More from KRISHNENDU RAY

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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322437050, , Practical Handbook Of Pharmacognosy, Book · October 2017, , CITATIONS, , READS, , 0, , 2,928, , 13 authors, including:, Mrunal Krishnarao Shirsat, Dr.N.J paulbudhe college of Pharmacy, 52 PUBLICATIONS 15 CITATIONS, SEE PROFILE, , Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:, , Extraction,Isolation,characterisation of Bioactive Compounds View project, , DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF LOSARTAN POTASSIUM SUSTAINED RELEASE MATRIX TABLET View project, , All content following this page was uploaded by Mrunal Krishnarao Shirsat on 12 January 2018., The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

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Mr. Rajesh M. Patne, Success Publications, Radha Krishna Apartment, 535, Shaniwar Peth,, Appa Balwant Chowk, Opp. Prabhat Talkies, Pune - 411 030., Ph. 24433374, 24434662, 64011289. Mobile : 9325315464., , Copy Right, With the Authors, , Printed at, Success Publications, S.No. 30/27, Laxmi Industrial Estate, Near Prabhat News Paper,, Dhayari, Pune-41. Mobile : 9028211751, , Edition, 2017, , Edited By, Miss. Jyoti Bevnale, , Typesetting, Layout, Miss. Jyoti Bevnale, , Cover Designing, Mrs. Jyotsana kadam, , ISBN NO. - 978-93-24457-No part of this book may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means [graphic, electronic or, mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information retrieval systems] or reproduced, on any disc, tape, perforated media or other information storage device, etc., without the written, permission of the publishers., Every effort has been made to avoid errors or omissions in this book. Inspite of this errors may creep, in. Any mistake, error or discrepancy noted may be brought to our Notice which shall be taken care of, in the next edition. It is Notified that publisher shall not be responsible for any damage or loss of, action to anyone of any kind in any manner, therefrom. It is suggested to all the readers, always refer, original references wherever necessary., , ii

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PREFACE, This book having title (As per PCI New Syllabus) written with an intention to benefit, the Degree and Diploma students for easy understanding., The generally acknowledged importance of study of Pharmacognosy as a branch of, useful knowledge, and the constantly increasing recognition of its extended practical as, well as scientific applications., The work here presented will doubtless at once indicate the aim and the scope of, the science of Pharmacognosy and clearly demonstrate its intimate connection on every, hard with chemical, botanical, Macroscopically and Microscopical science., Pharmacognostical study the active and other constituents of drugs, such as may be, obtained in crystalline from section, from extractions of small quantities of powders or, from a few an extracted solutions as obtained in assay work., Particularly these books include PCI New Syllabus for Pharmacy Students., Pharmacy Council of India are Prescribed by New Syllabus All over India., , By Authors, , iii

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Acknowledgments, The authors are thankful to SVP College of Pharmacy Hatta, Tq. Basmat Dist. Hingoli., (Maharashtra) and Pacific University, Udiapur, (Rajasthan) for their appreciation, moral, support, constant encouragement, positive criticism and scientific inputs., We are thankful to the Dr. Vedprakash K. Patil, Former Vice-Chancellor, (Marathwada Agriculture University, Parbhani, (Maharashtra), Member, Accreditation, Board I.C.A.R. Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi., The authors are grateful to Prof. Dr. A. V. Chandewar Principal, P. Wadhwani, College of Pharmacy, Yavatmal for excellent guidance and dedicated efforts., Mr. Manesh Bodake (Campus Incharge) Shri Dheneshwari Manav Vikas Mandal’s,, At post Hatta Tq. Basmat, Dist. Hingoli for his valuable guidance and critical, suggestions., We are grateful to our parents for their unconditional love, support and, encouragement., We are also thankful to Publisher. We extend our thanks to supportive friends,, colleagues and for bringing out nicely printed book., , By Authors, , iv

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CONTENTS, Sr. No., 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., 9., 10., 11., 12., 13., 14., 15., 16., 17., 18., 19., 20., 21., , Experiments, To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Cinchona Bark., To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Cinnamon Bark., To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Senna., To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Clove., To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Ephedra., To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Fennel., To study the macroscopical and microscopical, characters of Coriander., To perform physical and chemical test for Asafoetida., To perform physical and chemical test for Benzoin., To perform physical and chemical test for Acacia., To perform physical and chemical test for Agar., To perform physical and chemical test for Gelatin., To perform physical and chemical test for Starch., To perform physical and chemical test for Aloe., To perform physical and chemical test for Honey., To perform physical and chemical test for Castor Oil., To determine the Stomatal Number and Stomatal, Index of Leaf., To determine the Vein-Islet and Veinlet termination, number of Leaf., To measure the dimension of calcium oxalate crystals, by eye piece micrometer., To measure the size of starch grains by eye piece, micrometer., To measure the length and width of Fibers., v, , Page No., 1-5, 6-9, 10 - 15, 16 - 20, 21 - 24, 25 - 29, 30 - 32, 33 - 34, 35 - 36, 37 - 38, 39 - 40, 41 - 42, 43 - 44, 45 - 47, 48 - 49, 50 - 51, 52 - 54, 55 - 56, 57 - 58, 59 - 61, 62 - 63

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22., 23., 24., 25., 26., 27., 28., 29., 30., 31., 32., 33., 34., 35., 36., 37., 38., 39., 40., 41., 42., 43., , To determine the palisade ratio of the leaf., To determine the number of starch grain by, Lycopodium spore method., To perform preliminary phytochemical screening of, crude drugs., To determine the total Ash value of given drug., To determine the Acid Insoluble Ash value of given, drug., To determine the Water Soluble Ash value of given, drug., To determine the moisture content of given drug., To determine the alcohol soluble Extractive value of, given drug., To determine the Water soluble Extractive value of, given drug., To prepare Arishta and Asava., To determine the alcohol content of Arishta and Asava., To determine the Swelling Index of Isapgol (Plantago, ovate) seeds., To determine the Foaming Index., To prepare herbal hair oil., To Prepare Herbal Face Pack., To Prepare Anti Wrinkle Cream., To Prepare Cold Cream., To Prepare Herbal Face Pack (5gm), To Prepare Herbal Tooth Powder., To prepare herbal hair oil., To prepare swarooplep., Monographs, , vi, , 64 - 65, 66 - 67, 68 - 71, 72 - 73, 74 - 74, 76 - 76, 77 – 77, 78 - 78, 79 – 79, 81 – 83, 84 – 85, 86 - 87, 88 – 89, 90 – 91, 92 – 94, 95 – 96, 97 – 98, 99 – 101, 102 – 103, 104 - 105, 106 - 107, 108 - 144

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Experiment No.: 1, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Cinchona, Bark., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Cortex Cinchonae, Countess, Peruvian or Jesuit‘s bark, Cinchona, 2) Biological Source:, Cinchona is the dried bark of the stem or of the root of Cinchona calisaya, Cinchona, ledgeriana, Cinchona officinalis and Cinchona succirubra or hybrids of any of the, first two species with any of the last two species, belonging to family Rubiaceae., , Fig.1.1: Cinchona Bark, 3) Chemical Constituents:, More than 30 alkaloids have been reported in cinchona. The chiefly identified, alkaloids are quinidine, quinine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These constituents are, the stereoisomers of each other like quinine is stereoisomer of quinidine and, cinchonine is stereoisomer of cinchonidine. The other constituents available are, quiniarnine, cinchotine, hydroquinine, hydrocinchonidine, cinchotannic acid, etc., Quinine and quinidine has a methoxy group in it but cinchonine and cinchonidine do, not have a methoxy group. Other than these it also consist of bitter glycoside, starch, grains, calcium oxalate crystals and crystalline acid like quinic acid., 4) Chemical Test:, a) Thalleioquin Test: To the extract of cinchona powder add one drop of dilute, ~1~

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b), c), 5), , 6), a), , b), c), d), e), f), , Pharmacognosy, sulphuric acid and 1 ml of water. Add bromine water drop wise till the solution, acquires permanent yellow colour and add 1 ml of dilute ammonia solution, emerald, green colour is produced., The powdered drug when heated with glacial acetic acid in dry test tube, evolves red, fumes, which condense in the top portion of the tube., Cinchona bark, when moistened with sulphuric acid and observed under ultraviolet, light shows a blue fluorescence due to the methoxy group of Quinine and quinidine., Uses:, It is mainly employed as antimalarial drug, but it is also used as analgesic,, antipyretic, protoplasmic, bitter stomachic and tonic. Quinidine is cardiac depressant, and Cinchonidine is used in rheumatism and neuralgia., Macroscopic Feature:, Colour: The outer surface is yellowish to brown, with short fractures and the inner, surface varies in all the four species; like Cinchona calisaya and Cinchona, ledgeriana is yellowish, Cinchona officinalis is slightly brown and Cinchona, succimbra is reddish brown, Odour: Distinctive, Taste: Highly bitter and astringent., Shape: Curved, quill or double quill., Size: 30 cm long and 2–7 mm thick., Extra Features: The outer surface consist of longitudinal and transverse cracks,, fissures, ridges, , Size, Shape, Outer, surface, , Inner, surface, Fracture, , Stem Bark, Length 30cm; thickness 2 to 6mm, Curved, quill or double quill, Dull brown grey or grey in color., Rough mainly due to longitudinal and, transverse cracks, fissures, ridges,, grayish patches of moss or lichen., Striated and varying in color from, yeloowish brown to deep reddish brown, Short in outer bark and fibrus in inner part, , Root Bark, Length 2 to 7 cm, Curved, twisted or irregularly, Dark reddish brown in color., Scaly and shows depression., Mosses and lichens are, absent., Striated and reddish brown, Fibrous, , 7) Microscopy:, Transverse section of the cinchona bark shows the following tissues microscopically:, a) Periderm: It is made up of cork, phellogen and phelloderm:, i) Cork: It consists of many layers of thin-walled cells arranged in regular radial rows., Cells appear as flat and polygonal with reddish-brown cell contents. The cell walls, are suberised., ~2~

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Pharmacognosy, ii) Phellogen: It is made up of two to three layers of thin-walled rectangular cells., iii) Phelloderm: It is placed within the cork cambium. It is made up of several (up to, eight) layers of regular, thin-walled rectangular cells with dark walls and without any, cell contents. Cork cambium is not distinctly seen in commercial samples., b) Cortex:, This portion of the bark is wide and consists of many layers of tangentially, elongated, thin-walled cells. These are made up of cellular parenchyma and walls, are reddish brown. Some of the cells of the cortex are filled with microsphenoidal, crystals of calcium oxalate. Sometimes idioblasts, containing microcrystals (mostly, prisms) of calcium oxalate and secretary cells (cavities or secretion canals or latex, ducts), are also found as scattered in the layers of the cortex. A few cells show, presence of minute starch granules contained within them. These are mainly, observed near the inner border of the cortical parenchyma. Sometimes these are, large enough and spaced at specifi c intervals. These appear oval in the transverse, section., , Fig. 1.2: Transverse Section of Cinchona Bark, ~3~

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c), i), , ii), , iii), , iv), , 8), , a), , b), , c), , Pharmacognosy, Secondary Phloem: This region is made up of sieve tubes, phloem parenchyma,, phloem fibres and medullary rays:, Sieve Tubes:, The end walls of the sieve tubes are seen at the right angles to the axis as the, component cells are long and wide. The companion cells are narrow. Sieve tubes, are collapsed and compressed most of the time in commercial samples of the bark., Phloem Parenchyma: It resembles the cortical parenchyma in many respects. It, consists of dark reddish-brown thin walls. A few of these cells show presence of, microprisms of calcium oxalate within them., Phloem Fibres: These are many, large, fusiform, thick walled and lignified. These, phloem fibres occur as single or in irregular radial rows, as groups of two to five, fibres. These are seen as intermingled with phloem parenchyma and in between the, medullary rays. Distribution and size of the phloem fibres differ in different species of, cinchona bark and thus can indicate the specific striking, characteristic features of a, particular species and can help in identification., Many times these groups of fibres occur as rounded, oval or spindle shaped. The, thick walls of fibres are striated and show conspicuous tubular or funnel-shaped pits., These fibres appear yellowish in colour and have a small lumen., Medullary Rays: These rays run radially transversing the phloem parenchyma., These are one, two or three seriate. These are narrow, thin walled and almost, straight and run up to the cortex. The cells are thin walled and somewhat radially, elongated. Some of these cells of the medullary rays contain starch grains., Powder Character:, The powder of cinchona bark is reddish brown with a slight, characteristic odour and, bitter, astringent taste. The powder microscopically shows the following characters:, Fibres: These phloem fibres are many, yellowish, fusiform, large, lignified and, fragmented. These occur as isolated or in groups of two or three. Individual fibres, have bluntly pointed ends. The walls are thick and show striations. Walls are, strongly lignified and possess simple or branched pores. The lumen is small, uneven, and short. The walls have numerous pits which are distinct and funnel shaped and, which open into the small lumen of the fibre. Sometimes longitudinal tissues are, observed in the walls at intervals., Cork: Cork cells are seen as thin walled, flat, polygonal and suberised. These cells, contain reddish-brown matter within them. Generally numerous fragments of cork, cells are observed., Parenchyma: These parenchymatous cells are abundant and arise from phloem, parenchyma and medullary rays. These cells appear yellowish to reddish brown in, colour. Phloem parenchyma cells are thin walled and fragmented. Few of these cells, show presence of some colouring matter along with small starch granules, and some, ~4~

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Pharmacognosy, contain microprisms of calcium oxalate. The parenchymatous cells of medullary rays, are mainly associated with fibres and possess slightly thick walls., , Fig.1.3: Powder Microscopy of Cinchona Bark, d) Calcium Oxalate Crystals: These are mainly observed in some of the, parenchymatous cells. Isolated or scattered crystals are very small and irregular in, shape. Generally microprisms of calcium oxalate are observed in the powder., e) Starch Grains: These are within some of parenchymatous cells and some as, scattered. These are small, simple and spherical or rarely compound with two to five, components., , , ~5~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 2, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Cinnamon, Bark., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Ceylon cinnamon, Cinnamon bark, Dalchini, 2) Biological Source:, Cinnamon consists of the dried inner bark of the shoots of coppiced trees of, Cinnamonum zeylanicum belonging to family Lauraceae. It should not could contain, less than 1.0% of volatile oil., , Fig. 2.1: Cinnamon Bark, 3) Macroscopic Feature:, Cinnamon is either in single- or double-compound quills, with a size of 1 m length,, 0.5 mm thickness, and 6 to 10 mm diameter. the outer surface is dull yellowish, brown while the inner surface is dark yellowish brown. Cinnamon has a fragrant, perfume; taste aromatic and sweet followed by warm sensation., 4) Microscopy:, Microscopically transverse section of the cinnamon bark shows the following tissues:, a) Periderm: Few layers of cork cells can be seen in which the outer cells are thin, walled and inner cells are lignified and thick walled. Phellogen and phelloderm are, not distinguishable from each other or from cork., b) Cortex: This is many times absent in commercial samples of the bark. If present it is, found as patches and composed of 10–15 layers of parenchyma with scattered, sclereids. Each sclereid is rectangular and pitted. Some of the parenchymatous cells, contain minute acicular raphides and abundant starch., ~6~

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c), , d), i), , ii), , iii), , 5), , a), , Pharmacognosy, Pericycle: In most of the samples, the outermost limit of the bark is marked by a, pericycle which produces the light coloured, wavy, longitudinal lines on the outer, layer of the bark. The pericycle is composed of a continuous ring of three to four, layers of sclereids with small groups of pericyclic fibres embedded in it at intervals., Secondary Phloem: It consists of phloem parenchyma, fibres and medullary rays:, Phloem Parenchyma: It consists of sub-rectangular, thin-walled cells with starch, grains (both simple and compound) and numerous acicular crystals of calcium, oxalate., Some of the phloem parenchyma cells contain tannin. Oil cells and mucilage, cells are also observed in phloem parenchyma. Idioblasts are somewhat, longitudinally elongated and contain volatile oil or mucilage. The sieve tube tissue, which is embedded in the phloem parenchyma is often obliterated., Phloem Fibres: The phloem fibres occur singly or in short tangential rows of 2–5, and are more abundant towards the inner part of the bark. These are circular and, slender and their thick lignified walls show stratifi cations. The width of phloem fi, bres and size of starch grains are important identifying characters of cinnamon,, especially a distinction from cassia bark., Medullary Rays: The secondary phloem is divided up by radial medullary rays., These are uni- or biseriate near the cambium but become broader towards the outer, layer by tangential growth of cells. The rays are 7–14 cells high. The medullary ray, cells are radially elongated and thin walled with yellow–brown cell contents, containing numerous acicular crystals of calcium oxalate., Powder Characters:, The powder of the cinnamon bark is reddish brown in colour with a characteristic,, pleasant, sweet fragrance and taste. It shows the following diagnostic characters, microscopically:, Fibres: These are abundant and usually occur singly. These have thick, lignified,, stratified walls and small, somewhat uneven, narrow lumen and few inconspicuous, slit-shaped pits. Occasionally fibres are found along with the sclereids of the, pericycle, and a few occur associated with the oil cells and parenchyma of the, phloem., , b) Sclereids: These are abundantly seen which occur singly or in small groups. These, are of various sizes and shapes but usually are isodiametric, with thick walls,, lignified; the outer wall is thinner than the other walls. Most of the cells are thick, walled which gives a characteristic U shape; the lumen is small. Pits are numerous, and conspicuous; striations are usually visible., ~7~

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Pharmacognosy, , c), , d), e), , f), , Fig. 2.2: Transverse Section of Cinnamom Bark, Starch Grains: These are numerous, found scattered and inside parenchymatous, tissues or sclereids. These are commonly observed in phloem parenchyma and, medullary rays. These are small, single or compound with four or more components., A rounded or slit-shaped hilum is observed in a few large grains. Diameter of the, grains is less than 10 μ, which is a distinguishing character from the cassia bark., Calcium Oxalate Crystals: The thin-walled phloem parenchyma and medullary ray, cells of the phloem show small, numerous acicular crystals of calcium oxalate., Oil Cells: Oil cells are seen as entire or as fragments. These cells are often, associated with the parenchyma or fibres of the phloem; cells are large and ovoid, and usually occur singly., Cork: The cork cells are usually absent. Very occasionally fragments of cork can be, seen. These cells are thin walled and polygonal in surface view. In sectional view,, fragments show the cell layers arranged in alternating bands of thin-walled cells and, thick-walled, indistinct lignified cells., ~8~

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Pharmacognosy, , Fig. 2.3: Powder Microscopy of Cinnamon Bark, 6) Chemical Constituents: Cinnamon bark contains about 0.5 to 1.0% of volatile oil,, 1.2% of tannins mucilage, calcium oxalate, starch and a sweet substance known as, mannitol. The volatile oil is the active constituents of the drug. It is light yellow in, colour and changes to red on storage. Volatile oil contains 50 to 65% cinnamic, aldehyde, along with 5 to 10% eugenol, benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde and other, terpenes like phellandrene, pinnene, cymeme, caryophyllane etc. Cinnamon oil is, yellow to red in colour with specific Gravity 1.00 to 1.030, optical rotation 0--0.2, and, refractive index 1.562--1.582., 7) Uses: Bark is used as a carminative, stomachic and mild astringent. It is also used, as flavoring agent, stimulant and aromatic and antiseptic., , , ~9~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 3, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Senna., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Senna leaf, Sennae folium, Tinnevelley Senna, Indian Senna, 2) Biological Sources:, Senna is the dried leaflets of Cassia acutifolia (Alexandria senna) or of Cassia, angustifolia (Indian or Tinnevelley Senna) belonging to the family Leguminoseae., , Fig. 3.1: Senna Herb, , Fig. 3.2: Senna Leaves, ~10~

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Pharmacognosy, 3) Description:, Features, Alexandria senna, Colour, Pale greyish green, Odour, Slightly characteristic, Taste, Mucilaginous and slightly bitter, Size, Length = 2-4 cm, Width, 7-12 mm, Shape, Ovate -lanceolate, Texture, Thin and brittle, , Tinnevelley senna, Yellowish green, Slightly characteristic, Mucilaginous, bitter and characteristic, Length = 2.5-5cm, Width = 3-8 mm, Lanceolate, Thin and flexible, , 4) Microscopy:, The transverse section of a senna leaflet exhibits isobilateral structure under the, microscope., The following tissues are observed in the lamina and midrib region:, a) Lamina:, i) Upper Epidermis:, It is composed of polygonal cells arranged in a single layer, covered on the outer, side with prominently thick, warty cuticle. Few epidermal cells contain mucilage and, straight anticlinal walls. The epidermis bears only nonglandular covering trichomes, which are unicellular, short, thick walled, conical, non-lignified, warty and often, curved at the bulbous base or with papillose walls. Paracytic stomata are seen at, regular intervals., ii) Mesophyll:, It is differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. Isobilateral structure, exhibits presence of upper palisade below the upper epidermis and lower palisade, placed above the lower epidermis:, 1) Upper Palisade:, It is a single layer of elongated, narrow, columnar cells with chloroplastids. The, upper epidermis also continues over the midrib region., 2) Spongy Parenchyma:, It is made up of loosely arranged parenchymatous cells and contains rosette or, prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate., 3) Lower Palisade:, It extends to somewhat limited area, i.e. to the lamina region only. Cells are small, and loosely arranged and have wavy walls., 4) Lower Epidermis:, Cells possessing prominent cuticle and sunken stomata are seen. These cells are, somewhat shorter than those of the upper epidermis and have slightly wavy walls., Non-glandular trichomes are also found on the lower epidermis., ~11~

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Pharmacognosy, b) Midrib:, The transverse section through the midrib region exhibits a fl at ventral surface and, convex dorsal surface. The epidermal layers are in continuation over the midrib also., The lower epidermis possesses small cells with thick cuticle. The upper palisade is, also made up of smaller cells particularly in the midrib region. The lower palisade is, absent in the midrib portion, and a group of collenchymatous cells is seen., At the centre, a group of collateral vascular bundles with xylem on the upper side, and phloem beneath is seen. The vascular bundles are covered on both ventral and, dorsal sides by an arc of lignified sclerenchymatous fibres. These patches of fibres, are somewhat ovate in shape and crescent shaped below. This fibrous arc is, characteristic as these fi bres are encircled by a layer of parenchyma, with cells of, most of it containing prisms of calcium oxalate crystals., Fibres ensheathed with crystals can be seen occasionally in the lamina portion, also. In the surface view, characteristic rubiaceous stomata, covering trichomes and, polygonal epidermal cells are seen., , Fig. 3.3: Transverse Section of Senna Leaf, ~12~

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Pharmacognosy, 5) Powder Character:, The senna leaflet powder is greyish green or yellowish green in colour with a faint,, characteristic odour and a mucilaginous, slightly bitter taste. The powder shows the, following features microscopically:, 1) Fragments of Lamina:, Upper and lower epidermises of the lamina are similar, cells with thin, straight or, slightly sinuous walls and polygonal. Plenty of unicellular trichomes and paracytic, stomata are seen. Both epidermises also show cicatrices where trichomes were, attached; these consist of small circular scars from which the epidermal cells radiate, outwards in a characteristic arrangement., , i), ii), iii), iv), v), , Fig. 3.4: Powder Microscopy of Senna Leaf, Epidermis in surface view with paracytic stomata and an attached trichome, Xylem elements from one of the larger veins, Part of a pitted vessel from one of the larger veins, Part of a group of fibres with calcium oxalate prism sheath, Part of the lamina In sectional view showing the upper epidermis containing, mucilage, the upper and lower palisade, spongy mesophyll cells containing cluster, crystals of calcium oxalate and the lower epidermis, ~13~

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vi), vii), viii), ix), x), , 2), , 3), , 4), , 5), 6), , 7), a), b), , Pharmacognosy, Groups of fibres with calcium oxalate prism sheaths at the junction of two small, veins, Part of the lamina In sectional view with a trlchome attached to the lower epidermis, Cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, Covering trichomes, Epidermis in surface view showing paracytic stomata, a cicatrix underlying pailsade, cells and the elongated cells over a vein with striated cuticle and an attached, trichome., Covering Trichomes:, These are unicellular and conical with thick and warty walls, found attached to, pieces of epidermises of the lamina. Straight or curved fragments with thick papillose, walls can be seen., Calcium Oxalate Crystals:, These are abundant and seen as scattered in the powder. Prisms of calcium oxalate, are seen inside the cells of the parenchymatous sheath surrounding the group of, sclerenchymatous fi bres, and rosettes are seen in the cells of spongy mesophyll., Rosettes (cluster crystals) are of moderate size., Groups of Fibres:, These are thick walled, lignified with few pits and encircled with a sheath of prisms of, calcium oxalate., Fragments of spiral, annular and pitted vessels are also seen., Chemical Constituents: The principle active constituents of senna are four, sennosides A, B, C and D, which are the dimeric glycosides having their aglycones, composed of either rhein and/or aloe-emodin moieties i.e.; 10, 10‘-bis (9, 10-dihydro1, 8-dihydroxy-9-oxoanthracene-3-carboxylic acid). The structure of the above four, glycosides are as given below:, Besides, relatively small quantities of monomeric glycosides and free, anthraquinones are also present in senna pods, such as: rhein–8-glucosides, rhein8-diglucoside, aloe emodin-8-glucoside, aloe-emodin anthrone diglycoside, rhein,, aloe-emodin and isorhamnetin., It also contains kaempterol (a phytosterol), mucilage, resins, myricyl alcohol,, chrysophanic acid, calcium oxalate and salicylic acid., Chemical Tests:, Modified Borntrager’s Test: It gives a pink to red colouration for the presence of, anthraquinone glycosides (see under section 4.2.1.1)., The mucilage of senna gives a distinct red colouration with Ruthenium Red solution., Substituents and Adulterants Tinnevelley senna is invariably found to be, adulterated with the, Following three cheaper varities of senna namely:, ~14~

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i), ii), iii), 8), a), , b), , Pharmacognosy, Dog senna (Cassia abovata): It contains approximately 1% of anthraquinone, derivatives, Palthe senna (Cassia auriculata): It contains no anthraquinone glycosides, Arabian Senna or Mecea senna or Bombay senna i.e.; wild variety of Cassia, angustifolia Vahl. from Southern Arabia: It is brownish-green in appearance., Uses:, Senna is usually employed as purgative in habitual constipation. The glycosides are, first absorbed in the small intestinal canal after which the aglycone portion gets, separated and ultimately excreted in the large intentine (colon). The released, anthraquinones irritate and stimulate the colon thereby enhancing its peristaltic, movements causing bulky and soft excretion of faces., The inherent action of senna is associated with appreciable griping , and therefore, it, is generally dispensed along with carminatives so as to counteract the undesired, effect., , , , ~15~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 4, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Clove., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Clove flower, Clove buds, Laung (Hindi), 2) Biological Source:, Clove consists of the dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus, belonging to family, Myrtaceae., , Fig. 4.1: Clove Flower Bud, 3) Characteristics:, Clove is reddish-brown in colour, with an upper crown and a hypanthium. The, hypanthium is sub-cylindrical and tapering at the end. The hypanthium is 10 to 13, mm long, 4 mm wide, and 2 mm thick and has schizolysigenous oil glands and an, ovary which is bilocular. The Crown region consists of the calyx, corolla, style and, stamens. Calyx has four thick sepals. Corolla is also known as head, crown or cap; it, is doineshaped and has four pale yellow coloured petals which are imbricate,, immature, and membranous. The ovary consists of abundant ovules. Clove has, strong spicy, aromatic odour, and pungent and aromatic taste., 4) Microscopy:, In the case of clove bud, a transverse section is taken through the ovary as well as, through the hypanthium, i.e. stalks of the bud. The short upper portion present, immediately below the calyx contains bilocular ovary. The lower portion, i.e. stalk of, the bud (hypanthium) that lies at the lower part, is long, solid and sub-cylindrical., The transverse section through the hypanthium shows the following tissues, microscopically from the periphery towards the centre:, a) Epidermis:, It is made up of a single layer of small, tabular cells with straight walls and highly, cuticularised. It shows presence of anomocytic (ranunculaceous) type of stomata., These stomata appear as slightly raised above the epidermal surface. The, substomatal spaces are prominent and well defined., ~16~

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b), i), , ii), , iii), , Pharmacognosy, Cortex: It occupies the major portion and can be divided into three different zones:, Outer Zone:, It shows two to three layers of big, ellipsoidal, schizolysigenous oil glands embedded, in radially elongated parenchymatous cells. Oil glands have long radial axis and an, epithelium which is composed of two or three layers of flattened cells., Parenchymatous cells contain tannins and thus show dark colouration with ferric, chloride solution (alcoholic). Many of the parenchymatous cells show cluster crystals, of calcium oxalate., Middle Zone:, Within the oil gland layer, a zone of thick-walled cells is seen. Within these cells, a, ring of bicollateral vascular bundles is embedded. About 20–25 bundles are present, in the ring. The ground tissue contains cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The, vascular bundles are enclosed in an incomplete ring of lignified pericyclic fibres. The, xylem is composed of three to five lignified spiral vessels., Inner Zone:, It is made up of loosely arranged parenchymatous cells (aerenchyma) composed of, air spaces. Air spaces are separated by lamellae which are thin and one cell thick., This region supports the central columella., , Fig. 4.2: Transverse Section of Clove Flower Bud, ~17~

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Pharmacognosy, c) Columella:, It forms the central cylinder which is parenchymatous and contains calcium oxalate, crystals. A ring of about 15–20 small vascular bundles is seen towards the, periphery., The transverse section through the ovary shows all tissues described above. But, instead of the central columella, a bilocular ovary is present at the centre. The, ovules are numerous, separated by an axile placentation. The dissepiments of the, ovary is parenchymatous. The placentae show cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, and vascular bundles., 5) Powder Character:, The powder of the clove buds is dark brown in colour and possesses a, characteristic, spicy aroma and pungent, slightly, characteristic, aromatic taste. The, powder shows the following characters microscopically:, a) Hypanthium:, The fragments of hypanthium and the epidermis occur abundantly. The epidermis is, made up of small, polygonal, thick-walled cells. It shows circular, big, anomocytic, stomata along with large, brown, ovoid oil glands. A few cluster crystals of calcium, oxalate are also observed. The fragments of hypanthium show a thick cuticle., b) Oil Glands:, These are numerous in the hypanthium, ellipsoidal to ovoid, large, brown and, schizolysigenous associated with other parenchymatous tissues., c) Parenchyma:, The yellowish-brown parenchyma of hypanthium is abundant. Oil glands are found, as embedded in this area. Cells are thickened and sometimes are collenchymatous., It shows a few small cluster crystals of calcium oxalate., d) Calcium Oxalate Crystals:, The cluster crystals of calcium oxalate (sphaeraphides) are found in the, parenchymatous cells. These crystals are of various sizes, rarely found scattered, and made up of many small components., e) Fibres:, These are sclerenchymatous, found singly or in groups of two to three in each, group. These are short, broad and bluntly pointed. These show lignified thick walls, with faint striations and small pits. The lumen is sometimes filled with brownish, matter. These fi bres are generally associated with parenchymatous cells or with, small groups of vessels (fibrovascular bundle)., f) Aerenchyma:, Fragments of aerenchyma (loosely packed parenchyma) of the hypanthium are, occasionally observed. These are made up of chains of two or three thick- walled, parenchymatous cells. These chains show small intercellular air spaces separated, by lamellae., ~18~

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Pharmacognosy, , Fig. 4.3: Powder Microscopy of Clove Flower Bud, 1) Part of the filament of the anther in longitudinal section, showing the central vascular, strand and parenchymatous cells containing cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, 2) Part of the hypanthium in sectional view showing the thick cuticle, epidermis and, underlying parenchyma with oil glands, 3) Parenchyma of the hypanthium with cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, 4) Fragments of aerenchyma from the hypanthium showing pits, 5) Epidermis of the hypanthium in surface view showing a stoma and underlying oil, glands, 6) Parenchyma of the hypanthium showing an oil gland, 7) Epidermis of a petal in surface view with underlying tissue composed of, parenchymatous cells containing cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, part of an oil, gland and part of a vascular strand, 8) Mature Pollen grains, 9) Fibrous layer of the anther in surface view, 10) Part of group of immature pollen grains, 11) Fibrous layer of the anther In sectional view, 12) Sclereids from the stalk, 13) Epidermis of the filament of the anther in surface view, 14) Fibrous and associated parenchymatous cells, ~19~

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Pharmacognosy, g) Sclereids:, These are from stalk and appear as oval to sub-rectangular with thick, striated walls, and simple or branched pits. Some brownish matter is found inside the lumen., h) Pollen grains:, These are small and biconvex with rounded or triangular shape and smooth exine., The immature pollen grains are found inside the pollen sacs., i) Starch grains:, Starch grains are not observed in the case of the powder of clove buds. If these are, observed in the powder, these come from mother cloves., 6) Chemical Constituents:, Clove contains 14–21% of volatile oil. The other constituents present are the, eugenol, acetyl eugenol, gallotannic acid, and two crystalline principles; α- and βcaryophyllenes, methyl furfural, gum, resin, and fibre. Caryophyllin is odourless, component and appears to be a phytosterol, whereas eugenol is a colourless liquid., Clove oil has 60–90% eugenol, which is the cause of its anesthetic and antiseptic, properties., 7) Chemical Tests:, a) To a thick section through hypanthium of clove add 50% potassium hydroxide, solution; it produces needleshaped crystals of potassium eugenate., b) A drop of clove oil is dissolved in 5 ml alcohol and a drop of ferric chloride solution is, added; due to the phenolic OH group of eugenol, a blue colour is seen., c) To a drop of chloroform extract of clove add a drop of 30% aqueous solution of, sodium hydroxide saturated with sodium bromide; Needle and pear shaped crystals, of sodium eugenate arranged in rosette are produced immediately., 8) Uses:, Clove is used as an antiseptic, stimulant, carminative, aromatic, and as a flavouring, agent. It is also used as anodyne, antiemetic. Dentists use clove oil as an oral, anesthetic and to disinfect the root canals. Clove kills intestinal parasites and, exhibits broad antimicrobial properties against fungi and bacteria and so it is used in, the treatment of diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other digestive ailments. Clove oil, can stop toothache. A few drops of the oil in water will stop vomiting, eating cloves is, said to be aphrodisiac. Eugenol is also used as local anaesthetic in small doses. The, oil stimulates peristalsis; it is a strong germicide, also a stimulating expectorant in, bronchial problems. The infusion and Clove water are good vehicles for alkalies and, aromatics., , , , ~20~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 5, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Ephedra., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Ma Huang, 2) Biological Source:, Ephedra consists of the dried aerial parts of Ephedra gerardian, Ephedra sinica,, Ephedra equisetina, Ephedra nebrodensis and other Ephedra species, belonging to, family Ephadreaceae., , Fig. 5.1: Ephedra Stem, 3) Characteristics:, a) Ephedra gerardiana: It consists of cylindrical woody stem that is grey or greenish in, colour. Nodes, internodes, scaly leaves and terminal buds are present in the stems., The distance between the internodes is 3–4 cm and the nodes bare the scaly, leaves. They are bitter in taste. The plant has stamens and pistils on separate, flowers; staminate flowers in catkins and a membraneous perianth, pistillate flowers, terminal on axillary stalks, within a two-leaved involucre. Fruit has two carpels with a, single seed in each and is a succulent cone, branches slender and erect, small, leaves, scale-like, articulated and joined at the base into a sheath., b) Ephedra sinica: Thickness of the stem is 4–7 mm branches are 1–2 mm. Length up, to 30 cm of branches and 3–6 cm of internodes. The main stem is brown in colour., Leaves are 2–4 mm long, opposite, decussate and subulate. Leaf, base is reddishbrown, apex acute and recurved and lamina white in colour. A pair of sheathing, leaves present at the nodes, encircling the stem and fused at the base,, ~21~

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c), , d), , 4), , a), , b), , c), d), , e), , Pharmacognosy, Ephedra equisetina: Stems are woodier and more branched 1.5–2 mm. Length 25–, 200 cm of branches and 1–2.5 cm of internodes, outer surface is grey to pale green, and smooth., Ephedra nebrodensis: The stems are 15–35 cm in length; 1–2 mm thick,, cylindrical, greenish-yellow in colour, nodes are brownish and distinct and fractured, surface is fibrous in the cortex but pith contains brownish powdery mass. The leaves, are brownish to whitish-brown in colour, scaly, connate, opposite and decussate,, acute, agreeable and slightly aromatic odour and taste is astringent and bitter., Microscopy:, The transverse section of the ephedra stem shows epidermis, composed of thickwalled, quadrangular cells, covered by thick cuticle. Cortex is composed of, chlorenchyma with outer zone of radially elongated cells and inner zone of spongy, parenchyma. Pith is large with rounded cells, containing dark brown mucilaginous, substance in pigment cells. The margin appears wavy due to ridges. The following, tissues are observed from the periphery towards the centre:, Epidermis:, It is composed of a single layer of thick-walled, quadrangular cells with thick and, smooth cuticle. Vertical rows of sunken stomata are present between many vertical, ridges of the stem. Papillae are also present in the ridges. Below the ridges, groups, of non-lignified fibres are observed., B. Cortex:, It is composed of two to three layers of chlorenchyma (loosely arranged, parenchymatous palisade cells containing chloroplasts) with outer layers of radially, elongated cells and inner zone of spongy parenchyma. Cortex shows lignified as, well as non-lignified fibres., Unlignified fibres appear like a bunch of grapes and occur below the ridges, where no palisade cells are seen. Lignified fibres are found scattered, isolated or in, groups of two to four. These occur in the inner layers of oval, cortical parenchyma, which show chloroplasts., Pericyclic Fibres:, Pericycle consists of groups of lignified fibres outside the phloem., Vascular Bundles:, These are around six to ten in number radially arranged in the cortex. These are, collateral, conjoint and open. Phloem is towards the outer side and appears, distinctly., It contains sieve tubes and companion cells. Xylem is well developed consisting, of vessels, tracheids, fibro-tracheids and parenchyma. Xylem from a mature stem, shows a well-developed continuous band., Pith:, It is composed of large, thin-walled, lignified and polygonal parenchyma with, intercellular spaces. Some cells contain brownish, mucilaginous masses., ~22~

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Pharmacognosy, 5) Powder Character:, The powder of ephedra is pale yellowish brown with faint odour and slightly bitter, taste. It shows the following characters microscopically:, a) Epidermal Cells:, Entire cells and fragments of cells are both observed. Cells are rounded to, quadrangular with thick-ridged outer walls, sunken stomata and papillae., b) Fibres:, Lignified and non-lignified fibres appear, which are of uniform thickness, long,, slender and cylindrical (like glass rods). Entire fibres or fragments of fibres are seen., c) Wood Elements (Xylem): It consists of tracheids only with bordered pits., d) Brownish Matter:, It originates from pith. It is abundant, mucilaginous and of regular shape and form., , Fig. 5.2: Transverse Section of Ephedra Stem, , Fibres, Fragment of Vessels, Fig. 5.3: Powder Microscopy of Ephedra Stem, ~23~

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Pharmacognosy, 6) Chemical Constituents:, Ephedra contains alkaloids Ephedrine (water-soluble salt of an alkaloid),, Pseudoephedrine (analog of ephedrine), Norpseudoephedrine (An analog of, ephedrine). The leaves and stems of ephedra also contain many potentially active, compounds, such as tannins, saponin, flavone and volatile oils., 7) Chemical Test:, To the drug (10 mg) in water (1 ml) dilute HCl (0.2 ml), copper sulphate solution (0.1, ml) and sodium hydroxide solution (2 ml) are added; the liquid turns violet. On, adding solvent ether, (2 ml) and shaking vigorously, the ethereal layer turns, purple and the aqueous layer becomes blue., 8) Uses:, Ephedrine is antiallergenic, antiasthmatic, antispasmodic, decongestant, cough, suppressant, stimulant and vasoconstrictor. Pseudoephedrine is decongestant,, cough suppressant and norpseudoephedrine is peripheral vasodilator used to treat, angina. As a whole it is decongestant; it opens sinuses, increases sweating, dilates, bronchioles (antiasthmatic use), diuretic, CNS stimulant, raises blood pressure,, alleviates aches and rheumatism, alleviates hay fever/colds, etc., , , , ~24~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 6, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Fennel., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Fennel fruit, Sweet fennel, Wild fennel, Large fennel, Saunf (Hindi), 2) Biological Source:, Fennel consists of the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare, belonging to family, Umbelliferae., , Fig. 6.1: Fennel Fruit, 3) Characteristics:, The fruit is an entire cremocarps with pedicels, oval-oblong and 5 to 10 mm long, 2, to 4 mm broad. It has greenish brown to yellowish brown colour with five prominent, primary ridges and a bifid stylopod at the apex., 4) Microscopy:, The transverse section of mericarp region of fennel shows two prominent surfaces,, the dorsal and the commissural surface. The commisural surface has a carpophore, and two vittae, and the dorsal surface has a total of five ridges. The mericarp is, divided into pericarp, consisting of the epicarp and mesocarp; the testa and the, endocarp. Epicarp consists of polygonal cells of epidermis which are tangentially, elongated and covered by the cuticle. Mesocarp has parenchyma cells with five, bicollateral vascular bundles; below each primary ridge a lignified reticulate, parenchyma surrounds the vascular bundles. There are four vittae on dorsal surface, and two vittae on commisural or the ventral surface. Inner, Epidermis or Endocarp shows parquetry arrangement (a group of four to five, cells arranged parallelly at acute angles with groups of similar cells in different, direction). Testa is a single-layered tangentially elongated cell with yellowish colour., Endosperm consists of thick-walled, wide polyhedral, colourless cells. Cells contain, fixed oil, aleurone grains, and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate., ~25~

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Pharmacognosy, 5) Microscopy:, Fennel shows features of a typical umbelliferous fruit., Cremocarp:, Cremocarp is a variety of schizocarp (splitting fruit) which divides into two one, seeded portions, each corresponding to one carpel. This carpel itself does not open, to liberate the seed; thus, these schizocarps are indehiscent fruits. A cremocarp, consists of two parts, each of which is called a ‗mericarp‘. These two mericarps are, connected by a thick-walled sclerenchymatous central stalk called ‗carpophore‘. A, single seed is seen in each mericarp. Raphe is a single ridge of vascular bundle at, the middle of the commissural surface. The carpophore is situated just in front of the, raphe., Transverse section of a mericarp shows two prominent surfaces: commissural, and dorsal. The commissural surface is fl at with two distinct ridges and carpophores, in the middle. The dorsal surface shows three ridges. Therefore, each mericarp, shows five primary ridges. A mericarp can be divided into pericarp and seed., a) Pericarp: It is made up of epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp:, i) Epicarp:, The epicarp of the pericarp is also called epidermis. It surrounds the entire fruit and, consists of a layer of polygonal, tabular, tangentially elongated cells with nonstriated, and smooth cuticle and shows occasional stomata., , Fig. 6.2: Transverse Section of Fennel Fruit, ii) Mesocarp:, The bulk of the mesocarp is parenchymatous. It contains much thickened and, lignified parenchyma in the region of the vascular strands of the ribs. These, thickened walls have large, oval or rounded pits; the bands of thickening between, ~26~

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iii), , 6), , a), , b), , c), , d), , Pharmacognosy, them give a reticulate appearance to the walls. This is one of the characteristic, features of the fennel fruit. Mesocarp shows five vascular bundles below each ridge, (thus ridges are known as primary ridges) and six vittae. Reticulate lignified, parenchyma is seen around the vascular bundles., Vascular bundles are five in number, bicollateral and present below each ridge., Vittae are schizogenous oil cells, four vittae present on the dorsal side and two on, the commissural surface. Vittae are about 250 μ maximum wide and taper towards, the base and up to the apex of the fruit. Walls appear brown and each duct is, divided into chambers by transverse partitions. Vitta is lined by an epithelium of, small polygonal tabular cells. The number and position of vittae are many times, characteristic of individual umbelliferous fruits. Secondary ridges occurred between, the primary ridges. The number, distribution and arrangement of ridges and vittae, give valuable information for identification of fruits., Endocarp:, It consists of narrow elongated cells having a parquetry arrangement. In the, transverse section, these cells appear as long narrow rectangular cells with, scattered groups of very short cells., Powder Character:, The powder of fennel is yellowish brown to greenish brown with a pleasant, aromatic, odour and somewhat sweetish taste. It shows the following characters, microscopically:, Epicarp:, It is composed of a layer of colourless, thin-walled cells, polygonal in surface view, and with a smooth cuticle. It may show a very few stomata. Stomata may be, surrounded by two to four radiating cells and are found on some fragments of, epicarp. Fragments of epicarp may show slight thickening and beading of the, anticlinal walls., Mesocarp:, The reticulate parenchyma of the mesocarp is composed of ovoid, elongated, subrectangular cells with thick, lignified walls with conspicuous oval or rounded pits., These parenchymatous cells of the mesocarp occur in groups and are frequently, found associated with fibrovascular tissue or with fragments of the endocarp., Endocarp:, It consists of a layer of thin-walled, lignified cells, elongated in surface view and, arranged in groups of about six or more cells with their long axes parallel to each, other, i.e. parquetry arrangement of cells., Vittae:, Numerous yellowish-brown fragments of vittae are observed which are composed of, thin-walled cells. These appear irregular in shape and are found scattered., ~27~

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Pharmacognosy, , Fig. 6.3: Powder Microscopy of Fennel Fruit, e) Endosperm:, Fragments of endosperm are abundant and are composed of polygonal thick walled, cells with fixed oil globules and aleurone grains. These cells also show presence of, micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate., f) Innermost Layer of Mesocarp:, It consists of slightly thick-walled cells, rounded to rectangular in surface view. This, layer is found associated with the endocarp., g) Fibrovascular Tissue:, Fragments of fibrovascular tissue are found with lignified small fibres, vessels,, tracheids and a few large vessels with reticulate thickening. Some of the fragments, are associated with reticulate parenchyma of the mesocarp., ~28~

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Pharmacognosy, 7) Chemical Constituents:, The best varieties of Fennel contain 4 to 5% of volatile oil. The primary constituents, of volatile oil are 50 to 60% of anethole, a phenolic ester; and 18 to 22% of, fenchone, a ketone. Fenchone is chemically a bicyclic monoterpene which is a, colourless liquid and the odour and taste is pungent and camphoraceous. The oil of, Fennel has β-pinene, anisic acid, phellandrine, and anisic aldehyde. Fennel also, contains about 20% fixed oil and 20% proteins., 8) Uses:, Fennel is used as stomachic, aromatic, diuretic, carminative, diaphoretic, as a, digestive, pectoral, and flavouring agent. Anethole may have estrogen-like activity, and inhibit spasms in smooth muscles. Fennel can increase production of bile, used, in the treatment of infant colic, to promote menstruation in women, can increase, lactation, act as antipyretic, antimicrobial and antiinflammatory., , , , ~29~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 7, AIM: To study the macroscopical and microscopical characters of Coriander., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Biological Source:, Coriander consists of dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum, belonging to family, Umbelliferae., , Fig. 7.1: Coriander Fruit, 2) Characteristics:, The fruit is a cremocarp, subspherical in shape, Yellowish brown in colour. The size, of the fruit is 3 to 4 mm in diameter, with aromatic odour, and spicy, aromatic taste., 3) Microscopy:, The transverse section of coriander shows the presence of a dorsal surface and a, commissural surface. The dorsal surface consists of two vittae and a carpophore., The dorsal surface has five primary ridges and four secondary ridges. The epicarp, consists of a single row of small thick-walled cells with calcium oxalate crystals. The, mesocarp has an outer loosely arranged tangentially elongated parenchyma cells, and the middle layer consisting of sclerenchyma., The middle layer is again divided into; the outer region of sclerenchyma is, represented by longitudinally running fibres, whereas the inner region has, tangentionally running fibres. The vascular bundles are present below the primary, ridges. The inner layer has polygonal, irregularly arranged parenchyma cells. The, endocarp has the parquetry arrangement. In the testa it has single-layered, yellowish, cells, and the endosperm is thick, polygonal, colourless parenchyma with fixed oil, and aleurone grains., "Mericarps usually coherent; cremocarp nearly globular, from 3 to 5 mm. in, diameter; externally light brown or rose colored; summit with 5 calyx teeth and a, short stylopodium, each mericarp with 5 prominent, straight, longitudinal, primary, ribs and 4 indistinct, undulate secondary ribs; mericarps easily separated, deeply, concave on the inner or commissural surface and showing in transverse section 2, vittae (oil tubes) on the inner surface of each., ~30~

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4), , a), , b), c), d), e), f), g), , Pharmacognosy, Under the microscope, sections of Coriander show an epidermis of small cells, with thick walls; a layer of several rows of thin-walled more or less collapsed, parenchyma separated from a broad zone of strongly lignified, sclerenchymatous, fibers which extend as a continuous ring in the mesocarp of each of the mericarps; 2, or 3 layers of large, tangentially elongated, thin-walled parenchyma cells, frequently, with numerous large lysigenous intercellular spaces; inner epidermis of large tabular, cells, the inner yellowish walls being considerably thickened and closely coherent to, the brownish cells of the seed-coat; commissural surface with 2 large, elliptical, vittae; the cells of the pericarp separated from the seed-coat and forming a large, elliptical cavity; endosperm distinctly reniform in outline and consisting of tabular or, polygonal thick-walled cells containing numerous large aleurone grains each with a, rosette aggregate or prism of calcium oxalate., Powder Microscopy:, Coriander powder is light brown to brown in colour with aromatic odour and, characteristic aromatic taste. It is characterized microscopically by:, Numerous irregular fragments of endosperm cells containing globules of fixed oils, and aleurone grains. Calcium oxalate crystals are numerous, from 0.003 to 0.01, mm. in diameter, mostly in rosette aggregates,, Fragments of endocarp cells associated with hexagonal sclerenchyma of the, innermost layer of mesocarp., Sclerenchymatous fibers irregularly curved, having thick, yellowish, lignified walls, and having numerous simple pores and numerous globules of fixed oil., Fragments of characteristic irregularly curved yellowish pitted lignified fusiform fibres, of the mesocarp., Fragments of parenchymatous cells of the mesocarp without reticulate thickening., Very few fragments showing pieces of yellowish brown vittae., Hairs and starch granules are completely absent., , Fig. 7.2: Powder Microscopy of Coriander Fruit, ~31~

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1), 2), 3), 4), 5), 6), 7), 8), 5), , 6), , Pharmacognosy, A group of sclereids from the mesocarp with adjacent unlignified parenchyma., Branching vittae (Shows in outline only) and underlying endocarp in surface view., Covering trichomes., Part of a group of fibro-vascular tissue., Epicarp in surface view showing stomata and striated cuticle., Part of two vittae showing transverse septa and part of the underlying endocarp in, surface view., Testa in surface view., Endosperm containing microspheroidal crystals of calcium oxalate., Chemical Constituents:, Coriander consist of about 1% of volatile oil the chief volatile components are D-(+)linalool (coriandrol), along with other constituents like, borneol, p-cymene, camphor,, geraniol, limonene, and alpha-pinenes. The fruits also contain fatty oil and, hydroxycoumarins. The fatty oils include acids of petroselic acid, oleic acid, linolenic, acid, whereas the hydroxycoumarins include the umbelliferone and scopoletine., Uses:, Coriander is used as Aromatic, carminative, stimulant, alterative, antispasmodic,, diaphoretic and flavouring agent. It is also used as refrigerant, tonic, appetizer,, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and stomachic. Coriander can be applied externally for, rheumatism and painful joints. The infusion of decoction of dried fruit of cardamom is, useful for the treatment of sore-throat, indigestion, vomiting, flatulence, and other, intestinal disorders., Coriander is a rather feeble aromatic. It is almost exclusively employed in, combination with other medicines, either to cover their taste, to render them, acceptable to the stomach, or to correct their griping qualities., , , , ~32~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 8, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Asafoetida., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Hing (Hindi), Devil‘s dung, Food of the gods., 2) Biological Source:, Asafoetida is an oleo-gum resin obtained as an exudation by incision of the rhizome, and roots of Ferula asafoetida , Ferula foetida, Ferula rubricaulis and some other, species of Ferula, belonging to family Apiaceae., 3) Chemical Constituents:, Asafoetida contains volatile oil (4–20%), resin (40–65%), and gum (25%). The, volatile oil essentially consists of some organic sulphides solely responsible for, attributing the characteristic garlic-like odour. The resin cousists of notannol,, asaresinotannol i.e., the resinalcohols, which are present partially in the free state, and partially in the combined form with ferulic acid. It also contains umbellic acid and, umbelliferone. On treatment of ferulic acid with hydrochloric acid, it is converted into, umbelliferone (a coumarin) which gives blue fluorescence with ammonia., 4) Uses:, a) Used abundantly as a common condiment and flavouring agent in food products., b) Used as an antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant and laxative., c) Used as a repellant [2% (w/v) suspension] against dogs, cats, deer, rabbits etc. It is, still employed in veterinary externally to prevent bandage chewing by dogs., d) It is used as a powerful nerving stimulant especially in nervous disorders related to, hysteria., e) Used for flavouring curries, sauces, and pickles., 5) Physical test:, a) Shape: Asafoetida occurs as a soft solid mass or irregular lumps. Tears or lumps, are rounded or flattened and about 5–30 mm in diameter., b) Colour: Grayish-white or dull yellow or reddish brown in colour, c) Odour: Strong garlic-like odour, d) Taste: Bitter, acrid and alliaceous (garlic-like) taste, ~33~

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Pharmacognosy, e) Solubility: When triturated with water, it makes a milky emulsion. It should not have, more than 50% of matter insoluble in alcohol (90%), 6) Chemical Test or Observation:, Sr., Chemical Test, No., Umbelliferone Test:, 1., Boil 1 g asafoetida powder with, HCl (50%), filter and make the, filtrate strongly alkaline with, NH4OH (conc.), 2., To the fractured surface add, 50% nitric acid, 3., To the fractured surface of the, drug, add 1 drop of sulphuric, acid, , 4., , Triturate Asafoetida with water, , Observation, , Inference, , Blue fluorescence Asafoetida, is obtained, Present, , is, , Green Colour is, produced, A red colour is, obtained, which, changes to violet, on washing with, water, Milky emulsion is, produced, , Asafoetida, Present, Asafoetida, Present, , is, , Asafoetida, Present, , is, , , , ~34~, , is

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 9, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Benzoin., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Biological Source:, Benzoin in the balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin and Styrax, paralleloneurus, generally known in trade as Sumatra Benzoin; whereas, Styrax, tonkinensis or other species of the genus Styrax, known commonly in the trade as, Siam Benzoin both belong to the family: Styraceae., 2) Chemical Constituents:, The chemical constituents of the two types of Benzoin are given below:, a) Sumatra Benzoin:, It contains free balsamic acids, largely cinnamic acid (10%), benzoic acid (6%) along, with their corresponding ester derivatives. The amount of cinnamic acid is usually, double that of benzoic acid. It also contains triterpenic acids like siaresinolic acid, (19-hydroxyoleanolic acid) and sumaresinolic acid (6-hydroxy-oleanolic acid); traces, of vanillin, phenylpropyl cinnamate, cinnamyl cinnamate, and phenylethylene., b) Siam Benzoin:, The principal constituent of Siam Benzoin is coniferyl benzoate (60–80%). Other, constituents are free benzoic acid (10%), triterpene siaresinolic acid (6%), vanillin, and benzyl cinnamate., 3) Uses:, a) Sumatra Benzoin possesses expectorant, antiseptic, carminative, stimulant, and, diuretic properties. It is valuable as an expectorant when vapourized., b) It is used in cosmetic lotions, perfumery and to prepare Compound Benzoin., c) It forms an ingredient of inhalations in the treatment of catarrh of upper respiratory, tract in the form of Compound Benzoin Tincture., d) Benzoin is used as an external antiseptic and protective., e) It is also used to fix the odour of incenses, skin-soaps, perfumes and other, cosmetics and for fixing the taste of certain pharmaceutical preparations., f) Benzoin retards rancification of fats and is used for this purpose in the official, benzoinated lard, also used in food, drinks and in incense. Siam Benzoin has been, proved to be a better preservative for lard than the Sumatra Benzoin., 4) Physical Test:, Features, Colour, , Sumatra Benzoin, Reddish-brown or greyish-brown, , ~35~, , Siam Benzoin, Yellowish-brown or reddish-brown, externally, but milky-white or opaque, internally

Page 43 :
Pharmacognosy, Odour, Taste, Shape, , Agreeable and balsamic odour, Slightly acrid taste, Occurs as blocks or irregular masses of, tears having variable sizes usually, imbedded either in an opaque or, translucent matrix. It is rather brittle,, and from within the tears are milky, white in appearance. It generally, becomes soft when warmed and gritty, when chewed, , Vanilla-like odour, Balsamic taste, Occurs as tears or in blocks of, variable sizes. The tears are fairly, brittle but normally become soft and, plastic like on being chewed., , Solubility, , 5) Chemical test or Observation for Siam Benzoin:, Sr. No., 1., , 2., , 3., , Chemical Test, Heat Sumatra Benzoin (5 g) with 10%, aqueous potassium permanganate, solution, Add petroleum ether solution of, Benzoin (0.2 g), 2-3 drops of sulphuric, acid are added in a China dish, Add ferric chloride solution to alcoholic, solution of Benzoin, , Observation, No odour is produced, , Inference, Siam Benzoin, present, , Siam, Benzoin, produces, purple, colour, A green colour is, produced due to the, presence of phenolic, compound coniferyl, benzoate, , Siam Benzoin, present, , is, , Siam Benzoin, present, , is, , is, , 6) Chemical test or Observation for Sumatra Benzoin:, Sr. No., 1., , Chemical Test, Heat Sumatra Benzoin (5 g) with 10%, aqueous potassium permanganate, solution, , 2., , Add petroleum ether solution of, Benzoin (0.2 g), two to three drops of, sulphuric acid are added in a China, dish, Add ferric chloride solution to alcoholic, solution of Benzoin, , 3., , Observation, A bitter almond-like, odour is produced, due to oxidation of, cinnamic acid, Sumatra, Benzoin, produces, reddish, brown colour, , Inference, Sumatra Benzoin is, present, , No colour is formed, (This test is negative, in case of Sumatra, Benzoin which does, not contain sufficient, amount of phenolic, constituents), , Sumatra Benzoin is, present, , , ~36~, , Sumatra Benzoin is, present

Page 44 :
Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 10, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Acacia., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Indian Gum, Gum Acacia, Gum Arabic, 2) Biological Source:, Acacia is the dried gummy exudation obtained from the stems and branches of, Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd or other African species of Acacia. In India, it is found as, dried gummy exudation obtained from the stems and branches of Acacia arabica, Willd, belonging to family Leguminosae, 3) Chemical Constituents:, The main chemical constituent of Acacia is arabin, which is a complex mixture of, calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of Arabic acid. Arabic acid is a branched, polysaccharide that yields L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid and Lrhamnose on hydrolysis. 1, 3-Linked D-galactopyranose units form the backbone, chain of the molecule and the terminal residues of the 1, 6-linked side chains are, primarily uronic acids. Acacia contains 12–15% of water and several occluded, enzymes such as oxidases, peroxidases and pectinases., 4) Uses:, a) The mucilage of acacia is employed as a demulcent., b) It is used extensively as a vital pharmaceutical aid for emulsification and to serve as, a thickening agent., c) It finds its enormous application as a binding agent for tablets e.g., cough lozenges., d) It is used in the process of ‗granulation‘ for the manufacture of tablets. It is, considered to be the gum of choice by virtue of the fact that it is quite compatible, with other plant hydrocolloids as well as starches, carbohydrates and proteins., e) It is used in conjuction with gelatin to form conservates for microencapsulation of, drugs., f) It is employed as colloidal stabilizer., g) It is used extensively in making of candy and other food products., 5) Physical Test:, a) Colour: Tears are usually white, pale-yellow and sometimes creamish-brown to red, in colour. The powder has an off-white, pale-yellow or light-brown in appearance., b) Odour: Odourless, c) Taste: Bland and mucillagenous, ~37~

Page 45 :
Pharmacognosy, d) Shape & Size: Tears are mostly spheroidal or ovoid in shape and having a diameter, of about 2.5-3.0 cm, 6) Chemical test or Observation:, Sr., No., 1, , 2., , 3., , 4., , 5., , Chemical Test, , Observation, , Fehling’s Test:, Hydrolysis of an aqueous, solution of acacia with dilute HCl, yields reducing sugars whose, presence are ascertained by, boiling with Fehling‘s solution, Lead Acetate Test:, An aqueous solution of acacia, when treated with lead-acetate, solution, Borax Test:, An aqueous solution of acacia on, treatment with borax., A 10% aqueous solution of, acacia on treatment with dilute, solution of lead acetate, Aqueous solution of acacia on, treatment with Iodine solution, , Inference, , Give a brick-red Reducing, precipitate, of present, cuprous oxide., , Sugar, , is, , Heavy, white Acacia is present, precipitate, is, formed, Stiff translucent Acacia is present, mass is formed, No precipitate, , Acacia is present (a, clear distinction from, Agar and Tragacanth), Does not give Acacia is present (a, any, colour marked distinction from, change, starch and dextrin), , , , ~38~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 11, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Agar., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Biological Source:, It consists of dried gelatinous substance obtained from Gelidium amansii and other, members of Gelidium family Rhodophyceae., 2) Chemical Constituents:, Agar is a complex heterosaccharide and contains two different polysaccharides, known as agarose and agaropectin. (a) Agarose- a neutral gelling fraction, (b) Agaropectin- a sulphated non-gelling fraction. Agarose is neutral galactose, polymer and is responsible for the gel property of agar. It consists of D-galactose, and L-galactose unit. The structure of agaropectin is not completely known, but it is, believed that it consists of sulphonated polysaccharide in which galactose and, uronic acid are partially esterified with sulphuric acid. Agaropectin is responsible for, the viscosity of agar solution., 3) Uses:, a) It is also employed as a bulk laxative., b) It is extensively used in preparing gels in cosmetics., c) It is widely used as thickening agent in confectionaries and dairy products., d) It is used in the production of ointments and medicinal encapsulations., e) In microbiology, it is employed in the preparation of bacteriological culture media., f) It is used for sizing silks and paper., g) It finds its enormous usage in the dyeing and printing of fabrics and textiles., h) It is also used as dental impression mould base., 4) Physical Test:, a) Shape: Agar found in Strips, Bands, Sheets, Flakes and Course Powder, b) Size: Strips are about 60 cm in length and 4 mm wide. Wide sheets are 50–60 cm, long and 10–15 cm wide, c) Colour: Course Powder is grayish white, d) Odour: Odourless, e) Taste: Mucilaginous, f) Solubility: Practically insoluble in cold water, but swells to gelatinous mass. Soluble, in boiling water and forms a gelatinous solution after cooling the hot solution, ~39~

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Pharmacognosy, 5) Chemical Test or Observation:, Sr., No., 1., 2., , 3., 4., 5., 6., 7.., , a, , b, , Chemical Test, , Observation, , Molisch test:, , Inference, , Carbohydrates, is, present, Fehling’s Test:, Give a brick-red Reducing Sugar is, Hydrolysis of an aqueous solution precipitate, of present, of acacia with dilute HCl yields cuprous oxide., reducing sugars whose presence, are ascertained by boiling with, Fehling‘s solution, Boil Agar with water (aqueous Form stiff jelly on Agar is Present, solution of agar 1%), cooling, Agar with N/50 iodine Solution, Deep crimson to Agar is Present, brown color, Add Ruthenium Red to Agar Pink Colour, Agar is Present, Solution, Agar is warmed in a solution of Canary, yellow Agar is Present, KOH, colour is formed, Add 0.5 ml of HCl to 10 ml of drug, Solution and heat on water bath, for 30 minutes & divide into two, parts:, First part + Caustic soda Solution Reduction, take Agar confirmed, + Fehling Solution + heat, place, due, to, galactose, Add barium chloride solution to White Precipitate, Agar confirmed, second part, , , , ~40~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 12, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Gelatin., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Biological Source:, It is protein extracted by partial hydrolysis of animal collagenous tissue like skin,, tendons, ligaments and bones with boiling water., 2) Chemical Constituents:, Gelatin consists of the protein glutin which on hydrolysis gives a mixture of amino, acids. The approximate amino-acid contents are: glycine (25.5%), alanine (8.7%),, valine (2.5%), leucine (3.2%), isoleucine (1.4%), cystine and cysteine (0.1%),, methionine (1.0%), tyrosine (0.5%), aspartic acid (6.6%), glutamic acid (11.4%),, arginine (8.1%), lysine (4.1%), and histidine (0.8%). Nutritionally, gelatin is an, incomplete protein lacking tryptophan. The gelatinizing compound is known as, chondrin and the adhesive nature of gelatin is due to the presence of glutin., 3) Uses, a) Gelatin is used to prepare pastilles, pastes, suppositories, capsules, pill-coatings,, gelatin sponge; as suspending agent, tablet binder, coating agent, as stabilizer, and, thickener in food, b) Used for manufacturing rubber substitutes, adhesives, cements, lithographic and, printing inks, plastic compounds, artificial silk, photographic plates and films, light, filters for mercury lamps, clarifying agent, sizing paper and textiles., c) In bacteriology, for preparing cultures and as a nutrient., d) It forms glycerinated gelatin with glycerin which is used as vehicle and for, manufacture of suppositories., e) Combined with zinc, it forms zinc gelatin which is employed as a topical protectant., f) As a nutrient, Gelatin is used as commercial food products and bacteriologic culture, media., 4) Physical Test:, a) Colour: Colourless to pale yellow, b) Odour: Very slight, c) Taste: Characteristic and bouillon like, d) Shape: Translucent sheets, Flakes and Course to fine Powder, e) Solubility: Insoluble in cold water, but swells and softens, absorbs water but., soluble in hot water forms jelly on standing, ~41~

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Pharmacognosy, 5) Chemical test or Observation:, Sr., Chemical Test, No., Biuret reaction:, 1, To alkaline solution of a protein (2, ml), a dilute solution of copper, sulphate is added, Xanthoproteic reaction:, 2, Proteins solution is warmed with, concentrated nitric acid, , 3, , 4, , 5, 6, 7, , Observation, , Inference, , A red or violet colour Protein is present, is formed, , Yellow, colour, is Protein is present, formed. This colour, becomes, orange, when the solution is, made alkaline., Millon’s reaction:, White precipitate is Protein is present, Proteins solution is treated with formed which turns, Millon‘s reagent (mercuric nitrate in red on heating, nitric acid containing a trace of, nitrous acid), Ninhydrin test:, Red to violet colour is Protein is present, To an aqueous solution of a protein formed, an alcoholic solution of ninhydrin is, added and then heated., Heat with soda lime, NH3 evolved, Gelatin Present, Few drops of tannic acid (10%) is White, coloured Gelatin Present, added to solution of Gelatin, precipitate is formed, Solution of Gelatin is treated with Yellow precipitate is Gelatin Present, picric acid, formed, , , , ~42~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 13, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Starch., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Corn starch, Potato Starch, Rice Starch, Wheat Starch, 2) Biological Source:, Starch comprises of mostly polysaccharide granules usually separated from the fully, grown grains of Corn (Zea mays Linn.), Rice (Oryza sativa Linn.), and Wheat, (Triticum aestivum Linn.) belonging to the family Gramineae and also from the, tubers of Potato (Solanum tuberosum Linn.) family Solanaceae., 3) Chemical Constituents:, Starch contains chemically two different polysaccharides, such as amylose (βamylose) and amylopectin (α-amylose), in the proportion of 1:2. Amylose is water, soluble and amylopectin is water insoluble, but swells in water and is responsible for, the gelatinizing property of the starch. Amylose gives blue colour with iodine, while, amylopectin yields bluish black colouration., 4) Uses:, a) It possesses both absorbent and demulcent properties., b) It is employed in dusting powder because of its unique protective and absorbent, property., c) It is used in the formulation of tablets and pills as a vital disintegrating agent and a, binder., d) It is utilized as a diagnostic aid for the proper identification of crude drugs., e) It is employed as a diluent (or filler) and lubricant in the preparation of capsules and, tablets., f) It is an antidote of choice for iodine poisoning., g) ‗Glycerine of starch‘ is used not only as an emolient but also as a base for the, suppositories., h) It is the starting material for the large scale production of liquid glucose, glucose, syrup, dextrose and dextrin., i) It possesses nutrient properties as a food and in cereal based weaning foods for, babies., j) It is used topically and externally to allay itching., 5) Physical Test:, Starch occurs in nature as irregular, angular, white masses that may be easily, reduced to power., ~43~

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Pharmacognosy, a) Colour: Rice and maize starch-- White, Wheat starch-- Creamy white, Potato starch-- Pale yellow, b) Odour: Odourless, c) Taste: Mucilaginous, d) Solubility:, 6) Identification Tests:, a) Boil 1 g of starch with 15 ml of water and cool. The translucent viscous jelly is, produced., b) The above jelly turns deep blue by the addition of solution of iodine. The blue colour, disappears on warming and reappears on cooling., 7) Chemical Test or Observation:, Sr., No., 1., 2., , Chemical Test, Boil 1 g of starch with 15, ml of water and cool, Addition of iodine solution, to starch jelly, , Observation, , Inference, , Translucent viscous jelly is Starch is present, produced, Jelly is turn into deep blue Starch is present, colour. This blue colour, disappears on warming and, reappears on cooling, , , , ~44~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 14, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Aloe., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Biological Source: Aloe is the dried latex of leaves of various species of Aloes like, Aloe barbadensis (Curacao Aloe), Aloe ferox (Cape Aloe), Aloe perryi (Socotrine, Aloe), Aloe Africana and Aloe spicata (Cape Aloe). Family Liliaceae., 2) Chemical Constituents: The most important constituents of Aloes are the three, isomers of Aloins, Barbaloin, β-barboloin and Isobarbaloin, which constitute the socalled ‗crystalline‘ Aloin, present in the drug at from 10 to 30%. Other constituents, are amorphous Aloin, resin, emodin and Aloe-emodin., Barbaloin is present in all the varieties; it is slightly yellow coloured, bitter, water, soluble, crystalline glycoside. Isobarbaloin is a crystalline substance, present in, Curacao aloe and in trace amount in Cape aloe and absent in Socotrine and, Zanzibar aloe. The chief constituents of Socotrine and Zanzibar aloe are Barbaloin, and β-Barbaloin., 3) Uses:, a) The drug Aloes is one of the safest and stimulating purgatives, in higher doses may, act as abortifacient. Its action is exerted mainly on the large intestine., b) It is also useful as a vermifuge., c) Aloe usually causes gripping and is, therefore, administered along with carminatives., d) The plant is emollient, stimulant, stomachic and tonic., e) It constitutes an important ingredient in the ‗Compound Tincture of Benzoin‘., f) The clear gel of the leaf makes an excellent treatment for wounds, burns and other, skin disorders, placing a protective coat over the affected area, speeding up the rate, of healing and reducing the risk of infection. This has an immediate soothing effect, on all sorts of burns and other skin problems., 4) Description:, Sr., Properties, No., 1., Colour, 2., , Odour, , Curacao, Aloes, Brownish, black, Strong, odour, resembles, with, , Cape Aloes, , Socotrine, Aloes, Dark brown or Brownish, greenish brown yellow, Sour, and Unpleasant, distinct odour, odour, , ~45~, , Zanzibar Aloes, Liver brown, Characteristic, but agreeable, odour

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Pharmacognosy, 3., , Taste, , 4., , Texture, , 5., , Solubility, , Iodoform, Intense, bitter taste, , Nauseating, and bitter taste, , Extremely bitter, and nauseous, taste, Waxy and Breaks with a Fractured, somewhat, glassy fraction, surface looks, resinous, conchoidal, , 5) General Chemical test for Aloe:, Boil 1 g of aloe with 100 ml water, allow it, filter through filter paper., Sr., Chemical Test, No., 1., Modified Anthraquinone Test:, To 0.1 gm of drug, 5 ml of 5%, solution of ferric chloride is added, followed by the addition of 5 ml, dilute hydrochloric acid. The, mixture is heated on water bath for, 5–6 min and cooled. An organic, solvent (benzene or chloroform) is, added and shaken. Separate the, organic solvent layer and add an, equal volume of dilute ammonia., 2., Borax Test:, Add 0.5 g of borax to 10 ml of aloe, solution and heat., 3., Bromine Test:, Add equal volume of bromine, solution to 5 ml of aloe solution., , Bitter taste, , A dull, waxy,, smooth and, even fracture, , to cool; add 1 g kieselguhr, stir it well and, Observation, , Ammoniacal layer Anthraquinones, produces, pinkish are present., red colour., , Green, coloured, fluorescence, is, produced., Bulky, yellow, precipitate, is, formed., , 6) Specific Chemical Test for Aloe:, Boil 1 g of aloe with 100 ml water, allow it to, filter through filter paper., Sr., Chemical Test, No., 1., Nitrous Acid Test:, , Add sodium nitrite and small, ~46~, , Inference, , Presence of aloeemodin, anthranol., Anthraquinones, are present., , cool; add 1 g kieselguhr, stir it well and, Observation, Sharp pink to, caramine colour, , Inference, , , Curacao Aloe, is present

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2., , quantity of acetic acid to 5 ml of , aloe solution, , , Faint pink colour, , Nitric Acid Test:, , Solution of aloes when made to, react with nitric acid, it gives rise, , to various shades of colour, , Deep brownish, red, , , , 3., , Cupraloin Test:, , Add a drop of the saturated, solution of copper sulphate to 10 , ml of aqueous solution of aloe,, immediately followed by 1 g of, NaCl and 20 drops of ethanol , (90% v/v). It produces different, shades of colours depending on, the variety of aloes used, , , , ~47~, , Colour, comparatively, lesser change in, colour, , Pharmacognosy, , Cape Aloes, is present, , Socotrine, and Zanzibar, aloe is, present, , Curacao Aloe, is present, , Cape Aloe is, present, , Initial brownish, colour changing to, green, , Pale brownish, yellow, Yellowish brown, , Wine red colour, lasting for few hrs, faint colouration, changing to, yellow quickly, No colouration, , , , , , , Socotrine, aloe is, present, Zanzibar aloe, is present, Curacao Aloe, is present, Cape Aloe is, present, Socotrine, and Zanzibar, aloe is, present

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 15, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Honey., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Synonyms:, Madhu, Madh, Purified Honey, 2) Biological Source:, Honey is a viscid and sweet secretion stored in the honey comb by various species, of bees, such as: Apis dorsata, Apis florea, Apis indica, Apis mellifera, belonging the, natural order Hymenotera (Family: Apideae)., 3) Chemical Constituents:, The average composition of honey ranges as follows: Moisture 14-24%, Fructose, 30-47%, Dextrose 23-36%, Sucrose 0.4-6%, Dextrin and Gums 0-7% and Ash 0.10.8%. Besides, it is found to contain small amounts of essential oil, beeswax, pollen, grains, formic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, maltose, dextrin, colouring pigments,, vitamins and an admixture of enzymes e.g; diastase, invertase and inulase., Therefore Honey contains invert sugar. Interestingly, the sugar contents in honey, varies widely from one country to another as it is exclusively governed by the source, of the nector (availability of fragment flowers in the region) and also the enzymatic, activity solely controlling the conversion into honey., 4) Uses:, a) It is used as a sweetening agent in confectionaries., b) Being a demulsent, it helps to relieve dryness and is, therefore, recommended for, coughs, colds, sore-throats and constipation., c) Because of its natural content of easily assimilable simple sugars, it is globaly, employed as a good source of nutrient for infants, elderly persons and convalescing, patients., 5) Physical Test:, a) Colour: Pale yellow to reddish brown viscid fluid,, b) Odour: Pleasant and characteristic,, c) Taste: Sweet, Slightly acrid,, d) Specific Gravity: 1.35-1.36, e) Specific Rotation: +3o to –15o, However, the taste and odour of honey solely depends upon the availability of, surrounding flowers from which nectar is collected. On prolonged storage it usually turns, opaque and granular due to crystallization of dextrose and is termed as ‗Granulatrd, honey‘, ~48~

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Pharmacognosy, 6) Chemical Test or Observation:, Sr., No., 1., , 2., , Chemical Test, , Observation, , Fehling’s Solution Test:, To an aqueous solution of honey, (2 ml) Fehling‘s solutions A and B, are added and the reaction mixture, is heated on a steam bath for 5–10, min., Fiehe’s Test for Artificial Invert, Sugar:, Honey (10 ml) is shaken with, petroleum or solvent ether (5 ml), for 5–10 min. The upper ethereal, layer is separated and evaporated, in a china dish. On addition of 1%, solution, of, resorcinol, in, hydrochloric acid (1 ml), , Brick red colour is Presence, of, produced, reducing sugars, , Transient, red Honey is present, colour is formed, (in artificial honey, the colour persists, for sometime), , , , ~49~, , Inference

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 16, AIM: To perform physical and chemical test for Castor Oil., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Biological Source:, Castor oil is the fixed oil obtained by cold expression of the seeds of Ricinus, communis Linn., belonging to family Euphorbiaceae., 2) Chemical Constituents:, Castor oil consists of glyceride of ricinoleic acid, isoricinoleic, stearic, and dihydroxy, stearic acids. Ricinoleic acid is responsible for laxative property. Ricinoleic acid is, the main component of the oil. The ricinoleic acid is an 18-carbon acid having a, double bond in the 9–10 position and a hydroxyl group on the 12th carbon. This, combination of hydroxyl group and unsaturation occurs only in castor oil., 3) Uses:, a) Castor oil is mild purgative, fungistatic, used as an ointment base, as plasticizer,, wetting agents, as a lubricating agent., b) Ricinoleic acid is used in contraceptive creams and jellies, c) It is also used as an emollient in the preparation of lipsticks, in tooth formulation, as, an ingredient in hair oil., d) The main use of castor oil is the industrial production of coatings, also employed to, make pharmaceuticals and cosmetics in the textile and leather industries and for, manufacturing plastics and fibres., 4) Physical Test:, a) Colour: Colourless or slightly yellow coloured, b) Odour: Slightly characteristic, c) Taste: Slightly acrid Taste, d) Solubility: It is a viscid liquid. It is soluble in absolute alcohol in all proportions, e) Specific Gravity: 0.958 to 0.969, f) Refractive Index: 1.4695 to 1.4730, g) Saponification Value: 177 to 187, , ~50~

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Pharmacognosy, 5) Chemical test or Observation:, Sr., No., 1., , 2., , 3., , Chemical Test, , Observation, , About 5 ml of light petroleum (50°, to 60°) when mixed with 10 ml of, castor oil at 15.5°C, About 15 ml of light petroleum (50°, to 60°) when mixed with 10 ml of, castor oil at 15.5°C, When equal amount of ethanol is, added to castor oil, , Clear solution is Castor, formed, present, , oil, , is, , Turbid mixture is Castor, formed, present, , oil, , is, , Clear, liquid, obtained, , oil, , is, , , , ~51~, , Inference, , is Castor, present

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 17, AIM: To determine the Stomatal Number and Stomatal Index of Leaf., INTRODUCTION:, 1) Stomata:, It is a minute epidermal opening covered by pair of kidney-shaped cells called guard, cells in dicot leaves. These guard cells, in turn, are surrounded by epidermal, (subsidiary) cells. Stomata perform the functions of gaseous exchange and, transpiration in plants. The nature of the stomata, as well as, the stomatal index and, stomatal number are important diagnostic characteristics of dicot leaves., 2) Types of Stomatal Arrangement:, According to the arrangement of the epidermal cells surrounding the stomata, they, have been grouped as follows:, a) Anomocytic or Ranunculaceous Stomata: The stoma is surrounded by a varying, number of cells in no way differing from those of the epidermal cells as in Digitalis,, Eucalyptus, neem etc., b) Anisocytic or Cruciferous Stomata: The stoma is surrounded by usually three, subsidiary cells of which one is markedly smaller than the others. This type of stoma, is also called the Solanaceous type as it is found in many plants of the family, Solanaceae, such as Belladonna, Datura, Hyoscyamus, Stramonium etc, c) Diacytic or Caryophyllaceous Stomata: The stoma is accompanied by two, subsidiary cells, the long axis of which is at right angles to that of the stoma. This, type of stoma is also, called the Labiatae type as it is found in many plants of the, family Labiatae such as vasaka, tulsi, spearmint and peppermint., d) Paracytic or Rubiaceous Stomata: The stoma is surrounded usually by two, subsidiary cells, the long axis of which are parallel to that of stoma as in Senna and, many Rubiaceous plants., 3) Stomatal Number:, It is defined as the average number of stomata present per sq mm of epidermis of, the leaf. The actual number of stomata per sq mm may vary for the leaves of the, same plant grown in different environment or under different climatic condition. It is, however, shown that the ratio of the number of stomata to the total number of, epidermal cells in a given area of epidermis is fairly constant for any age of the plant, and under different climatic conditions. Type of stomata was also observed on the, same preparation., ~52~

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Pharmacognosy, , Fig. 17.1: a) Anomocytic b) Anisocytic c) Diacytic d) Paracytic Stomata, 4) Stomatal Index:, It is the percentage which the numbers of stomata form to the total number of, epidermal cells, each stoma being counted as one cell. Stomatal number varies, considerably with the age of the leaf and due to changes in environmental, conditions, stomatal index is relatively constant and, therefore, of diagnostic, significance for a given species. Same leaf preparations were used as for stomatal, number. Number of epidermal cells and stomata (the two guard cells and ostiole was, considered as one unit) were counted within the square. Ten determinations were, carried out and the average was calculated. Stomatal index can be calculated by, using the following formula:Stomatal Index (S.I) =, , S, 𝑋100, E+S, , Where, S= Number of stomata per unit area, E=Number of epidermal cells in the same unit area., REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, stage micrometer, camera Lucida, drawing paper, Lactophenol, solution and glycerin water., , PROCEDURE:, a) Clear the fragments of leaf from the middle of lamina by boiling with Lactophenol, solution or alternatively with chlorinated soda. Peel out upper and lower epidermis, separately by means of forceps., b) Arrange a camera lucida and drawing paper for marking the drawing., c) Mount the lower and upper epidermis separately in glycerin water., ~53~

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d), e), , f), , g), , Pharmacognosy, Draw a square of 1 mm with the use of a stage micrometer and camera lucida on a, drawing paper., Replace the stage micrometer by the cleared leaf preparation, focus under the same, magnification and trace the epidermal cells and stomata by looking through the, microscope when a superimposed image of the leaf is seen at the same time., Count the number of epidermal cells and stomata (the two guard cells and ostiole, being considered as one unit) within the square, a cell being counted of at least half, of its area lies within the square, provided two adjacent sides are considered for, purpose of calculation., Record the result for each of the ten fields and calculate the stomatal number i.e., number of stomata per sq mm of leaf preparation. Calculate the stomatal Index, using the following formula:, S, , Stomatal Index (S.I.) = E+S 𝑋100., h) Determine the values for each surface where the leaf bears stomata on both, surface., , Fig. 17.2: Tracing for Stomatal Number and Stomatal Index, Table 17.1: Stomatal Index of Various Crude Drugs, Sr., No., 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., , Plant Name, , Stomatal Index, Upper Surface, Lower Surface, 1.7--4.8--12.2, 16.2--17.5--18.3, 2.3--3.9--10.5, 20.2--21.7--23.0, 11.4--12.4--13.3, 10.8--11.8--12.6, 17.1--19.0--20.7, 17.0--18.3--19.3, 12.7--17.4--19.4, 21.2--22.3--23.9, 16.4--18.1--20.4, 24.1--24.9--26.3, 13.9--14.4--14.7, 14.9--16.1--17.6, 1.6--2.7--4.0, 17.9--19.2--19.5, , Atropa acuminate, Atropa belladonna, Cassia acutifolia, Cassia angustifolia, Datura metel, Datura stramonium, Digitalis lanata, Digitalis purpurea, , , , ~54~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 18, AIM: To determine the Vein-Islet and Veinlet termination number of Leaf., INTRODUCTION:, The mesophyll of the leaf in dicot leaves is divided into small portions by branching of, the veins throughout the tissues. The small areas of the green tissue outlined by the, veinlets are termed as veinislets., Vein-islet Number: Vein-islet number is defined as the number of vein-islets per sq mm, of the leaf surface midway between the midrib and the margin. It is a constant for a, given species of the plant and is used as a characteristic for the identification of the, allied species. Levin in 1929 determined vein-islet numbers of several dicot leaves., Veinlet Termination Number: Veinlet termination number is defined as the number of, veinlet termination per sq mm of the leaf surface midway between midrib and margin. A, vein termaination is the ultimate free termination of veinlet. Hall and Melville in 1951, determined veinlet termination number of distinguishing between Indian and Alexandrian, Senna., , REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, stage micrometer, camera lucida, drawing paper, lactophenol, solution and glycerin water., , PROCEDURE:, a) Boil a few leaves in lactophenol solution in test-tube placed in a boiling water bath. If, the leaves are difficult to clear in this manner, soak them in water, treat successively, with chlorinated soda for bleaching, 10% hydrochloric acid for the removal of calcium, oxalate and finally lactophenol., b) Mount the preparation in glycerin water., c) Set up the camera lucida and divide the paper into squares of 4 sq mm by means of, the stage micrometer., d) Replace the stage micrometer by the cleared leaf preparation and trace the veins in, four continuous squares, either in square of 4 mm X 4 mm or rectangle of 1 mm X 4, mm. Trace the vein-islet and veinlet termination by looking through the microscope, when a superimposed image of the leaf portion and paper is seen at the same time., e) Count the number of vein-islets and veinler termination present within the square of, rectangle and also by taking into consideration incomplete vein-islers and any two, adjacent sides of the square or rectangle., ~55~

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Pharmacognosy, f) Record the observation in the form of range and also indicate the mean value., The range for the vein-islet number of Cassia angustifolia (Indian Senna) is 19.5 to, 22.5 with an average value of 21. The veinlet termination number for Indian Senna is, 25.6 to 32.8, , Fig. 18.1: Tracing for Vein-islet and Veinlet Termination Number, VT- Veinlet termination number, VI- Vein-islet number, Table 18.1: Vein-islet and Veinlet Termination Number of Various Crude Drugs, Sr., No., 1., 2., 3., 4., , Plant Name, , Vein Islet Number, , Veinlet Termination Number, , Cassia angustifolia, Cassia acutifolia, Digitalis purpurea, Erythroxylum coca, , 19.5--22.5, 25.0--29.5, 2.0--5.5, 8.0--12.0, , 25.6--32.8, 32.7--40.2, 2.4--4.2, 16.6--21.0, , , , ~56~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 19, AIM: To measure the dimension of calcium oxalate crystals by eye piece, micrometer., INTRODUCTION:, Calcium Oxalate Crystals:, Calcium oxalate crystals are considered as excretory products of plant metabolism., They occur in different forms drugs in entire and powdered forms., 1) Microsphenoidal or sandy crystals—Belladonna., 2) Single acicular crystals—Cinnamon, gentian,, 3) Prismsmatic crystals—Quassia, hyoscyamus, senna, rauwolfia, cascara., 4) Rosettes crystals—Stramonium, senna, cascara, rhubarb., 5) Bundles of acicular crystals—Squill, ipecacuanha., The sections to be examined for calcium oxalate should be cleared with caustic alkali or, chloral hydrate. These reagents very slowly dissolve the crystals, so the observation, should be made immediately after clearing the section. The polarizing microscope is, useful in the detection of small crystals. Mount the cleared section or powder in the, following reagents and observe the crystals., 1) Acetic acid—Insoluble, 2) Caustic alkali—Insoluble, 3) Hydrochloric acid—Soluble, 4) Sulphuric acid (60% w/w)—Soluble, on standing replaced by needles of calcium, sulphate., , REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, eyepiece micrometer, stage micrometer and glycerin water., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Calibrate the eyepiece micrometer using stage micrometer., 2) Mount a little quantity of powdered sample in glycerin water and measure the length, and breadth of 25 calcium oxalate crystals. Multiple the values by the least count for, the exact dimensions of the crystals., 3) Calculate the average value and give the range for the dimensions., In case of cascara bark, the calcium oxalate crystals range from 10-25-45µ, while in, case of frangula bark, they measure up to 15µ., ~57~

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Pharmacognosy, Microscopical Drawing: The image of an object under the microscope can be traced, on paper with the help of Swift-lves camera Lucida and a drawing board, whose, inclination can be adjusted. The camera lucida fixed over the eyepiece of the, microscope. The path of light from the object passing directly to the observer‘s eye, through an opening in the silvered surface of the left hand prism. At the same time light, form the drawing paper and pencil is reflected by the right hand prism and by the, silvered surface, so that the pencil appears superimposed on the object enabling it to be, traced on the paper. Other types of camera lucida, working on the similar principle are, also available., , , , ~58~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 20, AIM: To measure the size of starch grains by eye piece micrometer., INTRODUCTION:, Starch: Starch is present in different parts of the plant in the form of granules of varying, size. Starch is found abundantly in fruit, seed, root, rhizome and as smaller grains in, chlorophyll containing tissue of the plant such as leaf. Starches of different origins can, be identified by studying their size, shape and structure, as well as, position of the hilum, and striations. Chemically, starches are polysaccharides containing amylopectin and βamylose. Starch turns blue to violet when treated with iodine solution., Starches of pharmaceutical interest are obtained from maize, rice, wheat and potato., These starches can be differentiated from each other by microscopical examination. A, comparative account of their macroscopical, microscopical and physical characteristics, is given in the Table. For purpose of microscopical studies, the powder should be, mounted in Smiths starch reagent containing equal parts of glycerin, water and 50%, acetic acid., Table 20.1: Characteristics of some Starch Grains, Sr., No., 1., 2., , Characteristic, Colour, Shape, , Maize, , Rice, , Wheat, , Potato, Yellowish Tint, Flattened, ovoid or, subspherical,, well-marked, striations,, hilum, eccentric., , 3., , Size, , White, Simple, grains,, angular,, hilum, central,, rarely, compound, grains, 5–30 μm, , White, Simple or, compound, grains,, polyhedral, with sharp, angles, , Faint grey, Mostly simple, grains, Faint, striations,, Hilum appears, as line, , 2-10 μm, , 4., , pH, , Neutral, , Alkaline, , Small- 2–9 μm 10-100 μm, Large-10–45, μm, Acidic, Acidic, , 5., , Moisture, Content (%v/w), , 13, , 13, , 13, , ~59~, , 20

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Pharmacognosy, A systematic description of starch grains should include:, 1) Shape—Ovoid, spherical, sub-spherical, ellipsoidal, polyhedral, etc., 2) Size—Dimensions in μm., 3) Position of hilum—Central, eccentric, pointed, radiate, linear, etc., 4) Aggregation—Simple, compound; number of components present in a compound, grain., 5) Appearance between crossed polaroids., 6) Location—Loose, present in type of cell and tissue., 7) Frequency—Occasional, frequent, abundant., , Fig. 201: Starch Grain Obtained from Different Sources, , REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, eyepiece micrometer, stage micrometer, Lactophenol solution,, Iodine, dilute glycerin., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Calibrate the eyepiece micrometer using the stage micrometer and calculate the, least count (L.C)., 2) Mount a little quantity of powdered drug with lactophenol. Add a drop of iodine, solution., ~60~

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Pharmacognosy, 3) Measure the diameter of isolated starch grains in mount (appearing as a blue colour, grains) by focusing them on the scales of eyepiece micrometer. Note the number of, divisions being covered by the starch grain., 4) Calculate the dimensions of 50 starch grains. Multiply the value by the least count, (L.C), so as to get the actual dimension of starch grain in microns., 5) Calculate the average value and give the range for the dimensions of starch grains., , OBSERVATION TABLE:, Sr., No., 1., , Division of eyepiece covering Least count (L.C.) (A x B), the diameter of starch grain (A), in μm (B), , RESULTS:, The minimum diameter of starch grain is _________ μm., The maximum diameter of starch grain is_________ μm., Average diameter of starch grain is______ μm., , , , ~61~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 21, AIM: To measure the length and width of Fibers., INTRODUCTION:, Fibres may be defined as any hair-like raw material directly obtainable from an animal,, vegetable, or mineral source and convertible into nonwoven fabrics such as felt or paper, or, after spinning into yarns, into woven cloth. A natural fibre may be further defined as, an agglomeration of cells in which the diameter is negligible in comparison with the, length. Although nature abounds in fibrous materials, especially cellulosic types such as, cotton, wood, grains, and straw. The usefulness of a fibre for commercial purposes is, determined by such properties as length, strength, pliability, elasticity, abrasion, resistance, absorbency, and various surface properties. Most textile fibres are slender,, flexible, and relatively strong., Chemically, all vegetable fibres consist mainly of cellulose, although they also, contain varying amounts of such substances as hemicellulose, lignin, pectins, and, waxes that must be removed or reduced by processing. The animal fibres consist, exclusively of proteins. Silk filaments are extruded by the larvae of moths and are used, to spin their cocoons., With the exception of mineral fibres, all natural fibres have an affinity for water in, both liquid and vapour form. Natural fibres tend to yellow upon exposure to sunlight and, moisture, and extended exposure results in loss of strength., , REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, eyepiece micrometer, stage micrometer, Lactophenol solution,, phloroglucinol, hydrochloric acid, dilute glycerin., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Calibrate the eyepiece micrometer using the stage micrometer and calculate the, least count (L.C)., 2) Boil a little quantity of powdered drug with chloral hydrate solution. Remove cleared, powder in a watch glass and stain with one drop each of phloroglucinol and, concentrated hydrochloric acid (1:1)., 3) Mount a little of the treated powder in dilute glycerin and replace the stage, micrometer slide with the slide of sample and observe the slide under row powder., 4) Measure the width and length of the stained fiber by focusing them on the lines of, eyepiece micrometer. Note the number of division covered by the width of the fibre., 5) Calculate the values for 25 fibres and multiply them by the least count (L.C)., Calculate the average value and indicate the range for the width and length of fibres., ~62~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 22, AIM: To determine the palisade ratio of the leaf., INTRODUCTION:, It is defined as the average number of palisade cells beneath each epidermal cell., Unlike veinislet number for the determination of which an unbroken portion of the leaf is, required, palisade ratio can be determined with the powdered drug. The technique of, palisade ratio determination was introduced by Zorning and Weiss (1925) in their studies, on Compositae., Pieces of leaf about 2 mm square were cleared by boiling with chloral hydrate, solution. A camera lucida was arranged so that the epidermal cells and the palisade, cells lying below them may be traced. First a number of groups each of four epidermal, cells were traced and their outlines made more conspicuous. The palisade cells lying, beneath each group were then focused and traced. The palisade cells in each group, were counted, cells which were more than half covered by the epidermal cells were also, counted; the figure obtained was divided by 4 to obtain palisade ratio of that group., Twenty five groups from different leaf samples were determined for the calculation of, range and average, , REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, camera lucida, drawing paper, chloral hydrate solution and, glycerin water., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Clear the piece of leaf or powder by boiling with chloral hydrate solution., 2) Mount the sample in glycerin water and focus under high magnification., 3) Attach a camera lucida and trace the outlines of four continuous epidermal cells and, link the outline., 4) Focus the palisade cells by slightly lowering the draw tube and trace the palisade, cells lying immediately beneath the same four epidermal cells., 5) Count the palisade cells in each group. Include those cells in the count which are, more than half covered by the epidermal cells. Divide the figure obtained by four to, obtain the palisade ratio., 6) Determine the palisade ratio for both the surfaces of the leaf., 7) Consider the average of five such determination for the calculation of range and, average., ~64~

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Pharmacognosy, 8) The range for palisade ratio of Indian senna is given below9) Upper surface: 4.0—12.0, Lower surface: 2.5—10.5, , Fig. 22.1: Tracing for Palisade Ratio, , Sr. No., 1., 2., 3., 4., , Table 22.1: Palisade Ratio of Various Drugs, Plant Name, Palisade Ratio, Atropa belladonna, 6.0 — 10.0, Datura stramonium, 4.0 — 7.0, Digitalis purpurea, 3.7 — 4.2, Solanum nigrum, 2.0 — 4.0, , , , ~65~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 23, AIM: To determine the number of starch grain by Lycopodium spore method., INTRODUCTION:, Lycopodium spore method is a method for the study of powdered drugs having welldefined particles which may be counted—for example, starch grains or single layered, cells or tissues—the area of which may be traced under suitable magnification or the, objects of uniform thickness, and the length of which, can be measured under suitable, magnification and actual area calculated are usually evaluated using this method. It is, used when chemical and other methods of evaluation of crude drugs fail as accurate, measures of quality. On average 94000 spores per mg of powdered lycopodium are, present., Adulterated starchy drugs can be determined by counting the number of starch, grains per mg and calculating the amount from the known number of starch grains per, mg of the pure starch or starchy material. Thus, if spent ginger is the adulterant, one, knows that ginger contains 286,000 starch grains per mg, and the amount used as an, adulterant can be calculated by using this figure. The percentage purity of an authentic, powdered ginger is calculated using the following equation:, % purity of drugs = N x W x 94,000 x 100, SxMxP, If the material is one for which a constant is not available, it is necessary to determine, one by a preliminary experiment., , REQUIREMENTS:, Compound microscope, camera lucida, drawing paper, chloral hydrate solution and, glycerin water., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Determine the loss of drying of the powdered material at 105° C, Mix about 100 mg, powdered drug and 50 mg of lycododium using a small flexible spatula on a glass, plate, with a little of the suspending fluid., 2) Add sufficient quantity of suspending fluid (glycerin: mucilage of tragacanth: water—, 2:1:2) to the mixture until a smooth thin paste results, transfer it to a stoppered tube, by washing with excess of suspending fluid. Adjust the final volume so that about 15, to 20 spores are observed in the field using a 4 mm objective. (Approximately 4 ml of, the suspending agent is sufficient for 50 mg of lycopodium)., ~66~

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3), , 4), 5), 6), , 7), 8), , Pharmacognosy, Oscillate the stoppered container gently in order to obtain uniformity of suspension., Place one drop of the suspension on each of two slides, spread with a thin glass rod, or needle, apply the cover slip and leace aside for few minutes on the table in order, to allow the fluid mixture to settle evenly., Count the starch grains of ginger and lycopodium spores in each of 25 different, fields selected for observation., Prepare another similar suspension and repeat the exercise., From the mean of the 4 sets of the counts and percentage of moisture present,, calculate the number of starch grains per mg of the powder with reference to the, powder dried at 105° C., Pure Jamaica ginger contains 286000 starch grains per mg., Calculate the percentage purity of ginger powder using the following formula% purity of drugs = N x W x 94,000 x 100, SxMxP, , where,, N = number of characteristic structures (e.g. starch grains) in 25 fields;, W = weight in mg of lycopodium taken;, S = number of lycopodium spores in the same 25 fields;, M = weight in mg of the sample, calculated on basis of sample dried at 105°C; and, P = 2,86,000 in case of ginger starch grains powder., 94,000 = number of lycopodium spores per mg, , , , ~67~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 24, AIM: To perform preliminary phytochemical screening of crude drugs., THEORY:, The extract should be subjected to preliminary phytochemical investigation for the, detection of alkaloids, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saponins,, sterols, lipids and fats etc., 1) Tests for Alkaloids:, Few mg of residue of each extract was taken separately in 5 ml of 1.5% v/v, hydrochloric acid and filtered. These filtrates were then used for testing alkaloids, with following reagents:, a) Dragendorffs Test:, It was prepared by mixing two solutions. Solution A (17 g of bismuth subnitrate + 200, g tartaric acid + 800 ml distilled water) and solution B (160 g potassium iodide + 4 ml, distilled water) were mixed in 1:1 v/v proportion. From this solution working standard, was prepared by taking 50 ml of this solution and adding 100 g of tartaric acid and, making upto 500 ml with distilled water., The above Dragendorff‘s reagent was sprayed on Whatmann No. 1 filter paper, and the paper was dried. The test filtrate after basification with dilute ammonia was, extracted with chloroform and the chloroform extract was applied on the filter paper,, impregnated with Dragendorff‘s reagent, with the help of a capillary tube., Development of an orange red colour on the paper indicated the presence of, alkaloids., b) Mayer’s Test (Potassium Mercuric Iodide Reagent):, The Mayer‘s reagent was prepared as follows: 1.36 g of mercuric chloride was, dissolved in 60 ml of distilled water. Both the solutions were mixed and diluted to, 100 ml with distilled water., To a little of the test filtrate, taken in a watch glass, a few drops of the above, reagent were added. Formation of cream coloured precipitate showed the presence, of alkaloids., c) Wagner’s Test (Iodine-Potassium Iodine):, 1.27 g of iodine and 2 g of potassium iodide were dissolved in 5 ml of water and the, solution was diluted to 100 ml with water. When few drops of this reagent were, added to the test filtrate, a brown flocculent precipitate was formed indicating the, presence of alkaloids., ~68~

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Pharmacognosy, d) Hager’s Reagent:, A saturated aqueous solution of picric acid was employed for this test. When the test, filtrate was treated with this reagent, an orange yellow precipitate was obtained,, indicating the presence of alkaloids., e) Tannic Acid Reagent:, A freshly prepared 5% aqueous solution of tannic acid was used for this test. To a, little of the test filtrate the above reagent was added. Formation of precipitate, (soluble in ammonia and dilute acids) gave the indication of presence of alkaloids., 2) Tests for Saponins:, a) Foam Test:, A few mg of the test residue was taken in a test tube and shaken vigorously with a, small amount of sodium bicarbonate and water. It is a stable, characteristic, honeycomb like froth is obtained, saponins are present., b) Haemolysis Test:, A little of the test residue was dissolved in normal saline in such a way that 5 ml of, the solution represented 1 g of the crude drug. In a series of 5 test tubes, doses of, 0.2 ml, 0.4 ml, 0.6 ml, 0.8 ml and 1 ml were added and volume was made upto 1ml, in each case with normal saline. 1ml of diluted blood (0.5 ml of rabbit‘s blood diluted, to 25 ml with normal saline) was added to each tube and changes observed. If, hemolysis of blood occurs the saponins are present., 3) Tests for Sterols:, a) Salkowaski Reaction:, Few mg of the residue of each extract was taken in 2 ml of chloroform and 2 ml of, conc. sulphuric acid was added from the side of the test-tube. The test-tube was, shaken for few minutes. The development of red colour in the chloroform layer, indicated the presence of sterols., b) Liebermann’s Test:, To a few mg of the residue in a test-tube, few ml of acetic anhydride was added and, gently heated. The contents of the test-tube were cooled. Few drops of concentrated, sulphuric acid were added from the side of the test-tube. A blue colour gave the, evidence of presence of sterols., , c) Liebermann-Burchard’s Reaction:, Few mg of residue was dissolved in chloroform and few drops of acetic anhydride, were added to it, followed by concentrated sulphuric acid from the side of the tube. A, transient colour development from red to blue and finally green indicated the, presence of sterols., ~69~

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Pharmacognosy, 4) Tests for Carbohydrate:, a) Molisch’s Test:, The Molisch‘s reagent was prepared by dissolving 10 g of a-naphthol in 100 ml of, 95% alcohol. A few mg of the test residue was placed in a test-tube containing 0.5, ml of water, and it was mixed with 2 drops of Molisch‘s reagent. To this solution, was, added 1 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid from the side of the inclined test-tube, so, that the acid formed a layer beneath the aqueous solution without mixing with it. If a, red brown ring appears at the common surface of the liquids, sugars are present., b) Fehling’s Solution Test:, Fehling‘s solution A and Fehling‘s solution B were mixed in equal volumes, immediately before use. A little of the test residue was dissolved in water, and a few, ml of the Fehling‘s solution was added to it. This mixture was then warmed. If a red, precipitate of cuprous oxide is obtained, reducing sugars are present., c) Benedict's Test:, Treat the extract with few drops of Benedict's reagent (alkaline solution containing, Cupric citrate complex) and upon boiling on water bath, reddish brown precipitate, forms if reducing sugars are present., 5) Tests for Tannins:, The test residue of each extract was taken separately in water, warmed and filtered., Tests were carried out with the filtrate using following reagents., a) Lead Acetate Test:, A 10% w/v solution of basic lead acetate in distilled water was added to the test, filtrate. If precipitate is obtained, tannins are present, b) Ferric Chloride Reagent:, A 5% w/v solution of ferric chloride in 90% alcohol was prepared. Few drops of this, solution were added to a little of the above filtrate. If dark green or deep blue colour, is obtained, tannins are present.., c) Gelatin Solution Test:, 1% w/v solution of gelatin in water, containing 10% sodium chloride was prepared. A, little of this solution was added to the filtrate. If white precipitate is obtained, tannins, are present., d) Bromine Water Test:, Bromine solution was added to the test filtrate. If decolorization of bromine water, occurs, tannins are present., 6) Fatty Acid and Fixed Oil:, a) Spot Test:, Pressed the small quantity of extract between two filter papers, the stain on 1st filter, paper indicates the presence of fixed oils., ~70~

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Pharmacognosy, 7) Tests for Flavonoids:, a) Shinoda Test (Magnesium Hydrochloride Reduction Test):, A small quantity to test residue was dissolved in 5 ml ethanol (95% v/v) and reacted, with few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 0.5 g of magnesium metal. The, pink, crimson or magenta colour is developed within a minute or two, if flavonoids, are present., b) Alkaline Reagent Test:, To the extract solution, add few drops of Sodium hydroxide solution; formation of an, intense yellow color that turns to colorless on addition of few drops of dilute acetic, acid indicates the presence of flavonoids., c) Zinc-Hydrochloride Reduction Test:, To the extract solution, add a mixture of Zinc dust and conc. Hydrochloric acid. It, gives red color after few minutes., Table 24.1: Phytochemical Analysis of Extract, Sr., No., 1., , Chemical Constituents, Alkaloids, , 2., 3., , Saponins, Sterols, , 4., , Carbohydrates, , 5., , Tannins, , 6., 7., , Fatty acid & fixed oil, Flavonoids, , Chemical Test, Mayer's test, Dragendorff's test, Wagner's test, Hager's test, Tannic acid reagent, Foam test, Salkowaski test, Leibermann's reagent, Leibermann Burchard's Reaction, Molisch's test, Fehling's test, Benedict test, Lead acetate solution, Ferric chloride solution, Gelatin solution test, Bromine water test, Spot test, Shinoda test, Ammonia test, Zinc-Hydrochloride, reduction, test, , , ~71~, , Observation

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 25, AIM: To determine the total Ash value of given drug., THEORY:, The ash remaining after ignition of crude drug is determined by three different methods, that are total ash, acid-insoluble ash and water-soluble ash. The total ash method is, used to measure the total amount of material remaining after ignition. This includes both, physiological ash and non-physiological ash. Physiological ash is derived from the plant, tissue itself, and ―non-physiological‖ ash, which is the residue of the extraneous matter, (e.g. sand and soil) adhering to the plant surface. Total ash is useful in detecting the, crude drugs that are mixed with various mineral substances like sand, soil, calcium, oxalate, chalk powder, or other drugs with different inorganic contents to improve their, appearance. The maximum temperature used for total ash should be not more than, 450°C because alkali chlorides that may be volatile in higher temperatures would be, lost., , REQUIREMENTS:, Crucible, Powdered drug, Muffle furnace, Weighing balance, Tonge., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Place about 2–4 g of the powdered air-dried material, accurately weighed in a silica, crucible which is previously ignited and weighed., 2) The powdered drug is spread as an even layer in the crucible and ignited at a, temperature not exceeding 450ºC until it is white, indicating the absence of carbon., 3) Cool in a desiccator and weigh., 4) If carbon-free ash cannot be obtained in this manner, cool the crucible and moisten, the residue with about 2 ml of water or a saturated solution of ammonium nitrate., 5) Dry on a water-bath, then on a hot-plate and ignite to constant weight., 6) Allow the residue to cool in a suitable desiccator for 30 minutes, then weigh without, delay., 7) Calculate the percentage of total ash with reference to air dried material., , CALCULATION:, Weight of empty silica crucible — A, Weight of powdered drug — B, Weight of silica crucible and powdered drug — C, ~72~

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Pharmacognosy, Weight of silica crucible and ash — D, Weight of ash — (C — D), B g of crude drug gives (C — D) g of the ash, 100 g of crude drug gives (C — D)/ B x 100 g of the ash, Total ash value of the sample — 100x(C — D), B, , , , ~73~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 26, AIM: To determine the Acid Insoluble Ash value of given drug., THEORY:, Acid-insoluble ash means the ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. It is often of more, value than the total ash. Acid-insoluble ash is the residue obtained after boiling the total, ash with dilute hydrochloric acid, and igniting the remaining insoluble matter. This, measures the amount of silica present, especially as sand and siliceous earth. The, majority of crude drugs contain calcium oxalate and the quantity of calcium oxalate, varies frequently. So total ash of a crude drug vary within wide limits for specimens of, genuine drug, for example, rhubarb, total ash range from 8 — 40%. In this case, the, total ash is useless to detect earthy matter adherent to such a drug. Therefore acid, insoluble ash would be preferable for rhubarb. The calcium oxide or carbonate, yielded, by the incinerated oxalate, will be soluble in hydrochloric acid when the ash is treated, with hydrochloric acid; the remaining ash is weighed, which is known as the acidinsoluble ash. We can detect the presence of excessive earthy matter by this method,, which is likely to occur with roots and rhizomes., , REQUIREMENTS:, Ashless Filter paper, dilute hydrochloric acid, Beaker, Powdered drug, Muffle furnace,, Weighing balance, Tonge., , PROCEDURE:, 1) Add 25 ml of hydrochloric acid to the silica crucible containing the total ash, cover, with a watch-glass and boil gently for 5 minutes., 2) Rinse the watch-glass with 5 ml of hot water and add this liquid to the crucible., 3) The insoluble ash is collect on an ash less filter paper and washed with hot water, until the filtrate is neutral., 4) Transfer the filter-paper containing the insoluble matter to the original silica crucible,, dry on a hotplate and ignite to constant weight., 5) Allow the residue to cool in a suitable desiccator for 30 minutes, then weigh without, delay., 6) Calculate the content of acid-insoluble ash with reference to air dried material., CALCULATION:, Acid insoluble ash, % by mass = 100× (W2-W1), W, ~74~

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Pharmacognosy, Where,, W1=weight in g of the empty dish, W2=weighrt in g of the dish with acid insoluble ash and, W=weight in g of the sample., Observation (Fior Exapmle), Samp[le weight, Weight of empty Wweight with acid ash, cruci\ble, insulble ash, W(g), W(g), W(g), %, 2.0001, 33.7174, 33.7352, 0.89, RESULT, The percentage amount of acid insoluble ash present is -----------%., PRECAUTION,  Ashing should be proper.,  Ashless filter paper should be used for the filtration., , , , ~75~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 27, AIM: To determine the Water Soluble Ash value of given drug., THEORY:, Water-soluble Ash:, Water-soluble ash is the difference in weight between the total ash and the residue after, treatment of the total ash with water. The water-soluble ash is used to detect the, presence of material exhausted by water. The total ash and acid-insoluble ash values of, Guduchi are not more than 16 and 3%, respectively. The total ash value and watersoluble ash values of ginger are 6 and 1.7%, respectively., , REQUIREMENTS:, Silica crucible, Powdered drug, Muffle furnace, Ashless filter paper, Weighing balance,, Tonge., , PROCEDURE:, 1) To the crucible containing the total ash, add 25 ml of water and boil for 5 minutes., 2) Collect the insoluble matter in a sintered-glass crucible or on an ashless filter paper., 3) Wash with hot water and ignite in a crucible for 15 minutes at a temperature not, exceeding 450 °C., 4) Subtract the weight of this residue in mg from the weight of total ash., 5) Calculate the content of water-soluble ash in mg per g of air-dried material., , CALCULATION:, The food sample is weighed before and after ashing to determine the concentration of, ash present. The ash content can be expressed on either a dry or wet basis:, , , ~76~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 28, AIM: To determine the moisture content of given drug., THEORY:, The moisture content of a drug will be responsible for decomposition of crude drugs, either producing chemical change or microbial growth. So, Drying of crude drug is, important during collection of drug and is also important for preservation, preventing, hydrolytic degradation of active constituents and for easy size reduction of crude drug., Therefore, moisture content of a drug should be determined and controlled. Moisture, must be eliminated as far as possible because excess moisture or insufficient drying is, responsible for spoilage of drug due to growth of microbes. The moisture content is, determined by heating a drug at 105°C in an oven to a constant weight. Following are, the examples of two crude drugs with their moisture content limit: the moisture content, of Digitalis and Ergot should not be more than 5% w/w and 8% w/w, respectively., , REQUIREMENTS:, Filter paper, Hot air oven, drug sample, weighing balance, evaporating dish Desiccator., , PROCEDURE:, 1) The powdered drug sample or part of drug sample (10 g) without preliminary drying, was placed on a tarred evaporating dish and dried at 105ºC for 6 h and weighed., 2) The drying was continued until two successive reading matches each other or the, difference between two successive weighing was not more than 0.25%., 3) Constant weight was reached when two consecutive weighing after drying for 30 min, in a desiccator, showed not more than 0.01 g difference, 4) Calculate the % of moisture content of the drug by using the following formulaMoisture content of the drug (%) = Loss in weight of the sample x 100, Weight of the sample, , , , ~77~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 29, AIM: To determine the alcohol soluble Extractive value of given drug., THEORY:, The determination of Extractive values help to determine the amount of soluble, constituents in a given amount of medicinal plant material, when extracted with solvents., The extraction of any crude drug with a particular solvent yields a solution containing, different phytoconstituents. The composition of these phytoconstituents in that particular, solvent depends upon the nature of drug and solvent used. The use of single solvent, can also be used by means of providing preliminary information of quality of a particular, drug sample. Various solvents are used according to the type of the constituents to be, analyzed. Alcohol-soluble extractive is used for crude drugs containing tannins,, glycosides, resins, etc. and ether-soluble extractives are used for drugs containing, volatile constituents and fats., , REQUIREMENTS:, Filter paper, Beaker, Weighing balance, porcelain dish, Ethanol, Dessicator, , PROCEDURE:, 1) About 5 g of coarsely powdered air dried material is accurately weighed and, macerated with 100 ml of 90% ethanol in a glass stopper closed flask for 24 h, with, frequent shaking during the first 6 hours and allowed to stand for 18 hours., 2) It was then filtered rapidly taking precaution against loss of alcohol., 3) Then 25 ml of filtrate is transfer to porcelain dish and the content is evaporated to, dryness in a porcelain dish and dried at 105˚ to a constant weight., 4) Cooled in a dessicator for 30 min then weighed without delay., 5) The percentage of alcohol soluble extractive was calculated with reference to the airdried plant material., CALCULATION:, 25 ml of alcoholic extract gives – A g of residue, 100 ml of alcoholic extract gives – B g of residue, 5 g of air dried drug gives B g of alcohol soluble residue –, 100 g of air dried drug gives (100 x B)/5 g of alcohol soluble residue, RESULT, The percentage amount of alcohol soluble extractive value present is -----------%., , , ~78~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 30, AIM: To determine the Water soluble Extractive value of given drug., THEORY:, Extractive value determines the amount of active constituents extracted with solvents, from a given amount of herbal material. It is employed for materials for which as yet no, suitable chemical or biological assay exists., The extracts obtained by exhausting crude drugs with different solvents are, approximate measures of their chemical constituents. Various solvents are used, according to the type of the constituents to be analysed. Water-soluble extractive is, used for crude drugs containing water-soluble constituents like glycosides, tannins,, mucilage, etc., alcohol-soluble extractive is used for crude drugs containing tannins,, glycosides, resins, etc. and ether-soluble extractives are used for drugs containing, volatile constituents and fats. Determination of extractive values is useful for evaluation, of crude drug. It gives idea about the nature of the chemical constituents present in a, crude drug., REQUIREMENTS:, Filter paper, Beaker, Weighing balance, porcelain dish, Distill water, Dessicator., PROCEDURE:, 1) 4 g of coarsely powdered air-dried material was accurately weighed and placed in a, glass-stoppered conical flask., 2) Macerated with 100 ml of water for 6 hours, shaked frequently and allowed to stand, for 18 hours., 3) Filtered rapidly without loss of any solvent., 4) 25 ml of the filtrate was transferred to a porcelain dish and evaporated to dryness on, a water bath., 5) Content was dried at 105ºC for 6 hours, cooled in a desiccator for 30 minutes and, weighed without delay., 6) The percentage of alcohol soluble extractive was calculated with reference to the airdried plant material., , ~79~

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Pharmacognosy, CALCULATION:, 25 ml of aqueous extract gives – A g of residue, 100 ml of aqueous extract gives – B g of residue, 5 g of air dried drug gives B g of water soluble residue –, 100 g of air dried drug gives (100 x B)/5 g of water soluble residue, RESULT, The percentage amount of water soluble extractive value present is -----------%., , , , ~80~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 31, AIM: To prepare Arishta and Asava., THEORY:, Arishtas are made with decoctions of herbs in boiling water while asavas are prepared, by directly using fresh herbal juices. These are unique liquid dosage form that contains, self generated alcohol. Arishtas are classical Ayurvedic preparations typically used as, digestive and cardiotonic. It is weak spirituous preparations prepared in airtight sealed, vessel by anaerobic fermentation of decoction of plant material, sugar. Fermentation, probably results into transformation of several phytochemical compounds present in, medicinal plants, thereby rendering them less toxic and more potent; besides helping in, their absorption. Arishta (fermented decoction) and Asava (fermented infusion) are, considered as a unique and valuable therapeutics in ayurveda, due to their medicinal, value, sweet taste and easy availability. People are prone to consume higher dosage of, these drugs for longer periods. Arjunarishta is commonly used oral liquid cardiotonic, prepared using Terminalia arjuna as an active constituent. It nourishes and strengthens, heart muscle and promote cardiac functioning by regulating blood pressure and, cholesterol. It contains not more than 10% and not less than 5% of self generated, alcohol., Aasava are liquid preparations containing self generated alcohol, thus contain water, soluble as well as alcohol soluble substances of the drugs. Kanakasava is common, Ayurvedic preparation belonging to Aasava category, generally prepared by soaking the, drugs in the powdered form or in the form of their decoction (known as Kasaya in, Ayurveda), in a solution of sugar or Jaggery (Gur), for a specified period of time. During, soaking, it undergoes fermentation generating alcohol, thus facilitating the extraction of, active constituents contained in the drug. The alcohol, so generated, also serves as a, preservative. Asavas and Aristhas can be kept indefinitely. They should be kept in well, stoppered bottles or jars., Examples: Asavas — Kumaryasava, Vasakasava., Arishtas — Asvagandhadyarishta, Ashokarishta, Arjunarishta, , REQUIREMENT:, Earthen pot, lid, cloth ribbon, sugar or Jaggery, powdered drug material, water, yeast, , PREPARATION OF ARISHTA:, 1) Powdered drug material (60 g) was passed through sieve no. 44, mixed with, required amount of potable water (1024 ml) and soaked overnight., ~81~

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2), 3), 4), 5), 6), , 7), , 8), 9), , Pharmacognosy, Mild heating is carried out until the quantity get reduce to one fourth of initial volume, to prepare a decoction., Decoction is cooled at room temperature and filtered through a cotton cloth and, filtrate was used for further processing., Required quantity of jaggery (400 g) is dissolved in decoction by stirring., Dhataki pushpa (Woodfordia fructicosa) were then added to the sweeten mixture., Above mixture kept in clean porcelain jar and fermenting microorganisms known as, yeast was added and mixed. Then container was sealed with clay-smeared cloth, wound in seven consecutive layers and kept in clean and dry room for fermentation., After fermentation the vessel was withdrawn to examine the preparation which, showed a brownish black fluid with a frothing and aromatic odour and alcoholic, taste., The final fluid decanted and filtered through a cotton cloth to obtain a clean, transparent arishta., Arishta is packed in air tight container and used for evaluation., , PREPARATION FOR ASAVA:, 1) The required quantity of water, to which jaggery or sugar as prescribed in the, formula, is added, boiled and cooled., 2) This is poured into the fermentation pot or vessel. Fine powder of the drugs, mentioned in the formula is added., 3) Dhataki pushpa (Woodfordia fructicosa) were then added to the sweeten mixture., 4) Fermenting microorganisms known as yeast is added and mixed, 5) The container is covered with a lid and the edges are sealed with clay-smeared cloth, wound in seven consecutive layers and kept in clean and dry room for fermentation., 6) After fermentation the fermented material is filtered through cotton cloth. Filtrate was, packed in air tight container and used for evaluation., Note: For the preparation of Asava, fresh plant materials are cleaned, pulverized and, pressed for collection of juice. If the drug is dry and is to be used in the preparation of, Asava, it is coarsely crushed and added to the water to which the prescribed quantities, of honey, jaggery or sugar are added. If it is an Arishta, a decoction is obtained by, boiling the drugs in the specified volume of water. The water used should be clean, clear, and potable., , GENERAL PRECAUTIONS:, If the fermentation is to be carried in an earthen vessel, it should not be new. Water, should be boiled first in the vessel. Absolute cleanliness is required during the process., Each time, the inner surface of the fermentation vessel should be fumigated with pippali, churna and smeared with ghee before the liquids poured into it. In large-scale, ~82~

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Pharmacognosy, manufacture, wooden vats, porcelain-jars or metal vessels are used in place of earthen, vessels., , CHARACTERISTICS:, The filtered Asava or Arishta should be clear without froth at the top. It should not, become sour. The preparation has the characteristics of aromatic alcoholic odour., , FORMULA:, Name, Coarsely powdered drug, Water, Jaggery, Dhataki pushpa, , , , ~83~, , Qty., 60 g, 1024 ml, 400g, q.s.

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 32, AIM: To determine the alcohol content of Arishta and Asava., , THEORY:, Asavas and Aristas are medicinal preparations made by soaking the drugs, either in, powder form or in the form of decoction (kasaya) in a solution of sugar or jaggery, as the, case may be for a specified period of time, during which it undergoes a process of, fermentation generating alcohol, thus facilitating the extraction of the active principles, contained in the drugs. The alcohol, so generated, also serves as a preservative., Asavarista formulation is considered as medicated wine where microbial, transformation initiate alcohol formation which helps in extraction of therapeutic, attributes and thereby increases the bioavailability of the ingredients. In these dosage, forms multiple phytochemicals having therapeutic values are transformed into liquid form, to provide safe, potent and better administered liquid form. Microbes involved in the, fermentation process increase therapeutic property by the microbial biotransformation of, the initial ingredient of Asavarista into more effective therapeutics. The hydro-alcoholic, extraction of phytoconstituents from the herbs shows improvement in drug delivery in, the body of consumer. Biotransformation in the formulation is mediated by native, microbes, which potentiates the drug and preserves the formulation., Determination of Alcohol Content:, 1) 25ml of preparation being examined was transferred to the distillation flask and its, temperature is measured at 24.9° to 25.1° C., 2) It was diluted with 150ml of water and to it added a little pumice powder., 3) It was distilled and not less than 90ml of the distillate was collected into a 100‐ml, volumetric flask and diluted to volume with distilled water at 24.9° to 25.1° C., 4) Specific gravity of this liquid was determined and alcohol content analyzed using, relative density., ~84~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 33, AIM: To determine the Swelling Index of Isapgol (Plantago ovate) seeds., THEORY:, Many herbal materials are of specific therapeutic or pharmaceutical utility because of, their swelling properties especially gums and those containing an appreciable amount of, mucilage, pectin or hemicellulose. The swelling index is the volume in ml taken up by 1, g of a drug including any adhering mucilage after it has swollen in an aqueous liquid for, 24 h. The swelling factor reflects the mucilage content of the seeds. Its determination is, based on the addition of water or a swelling agent as specified in the test procedure for, each individual herbal material., Isapgol (Plantago ovata) seeds and seeds of other species of Plantago such as, Plantago psyllium, Plantago arenaria, Plantago lanceolata etc. contain mucilage which is, a polysaccharide present in the epidermis of the seeds., Ispaghula has powerful ability to form a gel in water, Psyllium is classified as a, mucilaginous fiber. This capability comes from its role as the endosperm of the Plantago, ovata seed, where it functions to retain water in order to prevent the seed from drying, out., The dietary fibres from Isapgol seeds and husk are not digested or absorbed by the, body, have affinity for water. When these fibers come in contact with water, gel is form, that lubricates the bowel. The Ispaghula seeds are mainly used as bulk laxative in, habitual constipation and antidiarroheal in chronic amoebic as well as bacillary, dysenteries and chronic diarrohea due to irritative conditions of gastrointestinal tract., REQUIREMENTS:, 50 ml glass stopped measuring cylinder, Isapgol seed, PROCEDURE:, 1) 1g of Isapghula seeds are transferred to the 50 ml glass stopped measuring cylinder, 2) Add 25 ml of water to the 50 ml glass stopped measuring cylinder, 3) The measuring cylinders are agitated after every 10 min. For first one hour and then, after every 3 h. This process was continued for 24 h., 4) Volume occupied by seeds along with mucilage is noted., 5) Carry out simultaneously three determinations for any given material., 6) Calculate the mean value of the individual determinations, related to 1 g of seed., , ~86~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 34, AIM: To determine the Foaming Index., THEORY:, The saponins are high molecular weight containing phytoconstituents having the, detergent or soap like property. Many herbal materials contain saponins that can cause, persistent foam when an aqueous decoction is shaken. The foaming ability of an, aqueous decoction of herbal materials and their extracts is measured in terms of a, foaming index., , REQUIREMENTS:, PROCEDURE:, Conical flask, volumetric flask, stopper test-tubes, filter paper, water, 1) About 1 g of plant material is reduced to a coarse powder, weighed accurately and, transferred at to a 500 ml conical flask containing 100 ml of boiling water., 2) Maintain at moderate boiling for 30 min., 3) Cool and filter into 100 ml volumetric flask and added sufficient water through the, filter to dilute to volume., 4) Pour the decoction into 10 stopper test-tubes (height 15cm, diameter 15mm) in, series of successive portions of 1 ml, 2 ml, 3 ml, up to 10 ml and the volumes in, each tube is adjusted with water to 10 ml., 5) The tubes are stopper and then shaken them in a lengthwise motion for 15 seconds,, two shakes per second., 6) Allow to stand for 15 minutes and measure the height of the foam is measured by, means of a graduated tape with millimetre scale.. The results are assessed as, follows:,  If the height of the foam in every tube is less than 1 cm, the foaming index is less, than 100.,  If a height of foam of 1 cm is measured in any tube, the volume of the herbal, material decoction in this tube (a) is used to determine the index.,  If this tube is the first or second tube in a series, prepare an intermediate dilution in a, similar manner to obtain a more precise result.,  If the height of the foam is more than 1 cm in every tube, the foaming index is over, 1000. In this case repeat the determination using a new series of dilutions of the, decoction in order to obtain a result.,  Calculate the foaming index using the following formula:, ~88~

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Pharmacognosy, , 1000, a, where a = the volume in ml of the decoction used for preparing the dilution in the tube, where foaming to a height of 1 cm is observed., , , , ~89~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 35, AIM: To prepare herbal hair oil., THEORY:, Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of, baldness or other ailments, aggression of hair. They also promote the luxurious growth, of hairs. Hair oil containing herbal drugs are used as hair tonic. Hair care products are, categorized into two main category, hair tonics and hair grooming aids. There are, various methods available for the preparation of hair oils direct boiling method, paste, method and cloth method., Maize Oil: It is fatty oil obtained from embryos of grain of Zea mays. Family- Graminae., It is used as solvent for injections and high calories dietary suppliments. In cosmetic and, preparation of margarine., Aloe Vera: It contains dried juice of leaves of Aloe barbadensis belonging to the family, Liliaceae. It is generally used in pain, itching, treatment of ulceration, keratosis etc. Aloe, also has hair growth promoter activity. It is used in cosmetics. It is used externally for, pain and inflammation., Coconut Oil: Coconut oil is the oil expressed from the dried solid part of endosperm of, coconut, Cocos nucifera L., belonging to family Palmae. It is used as lubricant for hair, dressing and manufacture of soaps. It is also used as base for ointments., REQUIREMENTS:, Makka, Aloe Vera, Amla, Chandan, Coconut oil, Beaker, Stirrer, PROCEDURE:, 1) Add all the ingredient in coconut oil., 2) Warm for 1 hour with stirring. Filter it. Pack and label., , FORMULA:, Sr. no., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, , Ingredients, Maize oil, Aloe Vera, Amla, Chandan, Coconut oil, , Quantity, 5g, 5g, 5g, 2g, 50 ml, , ~90~

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Pharmacognosy, LABEL:, Herbal Hair Oil (10 ml), Contents:, Mfg. Lic. No., Each ml contains,, Mfg. Batch No., Maize oil..................................1 g, Mfg. Date:, Aloevera................................. 1 g, Exp. Date:, Amla........................................1 g, M.R.P.:, Chandan...................................0.4 g, (Inclusive of all taxes), Coconut oil...............................q.s. to 10 ml, Mfg by: --------------- College, of Pharmacy, Directions: Apply at night for best result., , , , ~91~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 36, AIM: To Prepare Herbal Face Pack., THEORY:, The herbal paste which is applied on face to treat acne, pimple, scars, marks and, pigments are known as herbal face packs. The face packs which are mentioned in, ayurveda help women to get rid of wrinkles, dark circles, pimples and acne. Herbal face, packs increase the fairness and smoothness of skin. These face packs increase skin, glow and are best ayurveda treatment to increase fairness. Face packs are one of the, oldest and beautiful methods of cleansing, 1) Myrobalan:, It consist of dried, ripe, and fully matured fruits of Terminalia chebula Retzr, belonging to family Combretaceae. It contains not less than 5.0 % of chebulagic acid, and not less than 12.5 % of chebulinic acid. Myrobalan is used mainly as an, astringent, laxative, stomachic and tonic. It is also an anthelmintic. Fruit pulp is used, to cure bleeding. It is an ingredient of ayurvedic preparation ‗triphala‘, used for, treatment of variety of ailments. Myrobalan is also used in treatment of piles and, external ulcers., 2) Amla:, It consist of dried, as well as fresh fruits of the plant Emblica officinalis belonging to, family Euphorbiaceae. It contains not less than 1.0 % w/w of gallic acid calculated on, dry basis. It is used as an acrid, diuretic, refrigerant and laxative. Dried fruits are, given in diarrhoea and dysentery. They are also administered in jaundice, dyspesis, and anaemia alongwith iron compound. Fruits are also used in preparation of inks,, hair oils and shampoo. Seeds of fruits are given in treatment of asthma and, bronchitis It is a popular ingredient of Triphala and Chyawanprash., 3) Neem:, It is obtained from the seeds of Azadirachta indica belonging to family Meliaceae. It, has been studied scientifically and reported that it contains different chemicals which, have insect repellent, insecticide, antifeedant, nematicide and antimicrobial, properties. The seed oil has spermicidal activity., 4) Kapur Kachari :, It consist of dried sliced rhizomes of the plant known as Hedychium spicatum, belonging to family zinziberaceae. It contains not less than 0.80% of p-methoxy, cinnammic acid ethyl ester on dried basis. Rhizomes are used as stomachic,, stimulant, carminative and tonic. They are either used in the form of powder and, ~92~

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Pharmacognosy, decoction. Being aromatic, it is used as a flavouring agent for several cosmetics and, also to flavour tobacco. The rhizomes are used in preparation of ‗ABIT‘ fragment, highly perfumed powder used during the religious functions., 5) Kaolin:, Kaolin is purified native hydrated aluminium silicate free from gritty particles. It is, obtained by powdering the native kaolin, elutriating and collecting the fraction, which, complies with the requirements of particle size. The native clay is derived from, decomposition of the felspar (Potassium aluminosilicate) or granite rock and, contains silica (47%), alumina (40%), and water (13%). It is used as an adsorbent by, oral administration, in the treatment of enteritis, dysentery and in alkaloidal and food, poisoning. It is also applied externally as a dusting powder and also as clarifying, agent during the filtration. Mostly light kaolin with a particle size less than 10 µ is, used in pharmaceutical preparations., 6) Chandan:, It is obtained by distillation from the heartwood of Santalum album Linn., family, Santalaceae. It is mainly used as a perfume in preparation of cosmetics and incense, sticks., , REQUIREMENTS:, Myrobalan, Amla, Kapur kachari, Neem, Kaolin, Chandan, Mortar pestle, Weighing, Balance., , FORMULATION TABLE:, Each 5 g contains:, Sr. No., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, , Name of Ingredient, Terminalia chebula, Emblica officinale, Heydychium, spicatum, Curcuma, arometicum, Azadirachta indica, Kaolin, Santalum album, , PROCEDURE:, 1) Weigh all the ingredients., 2) Mix well with the help of mortar pestle., 3) Pack in a suitable container and label., ~93~, , Quantity, 0.40 g, 0.20 g, 0.20 g, 0.20 g, 1.50 g, 2.00 g, 0.50 g

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Pharmacognosy, , LABEL:, Herbal Face Pack (5 g), Contents:, Mfg. Lic. No., Each 5g contains:, Mfg. Batch No., Terminalia chebula...............................0.40 g Mfg. Date:, Emblica officinale.................................0.20 g Exp. Date:, Hedychium spicatum............................0.20 g M.R.P.:, Curcuma aromaticum............................0.20 g (Inclusive of all taxes), Azadirachta indica................................1.50 g, Kaolin....................................................2.00 g, Santalum album....................................0.50 g Mfg by: --------------- College, of Pharmacy, , Directions: Mix with sufficient quantity of rose water or milk. Apply uniformly, on face. Keep it for 10 minutes then remove the face pack with water., , , , ~94~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 37, AIM: To Prepare Anti Wrinkle Cream., THEORY:, Aging can be noticed by seven key signs like fine lines and wrinkles, changes in skin, tone and texture, skin surface dullness, visible pores, Blotchiness, age spots and, Dryness. Among all these signs, appearance of fine lines and wrinkles on skin is the, common and most prominent sign of aging. So skin creams used to prevent aging signs, are also called as Anti-wrinkle creams., 1) Beeswax:, Beeswax is the natural wax obtained from honeycomb of Apis mellifera and other, species of Apis, belonging to family Apidae. It is yellowish to greyish brown coloured, solid, with agreeable, honey-like odour and a faint, characteristic taste. Beeswax is, insoluble in water and sparingly soluble in cold alcohol. It is completely soluble in, chloroform, ether, and in fixed or volatile oils. Beeswax has a relatively low melting, point range of 62 °C to 64 °C. If beeswax is heated above 85 °C discoloration, occurs. Beeswax is used in the preparation of ointments, plaster and polishes., 2) Almond Oil:, Almond oil is a fixed oil obtained by expression from the seeds of Prunus amygdalus, belonging to family Rosaceae. It is a pale yellow liquid with a slight odour and bland, nutty taste. It contains olein, with smaller quantities of the glycosides of linoleic and, other acids. Almond oil is an emollient and an ingredient in cosmetics., 3) Lanolin:, Lanolin is the fat-like purified secretion of the sebaceous glands which is deposited, into the wool fibres of sheep, Ovis aries Linn., belonging to family Bovidae. Lanolin is, a yellowish white, tenacious, unctuous mass; odour is slight and characteristic., Practically, it is insoluble in water, but soluble in chloroform or ether with the, separation of the water. It melts in between 34 and 40°C. On Lanolin is a complex, mixture of esters and polyesters of high molecular weight alcohols and fatty acids., Lanolin is used as an emollient, as water absorbable ointment base in many skin, creams and cosmetic and for hoof dressing. Wool fat is readily absorbed through, skin and helps in increasing the absorption of active ingredients incorporated in the, ointment., 4) Coconut Oil: Coconut oil is the oil expressed from the dried solid part of endosperm, of coconut, Cocos nucifera L., belonging to family Palmae. It is used as lubricant for, hair dressing and manufacture of soaps. It is also used as base for ointments., ~95~

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Pharmacognosy, , REQUIREMENTS:, Bees wax, Emulsifying wax, Almond oil, Lanolin, Coconut oil, Orange flavor water,, Tincture benzoin, Orange oil, Weighing Balance., , FORMULATION TABLE:, Sr. No., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, , Name of Ingredient, Bees wax, Emulsifying wax, Almond oil, Lanolin, Coconut oil, Orange flavor water, Tincture benzoin, Orange oil, , Quantity, 10 g, 10 g, 40 ml, 20 g, 20 g, 30 ml, 0.50 ml, 0.50 ml, , PROCEDURE:, Melt the waxes and oils together and add orange flavor water drop by drop with constant, stirring then add tincture benzoin and orange oil with constant stirring., , , , ~96~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 38, AIM: To Prepare Cold Cream., , THEORY:, , REQUIREMENTS:, Almond oil, White beeswax, Borax, Water, Rose water, Weighing Balance., , FORMULATION TABLE:, , Sr. No., , Name of Ingredient, , Quantity, , 1, , Almond oil, , 550 parts, , 2, , White beeswax, , 145 parts, , 3, , Borax, , 10 parts, , 4, , Water, , 290 parts, , 5, , Rose water, , 5 parts, , PROCEDURE:, The base in general use is white beeswax and traces of borax are occasionally added to, aid emulsification. The manufacture is simple when borax is used and consists of, melting the wax on water bath adding the oil and warming the whole at about 80 C. The, aqueous portion containing the borax is heated to this temperature and stirred slowly., The perfume is added when gel and cream is potted liquid if a brilliant white surface is, desired., , ~97~

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Pharmacognosy, LABEL:, Contents:, Each 5g contains,, Almond oil -White beeswax-Borax-Water-Rose water--, , Cold Cream (5g), Mfg. Lic. No., Mfg. Batch No., Mfg. Date:, Exp. Date:, M.R.P.:, (Inclusive of all taxes), Mfg by: SVP College of, Pharmacy, Hatta., , Directions: Mix with sufficient quantity of rose water or milk. Apply uniformly, on face. Keep it for 10 minutes then remove the face pack with water, , , , ~98~

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2), a), , b), , 3), a), , b), , 4), a), b), , 5), a), , b), , 6), a), , Pharmacognosy, ayurvedic preparation ‗triphala‘, used for treatment of variety of ailments. Myrobalan, is also used in treatment of piles and external ulcers., Amla:, Biological Source: It consist of dried, as well as fresh fruits of the plant Emblica, officinalis Gaerth (Phyllanthus emblica Linn.), belonging to family Euphorbiaceae. It, contains not less than 1.0 % w/w of gallic acid calculated on dry basis., Uses: It is used as an acrid, diuretic, refrigerant and laxative. Dried fruits are given, in diarrhoea and dysentery. They are also administered in jaundice, dyspesis and, anaemia alongwith iron compound. fruits are also used in preparation of inks, hair, oils and shampoo. Seeds of fruits are given in treatment of asthma and bronchitis., The leaves are used as fodder. Alcoholic extract of the fruit is anti-viral. It is a, popular ingredient of Triphala and chyawanprash., Kapur kachari :, Biological Source: It consist of dried sliced rhizomes of the plant known as, Hedychium spicatum belonging to family zinziberaceae. It contains not less than, 0.80% of p-methoxy cinnammic acid ethyl ester on dried basis., Uses: Rhizomes are used as stomachic, stimulant, carminative and tonic. They are, either used in the form of powder and decoction. Being aromatic, it is used as a, flavouring agent for several cosmetics and also to flavour tobacco. The rhizomes are, used in preparation of ‗ABIT‘ fragment highly perfumed powder used during the, religious functions., Neem:, Biological Source: It is obtained from the seeds of Azadirachta indica A. Juss.,, (Melia ozadirachta L.) and Melia azedarach L., belonging to family Meliaceae., Uses: It has been studied scientifically and reported that it contains different, chemicals which have insect repellent, insecticide, antifeedant, nematicide and, antimicrobial properties. The seed oil has spermicidal activity., Kaolin:, Source: Kaolin is purified native hydrated aluminium silicate free from gritty, particles. It is obtained by powdering the native kaolin, elutriating and collecting the, fraction, which complies with the requirements of particle size. The native clay is, derived from decomposition of the felspar (Potassium aluminosilicate) or granite rock, and contains silica (47%), alumina (40%), and water (13%)., Uses: It is used as an adsorbent by oral administration, in the treatment of enteritis,, dysentery and in alkaloidal and food poisoning. It is also applied externally as a, dusting powder and also as clarifying agent during the filtration. Mostly light kaolin, with a particle size less than 10 µ is used in pharmaceutical preparations., Chandan:, Biological Source: It is obtained by distillation from the heartwood of Santalum, album Linn., family Santalaceae., ~100~

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Pharmacognosy, b) Uses: It is mainly used as a perfume in preparation of cosmetics and incense sticks., , PROCEDURE:, Weigh all the ingredients. Mix well with the help of mortar pestle. Pack in a suitable, container and label., Herbal Face Pack (5g), Contents:, Mfg. Lic. No., Each 5g contains,, Mfg. Batch No., Terminalia chebula.............0.45g, Mfg. Date:, Emblica officinale.............. 0.20g, Exp. Date:, Hedychium spicatum..........0.25g, M.R.P.:, Curcuma aromaticum.........0.20g, (Inclusive of all taxes), Azadirachta indica...............1.60g, Mfg by:SGRS College, Kaolin...................................2.0g, of Pharmacy, Saswad., Santalum, album...................................0.50g, Directions: Mix with sufficient quantity of rose water or milk. Apply uniformly, on face. Keep it for 10 minutes then remove the face pack with water, , , , ~101~

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Pharmacognosy, 3) CLOVE OIL :, B.S : It consist of dried flower buds of Eugenia Caryophyllus ., Family : Myrtaceae., Uses : (1) Dental Analgesic., (2) Carminative., (3) Stimulant., (4) Flavouring agent., (5) Antiseptic & Perfumes., , PROCEDURE:, , , , Weigh accurately all ingredients mix them in a mortar to form a smooth powder., Pack and Label., , HERBAL TOOTH POWDER (10 g), CONTENTS:, LIC NO., EACH 10G CONTAINS, BATCH NO :, Harda ...................................................2g, MFG. DATE :, Bahera...................................................2g, EXP. DATE :, Nagarmotha.......................................... 1g, M.R.P :, Alum......................................................1g, ( Inclusive Of All Taxes), Clove oil.................................................2ml, DIRECTIONS : Use of toothpowder twice a day., Mfg by: SVP College of Pharmacy, Hatta., , , , ~103~

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Pharmacognosy, , Experiment No.: 41, AIM: To prepare herbal hair oil., REFERENCE:, 1) Banerjee P.S, Sharma M, Nema R.K, Preparation, evaluation and hair growth, stimulating activity of herbal hair oil, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical, Research, 2009, 1(1): 261-267., , REQUIREMENTS:, 1) Chemicals: Makka, Aloe Vera, Amla, Chandan, Coconut oil., 2) Glasswares: Beaker, Stirrer, 3) Equipments:, , THEORY:, Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of, baldness or other ailments, aggression of hair. They also promote the luxurious growth, of hairs. Hair oil containing herbal drugs are used as hair tonic. Hair care products are, categorized into two main category, hair tonics and hair grooming aids. There are, various methods available for the preparation of hair oils direct boiling method, paste, method and cloth method., Makka (Maize oil): It is fatty oil obtained from embryos of grain of Zea maysfam., Graminae. It is used as solvent for injections and high calories dietary suppliments. In, cosmetic and preparation of margarine., Aloe Vera: It contains dried juice of leaves of Aloe barbadensis belonging to the family, Liliaceae. It is generally used in pain, itching, treatment of ulceration, keratosis e.t.c., Aloe also has hair growth promoter activity. It is used in cosmetics. It is used externally, for pain and inflammation., Coconut oil: It is the fat obtained by expression from the kernels of coconut fruit of, Cocosnucifera and Cocosvunteraceae. It is used as lubricant for hair dressing and, manufacture of soaps. It is also used as base for ointments., , PROCEDURE:, Add all the ingredient in coconut oil. Warm for 1 hour with stirring. Filter it if necessary., Pack and label., , ~104~

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Pharmacognosy, b) Uses: Arjuna bark is used as a cardiotonic. It is also styptic FehriFage and, antidysentric. The drug exhibit hypotensive action with vasodilation and decreased, hesotrate., 2) Hedychiumspicatum: kaparkachori, , a) Biological Source:, This consists of dried sliced rhizomes of the plant known as Hedychiumspicatum, belonging to family Zingibaraceae., b) Uses: It is flavouring agent. For several cosmetic preparations and also to flavor, tobacco the rhizomes are used in preparation abit a fragment highly perfumed, powder used during religious functions., 3) Terminalia Beleria (Behra), , a) Biological Source:, It consists of dried ripe fruits of the plant terminaliabeleria belonging to family, Combretaceae, b) Uses: Behera is used as astringent. It is the constituent of TriphalaChurna. It is used, as demulscent and purgative. Oil is used for manufacture of soap., , PROCEDURE:, Weigh all the ingredients., Mix in mortar and pestle. Pack in suitable container and label., , , ~107~

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Pharmacognosy, Indications: Principal: Liver malfunction, kidney stones, gall bladder disease, urinary, tract disorders, diarrhoea, indigestion 8, 19, 28. Major: Jaundice, splenopathy, renal, disease8, 28. Minor: Gout, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago, malaria, leishmaniasis14, 19,, 28. Others: Dry skin disease, opium or morphine withdrawal 19, 28., Cautions: To avoid polyherbal remedies containing goldenseal and oregon grape due, to a high total content of berberine, patients receiving antithrombotic or antirheumatic, therapy 14., Contraindications: Pregnancy14, 28, use of NSAIDs 28., Side-effects: None at normal doses 14, 19, 28. Lethargy, nosebleeds, dyspnoea,, nephritis, GI discomfort, hypotension, flu-like symptoms, cardiac damage occurs in, excessive doses14, 28., Drug interactions: NSAIDs, antithrombotic and antirheumatic therapy14., Dose: Dried stem or root bark: 1.5-3 gm; liquid extract: 3-6ml; tincture: 7-14ml19., Aquaflow® (HealthAid) see Dandelion, Slim-Rite (HealthAid) see Alfalfa, Livercare® (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle, Milk Thistle Complex (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle, CALIFORNIA POPPY :, (Eschscholtzia californica), Family: Papaveraceae, Medicinal Parts: Aerial parts collected during the flowering season and dried., Indications: Principal: Insomnia28, 70, 71. Major: Aches, nervous agitation, enuresis, nocturna in children, bladder & liver diseases, depression, neurasthenia28, 70, 71., Minor: Neuropathy, mood swings, weather sensitivity, organic neuroses, vegetativedystonic disorders, vasomotor dysfunction, vegetativeendocrine syndrome,, constitutional weakness of the nervous system, vasomotor cephalgia28., Contraindications: Pregnancy 28, 70., Side-effects: None known., Drug interactions: Benzodiazepines, CNS depressants70., Dose: Average single dose for the liquid extract is 1-2 ml28., Californian Poppy (Arkopharma) Capsules; Californian poppy aerial part powder, 300mg. Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd., Sedivitax (Aboca) see Passionflower, CARAWAY :, (Carum carvi), Family: Umbelliferae, Medicinal Parts: Fruit; oil obtained from the squashed fruit when ripe., ~111~

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Pharmacognosy, Indications: Principal: Dyspeptic complaints such as flatulence, eructation, bloating and, mild spasmodic pains in the GI tract, including flatulent colic of infants19, 26, 72. Others:, Loss of appetite, dysmenorrhoea, to stimulate flow of milk in breast-feeding mothers,, bronchitis, laryngitis (as a gargle), hyperglycaemia1 9, 26, 73., Contraindications: None known., Side-effects: None known., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Average single dose of oil: 2-3 drops on sugar; caraway, 1-5 gm. Average daily, dose of oil: 3-6 drops; caraway, 1.5-6 gm28., Finocarbo Plus (Aboca) see Fennel, Flodol® Artro (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet, Gastro-Vit Formula (Vega) see Aloe Vera, Sollievo (Aboca) see Senna, CARDAMOM :, (Elettaria cardamomum), Family: Zingiberaceae, Medicinal Parts: The oil extracted from the seeds and fruit & seeds harvested shortly, after ripening., Indications: Principal: Flatulent dyspepsia, dyspeptic complaints8, 19, 74. Major:, Morning sickness, vomiting & diarrhoea, loss of appetite, Roemheld syndrome26. Minor:, Hypertension, epilepsy74. Others: Mouth freshener 19., Contraindications: Presence of gallstones19, 28., Side-effects: Gallstone colic19, 28., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Average daily dose is 1.5 gm of drug; when using a tincture, the dosage range is, 1-2 gm19, 28., Candaway TM (Lamberts) see Cinnamon, DAMIANA :, (Turnera diffusa), Family: Turneraceae, Medicinal Parts: Leaves harvested during the flowering season., Indications: Principal: Sexual dysfunction, decreased libido5, 8, 9, 14, 28, 112. Major:, For strengthening & stimulation during exertion (overwork), for boosting and maintaining, physical and mental capacity 8. Minor: Anxiety & depression associated with hormonal, changes (e.g. menopause), nervous dyspepsia, constipation 5, 28, 45., Cautions: Patients with hypoglycaemia 9, 113., Contraindications: Patients with overactive sympathetic nervous system activity5., Side-effects: None known., ~112~

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Pharmacognosy, Dandelion Root (HealthAid) Tablets; 140mg dandelion root extract and raw powder 4:1, equiv. to 560mg of raw dandelion root powder. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, Detoxil (Vitabiotics) see Artichoke, Erbalax® Delicato Capsule (Erba Vita) see Rhubarb, Hip & Thigh Formula (HealthAid) see White Willow, Lass-B (Erba Vita) Syrup; Manna 15%, decoction of figs 10%, tamarind fruit pulp extract, 5%, dandelion root extract 7.5%, concentrated and purified propolis extract (total, flavonoids expressed as galangin 12%, according to HPLC, 28%, UV method). Local, Distributor: E.J. Busuttil Ltd., Livercare® (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle, Menophase (Higher Nature) see Schisandra, Milk Thistle Complex (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle, Milk Thislte Plus (FSC) see Milk Thistle, Slim-Rite (HealthAid) see Alfalfa, Sollievo (Aboca) see Senna., DEVIL’S CLAW:, (Harpagophytum procumbens), Family: Pedaliaceae, Medicinal Parts: Dried tuber/root., Indications: Principal: Dyspeptic complaints, inflammatory disorders including arthritis,, gout, myalgia, fibrositis, lumbago & rheumatic disease5, 8, 9, 28, 45, 116, 117, 118,, 119. Major: Acute low back pain, loss of appetite5, 28, 118. Minor: Allergies, kidney,, bladder & gall bladder disorders 28, 118., Contraindications: Stomach or duodenal ulcers8, 28, 45, gallstones, acute diarrhoea,, pregnancy., Side-effects: Diarrhoea 5., Drug interactions: Warfarin, antiarrythmic drugs5, antiplatelet drugs, NSAIDs 116., Dose: Three times daily. For dyspepsia or lack of appetite: dried tuber, 0.5 gm in, decoction; tincture (1:5, 25% ethanol), 1ml. For other indications: dried tuber, 1.5-2.5 gm, in decoction; liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 1-2ml 45., Arthur’s Formula Ltd (Power Health) Tablets; Devil‘s claw powder 225mg, cat‘s claw, bark extract 34mg, alkaloids 1mg, willow bark powder 40mg, garlic powder 40mg. Local, Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., Atrosan® (A.Vogel) Tablets; Devil‘s claw extract 480mg. Local Distributor: Health Plus, Devil’s Claw (Arkopharma) Capsules; Devil‘s claw powder 435mg (containing 9.5mg, glucoiridoids). Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd., Devil’s Claw (A.Vogel) Liquid; Tincture of devil‘s claw dried root, extracted in alcohol, (66% v/v). Local Distributor: Health Plus, ~114~

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Pharmacognosy, GAMBOGE:, Garcinia hanburyi, Family: Guttiferae, Medicinal Parts: Resin extracted from the plant., Indications: Digestive disorders, particularly constipation28, 161., Contraindications: Pregnancy, breast feeding, stomach pain, ulcers or obstruction,, Crohn‘s disease, ulcerative colitis, appendicitis 161., Side-effects: Abdominal pain, vomiting 28, 161., Drug interactions: Digoxin, warfarin, diuretics, stimulant laxatives, corticosteroids161., Dose: The appropriate dose of gamboge depends on several factors such as the user‘s, age, health, and several other conditions. There is not enough scientific information to, determine an appropriate range of doses for gamboge28, 161., GARLIC:, Allium sativum, Family: Liliaceae, Medicinal Parts: Whole fresh bulb, dried bulb, oil of garlic., Indications: Principal: Hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, arteriosclerosis &, atherosclerosis, diabetes with hyperlipidaemia, peripheral arterial occlusive disease5, 8,, 9, 28, 45, 162, 163, 164, 167. Major: Infections including tinea pedis, tinea corporis,, tinea cruris, vaginitis, Helicobacter pylori infection 165, common cold prevention166,, colorectal cancer162, 5, 28, 167. Minor: Respiratory infections and catarrhal conditions,, whooping cough, bronchitis, GI ailments particularly digestive disorders with flatulence, and GI spasms5, 28, 45. Others: Menstrual pains, corns, calluses, otitis, muscle pain,, neuralgia, arthritis, sciatica 28, 45., Cautions/Contraindications: Garlic may increase risk of bleeding and should be, discontinued at least 10 days before elective surgery, breastfeeding 5, 8, 28., Side-effects: Breath & body odour8, allergic reaction, nausea, heartburn, flatulence,, abdominal pain, diarrhea 5, 9, 28., Drug interactions: Anticoagulants particularly warfarin, antiplatelets,, Dose: Average daily dose: 4 gm of garlic or 8 gm of essential oil. One fresh garlic clove,, 1 to 2 times daily28., Active Mature 50+ (Vega) see Aloe Vera, Arthur’s Formula Ltd (Power Health) see Devil‘s Claw, Cardiohealth Formula (Vega) Capsules; Deodorised garlic clove extract 10:1 equiv. to, herb 500mg (min. 0.5% allicin content), bilberry fruit extract 4:1 equiv. to herb 100mg, (min. 20% anthocyanadins), vitamin C 60mg, vitamin E 40mg, L-taurine 25mg,, pantothenic acid 12mg, cayenne fruit powder 12mg, chinese red yeast 10mg, grape, seed extract 10mg (min. 95% polyphenols), N,Ndimethylglycine 10mg, soy isoflavones, concentrate 10mg, niacin 9mg, vitamin B6 8mg, zinc 7.5mg, iron 7mg, beta carotene, ~121~

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Pharmacognosy, Odourless Garlic Pearls (Numark) Capsules; Garlic oil 2mg. Local Distributor: Premier, HealthCare, One A Day Pure Cod Liver Oil Plus, Garlic (Seven Seas) Capsules; 800mg cod liver oil blend providing 160mg omega-3, nutrients of, which 120mg EPA & DHA, 6mg garlic extract, 5mcg vitamin D. Local Distributor:, Associated Drug Co. Ltd., Super Strength Supergar 8000 (Higher Nature) Tablets; 500mg extra high allicin garlic, (providing 8000ppm allicin, 20,000ppmalliin and 8500ppm thiosulfinates)., Local Distributor: Health Plus, Swiss Garlic (A.Vogel) Capsules; 270mg rapeseed oil extract of fresh garlic, equiv. to, 270mg of fresh garlic. Local Distributor: Health Plus, Triple G - Ginseng, Ginkgo, Garlic (Power Health) see Ginseng Korean, Wellman (Vitabiotics) see Siberian Ginseng, Whole Bulb Garlic (FSC) Capsules; Dried garlic 300mg equiv. to fresh garlic 1070mg., Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., HAWTHORN:, Crataegus laevigata, Family: Rosaceae, Medicinal Parts: Extracts of leaf and flower are most commonly used, although the, berries may also be used., Indications: Principal: Arrhythmias, hypertension 224, angina pectoris, atherosclerosis, 225, NYHA functional class II CHF226, 227, 5, 9, 19, 28. Major: Hyperlipidaemia,, anxiety5, 228. Minor: Connective tissue disorders, kidney & bladder stones224. Others:, Herpes simplex infection 5., Contraindications: Pregnancy5, 9, children under 12 years of age28., Side-effects: Sweating, nausea, fatigue, rash on the hands, headache, dizziness,, palpitations, sleepiness, agitation, GI symptoms5, 9, 28, 227., Drug interactions: Antihypertensives, cardiac glycosides5, 227, 229., Dose: 160-900 mg of a native water-ethanol extract of the leaves or flowers; 1.5-3.5 gm, as infusion or decoction19, 227., 4.3.2.1 Shape Up Day & Night (Arkopharma) see Green Tea, Hawthorn (Arkopharma) Capsules; Hawthorn powder 350mg, providing at least 1.5%, flavonoids. Local Distributor: Pharmacos Ltd., Hawthorn 2500mg (Lamberts) Tablets; Hawthorn 2500mg (providing 500mg of a 5:1, extract) providing flavonoids 10mg. Local Distributor: Health Plus, Hawthorn Berry (HealthAid) Liquid; Hawthorn berry extract 1:3 (equiv. of 330mg of, hawthorn berry herb) in 1ml. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, ~123~

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Pharmacognosy, Hawthorn Berry 500mg (FSC) Tablets; Hawthorn berry extract equiv. to 500mg. Local, Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., Herbal BoosterTM (HealthAid) see Guarana, Hawthorn Compound (Power Herbs) see Buckwheat, TranquilTM (HealthAid) Capsules; 250mg hawthorn oil macerate (2:1); 100mg, hawthorn extract (1:1); 50mg viburnum extract (10:1) equiv. to 500mg raw viburnum, powder; 50mg Valeriana officinalis extract (5:1) equiv. to 250mg raw valerian root, powder; 25mg magnolia extract; 25mg St. John‘s Wort extract (10:1); 2.5mg, passionflower extract (4:1), equiv. to 10mg raw powder. Local Distributor: Galea &, Galea, V-VeinTM (HealthAid) see Horse Chestnut, HOODIA:, Hoodia gordonii, Family: Asclepiadaceae, Medicinal Parts: Aerial parts., Indications: Appetite suppression28, 230., Cautions/Contraindications: None known., Side-effects: None known., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: 400mg twice daily 231., Magnolia, Valerian, St. John’s Wort, Complex (HealthAid) Capsules; Hawthorn oil macerate (2:1) 250mg, hawthorn powder, extract (1:1) 100mg, viburnum extract (10:1) 50mg, valerian extract (5:1) 50mg, St., John‘s Wort extract (10:1) 25mg, passionflower extract (4:1) 2.5mg. Local Distributor:, Galea & Galea, ICELAND MOSS:, Cetraria islandica, Family: Parmeliaceae, Medicinal Parts: Dried thallus., Indications: Principal: Irritation of the oral and pharyngeal mucous membranes and, accompanying dry cough, hoarseness, sore throat 8, 19, 28. Major: Bronchitis, bronchial, asthma, respiratory catarrh, loss of appetite19, 28. Minor: Gastritis, digestive complaints,, nausea and vomiting (in particular in pregnancy and with migraine)19, 28. Others:, Gastric & duodenal ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, cachexia, tumours19., Cautions/Contraindications: None known., Side-effects: None known., Drug interactions: None known., ~124~

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Pharmacognosy, Dose: Adults: three or four times daily: 1-2 gm of dried lichen as a decoction or infusion;, tincture (1:5 in 40% alcohol), 1-1.5ml; equivalent preparations 19., Broncovit® (Erba vita) see Grindelia, Isla Cassis Lozenges; Aqueous iceland moss extract 80mg. Local Distributor:, Kemimport Ltd., Isla Mint Lozenges; Aqueous iceland moss extract 80mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport, Ltd., Isla Moss Lozenges; Aqueous iceland moss extract 80mg. Local Distributor: Kemimport, Ltd., Organic Pomegranate (dr.organic®) see Pomegranate, Organic Tea Tree (dr.organic®) see Tea Tree, IVY LEAF:, Hedera helix, Family: Araliaceae, Medicinal Parts: Leaves., Indications: Principal: Chronic inflammatory bronchial conditions including cough,, bronchitis8, 14, 28. Minor: Gout, rheumatism, burns, wounds, calluses, rheumatic, complaints, phlebitis28., Cautions/Contraindications: None known., Side-effects: GI upset, contact dermatitis with large doses14., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Average daily dosage: 0.3 gm of drug; equivalent preparations8., Prospan (BioRevive) Syrup; Dried ivy leaf 0.7g/100ml. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., JUNIPER:, Juniperus communis, Family: Cupressaceae, Medicinal Parts: Essential oil from berry cones, berry., Indications: Principal: Dyspeptic complaints, cystitis & other benign urinary tract, disorders9, 19, 28. Major: Appetite stimulant, rheumatism, arthritis, gout9, 19, 28. Minor:, To regulate menstruation, to relieve menstrual pain28, 258. Others: Severe irritation, resulting from bronchitis, diabetes9, 28., Cautions: Hyperglycaemia; hypokalaemia; external administration for large skin, wounds, acute skin diseases, feverish diseases, cardiac insufficiency, hypertonia9, 28., Contraindications: Renal disease, pregnancy, lactation9, 19, 28., Side-effects: Prolonged use or overdosing may cause kidney damage19., Drug interactions: Loop diuretics, spironolactone, thiazide diuretics, triamterene 63., Dose: Daily dose: from 2 gm up to a maximum of 10 gm of dried juniper berries, equiv., to 20-100 mg of the essential oil19., ~125~

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Pharmacognosy, Contraindications: Pregnancy, breast feeding 261., Side-effects: Increase or decrease in blood thyroid hormone levels, acnetype skin, lesions, acne exacerbation, brassy taste, increased salivation, stomach irritation, kidney, & nerve toxicity, bleeding, reduced blood platelet count 261., Drug interactions: Thyroid medications including levothyroxine and iodine14, ginkgo,, garlic, saw palmetto, diuretics261., Dose: Dried herb: 5-10 gm or infusion 3 times daily; Liquid extract (1:1 in 25% alcohol):, 4-8 ml 3 times daily 9., Boldo Multi-Herbal Complex (Healthlife) see Boldo, CellusiteTM (HealthAid) see White Willow, Cellulite Formula (Vega) see Ginkgo, Cider Trim (HealthAid) Capsules; Kelp, soybean oil, cider vinegar, vitamin B6, yellow, beeswax, lecithin. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, Cidiet (Power Health) Capsules; Vitamin B 5 4mg, kelp powder 50mg (providing iodine, between 30mcg and 50mcg), dry apple cider vinegar powder 80mg, lecithin 200mg., Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., Colloidal Minerals Plus Kelp Formula (Vega) Capsules; Fossilized plant humus, powder 350mg, kelp seaweed powder 150mg (providing iodine 150mcg (min. 0.1%))., Local Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd., Formula VM-75 (Solgar) see Buckwheat, Healthy Mega (HealthAid) see Buckwheat, Kelp (Power Health) Tablets; Kelp 500mg providing iodine on average between 300 and, 495mcg. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., Kelp Plus Greens Formula (Vega) Capsules; Kelp seaweed powder 300mg (providing, iodine 300mcg (min 0.1%)), green tea leaf extract 10mg (min. 40% polyphenols), blue, green algae 30mg, chlorella broken cell algae 30mg, spirulina algae 30mg. Local, Distributor: Alfred Gera & Sons Ltd., Menophase (Higher Nature) see Schisandra, MSM Glucosamine Joint Complex (Higher Nature) see Celery, Rejuvadeen Formula (Vega) see Green Tea, LAVENDER:, Lavandula officinalis, Family: Labiatae, Medicinal Parts: Flower., Indications: Principal: Anxiety, insomnia, lack of concentration5, 8, 14, 28. Major:, Dyspepsia, bloating8, alopecia, perineal discomfort following childbirth, burns, insect, bites5. Minor: Migraine, neuralgia, minor cuts & bruises, strained muscles, acne,, eczema 5, 28., Others: Varicose ulcers, loss of voice (in a gargle)5., ~127~

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Pharmacognosy, Cautions: Topical preparations should be tested on a small area of skin before, widespread application 5, 28., Contraindications: Pregnancy & lactation28., Side-effects: Major: Drowsiness, GI disturbance, skin irritation5, 28. Minor: Prepubertal, gynecomastia in boys5., Drug interactions: Pharmaceutical sedatives, antidepressants5., Dose: Infusion (tea): 1.5gm dried flowers in 150ml water. Internal: 1-4 drops (20-80mg), on a sugar cube. Liquid extract (1:2): 2-4.5 ml/day. External use: Mix 20 drops of oil with, 20ml of Carrier oil such as almond oil; may be applied undiluted to insect bites or stings., As a bath additive: 20-100gm lavender flowers are commonly steeped in 2 L boiling, water, strained, and then added to the bathwater 5., Aloe Vera (HealthAid) see Aloe Vera, Arnica (HealthAid) see Arnica, Calendula (HealthAid) see Marigold, Calma Baby (Erba Vita) see Linden, Dermavital (HealthAid) see Aloe Vera, Evening Primrose (HealthAid) see Evening Primrose, Jointace Gel (Vitabiotics) see Ginger, Jointace Patch (Vitabiotics) see Ginger, Migrastick (Arkopharma) see Peppermint, Multi-Mam® BabyWash (Multi-Mam) see Aloe Vera, Organic Lavender (dr.organic®) Oil; Lavender oil. Lotion; Lavender oil, aloe vera,, cocoa butter, shea butter, olive oil, sunflower oil, Irish moss, vitamin A, vitamin E. Local, Distributor: Galea & Galea, Pectovit® (Erba Vita) see Grindelia, Sedivitax (Aboca) see Passionflower, Tea Tree (Bios Line) see Tea Tree, Venalta® (Alta Care) see Grapeseed, Venis® Sollievo (Erba Vita) see Grapeseed, LEMON BALM:, Melissa officinalis, Family: Labiatae, Medicinal Parts: Aerial parts., Indications: Internally Principal: Anxiety, nervousness, insomnia5, 8, 28, 266, 267., Major: To improve cognitive function, Alzheimer‘s disease268, 269, gastrointestinal, conditions associated with spasm and nervousness 5, 8, 28, 267. Externally Herpes, simplex type 1, rheumatism, nerve pain, stiff neck5, 28., Cautions: Limit alcohol intake, diabetes, alcohol dependence, liver disease270., Contraindications: Hypothyroidism, pregnancy 5, 270., ~128~

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Pharmacognosy, Dose: Average daily dose: 5 gm of the drug; Tea: drink 2 to 3 times a day28., Alkagin® (Istituto Ganassini) Cleansing solution, ovules; Extracts of mallow, linden &, calendula. Gel; Mallow extract, linden extract, marigold extract, aloe vera, peppermint,, panthenol, hyaluronic acid, hydrolyzed glycosaminoglycan. Powder; Mallow extract,, calendula, extract, linden extract, extracts from wheat, rice and corn grains, tapioca starch, zinc, oxide, ethyl linoleate, ethyl linolenate, tocopheryl acetate. Wipes; Mallow, calendula,, linden, potassium glycyrrhizate, vitamin E (tocopherol acetate). Local Distributor: E.J., Busuttil Ltd., Erbalax® Delicato Capsule (Erba Vita) see Rhubarb, NASTURTIUM:, Tropaeolum majus, Family: Tropaeolaceae, Medicinal Parts: The whole flowering plant & the seeds., Indications: Principal: Recurrent urinary tract infections330, 331, 332. Major: Catarrh of, the upper respiratory tract, cough, bronchitis28. Minor: Mild muscular pain, menstrual, disorders, hair loss, infected & poorly healing wounds [externally] 28. Others: Scurvy,, tuberculosis28., Contraindications: GI ulcers, kidney diseases, infants or small children28., Side-effects: Contact dermatitis 330., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Daily dose: extract: 14.4 mg taken 3 times daily; infusion: 2 to 3 cups per day;, pressed juice: 30 gm per day28., Slim-Rite (HealthAid) see Alfalfa, NEEM:, Antelaea azadirachta, Family: Meliaceae, Medicinal Parts: Bark, leaves, branches, seeds, latex., Indications: Inflammatory and febrile diseases (including malaria and leprosy),, dyspeptic complaints, worm infestations 28., Contraindications: None known., Side-effects: No health hazards or side effects are known in conjunction with the proper, administration of designed therapeutic dosages., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: There is not enough scientific evidence to safely recommend the use of neem 28., Herbal Cream (HealthAid) see Arnica, Neem Cream (A.Vogel) Cream; Neem leaf extract, eucalyptus, rosemary, beeswax,, sunflower oil, sweet almond oil. Local Distributor: Health Plus, ~131~

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Pharmacognosy, Indications: Principal: To facilitate parturition, diarrhoea, stomatitis, tonsillitis5, 9, 19,, 28, 386. Major: Dyspeptic complaints, externally as a wash for superficial wounds and, ulcers5, 9, 19, 386. Others: Painful and profuse menstruation, influenza, fever, diabetes,, vitamin deficiency 8, 19., Cautions: Peptic ulceration, GI conditions associated with inflammation. Avoid in, constipation 5, 28., Contraindications: Early stages of pregnancy. Raspberry preparations should only be, taken during the final 8-10 weeks of pregnancy 9, 19., Side-effects: GI discomfort, constipation 5, 19., Drug interactions: Iron, calcium, magnesium (separate the administration of these, substances by at least 2 hours) 5., Dose: 2-3 times daily: dried leaf 3-4 gm, or as a 5% infusion or equivalent extract., Higher doses of up to twice this amount (maximum: 24 gm dried leaf per day) have also, been recommended 19., Raspberry Leaf Extract (HealthAid) Capsules; Raspberry extract 125mg (equiv. to, 500mg raspberry powder), raspberry powder 400mg. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, RED CLOVER:, Trifolium pretense, Family: Fabaceae, Medicinal Parts: Flower head, leaf., Indications: Principal: To relief menopausal symptoms (particularly hot flushes),, mastalgia, premenstrual syndrome, prostate cancer prevention5, 28, 387, 388, 389., Major: BPH, osteoporosis prevention5, 390. Minor: Eczema, psoriasis5, 9, 28, 45, 388., Others: Cough, bronchitis45., Cautions: In patients with conditions that may be aggravated by increased oestrogen, level such as endometriosis or uterine fibroids5., Side-effects: Infertility and growth disorders have been reported in grazing animals5, 9,, 28., Drug interactions: Anticoagulants, oestrogens, tamoxifen5, 28, 388., Dose: Menopausal symptoms: 40-82 mg daily of red clover-derived isoflavones., Osteoporosis prevention: 44-86 mg daily of red clover-derived isoflavones. BPH, symptom relief: 40-80 mg daily of red clover-derived isoflavones5., Menovital® (HealthAid) see Dong Quai, SAFFLOWER:, Carthamus tinctorius, Family: Asteraceae/Compositae, Medicinal Parts: Flowers, seeds, oil extracted from its embryos., ~136~

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Pharmacognosy, Indications: Principal: Cardiovascular disease403, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia,, atherosclerosis, arrhythmias404, 405. Major: Inhibition of thrombus formation 404, 405,, delayed, heavy & painful menstruation, male sterility, dead sperm excess disease 406,, pain & swelling associated with trauma407, 408. Minor: Rheumatism particularly, rheumatoid arthritis, sciatica408. Others: Pertussis, chronic bronchitis, chronic gastritis,, atrophic gastritis, constipation caused by medicines for mental illnesses, chronic, nephritis408., Contraindication: Pregnancy28., Side-effects: None known., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Average daily dose is 3 gm of decoction; single dose is 1 gm28., Bodylean® CLA Plus (HealthAid) see Green Tea, InterfreshTM (HealthAid) see Parsley, SAFFRON:, Crocus sativus, Family: Iridaceae, Medicinal Parts: Stigma, style., Indications: Principal: Menorrhagia, amenorrhea, painful labour 28, 409, 410. Major:, Indigestion, colic, bronchitis, sore throat, headache, vomiting, fever, skin, hyperpigmentation, acne, depression 409, 410. Minor: Insomnia, measles, jaundice,, dysentery, cholera, psoriasis409, 410. Others: Cancer treatment and prevention, (fibrosarcoma, cervical epitheloid carcinoma, breast carcinoma) 410, 411., Cautions: Patients taking anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs412., Contraindication: Pregnancy28., Side-effects: None known., Drug interactions: Anticoagulants412., Dose: 3-9 gm daily412., Saffron (HealthAid) Capsules; Saffron extract (6:1) 14.75mg (equiv. to 177mg of Saffron, powder). Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, SAGE:, Salvia officinalis, Family: Labiatae, Medicinal Parts: Leaf., Indications: Principal: Hot flushes and hyperhidrosis associated with menopause413,, poor memory, dementia5, 8, 9, 19, 28, 414. Major: Inflammation of mouth or throat, mucosa, such as pharyngitis, tonsillitis, stomatitis, gingivitis, glossitis, digestive disorders, such as dyspepsia, flatulence, poor digestion & bloating5, 8, 9, 19, 28, 415. Minor: Lack, of appetite5. Others: Asthma, cancer 5, 416., ~137~

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Pharmacognosy, Contraindications: Eczematous or inflamed skin (may cause irritation). The essential, oil should not be used internally in the form of an oral rinse that is not swallowed or as a, vaginal douche5, 28., Side-effects: Contact dermatitis 5, 28. Diarrhoea, CNS toxicity, and coma may occur if, sufficient quantities are ingested 28., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Onychomycosis: 100% essential oil applied twice daily. Tinea pedis: 10%, essential oil in cream base applied twice daily. Acne: 5% essential oil in cream or gel, base applied twice daily. Vaginitis: intravaginally applied tampons saturated in a 1%, emulsified solution, vaginal pessaries containing 0.2 gm essential oil. Cervicitis:, Intravaginally applied tampons saturated in a 20% emulsified solution 5., Aloe Vera ESI® (ESI) see Aloe Vera, Herbal Cream (HealthAid) see Arnica, Organic Aloe Vera Gel Infused with, Organic Tea Tree Oil and Arnica (dr. organic®) see Aloe Vera, Organic Pomegranate (dr.organic®) see Pomegranate, Organic Tea Tree (dr.organic®) Cream; Tea tree, aloe vera, sesame seed oil, cocoa, butter. Lip balm; Tea tree oil, shea butter, beeswax, vitamin E. Mouthwash; Tea tree oil,, Iceland moss, grapefruit. Nail solution; Tea tree oil, undecylenic acid, sweet almond oil,, rice bran oil,, jojoba oil, vitamin E. Oil; Tea tree. Stick; Tea tree, arnica. Toothpaste; Tea tree oil, aloe, vera, silica, Iceland moss, horse chestnut. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, Rash Relief Cream (Rapaid) see Aloe Vera, Tea Tree (Bios Line) Ointment; Sweet almond oil 3%, tea tree essential oil 0.5%,, lavender essential oil 0.5%, olive glycerine maceration 2%, thyme hydrolat 5%. Local, Distributor: Collis Williams Ltd., Tea Tree (HealthAid) Cream, lotion; Sweet almond oil, tea tree. Shampoo; Tea tree., Soap; Tea tree oil. Local Distributor: Galea & Galea, Tea Tree (Nelsons) Cream; Melaleuca alternifolia. Local Distributor: Serolf Trading, Agency, Tea Tree Balm (Power Health) Balm; Tea tree oil, aqua, cetearyl alcohol,, petrolatum. Local Distributor: Kemimport Ltd., Tea Tree & Witch Hazel Cream (Lanes) see Witch Hazel, Teenstick (Arkopharma) see Clove, THYME:, Thymus vulgaris, Family: Labiatae, Medicinal Parts: Leaves, flowering tops., ~139~

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Pharmacognosy, Indications: Principal: Respiratory tract infections (particularly bronchitis)5, 9, 19, 28,, 463, 464. Major: Diarrhoea, gastritis, dyspepsia, skin disinfection in minor wounds, (topical use) 5, 9, 19, 28. Minor: Inflammations of the mouth and throat, enuresis in, children 5, 9, 19, 28, 463. Others: Insect bites and stings, athlete‘s foot & other fungal, infections, scabies, lice, oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma464, 5, 9, 19, 28., Cautions: Enterocolitis, congestive heart failure5, pregnant women19., Contraindications: People who are allergic to the Labiatae family5., Side-effects: Nausea, vomiting, headache, dizziness, convulsions, cardiac or, respiratory arrest if taken internally; contact dermatitis with topical use5, 28., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: The recommended daily dose is 10 gm drug with 0.03% phenol, calculated as, thymol. When using a liquid extract, 1 to 2 gm is taken 1 to 3 times daily. The single, dose for the infusion is 1.5 gm drug, or 1 to 2 gm drug per cup of water taken several, times a day. The dose for the powder is 1 to 4 gm drug twice daily28., Alito Fresco e Balsamico (Sella) see Eucalyptus, Altacura® Broncotuss (Alta Care) see Meadowsweet, Candiclear (Higher Nature) Capsules; Thyme 25mg, rosemary 25mg, lemon balm, 25mg, Pau D‘arco 25mg, calcium octanoate 175mg, magnesium octanoate 175mg., Local Distributor: Health Plus, Ivy-Thyme Complex (A.Vogel) Liquid; Tinctures of fresh ivy herb 40%, thyme herb, 35%, licorice dried root 24.875%, aniseed essential oil 0.075%, eucalyptus essential oil, 0.05%. Local Distributor: Health Plus, Mucovit® Sciroppo Adulti (Erba Vita) see Grindelia, Mucovit® Sciroppo Bambini (Erba Vita) see Grindelia, Tusserbe® Fluid (ESI) see Mullein, UVA-URSI:, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Family: Ericaceae, Medicinal Parts: Leaves., Indications: Principal: Urinary tract infections9, 28, 45, 472. Major: Cystitis, urethritis,, dysuria, pyelitis, lithuria9, 28., Cautions: Not for unsupervised, prolonged use28., Contraindications: Kidney disorders, irritated digestive disorders, acidic urine,, pregnancy, lactation, children under 12 years. It should not be administered with, substances that cause acidic urine since it reduces its antibacterial effect9, 28, 45., Side-effects: Individuals with gastric sensitivity may experience nausea, vomiting and/or, stomachache 28, 45., Drug interactions: Iron, thiazide & loop diuretics28., ~140~

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Pharmacognosy, Drug interactions: CNS depressants482., Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, three times daily: dried leaf, 0.5-4 gm or by infusion;, liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 0.5-4 ml45., YARROW:, Achillea millefolium, Family: Asteraceae/Compositae, Medicinal Parts: Flowerhead., Indications: Principal: Bruises, swelling, strains, fever, colds9, 14, 28, 45, 499, 500., Major: Essential hypertension501, amenorrhoea, loss of appetite, dyspeptic, complaints9, 14, 28, 45, 500. Minor: Thrombotic conditions, diarrhoea, dysentery9, 500., Others: Liver disease, cancer499., Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity to yarrow or other Compositae14, 45,, pregnancy 28, 499., Side-effects: Contact dermatitis14, 28., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Unless otherwise prescribed, three times daily: dried herb, 2-4 gm in infusion;, liquid extract (1:1, 25% ethanol), 1-2 ml; tincture (1:5, 25% ethanol), 2-4 ml; pressed, juice from fresh herb, 3-5 ml45., YELLOW DOCK:, Rumex crispus, Family: Polygonaceae, Medicinal Parts: Roots., Indications: Principal: Constipation 9. Major: Psoriasis9, acute & chronic inflammation, of the nasal passages and respiratory tract 28. Minor: Obstructive jaundice9., Cautions: Avoid excessive use, pregnancy, breastfeeding9., Contraindications: Existing intestinal obstruction9., Side-effects: Overuse may cause abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, and prolonged use, may lead to intestinal atrophy and hypokalaemia 9., Drug interactions: None known., Dose: Dried root: 2-4 gm or by decoction three times daily; liquid extract (1:1, in 25%, ethanol), 2-4 ml three times daily; tincture (1:5, in 45% alcohol), 1-2 ml three times daily, 9., 2-Day DetoxPlan (HealthAid) see Milk Thistle, Aquaflow® (HealthAid) see Dandelion, Herbal BoosterTM (HealthAid) see Guarana, Vegilax® (HealthAid) see Blessed Thistle, , , ~144~, , View publication stats