ottoman Empire;, marked the end of the Eastern Roman Empire or, Byzantine Empire, and severed European trade links by, land with Asia. This massive blow to Christendom, spurred the age of discovery as Europeans were seeking, alternative routes east by sea along with the goal of, forging alliances with pre-existing Christian nations., 44, , Along with pioneer Portuguese long-distance maritime travellers that, reached the Malabar Coast in the late 15th century, came Portuguese, missionaries who made contact with the St Thomas Christians in, Kerala, which at that time were following Eastern Christian practices, and under the jurisdiction ofChurch of the East. The missionaries, sought to introduce the Latin liturgical rites among them and unify East, Syrian Christians in India under the Holy See., In the 16th century, the proselytisation of Asia was linked to, the Portuguese colonial policy. The Papal bull - Romanus Pontifex, written on 8 January 1455 by Pope Nicholas V to King Afonso V, of Portugal, confirmed to the Crown of Portugal dominion over all, lands discovered or conquered during the age of discovery. Further,, the patronage for the propagation of the Christian faith (see, “Padroado”) in Asia was given to the Portuguese. The missionaries, of the different orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, Augustinians,, etc.) flocked out with the conquerors, and began at once to build, churches along the coastal districts where the Portuguese power made, itself felt., The history of Portuguese missionaries in India starts with the, neo-apostles who reached Kappad near Kozhikode on 20 May 1498, along with the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama who was seeking, to form anti-Islamic alliances with pre-existing Christian nations. The, lucrative spice trade was further temptation for the Portuguese, crown. When he and the Portuguese missionaries arrived they found, Christians in the country in Malabar known as St. Thomas Christians, who belonged to the then largest Christian church within India. The, Christians were friendly to Portuguese missionaries at first; there was, an exchange of gifts between them, and these groups were delighted, at their common faith., Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great (r. 1556-1605) holds a religious, assembly in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri;, the two men dressed in black are the Jesuitmissionaries Rodolfo, Acquaviva andFrancisco Henriques. Illustration to theAkbarnama,, miniature painting by Nar Singh, ca. 1605., During the second expedition, the Portuguese fleet comprising 13, ships and 18 priests, under Captain Pedro Álvares Cabral, anchored, at Cochin on 26 November 1500. Cabral soon won the goodwill of, 45

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Indian Church History, , the Raja of Cochin. He allowed four priests to do apostolic work, among the early Christian communities scattered in and around Cochin., Thus Portuguese missionaries established Portuguese Mission in 1500., Dom Francisco de Almeida, the first Portuguese Viceroy got permission, from the Kochi Raja to build two churches - namely Santa Cruz, Basilica (1505) and St. Francis Church (1506) using stones and mortar,, which was unheard of at that time, as the local prejudices were against, such a structure for any purpose other than a royal palace or a temple., In the beginning of the 16th century, the whole of the east was, under the jurisdiction of the Archdiocese of Lisbon. On 12 June 1514,, Cochin and Goa became two prominent mission stations under the, newly created Diocese of Funchal in Madeira. In 1534, Pope Paul, III by the Bull Quequem Reputamus, raised Funchal as, an archdiocese and Goa as its suffragan, deputing the whole of India, under the diocese of Goa. This created anepiscopal see suffragan to Funchal, with a jurisdiction extending potentially over all, past and future conquests from the Cape of Good Hope to China., After four decades of prosperous trading, the missionaries started, the proselytisation around 1540 and during this period, foreign, missionaries also made many new converts to Christianity. Early, Roman Catholic missionaries, particularly the Portuguese, led by, the Jesuit St Francis Xavier (1506-1552), expanded from their bases, on the west coast making many converts. The Portuguese colonial, government supported the mission and the baptised Christians were, given incentives like rice donations, good positions in their colonies., Hence, these Christians were dubbedRice Christians who even, practised their old religion. At the same time many New Christians, from Portugal migrated to India as a result of theinquisition in Portugal., Many of them were suspected of being Crypto-Jews, converted Jews, who were secretly practising their old religion. Both were considered, a threat to the solidarity of Christian belief. Saint Francis Xavier, in a, 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, requested the Goan Inquisition,, which is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity, in India, both by Christians and non-Christians alike., In 1557, Goa was made an independent archbishopric, and its first, suffragan sees were erected at Cochin and Malacca. The whole of, the East came under the jurisdiction of Goa and its boundaries extended, to almost half of the world: from the Cape of Good Hope in South, 46, , Indian Church History, , Africa, to Burma, China and Japan in East Asia. In 1576 the suffragan, See of Macao (China) was added; and in 1588, that of Funai in Japan., The death of the last metropolitan bishop - Archdeacon Abraham of, the Saint Thomas Christians, an ancient body formerly part of the Church, of the East in 1597; gave the then Archbishop of Goa Menezes an, opportunity to bring the native church under the authority of the Roman, Catholic Church. He was able to secure the submission of Archdeacon, George, the highest remaining representative of the native church, hierarchy. Menezes convened the Synod of Diamper between 20 and, 26 June 1599, which introduced a number of reforms to the church and, brought it fully into the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Following the, Synod, Menezes consecrated Francis Ros, S.J. as Archbishop of, the Archdiocese of Angamalé for the Saint Thomas Christians; thus, created another suffragan see to Archdiocese of Goa andLatinisation of, St Thomas Christians started. The Saint Thomas Christians were, pressured to acknowledge the authority of the Pope and most of them, eventually accepted the Catholic faith, but a part of them switched, to West Syrian Rite. Resentment of these measures led to some part, of the community to join the Archdeacon,Thomas, in swearing never to, submit to the Portuguese or to accept the Communion with Rome in, the Coonan Cross Oath in 1653. Those who accepted the West Syrian, theological and liturgical tradition of Mar Gregorios became known, as Jacobites. The ones who continued with East Syrian and Latin, theological and liturgical tradition and stayed faithful to the Synod of, Diamper and the Roman Catholic Church came to be formally known, as the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church from the second half of the 19th, century onward., The Diocese of Angamaly was transferred to Diocese of, Craganore in 1605; while, in 1606 a sixth suffragan see to Goa was, established at San Thome, Mylapore, near the modern Madras, and, the site of the National Shrine of St. Thomas Basilica. The suffragan, sees added later to Goa. were the prelacy of Mozambique (1612) and, in 1690 two other sees at Peking and Nanking in China., Mangalore is another significant region on the west coast which, has a huge Christian population. In 1321, the French Dominican, friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac (in south-western France), who, also worked in Quilon arrived in Bhatkal, a place near Mangalore and, established a missionary station there. Many locals were converted, 47

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , to Christianity by Jordanus. The Portuguesewere however unable to, establish their presence in Mangalore as a result of the conquests of, the Vijayanagara ruler Krishnadevaraya and Abbakka Rani of Ullal,, the Bednore Queen of Mangalore. Most of Mangalorean Catholics, were not originally from Mangalore but are descendants of Goan, Catholics who fled Goa during the Portuguese-Maratha Wars and, the Goan Inquisition., The origin of Christianity in North Konkan, was due to the, proselytising activities of the Portuguese in the 16th century. The, French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac (in southwestern France) started evangelising activities in Thana. On the, occasion of The Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, the Christians, of North Konkan, in Maharashtra who were known asPortuguese, Christians discarded that name and adopted the designation East, Indians. Marathi Christians are Protestants and are therefore distinct, from East Indian Christians who are predominately Roman Catholics, and inhabitants of the North Konkan region. Marathi Christians can, be found in the areas of Ahmednagar, Solapur, Pune and Aurangabad., They were converted through the efforts of the American Marathi, Mission, The SPG Mission, and the Church Mission Society of Church, of England in early 18th century. British Missionary William Careywas, instrumental in translating the Bible into the Marathi language., Missionary work progressed on a large scale and with great success, along the western coasts, chiefly at Chaul, Bombay, Salsette, Bassein,, Damao, and Diu; and on the eastern coasts at San Thome of Mylapore,, and as far as Bengal etc. In the southern districts the Jesuit mission in, Madura was the most famous. It extended to the Krishna river, with, a number of outlying stations beyond it. The mission of Cochin, on the, Malabar Coast, was also one of the most fruitful. Several missions, were also established in the interior northwards, e.g., that of Agra, and Lahore in 1570 and that of Tibet in 1624. Still, even with these, efforts, the greater part even of the coast line was by no means fully, worked, and many vast tracts of the interior northwards were, practically untouched., With the decline of the Portuguese power, other colonial powers –, namely the Dutch and British and Christian organisations gained, influence., , 48, , Chapter 4, , Synod of Diamper, , S, , ynod of Diamper was definitely a forceful illegal, invasion of Portuguese Missionaries into the affairs of, Saint Thomas Christians. The Arch Bishop of Goa had, no jurisdiction over Saint Thomas Christians. Without, any special mandate from the Roman Pontiff, he, forcefully entered the Arch Diocese of Angamaly and, convened the Diocesan Synod of Diamper and, proclaimed that he reunited the saint Thomas Christians, who were living outside the Roman Communion for, thousand years, in a matter of few months by the efforts, of the zealous Arch Bishop and his team of missionaries, to triumph in Europe. (Jonas Thaliath, The synod of, Diamper, Orientalia Christiana Analecta 152 Rome 1958,, cited by Rev Dr Paul Pallathu, Was Saith Thomas, Christians nestorians ? Ephrem’s theological Journal, vol, 5 March 2001, p 36), It is clear that Saint Thomas Christians were not in, explicit communion with the Church of Rome for, centuries. But there are certain hints in the history about, 49

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Indian Church History, , some loose contacts and communion. Church of the East had several, short lived communions and relations with the Church of Rome in the, past before the formation of the Chaldean Patriarchate., Pope Saint Gregory III (731-741) was a Chaldean from the, province of Syria. (Guriel Elementa Linguae Chaldaicae, 168 cited by, G T Mackenzie in foot note 116 based on the manuscript submitted, by Nidheerickal Mani Kathanaar). Mar John, the Arch Bishop of the, Syrians and afterwards Patriarch, went with his suffragans to Rome, and received the pallium from Pope Callixtus II (AD 1119-1124) in, the twelfth century. (Gesta Callixti , Papae. Vetera analecta Mabilloni, 468 cited by G T Mackenzie foot note 116 based on the manuscript, submitted by Nidheerickal Mani Kathanaar). In AD 1250, Iso yahb, bar Malkon, Metropolitan of Nisbis, sent a profession of Catholic faith, to Pope and made some minor changes in the Taksa that he used, calling Mary, the ‘Mother of Christ, who is our God’ (History of, Chaldean mass, Macomber, JAAS p76). When Pope Julius III, on, April 6th, 1553 confirmed John Simon Sulaqa as Patriarch of the, Chaldeans, confirmed that the discipline and liturgy of the Chaldeans, had already been approved by his predecessors, Nicholas I (AD 858867) and Leo X (AD 1513-1521) and Clement VII, (AD 1523-1534), This papal letter also mentions the former Patriarch Simon Mamma,, of good memory as Patriarch of the Christians of Malabar. (GT, MacKenzie, foot note 116), There are reports in the history about reception of John Marignolli, in AD 1346, letter of Pope Eugine IV to the Christian King of Malabar, in AD 1439, as examples of contact with the Church of Rome. But, after AD 1554, with the arrival of Mar Joseph, The Saint Thomas, Christians became in Catholic Communion., In AD 1551, under the leadership of Patriarch John Simon Sulaqa,, a section of the Church of the East entered into full hierarchical, communion with the Church of Rome. John Simon Sulaqa was, consecrated and confirmed as the Catholic Patriarch of Mossul in, Assyria and received pallium from Pope Julius III in AD 1553.In the, Papal Bull, the Pope had confirmed his jurisdiction over Malabar, Christians also., (“.. Postmodum vero ecclesia patriarchali de Muzal et insulae Tigris, ac caeterarum civitatum et terratum orientalium eidem Patriarchae, subjectarum, necnon monasteriorum ejusdem in Sui Massin et et, 50, , Indian Church History, , Calicuth ac tota India existentium eidem etiam Patriarchae subditorum, dum vivert praesidebat….”S Giamil, Genuinae Relationes… 17-18,, Subsidium ad Bullarium Patronatus Portugalliae, 4 cited by Rev Dr, Paul pallath, Were Saint Thomas Christians Nestorians ? Ephrem’s, Theological Journal, Vol 5 March 2001 No 1 p 42 foot note 24), The Patriarchate was supported by a Papal Nuncio for the East,, Bishop Ambrose Buttigeg, a Maltese Dominican and his companion, Fr Antonius Sahara., Patriarch Sulaqa was murdered in AD 1555 and Mar Abdisho, was consecrated as the next Patriarch under the supervision of the, Papal Nuncio, Bishop Ambrose Buttigeg. In 1562, Mar Abdisho, received pallium from Pope Pius IV. The next Patriarch was Mar, Yahballaha (AD 1567- 1579) and then Mar Simon Denha ( AD 15791600). Mar Simon Denha received pallium from Pope Gregory III, (1572-1585). It was this Mar Simon Denha was the head of Saint, Thomas Christians who was in explicit ecclesiastical and hierarchical, communion with the Church of Rome was condemned by the Synod, of Diamper!, Thus, the synod itself become an act of disobedience to the Roman, Pontiff., In AD 1555, Patriarch Mar Abdisho sent two Bishops to Malabar,, Mar Joseph Sulaqa, the brother of Patriarch John Simon Sulaqa, as, the Bishop for Saint Thomas Christians, Mar Elias, as the, representative of the Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate along with the, Papal Nuncio for the East Bishop Ambrosius Buttigeg, and his, companion Fr Antonius Sahara. This four member team itself proves, the authenticity of Mar Joseph and his hierarchical communion with, the Roman Pontiff. (The two Chaldean Bishops were arrested and, detained in the Franciscan monastery at Bassein near Bombay and, Bishop Abrosius and Fr Sahara were allowed to come to Goa.), In 1558, all were allowed to come to Malabar because of the, arrival of Mar Abraham, another East Syrian Bishop but not of the, Catholic communion. They used Mar Joseph to keep the Malabar, Nasranis away from the Non catholic East Syriac Church. Mar Joseph, converted Mar Abraham to Catholic communion, but the Portuguese, deported him to Babylon. Mar Joseph was arrested again in 1562 and, sent to Portugal and Rome where he was cleared from all accusations, and was even nominated to be elevated as a Cardinal., 51

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Indian Church History, , Due to the request of the Malabar Nasranis, the Patriarch Abdisho, appointed Mar Abraham as the Bishop of Malabar and sent to Rome, where he received pallium from Pope Pius IV in 1565.The Pope Pius, IV gave him three letters, one for the Patriarch Abdisho and the others, to the Arch Bishop of Goa and the Bishop of Cochin., In these letters, the Pope confirms the jurisdiction of the Chaldean, Patriarch over the Saint Thomas Christians and apologised for the, inconveniences caused by the Portuguese Missionaries. The Pope, also warns the Arch Bishop of Goa that it would be detrimental to the, Pope himself and to the Apostolic See, if he would hinder the jurisdiction, of the Patriarch and orders that his jurisdiction must remain untouched, and intact. The Pope in his letter to the Patriarch permits to maintain, ‘your customs and rites’, recognizing the ancient rite., Thus, the Arch Bishop of Goa, who had no jurisdiction over the, saint Thomas Christians, without any special mandate from the Roman, Pontiff, forcefully entered the Arch Diocese of Angamali with the, help of the non Christian Kings invalidly convoked the diocesan Synod, of Diamper, under the threat of excommunication contrary to the norms, of the canon law. (Rev. Dr.Paul Pallathu, The Synod of Diamper, valid or invalid, cited in Were Saint Thomas Christians Nestorians ?, Ephrem’s Theological Journal, Vol 5 March 2001 No 1,p 54-55) The, word excommunication is also to be noted carefully. If saint Thomas, Christians were not in communion with the Catholic Church, how can, the Arch Bishop Goa excommunicate them? They would not have, afraid of excommunication and the threat of excommunication would, not have any use., What was the aim of the synod ?, Latinisation, It was not for correcting the doctrines of saint Thomas Christians., The above mentioned letters categorically confirms that the rite and, rituals of Saint Thomas Christians were accepted by the Roman, Pontiff. If for argument sake, if we take that there were several, books found in the community which contains errors, the synod would, have only made actions to correct them. Instead, it was a strategical, approach to make changes to the rite and customs to conform the, saint Thomas Christians to latin rite to effect suppression of law of, Thomas- and to introduce Latin Rite among saint Thomas Christians., 52, , Indian Church History, , See below a few of the synodal decrees which explicitly order, conformity to Latin rite., ‘admit and receive all the customs rites and ceremonies recieved, and approved in the Roman Church’ Session II decree I.Images painted, after ‘our manner’ are to be placed in all churches… session III, decree I Ch IX. The Syriac lectionary is to be replaced by The Vulgar, latin edition made use by Holy Mother Church-Session III decree, II.prohibition of the east Syrian baptismal formula and prescribed that, which is followed by the Roman Church- session IV decree I.baptismal, water shall be blessed by the Holy chrism according to the Roman, ceremonial-session IV decree XIX. separated confirmation from, baptism in harmony with the roman tradition-session IV confirmation., Forty changes in the eucharistic liturgy to conform with the latin ritewords of consecration was added to the Liturgy of Addai and mari,, creed was modified, introduction of extreme unction, abolished optional, celebacy to obligatory celebacy to the priests, latin vestments, the, synod being desirous that the church of the serra should in all things, be conformable to the latin customs, or Holy Mother Church of, Rome….’ session VIII decree XXXVII., From these, we can understand that the real aim was not the, correction of errors but to eradicate and exteminate the east Syriac, rite and Law of Thomas to replace it with latin Rite., 2 To suppress the Jurisdiction of the Chaldean Patriarch and to, bring the Saint Thomas Christians under the Portuguese Padruado, and patronage of the King of Portugal to control the Saint Thomas, Chriastian community and thereby to control the spice trade., There are several reports in the history that the Portuguse needed, help from Saint Thomas christians to beat the Arab merchants. In, 1920s, the Portuguese sought help from Mar Jacob Abuna to persuade, Saint Thomas Christians to trade their pepper to them. (Antionio da, silva Rego, Documenta cao para a Historia das Missoes do padruado, Portugues do oriente, vol II Lisbon, 1948 p 357 cited by Pius, malekkandathil Jornada of Alexis De Menesis: A Portuguese account, of the Sixteenth Century Malabar, pXXIX), Now, it is obvious that it was not to convert the Saint Thomas, Christians to Catholicism, but to Latinise them, and to subjugate them, under the Portuguese padruado. It was a cultural invasion to change, 53

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Indian Church History, , their religious rite and rituals to control the community on the religious, perspective and politically also for the colonial interests of the, Portuguese., Padroado-Propaganda Schism, The Padroado-Propaganda Schism was an ecclesiastical conflict, that pitted Catholics against each other, sometimes leading to physical, violence, insults and mutual excommunications, but most usually, subsisting in a long, sullen mutual co-existence in hostility., The Padroado originated when the Portuguese Kings took the, initiative to explore the coasts of Africa, pushing further and further, seeking a way to the East to challenge the Muslim dominance of, world trade and politics and to open new trade routes and to win new, converts to the Catholic faith. Moved by their zeal, successive Popes, granted wide ranging favors and authorities to the Kings, even, allegedly irrevocable powers, to establish and patronize Churches and, Bishoprics in the lands the Portuguese opened up in the East., The Padroado or Padroado Real has its foundation in Canon Law, that recognized the right of laymen to establish and patronize churches, and missions, as a means to supplement the efforts of the Papacy, the, Church and the religious orders; these laypersons were recognized, as Patrons and possessed certain rights and privileges over the, churches and missions they established, financed and patronized., However, as the Portuguese power waned in the face of the Dutch, Wars against Spain and Portugal, followed by the growth of the English, Empire, the Popes found that large tracts of land and Christian peoples, were alienated from the authority of bishops and priests working under, authority of the Portuguese King-Patron of the Missions, and, seeking, to provide for them and their spiritual needs, and in response to the, devious overtures from Dutch, English etc. Protestant rulers asking, for clerics not under the authority of the King of Portugal, set up the, Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith or Propaganda Fide, or, Propaganda in short. Propaganda ordained priests and consecrated, bishops for these lands and sent them in to administer the sacraments, and exercise ecclesiastical jurisdiction. However, the King-Patrons, resented these infusions of Propaganda clerics as intrusions and as, unauthorized, incapable of possessing and exercising jurisdiction, and, therefore incapable of validly conferring the sacraments., 54, , Indian Church History, , The Patron-Kings contended that Popes had irrevocably bestowed, upon them the authority of being Royal Patrons over these Churches, and ecclesiastical communities they established, and the question was, and is yet not definitively addressed or resolved, being yet a question, open to debate and discussion. Popes who pushed Propaganda clerics, into these territories either overtly or tacitly claimed that there were, not and could not have been any such “irrevocable” bestowal of, authority and patronal power on the Kings of Portugal, and actively, acted, with progressively increasing vehemence to disregard and ignore, these claims of Patronal power and authority as being invalid., As a result, the Christians of these lands became split into two, camps - those upholding the authority and right of the King-Patron, and his Catholic Clerics, who recognized the Pope in Rome as the, final and supreme leader and authority of the Catholic Church, worldwide, and those who submitted to the authority of the bishops, and priests sent by the Propaganda under the direct orders and authority, of the Pope., To sustain themselves, Propaganda clerics turned increasingly, uncritically pro-English, pro-British, adulating the Protestant Kings of, England, then of the United Kingdom of Great Britain as their, protectors and patrons, and insulting and derogating Portugal and the, Kings of Portugal as backward and unenlightened., The situation was complicated when Portugal rebelled and seceded, from Spain under the Bragancas who were largely propped up by the, Protestant British, and who were increasingly influenced by Protestant,, anticlerical and “Enlightenment” ideas, culminating in an open schism, and break between the brothers Peter and Michael for the Kingship, of Portugal, a Civil War, and the defeat and exile of the Ultramontanist, Catholic King Michael by Peter supported by British arms and military, officers. With that, both parties, Padroado and Propaganda, came to, be indirectly controlled and manipulated by the Protestant British, even, as they continued to fight among themselves, and keep up the party, spirit among the laity, pitting Padroado laymen against Propaganda, loyalists and vice versa., , 55

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 5, , The Coonan Cross Oath, (January 3, 1653), , A, , s we are gearing into the year 2013 and in the, wake of the recent developments with the circular dated, 12/20/2012 from Bishop Angadiath, the struggle and, challenges faced by the North American Knanaya, Catholic faithful to maintain and keep our unique identity, and heritage is in peril. On January 3rd 2013 we, celebrate the 360th anniversary of Koonan Kurishu, Satyam, a courageous act of our forefathers ‘The St., Thomas Christians’ 360 years ago against the inquisitions,, impositions and intolerance’s abhorrently practiced by, the hierarchy at the time. A brief narration of the events, and fond remembrance may revive the spirit of freedom, underlying in each one of us within the Knanaya Catholic, Community in North America. The timing is pure, coincidental, but the need to stand up against any, unacceptable decrees and yokes of slavery that are being, put forth to abolish the Knanaya heritage and traditions, by any hierarchy is a call of duty to every Knanya, individual., 56, , The Coonan Cross Oath: Background, The Saint Thomas Christians who lived in India from AD 52 and, the Knanaya community who said to have arrived the Malabar coast, in the year AD 345 remained in communion with the Church of the, East until their encounter with the Portuguese in 1599., With the establishment of Portuguese power in parts of India, and the Portuguese colonization of India using Goa as its headquarters,, they brought Roman Catholic priests headed by an Arch Bishop to, take over the religious supremacy, clergy of that empire, in particular, members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), attempted to Latinise the, Indian Christians, The Portuguese started a Latin Rite diocese in Goa (1534) and, another at Cochin (1558), and sought to bring the Thomas Christians, under the jurisdiction of the Portuguese padroado and into the Latin, Rite of the Catholics. Those days, the Malankara Nazrani Christians, were well established and was following the Marthoma tradition of, India. The Portuguese tried to lure the Nazrani’s with both money, and positions to come under the reign of the Roman Catholic Church., They mercilessly murdered or exiled some of the Persian Bishops,, and stopped the arrival of new Bishops to the Indian region. A series, of synods, including the 1585 Synod of Goa, were held, which, introduced Latinized elements to the local liturgy. Arch Bishop of Goa,, Alexio Da Menezes tried to influence and force the Malankara Church, head Arch-Deacon Geevarghese of Pakalomattom family to bring, the Malankara Church under the control of the Roman Catholic Church., All the Malankara church representatives including Arch-Deacon, Geevarughese unanimously refused to do so. Arch Bishop Menezes, used his influence with the Raja (King) of Cochin and summoned a, meeting of all the representatives of the Church at Udayamperur., The King threatened that absentees to the meeting would end up, having their properties confiscated. Thus the historically significant, Udayamperur Synod took place on 20th June 1599 led by Bishop, Menezes, the Portuguese governor, higher Government officials, and, armed Portuguese soldiers with the full support of the Raja of Cochin., Arch Deacon Geevarghese along with 133 priests 10 deacons and, 660 laymen attended. The meeting enforced decrees to accept the, faith and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church and the authority, of the Pope. The Malankara Nazrani Syrian Christians signed the, decrees, as they were afraid of the Portuguese opposition and their, 57

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Indian Church History, , own King. They accepted the Roman authority with dissent. The St., Thomas Christian’s east Syrian traditions and liturgy was then replaced, by Latin Liturgy and traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. The, Synod of Diamper, (Udayamperur) finally brought the Saint Thomas, Christians fully under the authority of the Latin Archdiocese of Goa., The acts of Archbishop Menezes were undoubtedly high-handed,, arbitrary and arrogant. The independence of the ancient Church of, Malankara was crudely crushed. But in the long history of the Church,, the Papal yoke was only momentary; for the feelings of resentment, and the desire to regain independence among the St. Thomas Christians, which were very real, could not be contained for long. The pent-up, sentiments were given vent in 1653. They had all along continued, their efforts to get a Metropolitan from the Eastern Church for their, rescue. The Portuguese who were masters of the sea in those days,, many a time intercepted their letters of appeal for Syrian prelates and, there were occasions when attempts of Middle Eastern clergy to, come to Malankara were physically thwarted. This fact is explicit in, Cardinal Tisserant’s own words. The local defectors in the Roman, Catholic Seminaries were advised to be “on their guard against the, arrival of a bishop sent by the Catholicos of Seleucia. For in spite of, the watch set up by the Portuguese at Ormuz and Goa, such an event, always remained a possibility”. However, Metropolitan Mar Ahatalla, from Syria is said to have landed at Surat in 1652 and thence came to, Mylapore, where he was arrested by the Jesuits on August 3, 1652., While at Mylapore, Mar Ahatalla met two Syrian Christian deacons,, viz: Chengannur ltty and Kuravilangad Kizhakkedath Kurien from, Malankara who were on a pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas and, sent a letter through them to the Church of Malankara saying:”At, Calamini, I have been taken prisoner by those whose profession is, persecution. Soon they will make me leave for Cochin and then for, Goa. Arm up some of your people to save me”., In the same letter, Mar Ahatalla is also said to have appointed, Archdeacon Thomas as the head of the Malankara Church. As feared,, the Metropolitan was taken on board a Portuguese ship at Madras, bound for Goa. En route, it touched Cochin.. The Syrian Christians, heard of the arrival of the ship at Cochin. They marched 25,000 strong, to the harbor demanding the immediate release of their Metropolitan., The Portuguese, however, rushed the Prelate to Goa, under cover of, darkness, without acceding to their demand. “In order to prevent any, 58, , Indian Church History, , attack on the town, they spread the less palatable story that the, unfortunate prelate had been accidentally drowned… (In the meantime,, Ahatalla was condemned as a heretic by the Inquisition of Goa and, died at the stake in 1654) The summary disposal of Mar Ahatalla,, however, shocked the Christian community and their wounded feelings, effervesced into a mass upsurge which heralded the breaking off, from the Papal yoke., Oath, The incident of Mar Ahatalla presented an occasion for the St., Thomas Christians to retaliate. When they came to know that Mar, Ahatalla was drowned, they could not tolerate the imperious Portuguese, and their arbitrary actions., On January 3, 1653 under the leadership of Archeadeacon Thomas, and Anjilimoottil Itty Thomman Kathanar (a Knanaya Priest from, Kallissery) a multitude of about 25,000 Nasrani Christians assembled, at the Church of Our Lady in Mattanchery near Cochin. The Priests, leaders and the people gatherd near a big granite cross in the church, grounds, since all the people could not touch the cross simultaneously,, they all held onto ropes that were tied to the cross in all directions. They, then took the historical oath to break free from the clutches of the, Roman supremacy and follow only the Malankara Nazrani traditions, It is said that because of the weight the Cross bent a little and, hence it is known as Oath of the bent cross or the Coonan Cross, Oath (Koonan Kurishu Satyam). According to tradition, out of a, population of 200,000 St. Thomas Christians, only 400 remained loyal, to the Roman Arch bishop Garcia. The event in 1653 broke the fifty, four year old yoke of Roman supremacy imposed at the Udayamperur, Synod of 1599., This historic event and its 360th anniversary is demanding us the, knanaya Catholic faithful living in USA to speak up against the injustice., Our heritage, values and traditions are compromised. A few lost sheep,, some wolfs disguised as sheeps and a couple of power hungry, shepherds are leading us into the valley of the shadow of death. If we, are brave enough as our forefathers to stand up with dignity, the true, God will walk with us and will divide the waters, so that we can cross, through this hostile sea of persecution., , 59

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , is natural that St Thomas used Aramaic and it eventually became the, liturgical language of Mar Thoma Nasranis., , Chapter 6, , Historical Divisions of Mar, Thoma Nasranis, , T, , he Saint Thomas Christians of India, known as, Mar Thoma Nasranis, simply Nasranis or Syrian, Christians, are an ethnic Christian community that traces, its origin to Apostolic times. Tradition says that the, ancestors of Nasranis were baptised by Saint Thomas, the Apostle, one of the disciples of our Lord Isho Mishiha, (Jesus Christ). The language used in the liturgy by these, Christians was East Syriac, a dialect of Aramaic â•”, the language of our Lord. Since there were trade links, between Malabar (South-West Coast of India) and, Kingdoms of Middle East, Greek, Persian and Roman, Empires, it was not difficult for Saint Thomas the Apostle, to travel to Malabar in the first century. There are, numerous evidences to show that there was active and, continuous trade between the aforementioned Kingdoms, even several centuries before Christ. Since, Aramaic was the lingua franca of trade in Asia until the, eighth century, it is plausible that there were Aramaicspeaking communities in Malabar in the first century. It, 60, , Until the aftermath of Coonan Cross oath in 1653 AD, the Thomas, Christians were united under a community head called Arkadiyokkan, (Archdeacon or Jaathikku Karthavan) - “the head of the caste,”, bearing the title “Archdeacon and Gate of All India”. The Archdeacon, held all characteristics of a King or a modern secular leader. He was, normally escorted by a group of Nasrani soldiers. By sending bishops, (Methran) spiritual guidance was given by the Catholicos-Patriarch, of Seleucia-Ctesiphon-the Church of the East (CoE). Though there, were occasions when more than one bishop from CoE was present, in Malabar at the same time, there was only one Arkkadiyokkan-the, head of the Church-made decisions for temporal matters of the, Church. Bishops from CoE had the role to give spiritual guidance and, they never intervened in the financial and communal matters of Mar, Thoma Nasranis. Thus the Church in Malabar was united under the, leadership of Arkadiyokkan until the aftermath of Coonan cross oath., When traders from Portugal came from 1498 AD onwards, there, were also Roman Catholic missionaries accompanying them. Relation, between Mar Thoma Nasranis and Portuguese in the early years, (until AD 1550s) of their visits were friendly since the Portuguese, had to depend on the Nasranis for reasons of trade and military help., Gradually the power and influence of Portugal increased in India and, they demanded power on the churches of Mar Thoma Nasranis,, thinking that they could gain control on the spice trade. Portuguese, managed to get support of the King of Kochi as well, a Kingdom that, had supported them for several centuries. As a result Portuguese, missionaries held a meeting in 1599 AD, which they call “Udayamperoor, Sunhados”. The so-called Sunhados declared the authority of, Portuguese over the Church of Saint Thomas Christians and appointed, a Bishop of Portuguese origin to govern the Malabar Church. Thus the, Portuguese colonised the Church of Malabar that has apostolic origin., Fearing the cruel inquisition chambers and lack of support from even, local Kings, our ancestors failed to respond to the Portuguese threat., The unfortunate divisions and decay of the Saint Thomas Christians, began from this point onwards. Since then it was unfortunate events, and further divisions among the Saint Thomas Christians., Fifty years after the so-called Sunhados of Udayamperoor, through, the Coonan Cross oath, Nasranis revolted against the Portuguese in, 61

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Indian Church History, , 1653 AD. This is an important event in the history of Nasranis., However, the events after the revolt were not positive; Nasranis split, into two factions and in the later centuries into many more, denominations. At present they are divided into seven denominations., A pictorial representation of these divisions is given above., On June 20, 1599, for commandeering obedience to the supreme, Bishop of Rome, the Portuguese Archbishop Menezes of Goa, summoned a synod at Udayamperoor. They sought the help from the, Rajah of Kochi (Cochin). The Rajah of Kochi and local Hindu, Chieftains threatened those who refused to attend the Sunhados, as, commanded by the Portuguese. The Rajah had even declared that all, assets of Mar Thoma Nazrani Churches that stay away from the, Sunhados would be forfeited. The delegates (153 priests and 660, faithful), headed by Archdeacon Giwargis d’Sleeva (George of the, cross), who attended the Sunhados were forced to accept the decrees, read out by the Archbishop Menezes as the military of Portuguese, and Kochi Rajah surrounded the Church. Thus Mar Thoma Nasranis, were subjugated under the Roman Catholic hierarchy of Goa. A, Church that had origins from Saint Thomas the Apostle with, unrestricted jurisdiction became a mere suffragan under the Latin, archdiocese of Goa., The so-called Udayamperoor Sunhados, Under the disguise of subjecting the Nasrani Church to the Pope, of Rome, what Dom Menezes actually did was to subject the Mar, Thoma Nasranis to the authority and jurisdiction of Goa. He tactfully, endeavoured to eliminate Bishops sent by the CoE Patriarch of Babylon, who gave spiritual guidance to the Nasranis. To achieve this, a false, impression that the CoE Patriarch was Nestorian and therefore, a, “heretic” and “opposed to Rome”. This impression was inculcated in, the minds of the Nasranis. Dom Menezes was successful in this, deceitful., Here we should remember the division of the Church of East (CoE), and the creation of the Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon., Due to difference in opinion about the hereditary succession of, Patriarchal position in the CoE, Monk Yohannan Sulaqa in 1552 AD,, went to Rome to be consecrated and installed Patriarch. Pope Julius, III installed him as Patriarch in 1553 AD. His successors till the end, of the sixteenth century were ‘Abdiso’ (1555-1571), ‘Aithalla’ (157862, , Indian Church History, , 1580), and ‘Denha Simon’ (1581-1600). Abdiso visited Rome and, obtained confirmation and the Pallium. Aithalla owing to old age could, neither visit Rome, nor did he get confirmation from Rome before his, death. Denha Simon got confirmation and the Pallium from Rome. It, was this Patriarch who was in open communion with Rome that was, condemned by Dom Menezes as a oeheretica in the Udayamperoor, Sunahados. Since the arrival of Mar Yousef Sulaqa, the brother of, Yohannan Sulaqa, in Malabar in 1555 AD as a prelate, the Malabar, Church became in direct communion with the Church of Rome., It is also worth mentioning few more facts about the relation that, the CoE and the Mar Thoma Nasranis had with the Latin Catholic, Church of Rome. Because the Church of the East was located inside, the Persian Empire and further East, it had the independence to ordain, bishops without informing any of the other Christian Patriarchates, all, of whom were located inside the Roman Empire. This privilege was, in existence by the time of the Council of Nicea in 325 AD. In 410, AD the bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon took the title of CatholicosPatriarch and became the Head CoE., However there were many dialogues between the Church of the, East and that of Rome (in AD 1247 by Patriarch Sabrisho V and by, Mar Jaballaha III in 1288). A Moreover during the time of crusades,, many cultural exchanges happened. Rabban Sauma and Monk, Markose went to Rome and celebrated the East Syriac Qurbana there, and made a deposition to the Pope “With the pardon of my faults and, sins which I have received thee, O Father, I desire of thy fatherliness,, O’ Holy Father that I may receive communion from thy hands, so, that I may have complete forgiveness.”, Pope Julius III said that the discipline and liturgy of the Chaldeans, had already been approved by his predecessors, Nicholas I (858867), Leo X (1513-1521) and Clement VII (1523-1534) at the time of, confirming of Yohannan Sulaqa as Chaldean Patriarch in 1553 AD., The same letter also mentions the former Patriarch, Simon Mama, of, good memory, as Patriarch of the Christians in Malabar., Moreover, at least a faction of CoE had communication with and, sometimes even influences from, the Latin Church. For example, the, Mysteries of ancient Church of the East are unique. It presents an, alternative list of sacraments with distinct theology, which exist, alongside the sacramental theologies of Greek and Latin Churches., 63

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Indian Church History, , Later in fourteenth century, one can see a list of seven Mysteries., This is due to the interaction of Church of East with Latin Church, through missionaries. The Dominican missionary Rocoldo de Monte, preached in the Churches of Baghdad in 1290 AD., From the documentary evidences, one cannot say that Mar Thoma, Nasranis had ever rejected the Primacy of the Pope. Some authors, consider it as an advantage to portray that Nasranis were part of the, Catholic Church since beginning of Christianity. There is no clear, evidence to show the relation between the see of Rome and the Church, of Nasranis prior to the arrival of Mar Joseph Sulaqa in Malabar., Nevertheless one can definitely say that Nasranis were subjects of, Pope at the time of the Sunhados since it was after more than 40, years of Catholic communion!! Considering these, we can conclude, that the Sunhados was conducted not to correct the schism of Mar, Thoma Nasranis, but to gain control of their Church and thereby, monopolise the trade and power in Indian territories., Coonan cross Oath and aftermath events, The frustration of the St. Thomas Christians reached its zenith in, 1653 with the ‘Coonan cross oath’. The Coonan Cross Oath was the, revolt by Nasranis against the Portuguese as a result of the dominance, that they have exerted on the Church of Nasranis since the so-called, Synod of Udaymperoor in 1599. It took place on 3 January 1653 at, Mattancherry in Cochin. At the time of Coonan cross oath, only 400, out of 3,00,000 Saint Thomas Christians stood with the Portuguese, missionaries (Jesuits). Result of the Coonan Cross oath was that an, Independent Church under the leadership of the Arkkadiyokan was, formed., Twelve Kathanaars of Nasranis consecrated Arkkadiyokan as a, Metropolitan at Edappalli on 22 May 1653. Kalliseril Anjilimoottil Itty, Thomman Kathanaar, Kaduthuruthy Kadavil Chandy Kathanaar,, Angamaly Vengoor Giwargis Kathanaar and Kuravilangad Palliveettil, Parampil Chandy Kathanaar were appointed as his advisors., After the oath the Portuguese missionaries attempted for, reconciliation with Nasranis. They failed as the Archdeacon and other, leaders were not interested in any type of negotiations. Therefore the, Portuguese missionaries informed Rome the issue. Rome sent, Carmelite Missionaries under the leadership of Fr Joseph Maria in, AD 1657, and Fr Vincent of Hyacinth in AD 1658 for reconciliation, 64, , Indian Church History, , with Mar Thoma Nasranis. The Portuguese missionaries succeeded, in convincing a group of Nasranis, including Palliveettil Chandy, Kathanaar and Kadavil Chandy Kathanaar that the consecration of, Arkkadiyokan as metropolitan was not legitimate. When the, illegitimacy of the consecration of Arkkadiyaokkan gained publicity,, the Arkkadiyaokkan started loosing his followers. Carmelite delegate, Joseph Maria returned to Rome and got consecration from Pope as, the Bishop of Mar Thoma Nasranis as Joseph Sebastiani 1659. A, Sebastiani was able to win 40 churches within a year. By 1663, another, 44 Churches came under the obedience of Rome and only 32 remained, with the Arkkadiyaokkan., In 1663, the Dutch defeated the Portuguese and declared that, all, Portuguese missionaries had to leave Malabar. For this reason Sebastini, who was leading the negotiations, had to leave Malabar immediately., Before leaving he consecrated Palliveettil Chandy Kathanaar as the, Bishop of Saint Thomas Christians and Vicar Apostolic of the, Archdiocese of Angamali on 1 February 1663. The community was, thus divided into two factions: one, under the leadership of Palliveettil, Chandy Methraan, with a legitimate Bishopric consecration and the, other under the leadership of Arkkadiyaokkan or Mar Thoma I, without, a legitimate Bishopric consecration. These two groups later became, to be known as Pazhayakoor (old alliance, those who continued the, alliance with Rome) and Puthenkoor (new alliance, those who rejected, the authority of Rome). Illegitimate Bishopric consecration of Mar, Thoma I made it easy for Palliveettil Chandy Methraan to win more, people to his side., Pazhayakoor faction, Knowingly or unknowingly Carmelites succeeded in dividing the, community. Also they won in removing the historical title, of Arkkadiyokan from Pazhayakoor faction-the group that continued, their alliance with Rome. They appointed a bishop for Pazhayakoor,, who traditionally for Nasranis was taking care of spiritual matters, only. Some argue that it was only Portuguese who gave a native, bishop for the Nasrani community. However, there are several, circumstantial evidences from the early centuries to prove that there, were native bishops for Mar Thoma Nasranis. Moreover it was not, due to their generosity, but due to the political situation that the, Portuguese allowed to consecrate an indigenous Bishop for, Pazhayakoor., 65

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Indian Church History, , It was only due to the political situation that the Pazhayakoor faction, got a native bishop Palliveettil Chandy Methraan. Otherwise Sebastini, would have continued in his position. It is interesting to note that Rome, tactfully did not continue the indigenous bishopric of Malabar after, the death of Palliveettil Chandy Methran in 1687 AD. If they were, sincere, we would have seen more indigenous bishops immediately, after the death of Palliveettil Chandy Methraan. The Church had to, wait until 1896 AD to get their first indigenous bishop, although the, original see of the Church (Angamaly) was suppressed to wipe out, any trace of an independent Church with unrestricted jurisdiction., The Pazhayakoor faction was never happy with the ecclesial support, they received from the Latin delegates who continued imposing more, Latin traditions that were foreign to the Malabar Christians. Also,, there were instances of European Latin missionaries illtreatment on, Nasrani priests and laymen. One such priest, Ikkako Kathanar of, Edapally was kidnapped and brutally murdered by the Carmelites at, Varappuzha. Four priests including Kariyattil and Paremmakkil, Kathanaars undertook a dangerous trip to Rome after assembly of, Nasranis at Angamaly. Although Kariyattil was appointed as the, archbishop of Malabar, he failed to reach Kodungallur. He had died in, the custody of Portuguese in Goa. It is alleged that he was assassinated., Rome or Latin delegates in India never bothered to replace the position, of Mar Kariyattil. Kariyattil was also authorised to oversee the reunion, of Puthenkoor. The Latins sabotaged all re-union efforts., If the line of Palliveettil Chandy Methran was continued, immediately afterwards, or Kariyattil had an immediate successor, after his death, the alliance of Pazhayakoor faction with Rome would, have been meaningful and the reunion with Puthenkoor faction would, have become a reality., In accordance with the Angamaly Padiyola, later centuries also, Pazhayakoor faction sent petitions in large volumes to the Chaldean, Patriarch. In response to some attempts, two bishops sent by the, Chaldean Patriarch Joseph VI Audo, Mar Thomas Rocos (in 1862, AD) and Mar Mellus (in 1874 AD), reached Malabar. Both bishops, managed get support from the faithful as they were eagerly waiting, for prelates who followed their rite. However their arrival resulted in, a division within Pazhayakoor faction., Father Chavara Kuriakose, being a saintly person fell into the trap, of the Latin prelates. Thus Mar Thoma Nasranis lost another, 66, , Indian Church History, , opportunity to re-unite themselves to the Catholic Patriarch of CoE., Mar Rocos tried to win Father Chavara over, and offered him Bishop’s, position, but Father Chavara humbly refused the offer. On September, 5, 1861, as a reply to Father Chavara’s petition to Rome, a letter was, received saying that Mar Rocos came to Malabar without the, permission from Rome. Later, Patriarch Joseph VI Audo himself, requested Mar Rocos to return back to Mesopotamia., However pro-Rocos Pazhayakoor faction was not ready to return, back to Latin delegates after Rocos went back. They sent a priest, named Anthony Thondanat to the Chaldean Patriarch to consecrate, him as a metropolitan. The Latin authorities in Mosul did not permit, the Patriarch to consecrate a bishop for India. Eventually, the Assyrian, Patriarch (non-Catholic faction of CoE) Mar Ruwel Shimun, consecrated Mar Abdisho Thondanat Metropolitan in 1862 (the nonCatholic Patriarch) and this was the beginning of the Chaldean Syrian, Church of the East (also known as Surais of Trichur)., During Mellusian schism, Rome sent a messenger to Malabar and, followed by that, the Chaldean Patriarch had to call Mar Mellus back., Mellus, returned only by 1882 AD, but by the time of his return, he, managed to get support from a sizeable number of Nasranis. When, the news of Papal intervention spread in Malabar, a significant number, of faithful returned back to being under the Latin delegates. The work, of Mar Mellus enabled Mar Abdisho Thondanat to begin functioning, as Metropolitan of India. In 1904 AD, they have received a, confirmation from the Assyrian Church of East that their Episcopal, ministration would be uninterrupted., Eventually the Pazhayakoor faction received an indigenous bishop,, but they did not continue the leadership of Archdeacon at any time in, their history as a separate group. Moreover, in the later centuries, their importance had again reduced to the status of a saffragan group, under in the Bishopric of Varappuzha. The Carmelites who were in, charge of the Church continued the process of Latinising. It was only, in the late 19th century that Rome realised its mistake that they had, latinised the Eastern churches (another example, Chaldean Church, of Iraq) that accepted the alliance of Pope. It was late, because many, of the native traditions and practices were wiped off by then. In 1887,, Pope named the Church as “Syro-Malabar Church” and two, independent vicariates (Kottayam and Thrissur) were formed. Prior, 67

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Indian Church History, , to this they did not forget to suppress traditional see of Nasranis in, Angamaly. Also, in 1886 AD, they created a new symbolic position, called Patriarch of East Indies in Goa., From the chart it can be seen that Syro-Malabar Church and, Chaldean Syrian Church of the East have derived from the, Pazhayakoor faction. Syro-Malabar Church is in full communion with, the Rome. It is one of the 22 sui iuris Oriental Churches with its own, particular characteristics in terms of worship, spirituality, theology and, disciplinary laws. The head of the Syro-Malabar Church is the Major, Archbishop. The Chaldean Syrian Church of the East is a metropolitan, see of the Assyrian Church of the East. Its head is a metropolitan, residing in Thrissur., Puthenkoor Faction, From the chart given above, it can be seen that the Puthenkoor, faction is divided into five Churches: The Jacobite Syrian Christian, Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, Mar Thoma Syrian, Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, and Malabar Independent, Syrian Church. Brief histories of undivided Puthenkoor faction and, these Churches are given below., After the united Malabar Church under Arkkadiyokkan got divided, into the Puthenkoor and Pazhayakoor factions, former faction anxiously, looked for getting the patronage of an Oriental Church. Their leader,, Mar Thoma I who was consecrated by 12 priests immediately after, the Coonan cross oath, contacted other oriental churches. In 1665, AD, Mor Gregorios, reached Malabar with the help of Dutch, navigators. The Puthenkoor faction enthusiastically welcomed him,, although he was following a rite that was foreign to Nasranis. Initially, liturgy of Puthenkoor faction was not different from that of, Pazhayakoor faction, i.e., East Syriac. A Later, the Dutch brought 3, Jacobite bishops from the Middle East and they introduced the West, Syriac (part of Antiochene liturgy). West Syriac liturgy was introduced,, but the writing system continued as East Syriac. Even after the, introduction of West Syriac, East Syrian liturgy was not continued to, be in use. By the fourth quarter of 19th century, Puthenkoor faction, adopted West Syriac language and liturgical traditions. Thus, although, through a gradual process, a new liturgical tradition has been introduced, among Nasranis. This made it even more challenging for a re-union, of the Nasrani Churches under a single head., 68, , Indian Church History, , In 1772 AD, Mar Thoma VI had received ordination from the, Jacobite Bishop, Mar Gregorios who visited Malabar. He accepted, the new title Mar Dionysius. It is not clear why Mar Thoma VI received, ordination again from Mar Gregorios as he received all holy orders, (from first tonsure to Episcopal ordination), for the second time. Some, claim that the predecessors of Mar Thoma VI might not have been, really ordained. Therefore, the Episcopal ordination of the Mar Thoma, I and his five successors is still in question since it is not clear whether, Mor Gregorios had ordained Mar Thoma I., First Split within Puthenkoor faction: Formation of Malabar, Independent Mar Thoma Church, As mentioned above Mar Thoma VI had received ordination from, the Jacobite Bishop, Mar Gregorios who visited Malabar. Due to, private reasons, Mar Gregorios executed a second Episcopal ordination, in secret in the Mulanthuruthy Church, elevating Rabban Kattumangatt, Kurien as Mar Koorilos. The ordination took place without the consent, or knowledge of other Bishops. However, strict interpretation of canon, law indicates that the ordination was valid., Mar Gregorios died in 1773 AD leaving all his assets to Mar, Koorilos. Mar Koorilos was recognised by the Rajah of Cochin and, he claimed jurisdiction of churches near Cochin area. Mar Dionysius, found Mar Koorilos as a threat to the existence of his position. He, approached the British Government for help and with the help of the, Kochi Rajah Mar Diosynius jailed Mar Koorilos. Mar Koorilos, succeeded in escaping from prison and withdrew from the area that, was under control of the Rajah of Cochin. He established himself in, Thozhiyoor, a small village under the control of Zamorin at the time., His Church later came to be known as Thozhiyoor Mar Thoma Church, or Malabar Independent Syrian Church. The liturgical traditions, followed by this Church are of West Syrian., Second Split with Puthenkoor faction: Formation of Mar Thoma, Syrian Church, In the later half of Eighteenth century, the British gained the control, on parts of Malabar Coast. During this period, they gave an Anglican, stamp to the Puthenkoor faction. Followed by the visit of Claudius, Buchanan, they succeeded to win about 40 of the 150 priests from, the Puthencoor faction and encouraged them to get married. In 1836, 69

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Indian Church History, , AD, the Anglican Bishop Wilson of Calcutta visited Malabar and, proposed a number of reformatory actions to be taken by the Anglican, sympathisers. To neutralise this, Mar Dionysius IV called for a synod, at Mavelikara. At this synod, it was acknowledged that the Jacobite, Church had jurisdiction over Malabar Church. Those who opposed, the decisions of synod left the Church and joined the Anglicans. But, this group itself was later divided. A group continued to stay with, Anglicans while the other decided to stay with Puthencoor faction,, but did not rejoin the mainstream. The leadership of latter group, sponsored Deacon Mathew from among its followers and sent him to, the Jacobite Patriarch who ordained him priest and then bishop. He, returned back in 1843 AD to Malabar as Mathew Mar Athanasius, and declared himself as the head of the Church., Mar Dionysius had to defend his position. He publicly accused, Mar Mathew Athanasius with embracing Anglicanism. On hearing, this, the Patriarch sent Euyakim Mar Koorilos Metropolitan for in the, role of trouble-shooter. Accepting the proposal of Mar Koorilos, Mar, Dionysius resigned from his office. But this did not end the rivalry, between the groups. Each groups competed for winning more, adherents. Mathew Mar Athanasius passed on his Episcopal ordination, to his nephew and he accepted the title Thomas Mar Athanasius., Meanwhile, Mar Koorilos sent one of his loyal priests to the Patriarch, and got him ordained as Mar Dionysius V. In 1875 AD, Patriarch, Peter III Ignatius visited Malabar. He realised that the popularity of, his followers were decreasing because of Mathew Mar Athanasius., He excommunicated Mar Mathew Athanasius and Thomas Mar, Athanasius. Soon, Mathew Mar Athanasius died and his successor, Thomas Mar Athanasius challenged the power of Patriarch in the civil, court. The court was in favour of the excommunication and from thereon,, the followers of Thomas Mar Athanasius styled themselves as reformed, Jacobites or reformed Orthodox. They came to be known as Mar, Thomites. At present Mar Thoma Syrian Church is a Church that is in, communion with the Church of South India, the Church of North India,, the Anglican Church and the Thozhiyoor Mar Thoma Church., The Jacobite Syrian Christian Church and Malankara Orthodox, Syrian Church, The mainstream Puthenkoor faction currently operates as two, independent Churches: Jacobite Syrian Christian Church and, 70, , Indian Church History, , Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. The dispute between them is, still going on and therefore a short description their historical events, are treated under the same heading as given below., In 1906 AD, a Jacobite Synod or the Government of Turkey, dismissed Patriarch Abdel-Messih and installed Abdalla in his place., In 1909, Patriarch Abdalla visited Malabar and claimed his power on, the temporalities of the Church as well. However, Mar Dionysius VI, challenged the claim of the patriarch. As a result, the Patriarch, excommunicated Mar Dionysius VI and nominated Mar Kurilos as, his successor. The excommunicated group of Mar Dionysius VI invited, Patriarch Abdel-Messih to Malabar. Upon his arrival, he created, bishops and elevated the most senior among them, Paulose Mar, Ivanios, as the Catholicos of the East. He also authorised his supporters, from Malabar to ordain Catholicos whenever the office fell vacant., This in effect, allowed the relocation of the post of a Patriarch to, Malabar., Meanwhile in 1930 AD, a group of Puthenkoor members submitted, themselves to Rome under the leadership of Mar Ivanios. The effort, for reunification started with the consent of his fellow bishops, but in, the end he was left alone with his suffragan Mar Theophilos., The group that recognised the power of Patriarch is popularly, known as ‘Bava Kakshi’ or ‘Patriarch party’. The group that attribute, the power of patriarch on only spiritual matters only is known as, Bishop Party or Methraan Kakshi. Since early twentieth century, the, two groups are fighting each other in Indian civil courts. Both groups, won and lost alternatively. Several attempts for settling the issues, between the groups occurred, but none was successful. In 1959,, Supreme Court of India legitimised into Bishop party. This verdict, enabled both groups to come to reconciliation. In 1974, Bishop party, stayed away from a Synod held in Damascus. The synod decided to, terminate the position of Catholicos and other heads. However it was, difficult to implement the decisions of the synod in the far away land, Kerala, an alternative arrangement was made. The patriarch party, also was granted a position of Catholicos. Since then, both groups, operate separately., Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Syro-Malankara Church was derived from Puthenkoor faction and, therefore its history until its foundation is the same as that of Jacobite, 71

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Indian Church History, , Syrian Church. Separate history of this Church starts with the reunion, of a group of Puthankoor to the Pazhayakoor through their communion, with Catholic Church. Since the separation of Malabar Church in, 1663, there were several attempts for reunification. However, none, were fruitful and in 1930 AD, a group of Puthenkoor members, submitted themselves to Rome under the leadership of Mar Ivanios., The effort for reunification started with the consent of his fellow, bishops, but in the end he was left alone with his suffragon Mar, Theophilos. In 1932, a new hierarchical setup was designated as SyroMalankara Church. The Church continued their West Syrian liturgical, tradition that they received during their communion with Jacobite, Church. The Syro-Malankara Church also constitutes those priests, and laity who joined the Catholic Church along with the leadership of, Paulos Mar Philexenos III (the head of Malabar Independent Syrian, Church of the time) in 1977 AD., Nasranis of Other Denominations, It should be mentioned also here that a number of Nasranis are, part of Latin Catholic Church, Church of South India and numerous, Pentecostal movements. Some Syro-Malabar churches were taken, over by the Latin dioceses since the arrival of Portuguese. Arthumkal,, Koonamavu etc. are few examples. Church of South India has a, diocese that is exclusive for Nasranis and they are in full communion, with Mar Thoma Syrian Church. During the past few decades a, number of Pentecostal movements have gained significant growth in, Kerala, particularly in the Northern districts. This is partly due to the, fights within the Churches., Summary and Conclusions, The attempts of the Latin missionaries to dominate and latinise the, Apostolic Nasrani community of Malabar eventually resulted in, numerous divisions and gradual decay of the Nasrani’s ancient way, of life and their liturgical practices (East Syriac rite)., The Syro-Malabar Church is the largest denomination of the Nasrani, community. This Church is struggling against Latinisation while, desperately clinging on to whatever is remaining of the ancient East, Syriac rite that was once common to all Mar Thoma Nasranis. They, did not continue the historical position of Arkadiyokkan, the title that, once reflected their pride and independence of Nasranis., 72, , Indian Church History, , The Syro-Malabar Church is in communion with the Latin Church, of Rome. The Latin hierarchy prevents the Church from establishing, new dioceses or even provide pastoral care to its migrants outside the, proper territory which is mostly limited to Kerala. This is the fate of a, Church with Apostolic origins and whose Metropolitans and, Archdeacons once had the Titles of ‘Director of the See of Saint, Thomas’ and ‘Archdeacon of All India’ respectively!, The Puthenkoor faction of the Nasranis, eventually gave up their, ancient East Syriac rite and adopted the West Syrian (Antiochian), rite of the Jacobites. The Jacobites were brought into the scene by, the Dutch and after re-union attempts with the Pazhayakoor faction, failed, the Puthenkoor eventually accepted the new rite. The historical, title Arkkadiyokkan was renamed into the “Throne of Mar Thoma”,, the metropolitan of the Church, although its traditional meaning has, diluted. This title “Mar Thoma” at present is followed by Mar Thoma, Syrian Church and Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church., Tensions grew within the Jacobite community over the level of, authority of the Jacobite Patriarch into the matters of their Church in, India. This led to further divisions in the Jacobite community and today, two major factions are literally fighting on the streets to gain control, of each other’s property., Whatever the reasons for divisions, it caused the degradation of, Mar Thoma Nasranis. Most of the divisions were due to power, struggles among the leaders. The laymen of ancient Nasranis had, significant role in Church-related matters. At present, Syro-Malabar, Church members are not aware about their own rich traditions and, struggles of ancestors to preserve their identity. The leaders of various, factions and denominations are responsible for the ignorance of their, people and do not take up attempts for unity of the Nasrani Churches, seriously. We, the members of the Syro-Malabar Church have the, most ancient practices and faithful liturgy of Mar Thoma Sleeha., Therefore it is our collective responsibility to preserve our unique, identity. Let us work and pray for the unity of Nasranis., , 73

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 7, , Syro-Malankara, Catholic Church, , The Syro-Malankara church counts about 500,000, members, the vast majority of whom live in India,, especially in the southern state of Kerala. Like other, Syrian Christians in India, members of the SyroMalankara church proudly trace their origin to Saint, Thomas the Apostle, who is said to have built seven, churches in India beginning in 52 AD and to have been, martyred near Chennai. Mar (Bishop) Ivanios led five, members of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church,, one group of heirs to the Thomas Christian legacy, to, join into communion with Rome in 1930. In 1932, the, Syro-Malankara church was officially established by, Pope Pius XI, under the leadership of Mar Ivanios., The adjective “Syro” in Syro-Malankara, like the, broader term “Syrian Christian,” refers not to Syrian, ethnicity in India, but to the liturgical rite that the, Christians celebrate. As K.C. Zachariah observes, “most, 74, , of the present-day Syrian Christians are descendants of converts from, among Hindus. There may be some faint traces of Syrian blood in a, few Syrian Christian families, but the vast majority of the community, today belongs to one or other of an Indian race, Dravidian or Aryan., In language, dress and other customs, they do not differ from their, Hindu counterparts.”, Syro-Malankara liturgy is referred to as the Holy Qurbono, and, the liturgy defines the church’s identity. By the church’s own, description, “The whole life of piety of the oriental faithful is centered, on their liturgy. They do not have very many pious exercises as the, Christians of the Western Church. Their life of prayer is lived in and, through the liturgical celebrations.”, Historical Overview of the Church, The Church of St Thomas in India got rooted in the socio-cultural, milieu of India and developed her own ecclesial, liturgical, spiritual, and administrative traditions. This was in communion with the, Universal Church through her ecclesial communion with the Churches, of the Middle East. Besides the Metropolitan of all India, there was, also a leader of the St Thomas Christians, a priest with the title, “Archdeacon of all India” who played a vital role in the day-to-day, administration of the Church. This Apostolic Church was in Catholic, Communion from the very early centuries. It came in contact with, the Syro-Chaldean Church of the Middle East and consequently, adopted the East Syrian Liturgy. In the sixteenth century, this Apostolic, Church came into direct relationship with the Western Church through, the Portuguese missionaries. The Portuguese extended the Padroado, agreement in their evangelization programme over India and wanted, to bring the Indian Church of the St Thomas Christians under this, jurisdiction. The Church in India which was rooted in the socio-cultural, environment and which enjoyed autonomy in internal administration, in communion with the Universal Church resisted the unwanted, intervention of the Portuguese who brought with them the, Western ecclesiastical traditions. The Portuguese missionaries,, ignorant of the Oriental traditions of the Indian Church, had the, conviction that anything different from the Western Church was schism, and heresy. Hence they wanted to latinize the Syrian Christians of, India. In 1599 Archbishop Alexis Menezis convoked a Synod of, 75

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Indian Church History, , Diamper (Udayamperoor) and imposed latin practices and ritual, traditions on the Apostolic Church of India. This was a blow to the, identity of the Indian Church. However, the relation continued till the, beginning of the second half of the seventeenth century. The Church, of St Thomas Christians could not withstand any more the denial of, her autonomy. The initial resistance slowly gave way to discontentment,, which ended up with the revolt in 1653 known as the Koonan Cross, Oath. Thus, the one Church of the St Thomas Christians was split, into two. A large majority of the broken-away-group hesitated to sever, ties with Rome and they remained in communion with Rome, but,, under the Latin Hierarchy. This group came to be called the, Pazhayakûttukar, while the other was known as Puthenkûttukar. The, latter group made several attempts for reunion with Rome safeguarding, their autonomy and patrimony. Failing to re-establish communion with, Rome, they happened to come in communion with the Jacobite Syrian, Church of Antioch. These developments were not acts against the, Apostolic See of Rome but against the Portuguese missionaries and, their policy of latinization. Even after the communion with the Jacobite, See of Antioch, the Malankara Prelates Mar Thomas I (+1670), Mar, Thomas II (+1686), Mar Thomas III (+1688), Mar Thomas IV (+1728),, Mar Thomas V (+1765), Mar Thomas VI (+1808) and Mar Thomas, VII (+1815) one after the other had attempted reunion with the Holy, See, but all ended up in failure., The Puthenkur community came under the influence of the British, missionaries in the 19th century. From 1815 till 1836, the year of the, Synod of Mavelikara, the British missionaries propagated Protestant, ideology among the Puthenkûttukar. This paved the way to the, formation of the Mar Thoma Church under the leadership of, Palakunnath Abraham Malpan and Mar Athanasios, who was, consecrated Bishop by the Patriarch of Antioch. In ordern to outdo, the reformists Mar Divannasios approached the Patriarch of Antioch., Patriarch Peter III arrived in Malankara and in the Synod of, Mulanthuruthy (1876) the Malankara Church had to accept the, authority of the Patriarch of Antioch over this Church. Since then, the, Malankara Church had contended that the Patriarch’s authority was, only in spiritual matters. It was in this contentious context that Patriarch, Mar Abdulla who came to Malankara, excommunicated Vattasseril, Mar Divannasios in the year 1911. In this turbulent situation Fr P.T., 76, , Indian Church History, , Geevarghese (later Archbishop Mar Ivanios) played a vital role in, reinstating the position of the excommunicated Metropolitan and in, regaining the self-governance of the Malankara Church. To ward off, the undue interference of Patriarch Abdulla in the administration of, the temporalities of the Church, Fr P.T. Geevarghese with the blessing, of Vattasseril Mar Divannasios contacted Abded M’siha, the Patriarch, of Antioch from whom Mar Abdulla usurped the Patriarchal See of, Antioch, and invited him to visit Malankara and to establish a, Catholicate here. Accordingly, Patriarch Abded M’siha came to, Malankara in 1912 and established the Malankara Catholicate. Thus, the Malankara Church in India became an autonomous Church under, its head the Catholicos. Moran Mor Baselios Paulos I (1912-1913),, the first Catholicos, was called to eternal rest after a short period of, five months on 13 May 1913., After the demise of Catholicos Baselios Paulos I, the See, remained vacant until 1925. That was a period of litigations in the, Malankara Church and also a period of spiritual renewal. The, litigation for Vattippanam (a fixed deposit of money in the name of, the Church) and its after-effects in the community was at its zenith., Fr P.T. Geevarghese who loved his Church was moved by the Spirit, of God. He realised that only a spiritual awakening of the Church, would give a lasting solution to the problems of the Church. He, himself took to sanyâsa (Religious Life) and founded the Order of, the Imitation of Christ also called Bethany Ashram in the year 1919., The first Ashram was erected at Mundanmala of Ranni Perunad in, Kerala. In 1925 he founded the community of the Sanyasins, the, Sisters of the Imitation of Christ also called Bethany Madhom. From, these two religious communities winds of spiritual fervour and, renaissance blew across Malankara. By a decision of the Episcopal, Synod, on 30 April 1925 Moran Mor Baselios Geevarghese I was, installed as Catholicos. On the following day, the Catholicos, consecrated Fr P. T. Geevarghese with the name Geevarghese Mar, Ivanios as the Bishop of Bethany., Malankara Reunion Movement, On 1 November 1926, the Episcopal Synod held at Parumala near, Tiruvalla, Kerala, decided to open negotiations again with Rome for, 77

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Indian Church History, , communion with the Catholic Church in order to establish peace in, Malankara. The Synod authorised Mar Ivanios, the Bishop of Bethany,, to make necessary correspondence with Rome regarding communion., He earnestly followed up the mandate of the Synod., The Second Catholicos expired on 17 December 1928. Moran, Mor Baselios Geevarghese II succeeded the late Catholicos. On the, day following his installation, he consecrated Mar Theophilos of, Bethany and Mar Gregorios of Pampady as Bishops. In the meantime,, the civil court’s decision on the litigation for Vattipanam was declared, in favour of the Malankara Orthodox Church. This was a civil legal, backing up for the Malankara Orthodox Church and consequently it, stepped out from the endeavours of communion with Rome., After prolonged negotiations, the plenary session of the Sacred, Congregation for the Oriental Churches, which met on 4 July 1930,, took the final decision on the issue of the communion of the Malankara, Church. But only Mar Ivanios the Metropolitan of Bethany and his, suffragan Jacob Mar Theophilos stood by the early decision of the, Synod. Mar Ivanios and Mar Theophilos along with Rev. Fr John, Kuzhinapurath OIC, Deacon Alexander OIC and Mr Chacko Kilileth, made their profession of faith before Bishop Aloysius Maria Benziger, OCD of the Diocese of Quilon and entered into full communion with, the Catholic Church on 20 September 1930., Metropolitan Archbishop Geevarghese Mar Ivanios (19301953), His Holiness Pope Pius XI made an interim canonical provision, for the administration of the reunited faithful through the papal, document Magnum Nobis dated 11 February 1932. As the Reunion, Movement gained momentum, Archbishop Mar Ivanios made three, personal visits to Holy Father Pope Pius XI on 26 April, 2 May and 11, May 1932. The Holy Father vested Mar Ivanios with sacred pallium, on 2 May 1932., Pope Pius XI through the Apostolic Constitution Christo Pastorum, Principi of 11 June 1932, established the Syro-Malankara Hierarchy, for the reunited community and erected the Archieparchy of, Trivandrum with the Eparchy of Tiruvalla as its suffragan. Thus, the, 78, , Indian Church History, , Malankara Church re-entered into the hierarchical communion with, the Catholic Church. The Syro-Malankara Catholic Hierarchy came, into existence through the inauguration of the Metropolitan Eparchy, of Trivandrum on 11 May 1933 and His Grace Mar Ivanios was, enthroned as its first Metropolitan- Archbishop. His Grace Mar, Augustine Kandathil, the Archbishop of Ernakulam, His Excellency, Bishop Aloysius Maria Benziger OCD, the Bishop of Quilon, His Grace, Mar James Kalassery, the Archbishop of Changanassery, His, Excellency Mar Alexander Choolaparambil, the Bishop of Kottayam, and His Excellency Jacob Mar Theophilos were present on the, occasion. The Eparchy of Tiruvalla was inaugurated on 6 November, 1933 and Most Rev. Jacob Mar Theophilos was enthroned as its first, Bishop., The reunion of Archbishop Mar Ivanios with the Catholic Church, was a historical event in the universal Church, which inspired many, of the Malankarites including the Bishops of the Orthodox Church., On 29 November 1937, Most Rev. Joseph Mar Severios, Metropolitan, of Niranam of the Malankara Orthodox Church reunited with the, Catholic Church. Later, Most Rev. Thomas Mar Dioscoros, the, Metropolitan of the Knanaya Jacobite Church, reunited with the, Catholic Church on 12 November 1939., In God’s providence, the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church engaged, in her double mission of communion of the Malankara Orthodox Church, and evangelisation. The Church began to increase in number. With the, blessing of Archbishop Mar Ivanios, Rt. Rev. Msgr Joseph Kuzhinjalil, founded the missionary congregation of the Daughters of Mary in 1938, at Marthandom in Kanyakumari District. Through the great zeal of, these missionaries, the mission of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, spread to the southern regions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu., On 21 February 1943 Bishop Thomas Mar Dioscoros passed, away and was buried at St. Mary’s Malankara Catholic Church,, Thirumoolapuram (Tiruvalla) where he had been residing. Mar, Ivanios worked relentlessly for the building up of the Syro-Malankara, Catholic Church. Through his travels abroad (Rome and other, European countries, America and Australia) he spread the message, of ecclesial communion and the awareness of the mission of the, 79

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Indian Church History, , Syro-Malankara Catholic Church in the Universal Church. After a, period of 22 years of strenuous hectic task of organizing and, administering the Syro- Malankara Catholic Church he fell ill for, more than a year. Nevertheless, His Grace consecrated Benedict, Mar Gregorios as his Auxiliary on 29 January 1953. Archbishop, Mar Ivanios passed away on 15 July 1953 and was entombed at St, Mary’s Cathedral, Trivandrum., The Eparchy of Tiruvalla was also making strides in its growth, and development under the leadership of Jacob Mar Theophilos and, Joseph Mar Severios. Mar Severios was the administrator of the, Eparchy until 1950 due to the ill-health of Mar Theophilos. On 5 May, 1950 he was appointed as the Bishop of Tiruvalla. He was also invested, with the title ‘Archbishop’by the Holy See. He was called to eternal, rest on 18 January 1955., Metropolitan Archbishop Benedict Mar Gregorios (1953-1994), Most Rev. Benedict Mar Gregorios was enthroned as the, Metropolitan- Archbishop of Trivandrum and the Head of the SyroMalankara Catholic Church on 27 January 1955. Under the spiritual, renewal, the pastoral guidance and the social commitment of, Archbishop Benedict Mar Gregorios, the Church began to flourish in, its various dimensions. A significant development of this period is the, organization of the Syro- Malankara Catholic Faithful in India, outside, the canonical territorial boundaries of the Church. From being organized, as Malankara Catholic Associations, the communities of our faithful, living in the Metropolitan cities of India came to be erected as personal, parish communities. St Mary’s Malankara Major Seminary was, inaugurated at Pattom on 29 June 1983 with Philosophy course and, afterwards it was shifted to the new building at Nalanchira, Trivandrum,, which was blessed on 25 May 1989., His Grace the Metropolitan-Archbishop Mar Gregorios was called, to eternal rest on 10 October 1994 after an eventful service of 41, years and was entombed on 12th October at the side of his great, predecessor at St.Mary’s Cathedral, Pattom. It is to be specially, mentioned that His Grace Mar Gregorios participated in all sessions, of the Second Vatican Council and the subsequent Synod of Bishops, in Rome. He served as President of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference, of India in 1988-1989., 80, , Indian Church History, , Major Archbishop - Catholicos Moran Mor Cyril Baselios, (1995-2007), His Holiness Pope John Paul II appointed Most Rev. Cyril Mar, Baselios, as the successor of His Grace Benedict Mar Gregorios in, November 1994. On 10 February 2005, a day engraved in golden, letters in the history of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, His, Holiness Pope John Paul II raised this Church to the status of a Major, Archiepiscopal Church and appointed the then Metropolitan, Archbishop as Major Archbishop of the Syro-Malankara Catholic, Church through the Papal Bull Ab ipso Sancto Thoma On Thursday,, 18 January 2007, His Beatitude Moran Mor Cyril Baselios, the first, Major Archbishop-Catholicos of the Syro- Malankara Catholic Church, slept in the Lord., Major Archbishop-Catholicos Moran Mor Baselios Cardinal, Cleemis (2007), The Holy Episcopal Synod of the Malankara catholic Church, elected His Grace Most Rev. Dr Isaac Mar Cleemis, the Metropolitan, Archbishop of Tiruvalla as the new Major Archbishop-Catholicos of, the Syro Malankara Catholic Church and the Major Archbishop of, Trivandrum. His Holiness Pope Benedict XVI confirmed the election, on 9 Archbishop-Catholicos of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, and the Major Archbishop of Trivandrum on 5 March 2007 at St Mary’s, Cathedral, Pattom. His installation service was officiated by Most, Rev. Geevarghese Mar Divannasios, the Synodal Administrator of, the Church. Moran Mor Baselios Cleemis Catholicos, the Major, Archbishop of Trivandrum, was appointed Cardinal by His Holiness, Pope Benedict XVI on 24 October 2012 and create him the new, Cardinal of the Universal Church in the Syro-Malankara Catholic, Church in the Consistory held on 24 November 2012. His Beatitude, Moran Mor Baselios Cardinal Cleemis is the first Cardinal of the, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church and the youngest of the universal, Church., , 81

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , century. All of the early Portuguese accounts mentions that there, exist Christian community before the arrival of Thomas of Cana in, Malabar., , Chapter 8, , This chapter examines 1) Arrival of Thomas of Cana (Bishop, Thomas of Cana ?), 2) About the name , 3) About the year of, Arrival,4) Southist Version of the tradition, 5) Tekkumbhagar, (Southist)/ Knanaya 6) Bishop Thomas of Cana,7) About the, Northists and Southists division, 8) About the Churches at Cranganore, 9) Summary, 1. Arrival of Thomas of Cana (Bishop Thomas of Cana ?), , The Southists (Knanaya), , A, , merchant or Bishop named Thomas of Cana (also, known as Knanaya Thommen or Thomas of Knanaya, this being a recent addition) is connected with the history, of the community of St. Thomas Christians. The details, about this merchant or bishop are shrouded in mystery, and there is no agreement on the year/period of his, arrival, or from where he arrived, or on what grounds, or whether he was a Bishop or merchant., There exist a division among the Christians in, Malabar as Northists (Vadakkumbhagar) and Southists, (Thekkumbhagar). The Northists (Vadakkumbhagar), are known as Christians of Saint Thomas. The latter, ie,, the Southists (Thekkumbhagar) are today known with, the name “Knanaya”. This division as it seems, has, started very late after many centuries after the arrival, of Thomas of Cana in 9th century. The earliest, Portuguese accounts are silent about such a division, and we get some information only by the end of sixteenth, 82, , Scholars like Dr. Mingana has been very critical on the legendary, nature Kerala Christianity assigns to Thomas of Cana since eighteenth, century. There is a tendency especially among Southists to exaggerate, the events associated and contributions of Thomas of Cana. There is, no general agreement concerning the traditions associated with the, arrival of Thomas of Cana. Some assign him as a merchant, and, others assign him as a Bishop ordained by Patriarch Timothy 1 in 9th, century. Scholars such as J S. Assemani (1728), Lequien (1740), S., Giamil (1902), A Mingana (1926), Tisserant (1957), Hambye etc dates, the arrival of Bishop Thomas of Cana in 9th century. According to, many scholars Thomas of Jerusalem, a merchant and the Bishop, Thomas of Canaare two persons who arrived in Malabar at different, times in history., a) Portuguese references about Thomas of Cana, Some reference about Thomas of Cana, can also be seen in, sixteenth century Portuguese writings of Penteado (1518),, Dionysio (1578), Correa (1564), Antonio Monserrate (1579), Antonio, de Gouvea (1604), Chaldean Bishop Mar Jacob Abuna (1533) and, on the report of the Bishop Franics Roz in 1604, Testimony, , Year, , Gist of the Report, , Penteado, , 1518, , Armenian merchant., Quarrel between two, sons of the merchant., , Mar Jacob Abuna, , 1533, , Merchant died at Cranganore, 83

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Indian Church History, , Correa, , Indian Church History, , 1564, , Adds the Merchant met and, stayed with a Servant of, Apostle Thomas at Cranganore, before buying his own land, , Dionysio, , 1578, , Merchant, Thomas, married a, woman of Cranganore. United, Christians who are already there, and those he converted, , Monserrate, , 1579, , Thomas of Cana found Christians, in Quilon and Cranganore, who, descended from the disciples of, the Apostle Saint Thomas and he, united them, , Bishop Francis Roz, , 1604, , Thomas had a wife and a, concubine. King gave him land, , over that land. They serve the king of Cochin while to the Christians, are reserved merely the honor and the title., 2. Bishop Mar Jacob Abuna, Chaldean Bishop Mar Jacob Abuna in 1533 makes references, about a merchant. He writes that, a merchant from the country of, Canane came to Mylapore on pilgrimage. After finding that all the, houses there are in ruins, and being convinced that nothing could be, done to restore them, he passed over to Cranganore. In Cranganore, he, bought some land and built on it a church which was there at the time, Abuna gave his testimony. The merchant died while living there and, was buried in it., 3. Correa (1564), Correa (1564), follows Abuna’s version but adds that the Armenian, merchant met in Cranganore a servant of the Apostle Thomas. The, merchant lodged with him before buying his own plot of ground., 4. Dionysio (1578), , 1. Penteado ( 1518), The earliest reference is from a Portuguese report written, by Penteado in 1518 .He narrates the origins of the Christians of, St. Thomas both in Quilon and Cranganore to the king of Portugal., The first origins are from the Apostle Thomas. For the period after, St. Thomas, as far as Cranganore is concerned, there came an, Armenian merchant advanced in age. Since he had no hope of, returning home, he bought an unoccupied land with all its income, from the King of the place. He got the property rights both of land, and water within the bounds of this land. According to the testimony, there was evidence for this at that time. He had two sons. His elder, son inherited the income of the land which the merchant bequeathed, to the church, at the time of his death. The second son was made a, judge over his slaves whom the father had bought, freed and, converted. Between these Sons there arose disputes. Each gathered, a faction around him. The elder son was defeated in a faction fight., He called in the Jews to help him. The Jews expelled from their, land not only those Christians under the second son, against whom, they were called in, but also the other Christians who had solicited, their help. According to him, in 1518, these Jews are the masters, 84, , Dionysio (1578) puts the arrival of Thomas of Cana after that of, Mar Sabrisho and Mar Piruz. He is described as a native of Babylon, and a merchant. He embarked at Cranganore and began to trade., Being rich and influential, he made friends with the King of the place., The King gave him a plot of land of about 500 square yards to erect, a church in honor of St. Thomas. He united all the Christians who, were already there, and those whom he himself had made Christians, (converted). He obtained many donations from the King for the church., According to this from that time onwards Christianity prospered., The merchant, Thomas, married a woman of that place, and became, the peer of the Nairs, the aristocracy of the land, and a warlike people., Only the Nairs served the king because all other castes were low, castes when compared with the Nairs. If a low-caste man happened, to touch a Nair, the Nair would bathe to remove the pollution of the, touch. They live on allowances from the kings. The Christians were, the equals of the Nairs in status, and they too live on allowances, made to them by the Kings. It would be 752 years since this Thomas, came from Babylon. All this is known from an inscription on sheets of, iron. Then the author adds that only this was known with certainty, about the origins of these Christians from the information gathered, 85

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , from books and from tradition handed down by old people and by, catanars (Kathanars), i.e., their priests., , On an opportune day the church was inaugurated and the said Thomas, entered the church and made his prayers., , 5. Monserrate (1579), , Sometime after, Thomas went to the king and offered him presents, and formally asked the king to give him and to his descendants the, said land. The king accordingly measured 264 eIls with an elephant, and gave it to Thomas and his descendants, together with 62 houses, which they had built in that place, with gardens and trees, with the, circuits and ways and boundaries and the interior pathways. Roz, continues to describe the privileges and rights the king gave him., , Monserrate (1579) says when Thomas of Cana came, he found, Christians in Quilon and Cranganore. They have descended from the, disciples of the Aposlte Saint Thomas. These Christians were nominal, and they married with Nairs. They just had crosses and Christian, names. Thomas of Cana made them a united community and took, care to preserve their superiority of caste., 6. Francis Roz’s (1603/04- From (British Library MS Add-9853), Bishop Francis Roz‘s main information is derived from the, interpretation of the Copper plates said to be of Thomas of Cana (the, interpretation of that time ?). It says during the time of last Xeram, Perumal, Thomas Cananeo came from Babylon. He gave the King a, good sum of money. He bought the whole of shrubland and founded, on it the Church of Saint Thomas and the bazaar. Howerever, already, many years before the Church was built, there was in that place, Patanam a Church and a large village of the Christians., In this Report on the Serra, Bishop Roz also gives an account of, the translation of the Olla which the said Xeram Perumal gave to, Thomas Cananeo. According to him (interpretation of the olla ?) , the, Xeram (Xoran) Perumal reigning at the time of Mercury of February,, on the 7th day of March before the full moon, the same king residing, in Carnelur (?), there arrived in a ship Thomas of Cana, a chief man,, determined to see the surroundings of the East. The king being, informed of it, went out to meet him. Thomas disembarked and stood, before the king who spoke to him friendly and imposed on him the, surname of Coquarangon Cananeo, after the king’s own name., Thomas accepted this honor and went to settle down himself in his, place. The king gave him for ever the town of Magoder Patanam., Afterwards the king assigned to the new-corner a place covered with, brushwood marking its boundaries and asked him to build a town, there. Thomas wanted the place for himself and the king granted it to, him. Thomas built there a church and his own house; the corner stone, of both were laid by the king himself. The whole place was converted, into a town which was given by the king to Thomas as an inheritance., 86, , Bishop Roz also says, “he could find the name of Thomas of, Cananeo, among the names of the saints whom the decon names in, the Mass, attributing to him that he gave a large sum of money to the, King of Malavar to buy that ground of Cranganor”., Further Bishop Francis Roz opinionated that , he consider “it to be, fable what these Christians narrate, namely that the said Thomas had, a wife and a concubine from whom are descended the two kinds of, Christians living in this Malavar”., Regarding the lineage Bishop Francis Roz says, these Christians, are descending from Thomas of Cana on the father’s side. Their, mother was a Malabar heathen who got herself baptized later., 2. About the Name, Reported by, , Year, , Name, , Penteado, Mar Jacob Abuna, , 1518, 1533, , Armenian merchant, From the country of Canane, , Correa, , 1564, , Thome Cana, , Dionysio, , 1578, , Quinai Thorné, , Monserrate, , 1579, , Mar Thomé, , Bishop Francis Roz, , 1604, , Thome Cananeo, , Penteado (1518) merely calls him an Armenian merchant without, giving his name. Mar Jacob Abuna (1533) mentions from the country, of Canane. Correa (1564) call him as Thomé of Canane. Dionysio, (1578) call him as Quinai Thorné.He was mentioned as Mar Thomé, by Monserrate (1579) and Gouvea (1604) and as Thome Cananeo, by Roz (1604)., 87

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , The Malayalam form is generally Canai Thomman and is better, expressed by Dionysio than others. Mar Thomé is from the Syriac., 3. About the year of Arrival, , (Gabriel), a Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) bishop. The document is now, preserved in the University library of Leyden. The contents of this, document are not historically reliable.2, , Reported by, , Year, , Year of arrival, , Dionysio, Gouvea, , 1578, 1604, , After the 9th Century, 9th Century, , In 1939, Joseph Chazhikaden (a member of Southist Community), promulgated a bold Southist legend. He published a Malaylam book, “Tekkumbhagasamudayam Charitram” [History of the Southist, Community]. The English version of the book had the title, “The Syrian, Colonisation of Malabar”. The English title is not an exact rendering, of the Malayalam title of the original book. This book is a rambling, collection of the noble origins and tradition of the Southists. A major, section is devoted to a remarkably extended division narrative between, the Northist (Christians of Saint Thomas) and Southist, (Thekkumbhagar). Chazhikaden’s Southists are unique from the most, ancient time and their uniqueness is not Christian but Jewish., , Visscher, , 1743, , 745 AD, , 5. Tekkumbahagar ( Southists) / Knanaya, , Hugh, , 780 AD, , Assemani, , 900 AD, , There are no evidences that Christians in Kerala were known in, different distinguish names prior Sixteenth century., , The earliest available report seems to be of Dionysio. Dionysio, (1578) gives the arrival of Thomas of Cana after Mar Sabrisho and, Mar Piruz ie, after 9th century. Gouvea (1604) also dates the arrival, in 9th century. The Dutch writer Visscher (1743) also gives the date, as 745 AD. Hugh gives the date as 780 AD. Assemani in 900 AD., Paolo gives the arrival as 825 AD. Some of the 16th century records, doesn’t mention the dates., , Paolo, Local document, , 825 AD, th, , 18 Century, , 345 AD (also according to, current Southist tradition), , The Southists (Thekkumbhagar- Knanaya) tradition gives the year, as 345 AD. This is based on an eighteenth century document., 4. Southist Version of the Tradition, The tradition current among the Southists (known today with the, recently coined term Knanayas), is that about the year 345 AD, 72, families came to Malabar Coast along with a Bishop under the, leadership of Cnai (Knanaya) Thomman. This was based on the divine, intervention of Catholicios of East to send Thomas, a merchant of, Jerusalem for the service of Christians of Malabar as they were, deprived of priests and partly reverted to idolatry.King Cheraman, Perumal honored them with many titles and privileges which were, recorded in some Copper plates., This version is generally based on a record written in Malayalam, and Syriac about 1770, and secured through the care of Gavril, 88, , The Malayalam name used to distinguish this division is, “Tekkumbhagar”. The English equivalent is ”Southist”. They are, commonly known as Tekkumbhagar., The Joseph Chazhikaden book (1939) is titled as “Tekkumbhagasamudayam Charitram” [History of the Southist Community]. The, book of Dr. Jacob Kollaparampil (1992) is also titled as “The, Babylonian origin of the Southists”., In late 1980’s some Malankra Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) Southist, has started using the name “Knanaya”. In less than a decade, the, new name Knanaya mostly replaced the old Tekkumbhagar (Southist), among both the Malankara Orthodox Church (Jacobite) and Syro, Malabar Church (Catholic) Southists., The other name commonly used are “Charam Kettikal” (ash- tiers)., This name has its orgin from an old custom practiced by members of, this community in carrying a little ash in the corner of the sari or dhoti, (mundu). They were also known as “Anchara Pallikar” in 17th/18th, centuries, meaning owners of five and half churches., 89

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Indian Church History, , 6. Bishop Thomas of Cana, Regarding this Thomas of Cana, some of the historians say he, was not a merchant but a Bishop send by the Patriarch Timothy 1 in, 9th century., J S. Assemani, who came across the story, makes reference to, the arrival in India of Bishop Thomas Cana, about A.D. 825. He, believes that his ‘wives’ were the two cities of Cranganore and, Angamale where he had jurisdiction., Furthermore, S. Giamil when studying the Leyden text and, Assernani’s explanation logically concluded that there were two, missions: first came the merchant, Thomas of Jerusalem, accompanied, by Joseph, the anonymous Metropolitan of Edcssa. Then there arrived,, in A.D. 8oo, Bishop Thomas Cana., A. Mingana while analyzing the Lyden text which mentions the, arrival of Thomas of Cana in 345 AD writes, “if this Thomas is an, historical personage, he is different from Thomas Cana, another, problematical Bishop of Malabar, in about 823 AD. The scene of this, merchant Thomas is placed according to Malabar tradition in 345, AD. In this year the Catholics of East was Barba- Shemin , the nephew, of the great Simon bar Sabba (Bedjan- “ Acta Martyrum” ii, 296-303,, Assemani-”Acta Mart,i,111-117, Sozomen -Hist. Eccl,ii,14etc) and was, in prison from February 345 to 9 January 346, in which he suffered, martyrdom. After him, the See was vacant for twenty years. Before, the time Catholics was Shahdost, who was himself martyred in 342, and after him the See had become vacant for two years ( Amr-”De, Pant” p-12, Mari-” De Pat”,pp 16-18, Bedjan, ibd,ii, 276-280 etc)., In their short time of office, during the persecution of Sapor, not, one of the above Catholics whose time was mostly spend in prison, could have possibly attended to the business of a merchant Thomas, from Jerusalem. The whole story is absolutely unhistorical., I believe that this very late Malabar Syrian tradition might have, made a stupid chronological mistake of about four centuries and a, half : but then this unhistorical Thomas was a simple merchant and, not a bishop, while the possibly historical Thomas Cana was a bishop., No one can fathom the depth of stupidity to which a late and worthless, tradition may lead a critic”, 90, , Indian Church History, , According to A. Mingana, the Bishop Thomas of Cana lived, between 795-824 AD. His seat seems to have been a town in the, coast of Malabar. There is hardly any reasonable doubt that if this, Bishop Thomas has any historical personality at all, he is to be counted, among the monks whom the Patriarch Timothy I selected, as the, historian Thomas of Marga inform us, ordained bishops and sent to all, the countries of the East., So according to him, even if there is some historical background, for the mission attributed to A.D. 345, it must be distinguished from, the coming of Bishop Thomas Cana., Cardinal Tisserant also mentions that there arrived Persian, immigrants with Bishop Thomas about 774 or 795. There is a possibility, of identifying Bishop Thomas with a certain monk, Thomas who was, ordained as a missionary prelate by Timothy I E R Hambye writes,, the first group of Christian immigrants reached about 774/795 AD. It, was led by a Bishop called Thomas, perhaps the monk Thomas, consecrated by Catholicios Timothy I., 7. About Northist and Southist Division, There exist a division among the Christians in Malabar as Northists, (Vadakkumbhagar) and Southists (Thekkumbhagar). This division as, it seems has started very late after the arrival of Thomas of Cana in, 9th century. Most of the early Portuguese accounts doesn’t mention, about any division among the Christians in Kerala. There is much, controversy among the St. Thomas Christians themselves, in assigning, the cause for the division as questions of prestige, nobility and caste, are involved in the matter. These groups are known in Malayalam as, Thekkumbhagar (Southists) and Vadakkumbhagar (Northists)., It is Bishop Franics Roz in the “Report on the Serra (1603/1604)”,, British Library MS Add-9853 gives some information about the, quarrels. It appears that this separation in 1603 lead to the building of, separate churches. This was also limited in Cranganore., The Southists generally claim that they are the descendants of, Thomas Cana and of others who came with him from abroad and, have kept their blood pure without intermingling with the natives. In, 1939, Chazhikaden has taken it to another level claiming that the, Southist are Jewish Christians. The Northist, ie Christians of Saint, 91

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Thomas, according to them whether they lived in Malabar before or, after the arrival of Thomas Cana, had mixed with the natives, , Correa, , 1564, , No mention of any division, among the Christians in Malabar., , The Northist version for the cause of the division is given in an old, manuscript called Sloane MS, 2743 at the British Museum. The, substance of the Northist version is that the Southists are descendants, of those in Malabar (Cranganore) consequent to the arrival of Thomas, Cana, who entered into marriage relations with the children of a native, woman. This native woman was of the Mainatoo caste(Washer, Women) who was a servant of Thomas of Cana. Other stories trace, the origins of the Southists to a dobi, a washerwoman, whom Thomas, of Cana took as concubine., , Goes, , 1566, , No mention of any division, among the Christians in Malabar., , Dionysio, , 1578, , No mention of any division, among the Christians in Malabar., , Monserrate, , 1578, , First clear report on division., Two wife of Thomas of Cana., , Gouvea, , 1604, , Christians of Cana are the, Christians with Thomas of Cana, lineage. The division was not, known among the Christians of, Travancore and Todamala, , Bishop Francis Roz, , 1604, , One group were the descendants, of Thomas of Cana and the, other, the descendants of those, Christians who lived there before, the arrival of Thomas of Cana., Those descending from Thomas, of Cana are on the father’s side, (for the mother was a Malabar, woman convert)., , Bishop Francis Roz, , 1604, , Gives reasons for the quarrels, and what lead to the formation, of separate churches at Carturte, (Kaduthuruthy) and Cotete, (Kottayam) for Thekumbhagar., , Bishop Francis Roz, , 1604, , In 1603, quarrels at Udiamper, (Udaymperoor), and Candanate., Christians of St. Thomas, descending from Thomas Cana, are few. They are in Udiamper, (Udaymperoor) and in the big, church of Carturte (Kaduthuruthy), and the big Church of Cotete, (Kottayam) and in Turigure. (Torure), , These arguments revolve on the legitimate and illegitimate children, of Thomas of Cana. Traditions associated with Thomas of Cana was, a shared tradition among the Christians in Kerala. These arguments, might have been invented to express the odium and hatred each, community bore against the other., The Southist claims and charges are expressed in the book of, Joseph Chazhikadan, “Tekkumbhagasamudayam Charitram” - History, of the Southists - (in Malayalam) published in 1940. They have been, disputed from the Northist side by Joseph Kurmanakan in the book,, “The Southists and Northists” published in 1941. The latest is “The, Babylonian origin of the Southists” published in 1992 by Dr. Jacob, Kollaparampil. This is an extension of Chazhikadan theme, where, Kollaparampil has refuted some of the charges and expanded on the, latest noble Jewish Christian claims of the Southist., a) Portuguese References about the Northist-Southist division, Reported by, , Year, , Gist of the Report, , Penteado, , 1518, , Quarrel between the two Sons, of Armenian Merchant and the, consequences of the quarrel., , Mar Jacob Abuna, , 1533, , No mention of any division, among the Christians in Malabar., , Barros, , 1553, , No mention of any division, among the Christians in, Malabar., , 92, , 93

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Indian Church History, , 1. Penteado (1518), , Indian Church History, , From the early Portuguese documents, Penteado in 1518 seems to, assign the origin of the division when he speaks of the quarrel between, the two Sons of Thomas of Cana and the consequences of the quarrel., , to state, as his opinion, that the one group had its origin from the, Apostle and the other from Thomas of Cana. It is difficult to interpret, his views in that light when he says that most likely the Christians had, their origin from both the Apostle Thomas and Thomas of Cana., , 2. No mention of any division, , 4. Gouvea (1604), , Barros (1553-63), Goes (1566), both of who have recorded the, origin and history of the Christians, have nothing to say about this, division or of quarrels. Correa (1564) and Bishop Mar Jacob Abuna, (1533) who knew the tradition of the arrival of Thomas of Cana also, do not mention about the divisions. Even Dionysios (1578) who is well, informed of the traditions of the Christians does not talk about the, division., , Gouvea (1604), while mentioning this division inform as that the, division was not known among the Christians of Travancore and, Todamala. According to him the Christians of Cana are the christians, with Thomas of Cana lineage., , 3. Monserrate (1579), Monserrate (1579) seems to be the first to give a clear and detailed, account of this division. Thomas of Cam had two wives, one noble, woman, and the other a slave though belonging to a good caste, (for it, was the Custom of the nobles, to sell away those children born on, inauspicious days). The proof of this is: besides the tradition of the, ancestry there is among the Christians a strong feeling about birth, and caste, those descending from the slave being considered lower., And that both the wives were noble, at least Nair women, is proved, by this custom existing in Malabar, that there is no pollution between, the Christians of St. Thomas and the Nairs, nor penalty of death, if, there is marriage or friendship, all of which arise, according to the, custom of the country, for castes higher or lower than these two., What is more likely is that the Christian community originated from, both, that is from the glorious Apostle St. Thomas and Thomas of, Cana; and also from many Nairs who were daily converted to, Christianity. They are a Christianity of 72,000 souls and they are, reduced to these two clans by the lie of the land and not because they, were descended from those women but because some lived on the, southern and the others on the northern bank., Thus Monserrate gives first the local tradition about the division,, and then he gives his own opinion. He says that the division was, topographical. However, he does not deny that there might have been, the other cause also. It is not clear from the text whether he intends, 94, , 5. Bishop Francis Roz (1603), Bishop Francis Roz (1603) who strongly defends the importance, of the Christians existing in Malabar before the arrival of Thomas of, Cana. He says that one group were the descendants of Thomas of, Cana and the other, the descendants of those Christians who lived, there before the arrival of Thomas of Cana. The descendants of, Thomas of Cana always kept themselves without mixing with other, Christians. There were two lineages among the Christians of Malabar, and according to him, one descending from Thomas of Cana on the, father’s side (for the mother was a Malabar woman convert); The, other on the father’s as well as mother’s side, descending from the, Christians of St. Thomas., Thus according to Bishop Roz only the latter group (obviously the, Northists) are to be called the Christians of St. Thomas. These, Christians were more careful than the others (Southists) to increase, the membership of the church and hence received into their community, many pagans whom they baptized., Bishop Roz also indicates the cause of the antagonism between, the two groups. Some of the people who had served the sons of Cana, had some time or other gone over to the other Christians (Northists), and received their protection (probably he means to say also that they, became Christians). Hence the other party (sons of Thomas Cana),, began to antagonize them (though they were rich and honorable),, calling them their slaves. This gave rise to much discord between, these two groups and there were many quarrels in olden times. It, was owing to this that in Carturte (Kaduthuruthy) and Cotete, 95

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Indian Church History, , (Kottayam) it was found necessary to build separate churches for, the one and the other and each party keeping aloof from other., In the year 1603 (according to him last year- this manuscript is, written in 1603 and 1604) there had arisen among those of Udiamper, (Udaymperoor), and Candanate a big quarrel each one defending, their own party. Bishop Francis Roz observes: It was a strange thing, to see the aversion which one party had for the other, without being, able to forget the old things and the fables, which they hold in this, matter. The Christians of St. Thomas (here so he calls them also), descending from Thomas Cana are few. They are in Udiamper, (Udaymperoor) and in the big church of Carturte (Kaduthuruthy) and, the big Church of Cotete (Kottayam) and in Turigure. (Torure ?), b) Modern history of Thekkumbhagar, With the Coonan Cross Oath (1653) and subsequent happening, the Christians of Saint Thomas were divided in two groups as Catholics, and Jacobites. It is not very clear if there were any exclusive Southist, churches during the Syond of Dimaper (1599). After the Coonan Cross, Oath (1653), some of the Portuguese records indicate that one or two, Southist Churches (Churches where they have the control in 17th, century) reconciled with Arch Bishop Gracia before his death., Among the Malankara Syriac Orthodx Church ( Jacobite), One of the four councilors of Archdeacon Thomas was a Southist, priest Anjilimootil Ittithomman of Kallicherry. The Malankara Syriac, Orthodox Church (Jacobites in India) were governed by the successors, of Mar Thomas I after the ordination of Archdeacon Thomas. Mar, Thomas I was followed by Mar Thomas II, Mar Thomas III, Mar, Thomas IV, Mar Thomas V and all related to Mar Thomas I and to, one another. They also received Bishops from Syriac Orthodox Church, of Antioch. There was no division or separate hierarchy based on the, segregation as Southist and Northist. The Malankra Syriac Orthodox, Church (Jacobite) saw divisions in 1774 and 1887 but the Southist, were not party in this., Creation of an “exclusive” diocese for Southist among, Jacobites, After the incidents which lead to the formation of Malankara Mar, Thoma Church (1877), the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) Patriarch of, 96, , Indian Church History, , Antioch Abdalla wanted to gain complete authority over Malankara, Church. Mar Dionysios, the Metropolitan was a very able man. The, Synod of Malankara Church did not want to give more authority than, spiritual power to the Jacobite Patriarch. The Syriac Orthodox, (Jacobite) Patriarch was incensed. To take control over the Church, and to get more people to his side, he consecrated two bishops. One, of them was a Southist named Severios who was a close aide of Mar, Dionysios, the Metropoliten of the Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church., By this the Patriarch did gain support of one prominent advisor of, Mar Dionysios but he gave official recognition to a division among, Syrians as Northist and Southist. Hence in 1910, a Southist diocese was, officially formed and recognized in Malankara Syriac Orthodox, Chruch (Jacobite)., What Leslie Brown says in ‘The Indian Christians of Saint Thomas’, is that by this the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobite) Patriarch of Antioch, gave recognition to a division among the Syrians which Menezes had, tried to heal., This diocese in Chingavanam was formed with 9 parishes in 1910, and now it has over 60 Churches under the diocese., 2) Among the Syro Malabar Church (Catholics), The Catholic Syrians were ruled by Mar Parampil Chandy, (Alexander de Campo). In succeeding century they were under two, administration, the Propaganda and the Padrado. All the Christians, were together in these administrations as well as during the time of Mar, Cariattil Thomas (Prelate 1782-1786), Paremmakal Thomas Kathanar., There were no separate hierarchy or administration system based on, the division as Southist and Northist., Creation of an “exclusive” Vicariate and then diocese for, Southists among Catholics, In 1878, Rome decided on placing the Syrian Christians under, separate administration, appointing two vicars Apostolic of the Latin, Rite to govern them. One of those latin rite Bishops, Charles Lavinge,, the Bishop of Vicariate of Kottayam (Changanacherry) left behind, the same legacy like his predecessors. For the first time in history, he, appointed a separate Vicar General for Southist in January 1890. The, Northist - Southist divide which was till then sociological in character, 97

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Indian Church History, , got ecclesiastical dimensions among Catholics. In 1896 Mathew Makil, was appointed as the Vicar Apostolate of the then Kottayam, (Changanacherry) Vicariate of Syro Malabar Church. As a priest he, was an advocate for foreign rule among the Saint Thomas Christians., He has submitted petitions that the Southist among the Saint Thomas, Christians wish to be under foreign rule., His appointment created tensions and rift among the people. He, has to fled to a Southist church in Kottayam to escape public anger., Based on the reports of missionaries, Rome created an exclusive, Vicariate for Southist in 1911 at Kottayam with 12 parishes or churches, under the Vicariate in Syro Malabar Church. Mathew Makil was, appointed as the Bishop of Kottayam Vicariate in 1911., This “exclusive” Vicariate was made a diocese in 1923 and as an, Arch diocese in 2005. There are at present over 126 parishes under, the Kottayam exclusive Southist diocese in Syro Malabar Church., 8. About the Churches at Cranganore, It is difficult to make out from these Portuguese accounts on where, exactly the first church of the community stood in Cranganore. The, old wooden buildings are said to last for four hundred years., According to Bishop Francis Roz (1604), based on a Chaldean, book he has read there were three Churches in Cranganore. One, dedicated to the Apostle Thomas, another one to Saint Kuriakose and, a third one dedicated to Our Lady., According to Couto, the Apostle landed in Magadover Patanam, near Parur and he speaks of a Church left by the Apostle himself, there. Bishop Francis Roz also talks about the Parur and says that, the present church at Cranganore during the Portuguese time was, built by Thomas of Cana. According to Joao Carcere, at the time of, his writing (1529), the Church which stood in Cranganore had been, there from the time of the Aposlte and the pagans williningly or not,, paid their respects and offerings to it. Some others such as Abuna,, Dionysio, Monserrate mentions that the church at Cranganore was, built by Thomas of Cana., There is no general agreement about the tradition associated with, Thomas of Cana. According to many authorities as explained above,, there are two missions partially or fully associated with this, 98, , Indian Church History, , tradition, first about the merchant, Thomas of Jerusalem, and then, the arrival of Bishop Thomas Cana in 9th century., Thomas of Cana, was a shared tradition among both the Northist, and Southist, each one claiming part of the tradition. The early, Portuguese records does not mention about any division as Northist, and Southist or any families immigration as contained in Southist, tradition while referring to the merchant or bishop Thomas. There, are also no references about Jewish Christians origins of Southist. In, fact, the early 16th Century documents mentions that this merchant, or bishop won many converts in Malabar. According to the modern, Kerala historians, the Cheraman Perumal’s came to Kerala history, scene only after 8th century. It is very unlikely that such a thing, happened in 4th century. The Copper plate is also not extant and it, has been accused of a forgery by various parties., The period of arrival of Bishop Thomas of Cana is 9th century as, the records about the early tradition indicates. It also seems that the, segregation of community as Northist and Southist happened after, the arrival of Portuguese. This gradually lead to the formation of, separate parishes or churches for the Thekkumbhagar. It seems that, Bishop Franics Roz in the Report of Serra of 1604 is mentioning about, this segregation while referring to the quarrels of Christians at, Udiamper (Udaymperoor), and Candanate in 1603 and about, the churches which came in Southist control at Carturte (Kaduthuruthy), and Cotete (Kottayam) (year not mentioned for the Churches at, Kaduthuruthy and Kottayam)., Until the first decade of 20th Century this division as Southist, (Thekkumbhagar) and Northist (Christians of Saint Thomas) was of, sociological character. The ecclesiastical recognition of this division, happened only in 1910 among the Malankara Syriac Orthodox, (Jacobites) and in 1911 among the Syro Malabar Church (Catholics)., That was an unfortunate turn of history. The ecclesiastical recognition, and decision was influenced by political factors of the first decade of, 20th century among Jacobites and Catholics than historical, considerations. The only major unification effort between the Southist, and Northist happened during the time of Nidhiry Mani Kathanar in, the Catholics section., , 99

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 9, , Non-Catholic Eastern, Churches in India, , A, , protest took place in 1653 with the Coonan Cross, Oath. Under the leadership of Archdeacon Thomas, the, Thomas Christians publicly took an oath that they would, not obey the Jesuit bishops., , 1. Chaldean Syrian Church, Rome sent Carmelites in two groups from the, Propagation of the Faith to Malabar headed by Fr., Sebastiani and Fr. Hyacinth. Fr. Sebastiani arrived first, in 1655. He began to deal directly with the Archdeacon,, Mar Thoma I. Fr. Sebastiani gained the support of many,, especially with the support of Parambil Mar Chandy,, Alexandar Kadavil and the Vicar of Muttam. These, were the three councilors of Mar Thoma I, who were, reconciled with Gracia (SJ) before the arrival of, Sebastaini, according to Jesuit reports., Between 1661 and 1662, out of the 116 churches,, the Carmelites reclaimed eighty-four churches, leaving, Archdeacon Mar Thomas I with thirty-two churches., 100, , The eighty-four churches and their congregations were the body from, which the Syro Malabar Church has descended. The other thirty-two, churches and their congregations represented the nucleus from which, the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites & Orthodox), Thozhiyur, Mar Thoma, (Reformed Syrians), Syro Malankara Catholics have originated., In 1665 Mar Gregorios, a Bishop sent by the Syriac Orthodox, Patriarch of Antioch, arrived in India. The dissident group under the, leadership of the Archdeacon welcomed him. Though most of the St., Thomas Christians gradually relented in their strong opposition to the, Western control, the arrival of the Bishop Mar Gregory of the Syriac, Orthodox Church in 1665 marked the beginning of a formal schism, among the St. Thomas Christians. Those who accepted the West, Syrian theological and liturgical tradition of the Syriac Orthodox Church, of Antioch of Mar Gregory became known as the Jacobite, The Syrian, Catholics remained in communion with Rome and later came to be, known as the Syro Malabar Church., In response these pleas, the Chaldean Patriarch Joseph Audo sent, a request to Pope Pius IX for the Syro-Malabar Catholics to be placed, under his authority. Without waiting for a reply, he dispatched Elias, Mellus, Bishop of ’Aqra, to India in 1874. Mellus had substantial, success convincing Syro-Malabar Catholics in Thrissur to recognize, him as their bishop. By 1877, almost 24,000 followers had joined his, group, based in Our Lady of Dolours Church (now Mart Mariam, Cathedral) in the parish of Thrissur. In response the Pope dispatched, Latin Catholic leaders to rein in Mellus, who was sent back to, Mesopotamia in 1882. By then, however, he had established the, infrastructure for an independent church., Many of Mellus’ followers returned to the Syro-Malabar Catholic, Church. About 8,000, however, maintained their demand for autonomy,, and took their requests for an independent bishop to non-Catholic, churches. In 1904 they made one such request to the Archbishop of, Canterbury, but were declined. They subsequently made an equivalent, request to Shimun XXI Benyamin, Patriarch of the Assyrian Church, of the East inQochanis who consented, dispatching Bishop Abimelek, to serve as their metropolitan bishop. Abimelek soon introduced, Nestorian dogma and East Syrian liturgy to the Thrissur church. These, reforms caused even more followers to break away and rejoin the, Syro-Malabar Church, but the Assyrian-oriented Thrissur church, survived., 101

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Indian Church History, , In 1964, during the reign of Assyrian Patriarch Shimun XXIII Eshai,, a dispute over hereditary succession and church calendars caused the, Metropolitan of the Church of the East in India to break away from, the Assyrian Church of the East reestablishing full independence., However, in 1995, Eshai’s successor, Mar Dinkha IV was able to, heal the rift, and the Chaldean Syrian Church returned to his jurisdiction., The Chaldean Syrian Church in India now constitutes one of the four, Archbishoprics of the Assyrian Church of the East. Its followers, number around 15,000. The present Metropolitan, Mar Aprem, Mooken (ordained in 1968), is headquartered in Thrissur City and is, a noted author. His seat is the Marth Mariam Valiyapalli., , Indian Church History, , Between 1660 and 1662, out of the 116 churches, the Carmelites, reclaimed eighty-four churches, leaving Archdeacon Mar Thomas I, with thirty-two churches. The eighty-four churches and their, congregations were the body from which the Syro Malabar Church, has descended. The other thirty-two churches and their congregations, represented the nucleus from which the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites, & Orthodox), Thozhiyur, Mar Thoma (Reformed Syrians), Syro, Malankara Catholics have originated., —, , In 1665 Mar Gregorios, a Bishop sent by the Syriac Orthodox, Patriarch of Antioch, arrived in India. The dissident group under, the leadership of the Archdeacon welcomed him. Though most, of the St. Thomas Christians gradually relented in their strong, opposition to the Western control, the arrival of the Bishop Mar, Gregory of the Syriac Orthodox Church in 1665 marked the, beginning of a formal schism among the St. Thomas Christians., Those who accepted the West Syrian theological and liturgical, tradition of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch of Mar Gregory, became known as the Jacobite., , —, , Catholicose in India, , 2. Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, The Church is sometimes referred to as the “Patriarchal faction”, or “Bava faction”, because of the disputes with the Methran Faction., In 2000, a Holy Synod ruled that the name of the church in English, should be the “Syriac Orthodox Church”. It had been, and often still, is today, called the “Syrian Orthodox Church”. The church in India, uses the term “Jacobite” or ‘Bava Faction’ as a way to distinguish, themselves from the other group known as Malankara Orthodox, Syrian Church (Indian Orthodox Church) or Methran Faction., Syriac liturgical calendar is used to mark the observations of fasting, and prayer and the preparation for the Eucharist. However,, the Malayalam Calendar is used to make the more recent religious, events such establishment dates of churches, houses and gravestones., This practice is increasingly superseded by the standard, Western Gregorian calendar. The Malayalam numbering of calendar, years is 825 years less than the standard. Under the leadership of, Archdeacon Thomas, the Thomas Christians publicly took an oath, that they would not obey the Jesuit bishops (in 1653, the Coonan, Cross Oath)., Rome sent Carmelites in two groups from the Propagation of the, Faith to Malabar headed by Fr. Sebastiani and Fr. Hyacinth. Fr., Sebastiani arrived first in 1655. He began to deal directly with the, Archdeacon, Mar Thoma I. Fr. Sebastiani gained the support of many,, especially with the support of Parambil Mar Chandy, Alexandar, Kadavil and the Vicar of Muttam. These were the three councilors of, Mar Thoma I, who were reconciled with Gracia (SJ) before the arrival, of Sebastaini, according to Jesuit reports., 102, , 1. Baselios Augen I (before 1975) - (Catholicos of United, Malankara Church. After schism, Baselios Augen I continued as, Catholicos of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church in 1975)., 2. Baselios Paulose II (1975-1996), Vacant from 1996 to 2002, 3. Baselios Thomas I (2002-present), 3. Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, also known as, the Indian Orthodox Church, is an autocephalous Oriental, Orthodox church centred in the Indian state of Kerala. It is one of, the churches of India’s Saint Thomas Christian community, which has, origins in the evangelical activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st, century. The church is locally headed by the autonomous Catholicos;, Baselios Mar Thoma Paulose IIbecame Catholicos of the East and, the Malankara Metropolitan on 1 November 2010. It is also known, as Methran Kakshi., 103

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Indian Church History, , In 1795 the British captured Malabar, Kerala. In 1806 Claudius, Buchanan, an Anglican priest, visited the ancient Church of St. Thomas, in India. In March 1815 Malankara Church opened a Seminary, at Kottayam, and in the next year Anglican missionaries arrived to, join it. However, in 1835 the missionaries began to impose Protestant, doctrines on the seminarians. As a result the Malankara church, discontinued their association with the Anglicans., The London Missionary Service was active in India. Bishop Norton, inaugurated the first Anglican Church in Kerala at Thalavady in the, house of one Itty Matthan Panickar. This church was later known as, Christian Missionary Service and after Indian Independence it became, the Church of South India. Lore says that Bishop Norton was tutored, in Malayalam by Itty Matthan Panickar. Later the same person tutored, Bishop Benjamin Bailey in Sanskrit & Malayalam, and was presented, the chair on which the Bishop sat as a gift. Later in the 19th century,, exposure to the doctrines of the Church of England inspired a reform, movement led by Abraham Malpan. This led to the formation of the, Mar Thoma Church., This eventually gave rise to the division of the community into, three bodies., — A group of people of the Malankara Church opted to join with the, missionaries and be absorbed into the Anglican Church, and they, became CSI (Church of South India) by the union of many, churches., — One of them set out to bring about major reforms in the liturgy and, practices of the Church, including independence from foreign, control. After a final litigation outcome in 1889 which was not in, their favour, they formed what later became known as the Mar, Thoma Church., — A large majority of the community continued in the Malankara, Orthodox Church without accepting the reforms., From 1817 to 1825 to Mar Dionysius III (Mar Thoma XI) was, Malankara Metropolitan. In 1825 to 1855 Philipose Mar Dionisius 4th, [Cheppad Mar Dionisius] led the Malankara Church., In 1912, the Catholicose of the East was re-established in India., The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church wanted to retain its, autocephalous nature. It appealed to the deposed Syriac Orthodox, 104, , Indian Church History, , Patriarch of Antioch, Mor Ignatius Abdul Masih II. He ordained, Murimattathil Paulose Mar Ivanios as Baselios Paulose I, as [Catholicos, of the Eastoe] on the Apostolic throne of St. Thomas. The ceremony, was held at St. Mary’s Church, Niranam on 15 September 1912. The, church in 20th century became the biggest faction to be fully eligible, for Marthoma heritage. The claims are based on two grounds. First,, the Supreme Head of the church is St. Thomas and the second; the, church has no dependence on or is under any foreign churches outside, India., The history immigrant community of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian, Church of the East in the U.S.A. begins approximately in the mid20th century. During this period a number of priests and laity came to, the U.S.A. for higher studies and training. Mathews Mar Coorilos, Metropolitan (later Moran Mar Baselius Mar Thoma Mathews II), stayed at the General Theological Seminary in 1963 and returned to, India in 1964. Mar Coorilos celebrated Holy Qurbana occasionally, during his stay here. Fr. K.M. Simon looked after the Church service, after Mar Coorilos left for India. This service was ecumenical in, nature; Malayalees of any denomination participated., In 1965 the United States legislature passed a bill which cleared, the way for thousands of professionally qualified individuals to, immigrate to the USA. Many Malankara Orthodox Christians came, to the United States during this time. In 1968 Fr. G. John (John, Geevarghese), an Ecumenical Fellow at Union Theological Seminary, in New York City, started celebrating the Holy Qurbana every Sunday, in the Seminary chapel, thus organizing the first congregation on, America soil. After 1970 the Malankara Orthodox Church gradually, spread to many major US cities, with increasing numbers of clergy, and laity. In 1976 the Holy Synod decided to establish more dioceses, in various parts of the world. At this time the numerous churches in, America were placed under the authority of the Metropolitan of the, Bombay Diocese, Thomas Mar Makarios. In 14 July 1979, Mar, Makarios was given authority over the new American Diocese under, the authority of the Catholicos of the East, Baselius Mar Thoma, Mathews I. In 1991, Mathews Mar Barnabas took charge of the, Diocese. In 2002 Zacharias Mar Nicholovos joined the Diocese. In, 2009 the ‘American Diocese’ was split into the Northeast American, 105

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Indian Church History, , Diocese and the Southwest American Diocese. As of 2013, the, Northeast American Diocese had more than fifty parishes, and more, than forty priests, 14 deacons and seminarians., 4. Malabar Independent Syrian Church, The Malabar Independent Syrian Church, also known as the, Thozhiyur Sabah (Church), is a Christian church centred in Kerala,, India. It is one of the churches of the Saint Thomas Christian, community, which traces its origins to the evangelical activity, of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century., Considered part of the Syriac Orthodox Group of churches in India,, the church split from the main body of India’s Malankara Church in, 1772. The church obtained its current name after a court verdict in, 1862; although the church is independent under the Malankara, umbrella, the church faith and traditions are strictly Oriental Orthodox,, adhering to the West Syrian Rite and consistently using western, Syriac andMalayalam during the Holy Qurbana (Qurbono Qadisho)., Today the church remains small, with about 35,000 members, and, maintains good relations with the other Malankara churches. The, members of the Church are known as Nazaranis or Marthoma, Suriyani Nazarani., The Saint Thomas Christians trace their origins to Thomas the, Apostle, who according to tradition proselytized in India in the 1st, century. By the 7th century they were part of the Church of the East,, centred in Persia. The entire community remained united until the, 17th century, when disputes with the Portuguese padroado in India, led to the Coonan Cross Oath of 1653 and the division of the Saint, Thomas Christians intoCatholic and independent branches. The, independent branch, known as the Malankara Church, forged a, relationship with the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch., However, relations between the Syriac Orthodox hierarchy and, the native clergy were sometimes strained. In 1772 Bishop Mar, Gregorios, a representative of the Syriac Orthodox hierarchy from, the Middle East, had grown dissatisfied with how the Metropolitan Mar, Dionysius I had treated him. Against Dionysius’ wishes, Gregorios, consecrated as bishop a leading dissenter, the monk Kattumangatt, Kurien, in a secret but canonically legitimate ceremony. The new, 106, , Indian Church History, , bishop took the name Mar Cyril (Koorilos), and he was designated, Gregorios’ sole heir., Cyril claimed authority over the parishes of Cochin, and initially, received the support of the Raja of Cochin. However, Dionysus saw, him as a threat to his power, and in 1774 he appealed to the Raja and, to the British authorities in India to suppress the rival bishop. Cyril, left for Thozhiyur, outside their jurisdiction, and established what would, become an independent church. This was the first of several churches, to split off from the Malankara Church., Cyril’s church was always small, but maintained stability by, attracting devoted priests and emphasizing regularity in the, ecclesiastical order. In 1794 Cyril consecrated his brother Geevarghese, as bishop; Geevarghese succeeded Cyril as Mar Cyril II in 1802, and, the succession has proceeded unbroken since. As a result of an 1862, court case, the Madras High Court confirmed the Thozhiyur church, was independent Malankara church, and it has subsequently been, known as the Malabar Independent Syrian Church., 5. Mar Thoma Syrian Church, The Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar (or the Malankara Mar, Thoma Syrian Church, Malayalam: Malankara Mar Thoma Suryani, Sabha), also known as the Mar Thoma Church, is a Christian, denomination that has a very different identity to other churches in, India. Most Christian churches around the world are divided into, Western or Eastern traditions. Eastern churches are again divided, into many traditions, one of which is Syriac tradition. Syriac tradition, comprises West Syrian Rite and East Syrian Rite. The Mar Thoma, Syrian Church adheres to the West Syrian Rite tradition and bases its, teachings in accordance with Biblical teachings. It is one of the Saint, Thomas Christian churches tracing its origins to the evangelistic activity, of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century., The Mar Thoma Church defines itself as “Apostolic in origin,, Universal in nature, Biblical in faith, Evangelical in principle,, Ecumenical in outlook, Oriental in worship, Democratic in function,, Episcopal in character” and is a Reformed church., Until the beginning of 20th century Marthomites lived in a few, districts of central Travancore and Kunnamkulam in Kerala. Since that, 107

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Indian Church History, , time it has spread with the 20th century Indian diaspora to North, America, Europe, the Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa,, Australia and New Zealand, and currently has around one million, members worldwide. Their mother tongue is Malayalam, the language, of Kerala. The members of the Church are known as Nazaranis or, Marthoma Suriyani Nazarani., Marthoma Metropolitans, —, Mar Thoma I (1653–1670), —, Mar Thoma II (1670–1686), —, Mar Thoma III (1686–1688), —, Mar Thoma IV (1688–1728), —, Mar Thoma V (1728–1765), —, Mar Thoma VI (1765–1808), —, Mar Thoma VII (1808–1809), —, Mar Thoma VIII (1809–1816), —, Mar Thoma IX (1816–1817), —, Mar Thoma X (1816–1816), Pulikottil Mar Dionysius, —, Mar Thoma XI (1817–1825), Punnathra Geevargis Mar Dionysius., —, Mar Thoma XII (1825–1852), Cheppattu Philipose Mar Dionysius., —, Mar Thoma XIII (1852–1877), Mathews Mar Athanasius, Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XIV (1877–1893), Thomas Mar Athanasius, Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XV (1893–1910), Titus I Mar Thoma Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XVI (1910–1944), Titus II Mar Thoma Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XVII (1944–1947), Abraham Mar Thoma, Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XVIII (1947–1976), Juhanon Mar Thoma, Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XIX (1976–1999), Alexander Mar Thoma, Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XX (1999–2007), Philipose Mar Chrysostem Mar, Thoma Metropolitan, —, Mar Thoma XXI (2007 – ), Joseph Mar Thoma Metropolitan, 108, , Indian Church History, , 6. St. Thomas Evangelical Church, St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India (STECI) is an Evangelical,, Episcopal denomination based in Kerala, India. It derives from, a schism in the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church in 1961, and, traces its ancestry before then back almost 2,000 years. STECI holds, that the Bible is the inspired, inerrant and infallible Word of God., Adherents believe that all that is necessary for salvation and living in, righteousness is given in the Bible. The church is engaged in active, Evangelism. The headquarters of this church is at Tiruvalla, a town in, the state of Kerala which is the part of South India. St. Thomas, Evangelical Church is one of several groups of Saint Thomas, Christians tracing their origins to St. Thomas the Apostle who,, according to tradition, came to India in AD 52. While STECI is, considered to be an episcopal church, it is the same time deeply, influenced by Evangelicalism. Early leaders include Bishop Dr KN, Oommen, Bishop P John Varghese, Rev P C Zacheriah, Rev Dr T C, George, K.N. Daniel was the prominent evangelical leader., Rev P I Mathai (Plavunkal Achen), Rev KO John, Rev CM, Varghese, Rev P.T. Chandapillai, Rev P.T.Thomas, Mr.N.I Thomas, Neduvelil Ranny, Rev K.C Paily had helped the church to focus on, the mission., Up to 1961, the church’s history is deeply connected to the, Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church, which evolved from South, Indian Christianity’s contact with evangelical British missionaries, during the British colonial times. The missionaries facilitated the, translation of the Bible intoMalayalam in 1811. This was the first, vernacular Bible in Kerala. Further changes introduced by the, missionaries led to a schism within the Thomas Christian and the, formation of the Mar Thoma Church., Internal struggles between progressive and traditionalist groups, led to a further schism. The St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India, was formally inaugurated on January 26, 1961. Over thirty thousand, people drawn from all the different Christian denominations gathered, together at Bishop Abraham Nagar at Thiruvalla, in Kerala to form, the new denomination., , 109

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, 1, , of the areas under Portuguese influence , or in other words ‘conquer, the East for Christianity’. Thus began the Jesuit mission in India, which, really changed the cartography of Christianity in Asia., , Chapter 10, , Various Christians, Missions in India, , B, , y the year 1540 the Portuguese had established, themselves firmly on the west coast with their main, mission centre at Goa and stations at Cranganore, (Kodungallur) and Cochin. The Indian Christians, continued as before and their relations with the, Portuguese were still friendly. Under Portuguese, influence there had been many conversions to, Christianity resulting in the creation of an IndoPortuguese Christian community though of rather, unsatisfactory quality. It was at this stage that the King, of Portugal, always solicitous for the progress of, Christian faith in his rapidly expanding dominions,, appealed to the Pope and the newly formed Society of, Jesus for missionaries to go to India. The first man to, be chosen was Francis Xavier (1506-1552). Francis, Xavier was educated in Paris where he had come under, the influence of Ignatius Loyola. In 1541 he set out for, India with the object of reclaiming for Christ the, ‘heathen’ population, 110, , Francis Xavier is justifiably called the pioneer of missions in Asia,, of which India had a share. He towers above all those who followed, him by his sympathy for the poor and the lowly, by his energy and, spirit, by his utter fearlessness in the face of dangers and his supreme, faith in his mission. His consuming desire was to spread the message, of Christ far and wide. He was dogmatic and intolerant, but it was the, outcome of his blind faith. By starting various schools at important, places, Xavier contributed also to the spread of education in India., The fact that he showed special concern for the sick and the poor,, particularly the fisher folk, increased his popularity. His spirit has been, an inspiration for generations of Christian workers in India. However,, his main drawback, as it must be admitted, was that he knew very, little about the genius and wealth of the Indian culture and religions., Actually his contacts with India were only through the coastal regions, of the south-west and south-east and with the less or least educated, people. Firth is right when he wrote: “He had been criticized for hasty, and superficial methods never stopping to learn a language or really, get to know the culture of a people”2., Robert De Nobili and the Madurai mission, The Jesuit mission that St. Francis Xavier established in India took, up with enthusiasm the work of conversion. But progress was slow, till Robert de Nobili a brilliantly gifted, highly educated, and zealous, man came to be in charge of the mission in Madurai in Tamil Nadu., De Nobili a man of remarkable insight who came with desire to convert, as many Hindus as possible to Christianity, after a short experience, of life in Madurai, reached the conclusion that Christianity would have, little success in India if it kept to its western grab and refused to, understand the mind and thought of the people of the country. The, problem before him was to make Christianity acceptable to Hindus, without being imposed on them. He received the answer from St., Paul who said that while preaching one has to get naturalised in the, culture of the community for whom the message is meant. De Nobili, obtained the approval of the Jesuit mission to undertake a serious, study of Hinduism and Madurai was specially suited for this purpose., Closely following the social habits of Brahmins, Nobili was able to, obtain assistance from learned pundits in his study of Hindu religious, 111

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Indian Church History, , thought. He hoped to win people of the higher castes by leaving the, whole caste system untouched. After years of arduous work, in the, course of which he acquired a fair mastery of Sanskrit, he met in, argument the learned Brahmins of Madurai, in religious discussion., These were according to the ancient “In 1 Corin.Chapt. 9: 20 St. Paul, says that: To the Jews I became as a Jew, in order to win Jews; to, those under the law I became as one under the law- though not been, myself under the law, that I might win those under the law., Well-established practice of sastrathavada, debates on religious, topics before a learned audience. There he tried to uphold Christian, doctrines in terms of Upanishadice thought. He is said to have gained, the respect of even the orthodox Brahmins of the court. But, as Richter, says, Nobili’s system stood in sharp contrast to that of Xavier, which, had prevailed hitherto, to the ordinary rule and practice of every, monastic order in India3., But the other mission groups could not appreciate Nobili’s attempt, to present Christianity in a Hindu grab. Rome forced Nobili to abandon, his methods and forbade him to baptize. He was accused of corrupting, Christianity by admitting Hindu practices into it. Intolerance of things, Indian became henceforth the characteristic feature of missionary, zeal in India. Any compromise with Hindu life or religion was forbidden, for example, the eating of beef was held to be necessary as it would, put the convert altogether out of the pale of Hinduism4., The Mogul Mission, To acquaint himself better with Christianity Emperor Akbar invited, scholarly Christian missionaries to his court. They were well received, and they held several discussions with the Emperor. From those, discussions it became apparent that Akbar was bent on developing, and propagating his own religion, Din Illahi that would combine, according to his opinion the best elements of all different religions., The Jesuits did not wish to have any part in it and showed the same, spirit of intolerance. Panikkar, infact sums up the attitude of Jesuit, missionaries when he wrote: “Their intolerance of other religions and, their arrogant attitude towards the exponents of other faiths were, unwelcome also to the Emperor. So the missionaries had to leave the, capital greatly disappointed”5., Portuguese Missions: An Assessment, From the very beginning Christianity had grown up in Indian soil, as a naturalised religion and was accepted as one among the Indian, 112, , Indian Church History, , religions. The Christians were respected and honoured by the rulers,, leaders, and higher castes. The Rajas and the Emperors conferred up, on them royal privileges and grants to be enjoyed forever. In martial,, commercial and cultural achievements the Christians also made their, contribution. Most of the foreign missionaries of sixteenth and, seventeenth centuries particularly the Portuguese who imposed, latinization on the Indian Christians, were to a large extent ignorant or, ill informed of the social life and customs of India, and consequently, failed to appreciate them. Indian Christians looked for an alternative, structure to the Roman Catholic one, which had been imposed on, them at the Synod of Diamper. The Coonen Cross Revolt in 1653 at, Mattanchery near Kochi marked the final out break and split the, Christian community into two groups.6 One remained in communion, with the Pope and the other took an oath known as Coonen Cross, Oath and decided to severe all communion with the Rome and keep, its identity and autonomy., The Christian missions did not make much inroads into the world, of the caste Hindus or Muslims in the sixteenth century. There was, hardly any creative encounter between Christianity and Indian culture., The missionary efforts of the Portuguese were mainly confined to, small pockets in India where they held political power. Christianity, spread mainly among the employees of the Portuguese and the, depressed classes. Consequently caste Hindus developed the notion, that Christianity was the religion of the depressed classes., Disappointingly the converts’ understanding of Christian faith was, shallow, their moral and ethical character frivolous and their life- style, uninspiring that they provided no impetus for the surrounding nonChristians to rethink their way of life. Christianity and their missions, were interpreted as means for the extension of western political control, and aggressive imperialism. Many right thinking Indians had expressed, their amazement at this dubious association. The words of Jawaharlal, Nehru are illustrative: “The gospel of Jesus, the gentle but relentless, rebel against untruth and injustice, could so easily be made a tool of, imperialism, capitalism and political domination”7., Although Portuguese missionaries had been pioneers of missionary, work and services during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, their, mission was aggressive and not in the way mission was envisaged by, Jesus Christ. Their interest in missionary and ecclesiastical progress, began to die down the moment the temporal power of the Portuguese, 113

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Indian Church History, , began to decay. The Dutch and the British who came after the, Portuguese were interested solely in trade. Moreover they were, Protestants and had no sympathy with the activities of the catholic, orders. So the first phase of evangelization came to a close in India, by the middle of the seventeenth century with the decline of the political, power of the Portuguese in the subcontinent., The Protestant Missions, It is true to that the Protestant missions in the nineteenth century, like the Roman Catholic mission in the sixteenth century largely followed, the colonial flag. Colonialism and Christian mission went hand-in-hand, since the arrival of the Portuguese in India. The extent and the nature, of the relationship between the missions and colonialism varied from, one colonial power to another. Nevertheless, there was an alliance, and for many in India during this period Christianity was a western, religion and a means used by the western powers to establish their, political control. And missionary enterprise was interwoven with, commerce and cultural imperialism. The attitude and feelings of the, educated Indians towards Christian missions are reflected in the, following statement of the great social reformer Raja Ram Mohun, Roy: “In Bengal, where the English are rulers, and where the mere, name of English man is sufficient to frighten people, an encroachment, upon the rights of her poor, timid and humble inhabitants and upon, their religion, can not be viewed in the eyes of God or the public as a, justifiable act”8., Chakkaria a Tamil Christian convert and a prominent lawyer was, voicing the attitude of Hindus when he asked; why should the Hindus, who yielded in politics and commerce allow the sanctity of their souls, to be violated by the intrusion of a foreign religious denomination9?, Most of the missionaries and some historians of eighteenth and, nineteenth century missions believed that British rule in India was an, opportunity provided by God to lift India from ignorance about God, and superstitions. In European mission histories, the colonized were, termed as ‘barbarous’, ‘savages’, ‘pagan’ and ‘superstitious’. Hence, the mission goal was not only Christianising heathens, but also civilizing, them under superior European culture and evangelical spirituality., Further the missionary work in eighteenth-nineteenth century India, was grounded in the binary distinctions of European and Indian, white, and brown, civilized and primitive and Christian and pagan. This binary, 114, , Indian Church History, , division gave the colonizers grounds for justifying the European project, of colonization of India and proselytizing of the Indians. William, Wilberforce, leader of Evangelical group in the House of Commons, said in 1793 that the Indian natives were idolatrous and superstitious, with a “feeble knowledge of God”. The people themselves were, barbarous and low measured in the scale of European civilization., The natives must be taught a better religion at a time and in a manner, that will not inspire them with passion for political change10. Hence, the British, the patrons of the Christianising scheme, had a simple, goal of raising the people to a higher and superior culture. It was the, hope of the colonizers that if the higher classes in the Hindu social, order were converted it would eventually lead to the dissolution of, Hindu culture., The First Protestant Mission, The first Protestant mission to India came from Denmark. King, Frederick IV was an ardent follower of the Lutheran teachings. He, believed that it is one of the duties devolving upon monarchs to make, provision for Christianising their non-Christian subjects. A mission was, founded in the Danish settlement of Tranquebar in South India. The, first Protestant missionaries to arrive on Indian soil were two German, missionaries Ziegenbalg and Plutschau sent by the King. They landed, on July 9th 1706 in Tranquebar a Danish trade post. Julius Richter, says that this marked the birthday of Protestant missions in India11., Since the Danish trade post never crossed boundary of Tamil kingdom,, their missionary work was confined mainly to Tamil Nadu region., The Protestant missionary work gained momentum only after the, arrival and the expansion of Anglican power., The British Period, The British Government had three roles in India, first that of a, trader, second that of ruler and then that of a Christian propagandist., British rulers held and professed Christianity. Consequently British, rule was equated with Christian domination. In the early years of its, rule the Company had taken a position of neutrality with regard to the, religious and social affairs of its subject. The East India Company, decided not to interfere with the traditional cultures of the people by, supporting missionary work. The company’s policy was noninterference in Indian education but favouring traditional Hindu or, oriental learning. The non-interference probably based was on the, 115

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Indian Church History, , fear that missionaries through English education expecting to aid, conversions might offend the Hindu subjects of the company and, create unrest12. This policy of non-interference with the customs and, traditions of the natives and lack of support for missionary work were, reviewed after the Company Charter was reviewed in 1813. Finally, in 1833, the policy of the company was changed under pressure from, the Evangelicals in England. This marked the first decisive step of, missionary work in India. A spokesman of the Evangelicals declared:, “The true cure of darkness is the introduction of light. The Hindus err, because they were ignorant and their errors have never fairly been, laid before them. The communication of our light and knowledge to, them would prove the best remedy for their disorders”13., The Charter of 1833 approved the permanent presence of, missionaries in India and made provision for Anglican hierarchy at, Calcutta. With the expansion of the British Empire missionaries began, to arrive and Christianity began to spread by establishing dioceses at, Madras and Bombay. Ever since there existed a renewed cooperation, between the missionaries and the colonial power in helping one another, in their missions14., By the end of the eighteenth century a new wave of the spirit of, evangelization permeated Protestant Churches. In 1792 the English, Baptists organised the first Anglican mission Baptist Missionary Society., Later Protestant missionary operations were undertaken on a large, scale by LMS and CMS. Alongside the older societies there have, come into the field a bewildering number of missionary organisations., The characteristic feature of nineteenth century missions was the, enthusiasm for the multiplication of missionary efforts. The priority of, the colonial missions was conversion. Conversion of individual souls, was considered the sole end of mission. To a European missionary, non-Christian religions and Eastern cultures were non-slavific and, that Christianity alone would redeem them. The British rule had, provided favourable atmosphere and necessary infrastructure for the, missions to work even in the remotest mountain villages without, confronting much opposition. Julius Richter says that, it would be hard, to find any land possessing so great an attraction for the missionary, societies15. The mood of mission societies and missionaries were, summarized in the following words: “The content of their (missionaries), hope was not merely a conglomerate of individual conversions but a, comprehensive revolution in heathen Society in which every aspect, 116, , Indian Church History, , of that society would be praised from the grip of satanic domination, and submitted to the liberating lordship of Christ”16., After the Charter of 1833 was renewed, missionaries were allowed, freely to come to India. Missionary teams became powerful and their, style of work changed. By this time a new set of missionaries rooted, in ‘the iconoclastic zeal of extreme Protestantism’17 began to arrive., These missionaries, soon through letters, reports and stories, created, a very distorted image about the people and culture in India. They, were imbued with the western ‘imperial sentiments’ and the sense of, cultural superiority and agreed with Charles Grant, the spokesman of, the Evangelicals in England, that it was not any inborn weakness that, made Hindu degenerate but the nature of their religion. For the, evangelicals India was in darkness and would need the light present, in the western world. Claudius Buchanan another spokesman of the, evangelicals who had been a missionary in India said: “The missionaries, asserted that since God laid upon Britain the solemn duty of evangelizing, India, the Government should not hesitate to throw its weight into the, struggle. They demanded above all open Government patronage of, Christian education and vigorous warfare upon the abuses associated, with Hindu religion”18., The Evangelicals and other mission societies made a combined, attempt to change the policy of the British Government and demanded, the introduction of legal and social reforms in India. It was thus that, William Bentick in March 1835 issued his resolution intended mainly, to promote European literature and science and utilize funds mainly, for English education19. The study of Indian literature and oriental, works was admitted to be of little intrinsic value and the opinion was, that these literatures inculcate the most serious errors on the subjects., Also the customs and traditions and the religious beliefs of the subject, people were considered by the missionary educators and their societies, in England as a sign of depravity and futility. The remedy was the, introduction of English education20., Alexander Duff, Scottish missionary and leading educator whose, ideas can be considered representative of the majority of missionaries, in the nineteenth century, thought that though Hindu philosophical, discourse contained lofty terms in its religious vocabulary what they, conveyed were only vain, foolish and wicked conceptions. According, to Duff, Hinduism spread like a dark universe where all life dies and, 117

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Indian Church History, , death lives21. The Christian task for him was to do everything possible, to demolish such a gigantic fabric of idolatry and superstition. Needless, to say, such an attitude prevented any positive encounter between, Christianity and Indian culture. Duff, Buchanan, Trevelyan, Macaulay, and others had great influence on the missionary thinking. The, missionaries and civil servants who came to India were so prejudiced, that they did not see anything good in India society., , Indian Church History, , would have whole-heartedly welcomed the missionary enterprise. But, they did not. The natives were not unresponsive to the civilising project., How they reacted needs to be examined in detail and the next chapter, intends to do it in some detail., Endnotes, 1, , The missionaries and their societies subscribed to the view that, civilizing the Indian people would prepare the primitive religious people, to embrace Christianity. Nineteenth century Protestant missiology, could be understood against the background of Christianisation and, civilizing as two sides of the same coin. Missions were unwilling to, understand the complexities of Indian cultural variants. Deeply, entrenched in them was a sense of superiority of European civilization, and that coloured their approach to people of other cultures and, religious faiths22. The missions and colonial administrators asserted, that Hinduism would die away soon and the whole nation could be, civilized and Christianised. English education was a means towards, this goal. That is to facilitate change from exterior to interior, from, trade to religion, a cultural revolution for the betterment of the natives, by disseminating knowledge of Christianity and make them loyal to, the British23. The comment of Arthur Mayhew is worth mentioning:, “The evangelical supporters of Anglican mission were far more, interested in the dissemination of the Bible and baptismal statistics, than in any measure for the general enlightenment of India”24. The, primary interest of the Raj was to keep control over India. The, dominant interest of missions was to work for the conversion of Indians, to Christianity. But in the colonial situation they found themselves in, need of one another and so mutual support was but natural., Although the missionaries worked hard and suffered a lot for, bringing education and awareness of social justice to the people living, in the rural areas of India, as they were associated with the colonialimperial powers, the significance of their selfless service was either, overlooked or misunderstood., The response this approach evoked need to be looked into detail., The fourth chapter is an attempt to do this. If Indians really lived, under the influence of the pagan religion and were uncivilised, they, 118, , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , 7, 8, , 9, , 10, , 11, 12, , 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, , 19, 20, , 21, 22, , 23, , 24, , K.M. Panikkar, India Through Ages (New Delhi: Discovery Publishing, House, 1988) 225-226., C.B. Firth, op.cit. : 67., Julius Richter, op.cit. : 63., K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance op.cit.: 281., K.M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance op.cit.: 281., Paulos Mar Gregorious, The Indian Orthodox Church”An Overview, (Kottayam: Sophia Publications, 1982) 53., Dick Kooiman, op.cit. : 26., T.V. Philip, “Christianity in India during Western Colonisation: Conflict,, Reconciliation or Adjustment”, ICHR Vol.XXI, No. 1 June (1987): 16., Quoted in Jacob S. Dharmaraj, Colonialism and Christian Mission: Post, Colonial Reflections (New Delhi: ISPCK, 1993) 13., Arthur Mayhew, Christianity and the Government of India (Delhi: Gian, Publishing House, 1988) 27., Julius Richter, op. cit.: 103., S. Immanuel David, “Save the Heathens from themselves” The Evolution, of the educational policy of the East India Company till 1854, ICHR Vol., XVIII, No. 1 June (1984): 19-29., Ibid., Jacob S. Dharmaraj, op. cit.: 19., Julius Richter, op. cit.: 221., Jacob S. Dharmaraj, op. cit.: 58., C.P. Mathew and M.M.Thomas, op.cit. : 48., T.C.Joseph, “The Myth of the Colonial Connection”, The Sunday, Statesman September 20, 1987: 4., S.Immanuel David, op.cit. : 27., Stephen Neill, Builders of the Indian Church (Kottayam: CMS press,, 1940) 106-123., T.V.Philip, op.cit. : 20., Poikail John George, “Racist Assumptions of 19th Century Missionary, Movement”, IRM Vol.LIX, No.235 July (1970): 271-283., Jacob S. Dharmaraj, “A Brief Review of Alexander Duff, English Education, and Colonial Connections in 19th Century India”, ICHR Vol.XXV, No.2, December (1991): 82-83., Arthur Mayhew, op. cit.: 163., 119

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , and discriminated against. Furthermore, all religions other than, Hinduism are minorities., , Chapter 11, , Indian Christian Dalits, , I, , n the following subchapter I will shortly examine, the features of the Christian Dalits. First, their number, is explained and then, a picture is drawn of the daily, reality of the Christian Dalits., Their Number, The difficulty of determining the number of Christian, Dalits does not mean that people have not given it a, try. The most prevailing view is that Dalits constitute, around seventy percent of the Christians, which is,, although a minority, a 24-million-strong community in, India. The number of Dalits of all religions lies around, the 200 million. Most people in India are of the Hindu, religion; they seem to cover eighty percent of the, population. In a country that has one billion, inhabitants, this means there are approximately 800, million Hindus. Overall, these figures should tell us, that 200 million people in India are still downtrodden, 120, , What does this mean for the Christian Dalit? First of all, this depends, on where one lives. In the north of India there are very few caste, Christians; roughly seventy percent of the Church members are Dalit., Consequently, the Christian Dalits in this part of India do not suffer as, much discrimination as the Christian Dalits in the areas where there, are more high castes, like the south, where many of the atrocities, against Dalits are committed. Second, this means that a Christian, Dalit is not only discriminated against because he is a Dalit, but also, because he is a Christian., The Daily Reality of Being a Christian Dalit, All of the sources studied for this research seem to agree on the, point that the Christian Dalits still suffer on a daily basis. In this way, they are not any different from other Dalits. John Webster writes in, his book ‘Religion and Dalit Liberation’: “Although they form a majority, of the Christian Community, they have been an oppressed majority.”, Farther onward he adds: “Like other Dalits, Christian Dalits live in a, caste-based society and their conversion has not been able to change, that fact.” This last thought is shared by the bulk of the authors, investigating the lives of the Christian Dalits. The reason that one will, not lose his Dalit-status when converting to Christianity, is well, formulated by M.R. Arulraja in his book ‘Jesus the Dalit’: “Those, who commit atrocities against Dalits do not differentiate between, Christian Dalits and non-Christian Dalits. For an Indian, a Dalit is a, Dalit, whether Christian or not.” So, being a Christian or becoming a, Christian doesn’t change the status of a Dalit, let alone will it change, his life in terms of his well-being: for an Indian he is still a Dalit., Earlier on I mentioned that the number of Christian Dalits is an, estimated seventy, some would even say eighty or ninety, percent of, the total number of Christians. Together with the fact that in India, Christianity is seen as an foreign, western religion and converting to it, is almost seen as betrayal, this has some serious consequences for, the daily life of the Christian Dalits: the suppression intensifies. This, is illustrated by the Orissa violence, in December 2008. While these, events testify about extreme violence towards Christian Dalits, the, suppression also becomes visible in other forms, namely, in the ways, they are discriminated against., 121

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Indian Church History, , The Discrimination of Christian Dalits The ways in which the, Christian Dalits are discriminated against are very widespread and, complex. For now, this means that in order to understand it, we have, to categorise the discrimination. I have chosen the following categories,, 1. discrimination by fellow Indians, 2. discrimination by the state, 3., discrimination in the Church, 4. discrimination of Christian Dalit, women. These subjects are in my opinion the most important to, understand the life of a Dalit who is also a Christian. This also follows, from the insights of James Massey, himself a Christian Dalit and a, prominent in this area of research. He states that the Christian Dalits, suffer threefold discrimination: “one at the hands of members of the, Indian society in general; two, from the government of India...; and, three from Christians of upper caste/class background”., With this selection I do not cover all forms of discrimination, for, the reason that some forms, I would even say most, apply to all Dalits,, whether Christian or not. And because in this research the focus lies, on the specific features of the Christian Dalits., Discrimination by Fellow Indians, In this part we take a look at why Christian Dalits are unique in, terms of the discrimination they have to face. Are they treated, differently from other Dalits? For a large part they are mistreated the, same as other Dalits in the sense that they too are Dalits. And, as, was said earlier, for an Indian, a Dalit is a Dalit. But there is more to, it than that. It seems that Christian Dalits are treated even worse, than Hindu, Sikh or Buddhist Dalits. In the first place, in the eyes of, the Indians, Christian Dalits made the ‘mistake’ of embracing the, Christian faith, in addition to their ‘crime’ of being born in an, untouchable caste. The consequence of this is that Christian Dalits, are in fact twice discriminated: as Dalits and as Christians. This, becomes clear in the atrocities they have to face as Dalits but also as, Christians. For a great part this has to do with the resentment Indians, feel for Christianity as a ‘western religion’. Godwin Shiri also noticed, this in his case study among the Christian Dalits in the South of India:, “It was reported that some of the most common rebukes which they, suffer include: ‘Why do you come here for help? You go to your, Padri!’ and ‘You better go to England or America for help!’ Apparently, these rebukes/insults make no secret of the non-Dalits’ disapproval, 122, , Indian Church History, , of the Madigas’ conversion to Christianity! It was observed that while, non-Dalits generally treat all ‘untouchables’ with contempt, they treat, converted Dalits with greater contempt., In addition to this, Christians have a particular place in the Indian, society, in the sense that those who know that you are a Christian,, would take it for granted that you are a Dalit and treat you as one., This becomes clear in the following story, told in the photo book ‘Dalit, Lives’ of Paul van der Stap and Elisa Veini, about Sudhakar David,, NCDHR associate in Hyderabad., Discrimination by the State, The National Commission of Scheduled Caste states that, untouchability is only prevalent within the Hindu fold, and accordingly, there is no untouchability in Christianity. To even state this is, discriminatory, knowing what we know now. Moreover, these words, have some serious consequences for the daily lives of Christian Dalits, and their future perspectives. The main issue here is that Christian, Dalits are excluded from the Reservation System. This system is, fixed by Indian law and is a form of affirmative action whereby a, percentage of seats in the public sector are reserved for the Scheduled, Castes, namely, the Dalits. But, only for the Hindu, Sikh or Buddhist, Dalits - Muslims and Christians are denied those benefits, as a result, of a presidential order in 1950. They don’t get the Scheduled Caste, status, whereas under Article 17 of the Constitution it is clearly stated, that no one is allowed to motivate untouchability. The Indian People’s, Tribunal on Untouchability writes the following about this in its, publication ‘untouchability on trial’: “So in that case, under the SC/ST, Act, the hierarchy of the religions should be prosecuted. But the, National Commission of Scheduled Castes tells that it is only the Hindu, religion that motivates untouchability. Isn’t this a paradox?" By denying, the Muslim and Christian Dalits those benefits, the state is violating, its own laws that are meant to safeguard the equality of all people,, irrespective of caste and creed distinctions. But that’s not all. Shiri, Godwin found out that Christian Dalits not only get this treatment, when they plead for Scheduled Castes benefits, but also when they, make a request for ordinary state benefits, meant for Other Backward, Classes and for economic weaker sections. In this way the state, does not only discriminate on the basis of religion and thus a denial of, 123

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Indian Church History, , religious liberty, but they also punish those Dalits who have had the, courage to exercise their religious liberty and convert to Christianity, or Islam. Not surprisingly many Christian Dalits conceal and deny, that they are Christian, in order to get the benefits of reservation., This was also confirmed by the interview I had with CARDS: “In our, education we don’t say that we are Christians, because then you, don’t get a scholarship. That’s why in school we say we are from the, Scheduled Caste. Like that we are getting a scholarship for our study.’’, The implications of the earlier mentioned presidential order reaches, farther than the deprivation of Christian Dalits from the reservations., It also negates them the protection to which they are entitled when, they would belong to the Scheduled Castes. Hence, they cannot claim, protection under the Untouchability Offences Act of 1979 or the Civil, Rights Act of 1955 or the Prevention of Atrocities Act of 1989. So, if, Christian Dalits are assaulted, they cannot call upon any provision of, the Constitution or Act., Finally, there is one other way in which the state discriminates the, Christian Dalits, namely, through India’s seven state-level Freedom, of Religion Acts, also known as the ‘anticonversion laws’. According, to the CSW (Christian Solidarity Worldwide) briefing of 2008 on, religiously-motivated violence and discrimination against Christians in, India, these acts ‘pose a threat to freedom of religion through their, restriction of religious conversions and their damaging normative effect, on religious minorities.’ In addition, the UN Special Rapporteur on, freedom of religion or belief, states in her 2008 report on her mission, to India that these laws raise serious human rights concerns. She is, concerned that these laws are being used to belittle Christians and, Muslims. All in all, despite the official abolition of discrimination based, on caste and religion through laws, the discrimination still continues, and even more so for the Christian Dalits. Instead of trying to end, this, the government is making it worse., Discrimination in the Church in India Earlier on we established, that despite conversion to Christianity, Dalits remain Dalits. Shockingly,, this is also the case in the Churches in India. This means that the, Dalits who turn to a religion that should give them freedom, don’t get, any freedom. This part will discuss how this works and how the caste, 124, , Indian Church History, , system still plays an important role in the Churches, even though it, has lost its divine sanction., First, the question has to be answered of how it is even possible, that there is discrimination in the Churches. It started with the early, missionaries: they were not able to put an end to the caste system in, the Churches; instead they maintained the status quo. That is why, Ambedkar, undoubtedly the most important person for the Dalits,, criticised the Christian missionaries ‘who took so much pain to, denounce idol worship’ but did little to unseat the idol of caste. And, when time elapses, it gets more and more difficult to do something, about it. So today, Churches have a hard time fighting it. Moreover,, there are still many people who don’t want to change the situation,, mainly because they still believe in their hearts that Dalits should be, downtrodden, and they just want to keep the power in their own hands., Problems of the Church in India, The Church’s biggest problem is their unwillingness to meet the, needs of the Christian Dalits. There are some who acknowledge the, plight of the Dalits and who want to do something about it, but as a, whole, the Church is incapable of doing just that. This was also, acknowledged at the conference on justice for Dalits in Bangkok, this, March: “We were reminded in challenging and sometimes emotional, terms of the continuing prevalence of caste in the Church and the, silence of the Church in addressing caste both inside and outside the, Church.”, The reason for this is something which was also mentioned in the, previous chapter, namely, that the governing of the Church is in the, hands of the upper castes. So, although the Indian Church is a Church, of the Dalits, it projects an ‘elitist’ image. This has some serious, consequences for the Church in India and the Christian Dalits in, particular., First of all, despite many promises, their situation is not getting, better because they are with the Christian community: “When we, converted, the Church had promised us equality and promised to, protect our interests and undertake measures for us. But what we, got is more discrimination.” This is for example seen in the Christian, educational institutions, which are almost inaccessible for Christian, 125

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Indian Church History, , Dalits. And then it is just a matter of time that Christian Dalits begin, to doubt their conversion: they have lost any right to reservation and, they realise that they are not getting anything from the Church. This, disappointment can then eventually lead to Dalits reconverting to, Hinduism, as was seen for example in Chennai, where last April about, thousand Christian Dalits reconverted to Hinduism. At this moment,, the leadership and the management of the Church in India is not joining, the Dalits in their fight for freedom., What Should be the Role of the Indian Church?, The majority of the authors share the conviction that the Church, should be more holistic. At the moment, the Church is far from that,, while Dalits seem to really need this. They want for example education,, economic assistance and pastoral care, things the Church is not offering., But, according to James Massey, that’s not all: “A radical change, a, genuine paradigm shift in mission outlook, is needed in order to become, an authentic, prophetic Church, truly committed to Jesus crucified, and to the mission he entrusted to it in India.” He then gives a few, suggestions about what the role of the Church should be in the Dalit, issue. First, he suggest an incarnation model, summarized in John 1:, 1-14 and Luke 2: 1-7. This model is about God who, as a human, being, became a Dalit, the poorest of the poor. Through this he showed, his complete solidarity with the Dalits and so, the Church must follow, him in this. Second, the Church should look more closely at their, doctrine. Third, the Church should redefine its concept of mission, in, the sense that it must be more holistic in nature. Last: “The Church in, India should know that millions of Dalits in general, and about 1.5, million Dalit Christians, are still waiting to receive the whole of salvation,, because so far they have only been offered the half of salvation which, speaks of ‘saving their souls’.’’ This last suggestion has a lot to do, with the Church identifying itself with the Dalits, something that is, also mentioned a lot in the literature., , Indian Church History, , May be one of its most important features is that it is a theology by, Dalits. It sounds obvious, but it shapes the entire theology. It announces, a break with the traditional Indian theology. What follows is a kind of, methodological exclusion, in which Felix Wilfred sees a tension: “...it, has to keep both the methodological exclusion and theological inclusion, of all others without which it may not qualify itself as a Christian, theology.” With being a theology by and for Dalits, it also concentrates, on the lives of Dalits. This means that its most important aim is to, liberate the Dalits. Without this, Dalit theology would make no sense, at all. In his book ‘Dalit Christians of Andhra’, Rajpramukh formulates, it like this: “Its concern is not mainly what would happen to the soul, after the death, but what happens to the human beings to have their, human dignity and honour as anybody else.” Likewise, Dalit theology, is a movement ‘from below’: it is ‘interested in the horizontal relations, rather than vertical revelation’, which is eminent in the traditional, ‘from above’ theology. In this way it is also a social movement., According to James Massey three elements play an important, role in Dalit theology: ‘the aspiration of Dalits for fuller liberation, the, recognition that God is on the side of the Dalits and the conviction, that Christ is the model for the struggle, a struggle which continues, today through the Holy Spirit.’ Solidarity is also a very important, feature of Dalit theology. James Massey recognises a two-sided, solidarity: first, in history God has shown his own solidarity with human, beings, second, being in solidarity with Dalits of other faiths and, ideologies. But this solidarity can also be seen in another role of Dalit, theology, namely, creating awareness among non-Dalits of Dalit, suffering and pain. Furthermore, solidarity plays a role in the person, of Jesus. His life and suffering was not on behalf of the victims, but in, solidarity with the victims., Last, in his book ‘Downtrodden’ James Massey distinguishes five, elements of the role of Dalit theology:, v, , It must address the Dalits themselves about their state and their, dawning consciousness of themselves: heighten understanding and, raising awareness;, , v, , It must also address non-Dalits: make others aware;, , v, , Raising the consciousness of the Christian community as a whole:, Dalit theology must challenge the Church to change;, , Dalit Theology, When doing research on Christian Dalits, it is impossible to escape, the phenomenon of ‘Dalit theology’. This form of theology is up and, rising in India, because it serves the Christian Dalits with an alternative, for the traditional theology. Moreover, it is a key to their liberation., 126, , 127

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Indian Church History, v, , It must enable ordinary Christians to take an active role in the, struggle of the Dalits;, , v, , It must create the possibility of fuller liberation or salvation, based, on the Christevent of redemption., , Liberation Strategies, Because mission departments and organisations in the West are, often very much involved in justice issues, it is important for them to, know what justice means in a particular area and for a specific group, of people. For Dalits justice means liberation - that is the goal of their, struggle. But to know this, is not enough. The issue is so complex that, finding liberation seems almost impossible. But in the literature several, strategies are given. For organisations involved in mission from the, West into India, and also Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan, this is very, useful information, since they can incorporate this in their programmes., Furthermore, it is an important subject for Dalit theologians, since, freedom is what they are after. According to James Massey, Dalits, need to pass four stages before they can achieve full liberation:, 1. Establish a common identity;, 2. Become conscious of their state;, 3. Be in solidarity;, 4. Enter into the process of liberation, But since this is a little vague, let us look at more concrete, suggestions of how to attain liberation. The first person to look at, then, is Ambedkar. In almost all the interviews I had with people from, India, elements of Ambedkar’s thought were present. Through this, report several elements of Ambedkar’s thought on the liberation of, the Dalits have been mentioned. First, there was the idea of converting, to another religion as a means of fighting the caste system. Second,, one of the most important lessons of Ambedkar passed by: ‘educate,, agitate and organise’. The first one, educate, was mentioned as a, liberation strategy by almost all the Indian participants of the, interviews. It seems to be that education is really one of the most, important themes in the struggle against the caste system. The reason, for this is quite simple, as I mentioned before in chapter one: the caste, system is in the minds of the people. So, perhaps one of the most, 128, , Indian Church History, , important areas to address is the Dalit psyche. A third important, strategy of Ambedkar, not mentioned before, is promoting intermarriage. Together with inter-dining, it is still a big taboo in India even, to such an extent that horrible revenge practices can be the result. It, was only recently that eight family members were brutally murdered, because their 21-year old relative secretly married a girl from a higher, caste. Even among Christians it is very uncommon to socialise or, even marry someone from a different caste. Many Dalit leaders believe, that braking down the barriers of ‘eating and mating’ would destroy, the dynamic of purity and pollution and consequently the very basis of, caste. In his book ‘Religion and Dalit Liberation’, John Webster, describes four strategies for freedom:, 1. Acquisition of political power;, 2. Economic independence;, 3. Internal social reform;, 4. Religious change., These strategies are based on what the modern Dalit movement, did, and still does, to fight the caste discrimination. In addition to the, strategies for liberation, there is another thing mission organisations, and departments both from the West, and from within India itself, can, do to participate in the struggle of the Dalits: it is important that any, organisation supporting development in India, asks itself how its, programmes are challenging casteism. Maybe the discrimination is, not that visible for an outsider, but that does not mean that it isn’t, there and that it isn’t a big problem. In this regard, the Indian, government should also be challenged, for the fact that they deny the, problem. Pressure from outside can do a lot, so organisations should, also focus on persuading and even shaming the government., , 129

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , Chapter 12, , Indian Church: Chances, and Challenges, , India is at the same time an officially secular society, and one of the most religious - indeed, most publicly, religious - places on earth. Hinduism has made the most, profound religious imprint on Indian society and is treated, as the de facto official religion, but India is tremendously, pluralistic, and there are significant numbers of Muslims, in India, even after partition. In contrast to many western, countries that privatize and interiorize religion in order, to cope with religious pluralism, radically pluralistic India, puts religion in all forms very much in public view, in, vivid color for all to see., Catholicism in India is characterized by intense, devotional practice that draws from Hindu, Syrian,, colonial Portuguese and contemporary Catholic, practices. The connections between Indian Catholicism, and the rest of Indian culture are often on display, and, at times the boundaries between these practices can, seem thin, but as David Mosse observes, in the practices, 130, , of ordinary Catholics, “Christianity [is] not merely a ‘thin veil’ over an, underlying autochthonous South Indian ‘folk religion.’” It has its own, independent and synthetic identity.1, India, in its cities at least, is a powerhouse in technological and, computing fields, but at the same time, Indian religion is not similarly, rationalized or abstracted. For Catholics as much as Hindus, religious, power is taken to be very present and touchable in material realities, like statues, water, oil, and candles. Miracles and divine intervention, are taken to be commonplace in Indian society. Devotion is extremely, important to Indian Catholics, as for other Indians, often taking the, form of public offerings for supplication or thanksgiving. Roadside, shrines are omnipresent in areas with any Christian population, and, devotions there play an especially important role in Indian Catholicism., Whereas European devotions often focused on the combination of, ritual prayers with action, what one scholar notes about a site in, Chennai seems to be true elsewhere in India: “for the majority of, these Indian pilgrims, what matters most is not a fixed formula of, verbal petitioning as in much European popular devotion, but the, completion of some concrete ritual action.”2, The flip side of that strong belief in miracles is a complementary,, sometimes pernicious sense of the capriciousness of life. When asked, about government and society, people speak of a sense of their own, smallness below a big system beyond their control.3, Parts of this site are based on interviews with Indian Catholics in, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in January 2013., This may be a reason why, as some Indian Catholics noted in, interviews, Indian Catholics are much more likely to emphasize charity, for the poor, rather than to advocate for social justice. Indians also, complained that bribery is too often necessary to make anything, happen.4 Those who bribe can get away with much, and power is, rarely if ever accountable. Several Indians interviewed for this project, suggested that religion in India often reflects that reality, such that it, can too often be a matter of offering a bribe to a deity in exchange for, some hoped-for action., The 24 million Christians in India total just 2.3% of the population,, and are primarily concentrated in the south, notably in states like Goa,, which is 26% Christian; Kerala, which is 18.6% Christian; and Tamil, 131

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Indian Church History, , Nadu, which is 6% Christian.5 In Southern India, the Christian, population is stable since the 1960s, with relatively few conversions., In the Northeast tribal areas and states, there are also significant, numbers of Christians, and the numbers there are growing. The vast, majority of the populations of the Northeast states of Meghalaya,, Mizoram, and Nagaland are Christian. Today about half of Indian, Christians live outside the historic southern Indian centers of, Christianity.6 “Catholics form the largest Christian group in India, nearly, half the Christian population. Another 40 percent are Protestants, while, 7 percent are Orthodox Christians and 6 percent belong to Indigenous, sects.” 7, Though Catholicism is very much a minority religion, it is quite, visible in many cities. Catholic schools, hospitals, and colleges are, widely revered in India, sought after by Hindus, Muslims and Christians, alike. “Christian communities run 20 percent of the private educational, institutions and more than 30 percent of the private medical services, in the country.”8 A visitor driving around parts of Bengaluru, on seeing, so many signs for Catholic schools and institutions, might mistakenly, conclude that the city had a large Catholic population. Indian, Catholicism is highly clericalized, with a large and influential population, of priests, sisters and brothers who run these Catholic institutions., Sisters are almost always seen in habit, though priests may or may, not be seen in clerics or soutine., There have been significant political efforts by Hindu nationalists, to marginalize Catholicism as “foreign.”9 David Mosse, “A Return, Visit to Alapuram: Religion and Caste in the 2000s” in The Saint in, the Banyan Tree: Christianity and Caste Society in India., (Berkeley: University of California, 2012), 233-36. ; Mathew N., Schmalz, “The Indian Church: Catholicism and Indian, Nationhood.” in The Catholic Church and the Nation-State:, Comparative Perspectives,, ed. Paul C. Manuel, Lawrence C. Reardon, and Clyde Wilcox., (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown UP, 2006), 209-25., In parts of the south, though, Catholicism is more a part of the, social, religious and political order. Catholicism’s ancient history in, South India is relied upon to cement that claim., 132, , Indian Church History, , Indian Christians commonly trace their origins to the Apostle, Thomas, who is said to have arrived in India in 52 AD, to have built, seven churches in southern India, and to have been martyred in India, in 72 AD. Waves of European missionaries, beginning under, Portuguese rule in the 16th century, shaped the dynamics of Indian, Catholicism today. Portuguese Catholicism particularly shaped Catholic, life in Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of Karnataka. A number of, Protestant churches evangelized under the British rule, and, Pentecostalist Christianity has made its presence felt in recent years,, though not to the extent it has in many other countries., Indian Catholics belong to three churches within the Catholic, Church. Latin rite Catholics (so named because they use the Roman, rite and governance, not for any use of Latin today) trace their origins, to the missionary work of St. Francis Xavier from 1542-45. Two, “oriental” Catholic churches - the Syro-Malabar and the SyroMalankara - trace their origins to the travels of the Apostle Thomas.10, Each of these churches has its own hierarchy, in overlapping, jurisdictions, under the authority of the pope. Catholics in any of these, rites may receive communion in each other’s liturgies, though people, tend to stay in the rite they were born into., Flourishing Catholicism and Its Challenges, Though Catholics represent only 1.6 percent of the population,, India is so big that this works out to a sizeable Catholic community of, 17.6 million. The Church is divided into three rites: Syro-Malabar,, Syro-Malankara, and the Latin rite. The Syro-Malabar rite has an, estimated four million adherents, the Syro-Malankara about 500,000,, and the rest belong to the Latin Rite. Local tradition credits the apostle, Thomas with the introduction of Christianity, and believers who trace, their ancestry to him are known as “Thomas Christians.” Missionary, efforts in the South, centered on Kerala and Goa, followed the, Portuguese conquest of Goa in 1510., In many ways, Indian Catholicism is thriving. The Church is, growing at a rate ahead of overall population growth, and by 2050, there could be almost 30 million Catholics. (That would put India well, ahead of the Catholic population of Germany, for example, and bring, it close to Poland.). Outside its traditional base in the south, Catholicism, is also expanding in the northeast. In the state of Arunachal Pradesh, 133

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Indian Church History, , Indian Church History, , official sanction in the Church, but it is very much practiced.” He, told a story about a meeting between Catholic leaders and the, former Prime Minister Indira Ghandi in the 1970s. When the bishops, complained about the treatment of Dalits, according to Archbishop, Joji, Gandhi shot back: “First do justice to the Dalits within your, Church, and then come back to me and make your representation, on their behalf. I shall do my best for you then.” As of 2000, just, six of the 156 Catholic bishops in India were Dalits, and out of, 12,500 Catholic priests, only about 600 were Dalits. Sensitivity to, caste distinctions in the Church still runs strong. When Joji was, appointed to an archdiocese where Dalits are not a majority,, outgoing Archbishop Samineni Arulappa of Hyderabad complained,, “Rome is being taken for a ride. Rome does not know the ground, realities.”, , on the eastern border with China, where Catholicism arrived barely, 25 years ago, there are today 180,000 Catholics out of a total population, of 800,000. Catholicism enjoys wide respect for its network of schools,, hospitals and social service centers. When Mother Teresa died in, 1997, the Indian government afforded her a state funeral, only the, second private citizen after Mahatmas Gandhi to receive the honor., Her casket was born by the same military carriage which carried, Gandhi’s remains in 1948., Specific Realities in Indian Catholic Church, 1. Three Challenges, As the 21st century dawns, Indian Catholicism also faces three, major challenges., v, , v, , First, India has acquired a reputation for some of the most, adventurous theology in Catholicism today, especially in “religious, pluralism.” Thinkers such as Michael Amaladoss, Felix Wilfred,, Raimon Panikkar, Aloysius Pieris and Jacques Dupuis, all of whom, are either Indian or influenced by India, have been controversial to, the traditional minded Christians because of the various ways in, which they try to give positive theological value to non-Christian, religions. That is a logical development given India’s religious, diversity, but it has raised alarms in quarters of the Church identified, with evangelical Catholicism. Catholic leaders will want to, encourage theological exploration that can open up dialogue, but, without transgressing doctrinal limits., Second, a noteworthy point about Catholic demography in India is, the disproportionate share of Dalits, or untouchables. Estimates, are that somewhere between 60 and 75 percent of Indian Catholics, are Dalits, who often see Christianity as a means of protesting the, caste system and of affiliating with a social network to buffer its, effects. Beginning in the 1970s, the Catholic Church took up the, Dalit cause in Indian society. Recently, India’s Catholic leaders, have backed efforts to repeal laws that provide protection to Hindu, Dalits but not those of other religious backgrounds., Yet some critics say the Church itself has a mixed record., Archbishop Marampudi Joji of Hyderabad, the first Dalit archbishop,, said in a 2005 interview that “discrimination against Dalits has no, , 134, , v, , Third is the rise of aggressive Hindu nationalism. Radical Hindu, movements often claim that Christians engage in duplicitous, missionary practices in an effort to “Christianize” India. Though, by most accounts the Hindu nationalists represent a tiny fraction, of the population, they have the capacity to create tremendous, grief. Organized radical groups today sometimes move into, Christian villages, preaching a gospel of Hindutva, or Hindu, nationalism, and urge people to take part in “reconversion”, ceremonies. These groups also routinely stage counter-festivals, during Christmas celebrations., , 2. Charismatic Catholicism, Charismatic Catholicism has become highly visible in south India, over the last decades. Church leaders argue that it has kept a large, number of Catholics within the church who might otherwise have, fled the Catholic Church for one of the small Evangelical churches, that have sprouted up in the area., Charismatic Catholicism though is characterized by its strong appeal, to emotion and personal witness, the emphasis on the bible, and worship, that includes traditional and Charismatic gestures like waving of hands, and intense prayer have contributed positively to the growth of, Catholicism in India. The healing ministry of Catholic Charismatics, prepares the platform for new evangelisation. Though Charismatic, Catholicism in India draws in many ways from American Pentecostalist, 135

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Indian Church History, , religion, but is not simply a copy of it. Lmost all the traditional faith, practices of the Indian Catholics are incorporated by the Indian, Charismatics. In the ways that Indians have woven together traditional, European, Pentecostalist, and elements of Indian religiosity, the, charismatic Catholics have developed something quite particular to, India. Whereas the bishops in some countries have tried to hold back, the charismatic movement or held it at a distance, charismatic Catholics, in India say they have been embraced by the bishops, and that this, connection has kept many Catholics, especially middle class Catholics,, from going over to Pentecostal churches., 3. Migration and Immigration, Almost all Catholics in India are natives, and India has its own, native clergy in abundance, so Indian Catholics do not have significant, foreign born communities to integrate. At the same time, mobility within, India, and migration out of India, is having some effect on Catholicism, in many parts of the country, mostly among the upper and middle, classes, who are most connected into the world abroad. Family, structures seem resistant to evolving norms abroad, but Indians are, aware of different values from other parts of the world, even as they, prefer to choose their own path. The biggest changes come when, family members move abroad temporarily for work opportunities., In Kerala, out-migration plays a significant role in the lives of, Catholics. Families commonly have at least one family member living, abroad for employment purposes, particularly in the Gulf States, but, also in Europe, other parts of India, and other parts of the world., Kerala is the best educated state in India, and through Catholic schools,, Keralite Catholics have a strong start on English, nursing, and other, skills that serve them well in the global marketplace. Even middleclass families have their feet in several worlds, quite literally. Clergy, and religious communities from Kerala are also migrating at a rapid, pace, being sent as missionaries to serve in parishes and Catholics, around the world, often, but not exclusively, in service to Indian migrant, communities., Art, Architecture and Demographics of Indian Christians, There are a large number of items of artistic and architectural, significance in the religious and domestic life of Indian Christians., Altars, statues, pulpits, crosses, bells and belfries of churches along, 136, , Indian Church History, , with other household items are among the many things that form part, of the sacred art of the Indian Christians. Church art and architecture, of Kerala from the beginning of Christian presence in the region have, been greatly influenced by those of other nations and religions as they, have been influenced by Kerala’s wealth of artistic and architectural, traditions., Christian art and architecture in Kerala in pre-European periods, has not only developed from contact with the countries that had trading, posts there but also from indigenous forms and techniques of art and, architecture. The advent of the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French,, and the English has had a great deal of influence on the art and, architecture of the church in Kerala. The description of the visits of a, Portuguese Archbishop Dom Menezes to various churches before, the arrival of western powers in India throws some light on the, structures and arrangements of the churches before western elements, and types were introduced into Kerala. There were three striking, objects of significance in front of the typical Malabar churches, either, inside the courtyard or just outside it:, The ornate monumentality of the European churches was, introduced to India when parts of Malabar Coast came under the, jurisdiction of the Portuguese in the 16th century. They introduced, the Romano-Portuguese style, which was assimilated with such artistic, and structural finesse by the artists of Kerala, that it created some of, the finest pieces of artistry. This laid the foundations for, Indian Baroque. After the arrival of Vasco da Gama and more, especially after the commencement of Portuguese rule in India, distinct, patterns of Christian art developed within the areas of Portuguese, influence, mostly along the coasts of the peninsula. The Portuguese, were great builders and promoted architecture more than any other, form of fine art. St. Francis Church, Kochi is the first European place, of worship in India and incidentally also the place where Vasco da, Gama was first buried. The Christian art of Goa reached its climax in, church building., Indian Christian art and architecture during the British Raj has, expanded into several different styles as a result of extensive church, building in different parts of the country. The style that was most, patronised is generally referred to as the British Regency style which, 137

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Indian Church History, , included Neo-Gothic and Gothic Revival architecture. Most Protestant, cathedrals and churches in India conform to this style. St. Paul’s, Cathedral, Kolkata is a typical example of the Gothic Revival style. St., Mary’s church, Chennai, the first Anglican Church built east of, the Suez is one of the first examples of British colonial architecture in, India. French and Danish influences on Christian art and architecture, in India can be seen in their respective colonies. Today one can see a, harmonious blending of the East and the West in the Christian art and, architecture of India., Culture, While Christians in India do not share one common culture, their, cultures for the most part tend to be a blend of Indian, Syrian and, European cultures. It differs from one region to another depending on, several factors such as the prevailing rite and tradition and the extent, of time for which Christianity has existed in those regions. The, ancient Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala have a distinctively, different culture when compared to Christians in other parts of the, country. Historical ties with the Assyrian Church and assimilation of, Indian traditions have contributed to the development of a unique, culture among these traditional Syrian Christians or Nasranis, of Kerala. The use of ornamental umbrellas for Christian religious, festivities illustrates an example of the indigenous character, of Kerala’s Syriac Christianity. Goa was colonised by the Portuguese, in the 16th century AD; as a result of which Goan Christians have, adopted a more western culture. The dance, song and cuisine, of Goa have been greatly influenced by the Portuguese. Contemporary, Goan Christian culture can be best described as an increasingly, anglicized Indo-Latin culture. Mangalorean Catholics are descended, mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers, who had migrated to South, Canara from Goa, a state north of Canara, between 1560 and 1763, during the Goa Inquisition and the Portuguese-Maratha wars. After, migration to Mangalore, they adopted the local Mangalorean culture,, but retained many of their Goan customs and traditions. Christianity, in other parts of India spread under the colonial regimes of the Dutch,, Danish, French and most importantly the English from the early 17th, century to the time of the Indian Independence in 1947. Christian, culture in these colonial territories has been influenced by the religion, and culture of their respective rulers., 138, , Indian Church History, , Contemporary Latin Christian culture in India draws greatly from, the Anglican culture as a result of the influence of the erstwhile British, Raj. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer is a widely used supplement, for worship in the two major Protestant denominations: Church of, South India and Church of North India. Today Christians are, considered to be one of the most progressive communities in India., Urban Christians are to a greater extent influenced by European, traditions which is considered an advantage in the business environment, of urban India; this is given as an explanation for the large number of, Christian professionals in India’s corporate sector. The Christian church, runs thousands of educational institutions which have contributed to, the strengthening of Christian culture in India., Religion plays a significant role in the daily life of Indian Christians., India ranks 15 among countries with highest church attendance., Religious processions and carnivals are often celebrated by, Catholics. Cities with significant Christian populations celebrate patron, saint days. As in other parts of the world, Christmas is the most, important festival for Indian Christians. Anglo-Indian Christmas, balls held in most major cities form a distinctive part of Indian Christian, culture. Good Friday is a national holiday. All Souls Day is another, Christian holiday that is observed by most Christians in India. Most, Protestant churches celebrate harvest festivals, usually in late October, or early November. Christian weddings in India conform to the, traditional white wedding. However it is not uncommon for Christian, brides particularly in the south to wear a traditional white wedding, sari instead of a gown. The vast majority of Protestant women and to, lesser extent Catholic women in India does not wear the bindi (red, dot on the forehead) and can therefore be easily distinguished from, their Hindu counterparts., Demographics, The 2001 census of India recorded 24,080,016 Christians in the, country, most of them belonging to the Latin Rite and represented, 2.34 per cent of the population. A 2005 report by the Catholic Church, said that 17,300,000 baptized Catholics lived in the country, although it, could not put a figure on how many of those were practicing. 310,000, were members of the Syro-Malankara Church and 3,000,000 of the, Syro-Malabar Church. In January 1993, the Syro-Malabar Church, 139

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Indian Church History, , and in February 2005, the Syro-Malankara Church were raised to the, status of major archiepiscopal churches by Pope John Paul II. The, Syro-Malabar Church is the second largest among the twenty two, Eastern Catholic Churches who accept the Pope as the visible head, of the whole church., The Oriental Orthodox churches in India include the Malankara, Orthodox Syrian Church with 2,500,000 members, the Jacobite Syrian, Christian Church with 1,200,000 members, Malankara Mar Thoma, Syrian Church with 900,000 members and Malabar Independent Syrian, Church with 10,000 members., Most Protestant denominations are represented in India, as a result, of missionary activities throughout the country, such as the American, Missionary Association, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, Mission, the Church Mission Society of the Church of England and, many other missions from Europe, America and Australia. With, approximately 4 million members, the largest Protestant denomination, in the country is the Church of South India, which is a union, of Presbyterian, Reformed, Congregational, Methodist, and Anglican, congregations. It is also one of four united churches in the Anglican, Communion. A similar Church of North India has 1.25 million, members. These churches are in full communion with the Anglican, Communion. In 1961, the evangelical wing of the church split from, the Mar Thoma Church and formed the St. Thomas Evangelical Church, of India which has 35,000 members. There are about, 1,267,786 Lutherans, 648,000 Methodists, 2,392,694 Baptists, and, 823,456 Presbyterians in India., The Open Brethren movement is also significantly represented in, India. The main Brethren grouping is known as the Indian, Brethren (with a following estimated at somewhere between 449,550, and 1,000,000), of which the Kerala Brethren are a significant subset., The closely related Assemblies Jehovah Shammah has around 310,000, adults and children in fellowship as of 2010. They are often considered, part of the wider Brethren movement, although they were founded, by an indigenous evangelist and developed independently of the older, Indian Brethren movement, which originated from missionary, endeavours., 140, , Indian Church History, , Pentecostalism is also a rapidly growing movement in India. The, major Pentecostal churches in India are the Assemblies of God, The, Pentecostal Mission, the New Apostolic Church with 1,448,209, members, the Indian Pentecostal Church of God with 900,000 members, (throughout India and ten other countries), the New Life Fellowship, Association with 480,000 members, the Manna Full Gospel, Churches with 275,000 members, and the Evangelical Church of India, with 250,000 members., Christian Denominations in India, Church Name, , Population Orientation, , Roman Catholic Church, Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian, Church and Jacobite Syrian, Orthodox Church Combined, Kanaya, , 11,800,000, 3,300,000, 310,000, , 4,700,000, 300,000, , Malabar Independent Syrian Church 10,000, Chaldean Syrian Church, or church, of the east (old christian in india), Malankara Mar Thomas, Syrian Church, St. Thomas Evangelical Church, Church of South India, , 35,000, , Church of North India, , 1,250,000, , Methodist Church in India, Baptist, , 648,000, 2,991,276, , Assemblies Jehovah Shammah, Lutheran, Indian Brethren, , 310,000, 1,267,786, 449,550to, 1,000,000, , 900,000, 35,000, 5,000,000, , Latin Rite, Catholic, East Syrian Rite, Catholic, West Syrian Rite, Catholic, West Syrian Rite, Oriental, Orthodox, West Syrian Rite and East, Syrian Rite, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic, West Syrian Rite, Oriental, Orthodox, Independent, East Syrian, Church of the East, West Syrian Rite, Oriental, Independent and Reformed, Episcopalian Protestant, Episcopalian Protestant, (United and uniting), Episcopalian Protestant, (United and uniting), Protestan, Protestant (List of Baptist, denominations in India), Protestant (Plymouth Brethren), Protestant, Protestant (Plymouth Brethren), , 141

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Indian Church History, Presbyterian Church of India, Reformed Presbyterian Church in, North East India, Reformed Presbyterian Church, of India, Evangelical Church Oreintation of, Maraland, Congregational Church in India, Hindustani Covenant Church, Worldside Faith Missions, Evangelical Church, New Apostolic Church, India Pentecostal Church of God, Pentecostal Maranatha Gospel Church, New Life Fellowship Association, Sharon Fellowship Church, Manna Full Gospel Churches, Philadalphia Fellowship Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, Unitarian Unit of Northeast India, Jehovah’s Witness, The Church of Jesus Christ of, Latter-day Saints, Gift of God Ministrises, Christian Revivl Church, , Indian Church History, 1,206,737, 15,000, , Protestant (Reformed), Protestant (Reformed), , 10,000, , Protestant (Reformed), , 30,000, , Protestant (Reformed), , 5,500, 16,600, 12,000, 250,000, 1,448,209, 600,000, , Protestant (Reformed), Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant, Protestant/Restorationism, Unitarian, Restorationism, , 480,000, 50,000, 275000, 200000, 1560000, 10000, 42566, 1289, 1,000, 21,447, , Latter Day Saints, Born Again Believers, Charismatic, Pentecostal, and Holistic Evangelical, Movement, , Islands, Kerala, Sikkim, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Jharkhand, Assam, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu And Kashmir, , 1, , 2, , 142, , 1,210,854,977, 19,78,502, 1,097,206, 2,966,889, 2855,794, 1,383,727, 1,458,545, , 2.30, 87.93, 87.16, 74.59, 41.29, 30.26, 25.10, , 27,819,588, 1,739,651, 956,331, 2,213027, 1,179,043, 418,732, 366,130, , 20.28, 18.38, 9.91, 6.29, 6.12, 4.35, 4.30, 3.74, 2.77, 1.92, 1.87, 1.34, 1.26, 0.96, 0.72, 0.52, 0.18, 0.12, , 80,984, 6,141,269, 60,522, 78,550, 4,418,331, 159,882, 1,418,,608, 1,165,867, 1,161,708, 490,542, 1,142,647, 1,129,784, 348,230, 1,080073, 658,618, 316,178, 356,448, 129,247, , Endnotes, , State Populations, States with percentage of Christians as per 2011census, India, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Andaman and Nicobar, , 380,581, 33,406,061, 610,577, 1,247,953, 72,147,030, 3,673,917, 32,988,134, 31,205,576, 41,974,218, 25,545,198, 61,095,297, 84,580,777, 27,743,338, 112,374,333, 91,276,115, 60,439,692, 199,812,341, 104,099,452, in Garhi Christian, Fellowship Circa 2,500 in., , 3, , 4, , 5, , R. L. Stirrat, “Conclusion” in Power and Religiosity in a Post-colonial, Setting: Sinhala Catholics in Contemporary Sri Lanka. (Cambridge:, Cambridge UP, 1992), 196. As cited in David Mosse. “Introduction”, in The Saint in the Banyan Tree: Christianity and Caste Society in, India. (Berkeley: University of California, 2012), 16., Patricia Raeann Johnston, “The Church on Armenian Street: Capuchin, Friars, The British East India Company, and the Second Church of Colonial, Madras” (PhD diss., University of Iowa, 2015), 104., Parts of this site are based on interviews with Indian Catholics in, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in January 2013., Comments based on interviews in Southern India in January 2013. For, one effort to fight back against the culture of bribery, see ipaidabribe.com, (link is external)., 2011 Census of India., 143

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Indian Church History, 6, , 7, , 8, , 9, , 10, , 144, , K. C. Zachariah, Syrian Christians of Kerala: Demographic and SocioEconomic Transition in the Twentieth Century. (India: Hyderabad Orient, Longman Private Limited, 2006), 113-130., Rowena Robinson, “Introduction: From Periphery to Center”, in Christians of India. (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2003), 28., K. C. Zachariah, Syrian Christians of Kerala: Demographic and SocioEconomic Transition in the Twentieth Century. (India: Hyderabad Orient, Longman Private Limited, 2006), 108., David Mosse, “A Return Visit to Alapuram: Religion and Caste in the, 2000s” in The Saint in the Banyan Tree: Christianity and Caste Society, in India. (Berkeley: University of California, 2012), 233-36. ; Mathew, N. Schmalz, “The Indian Church: Catholicism and Indian Nationhood.”, in The Catholic Church and the Nation-State: Comparative, Perspectives, ed. Paul C. Manuel, Lawrence C. Reardon, and Clyde, Wilcox. (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown UP, 2006), 209-25., There are also numerous Syriac Orthodox, Jacobite, and Protestant, Christians, descendants of the same tradition from the Apostle Thomas,, who have not joined the Catholic Church.