Page 2 :
A Dictionary of, Phonetics and Phonology, , Written for students of linguistics, applied linguistics and speech, therapy, this dictionary covers over 2,000 terms in phonetics and, phonology. In addition to providing a comprehensive yet concise, guide to an enormous number of individual terms, it also includes, an explanation of the most important theoretical approaches to, phonology., Its usefulness as a reference tool is further enhanced by the, inclusion of pronunciations, notational devices and symbols, earliest, sources of terms, suggestions for further reading, and advice with, regard to usage., , R. L. Trask is Lecturer in Linguistics in the School of Cognitive and, Computing Sciences at the University of Sussex. His previous publications include A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics, (1993), Language Change (1994) and Language: The Basics (1995).
Page 3 :
A Dictionary of, Phonetics and Phonology, R. L. Trask, , London and New York
Page 4 :
First published 1996, by Routledge, 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN, Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada, by Routledge, 270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016, Reprinted in 1996, Transferred to Digital Printing 2006, , © 1996 R. L. Trask, Typeset in Times by Florencetype Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,, without permission in writing from the publishers., , British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data, A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data, A catalogue record for this book has been requested, ISBN, , 0-415-11260-5 (hbk), 0-415-11261-3 (pbk), , Publisher's Note, The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint, but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent
Page 6 :
Contents, , List of figures, Preface, , VI, , Vll, , Acknowledgements, , IX, , List of abbreviations, , Xl, , Guide to pronunciation, A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology, , xii, 1, , Appendix: the International Phonetic Alphabet, (revised to 1993), , 394, , References, , 395
Page 7 :
Figures, , Al, , The acoustic spectra of a clarinet note (a), and of the vowel [i:] (b), Cl The Catford classification, C2 A classificatory matrix for the consonants of Basque, Fl An aspirated plosive in the feature hierarchy, Ml A metrical grid, M2 A metrical tree, PI A polar chart, VI The vowel chart of Les Branson, 42, of Norwich (1971), , 9, 66, 73, 142, 222, 223, 283, 382
Page 8 :
Preface, , This dictionary is intended primarily for students and teachers of, phonetics and linguistics. Like its companion volume, A Dictionary, of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics, this dictionary focuses on just, one major area of the linguistic sciences and tries to provide detailed, coverage of that area., Of course, it is not possible to include every single one of the, many thousands of terms which make an appearance somewhere in, the phonological literature, but the nearly 2,000 terms which are, defined here should include virtually every term you are likely to, encounter outside the most specialized monographs., The larger part of the dictionary is devoted to terms which have, been in existence for some time and which look likely to remain in, use for the foreseeable future: alternation, apical, contour tone,, creaky voice, obstruent, rule loss, sandhi, vowel harmony., Though articulatory phonetics naturally features very prominently, in these pages, acoustic and perceptual phonetics are not neglected,, nor is general speech science: Action Theory, acoustic filter, cochlea,, duplex perception, electromyography, formant, quantal vowel,, transition .., The terminology of classical phonology is well covered, including, the terms used by the Prague School, by Daniel Jones and by the, American Structuralists: archiphoneme, biuniqueness, diaphone,, EPD, juncture phoneme, privative opposition., Classical generative phonology is abundantly covered: absolute, neutralization, exchange rule, Halle's argument, systematic phoneme. Among more recent developments, Autosegmental Phonology, and Metrical Phonology are treated in particular detail: demibeat, deforestation, dumping, iambic reversal, No-Crossing Constraint, timing tier. But the principal terms from nearly all the, major developments in phonology in the last two decades are also, defined: coronal underspecification, Derived Environment Constraint,, feature geometry, hot feature, Prosodic Hierarchy, subjunction,, via rule., Distinctive features are covered in great detail. Summaries of some, half-dozen feature systems are given, and many dozens of individual, features are defined.
Page 9 : Preface, , viii, , There is ample coverage of the phonology of English: dark I,, Estuary English, Great Vowel Shift, Received Pronunciation, rhotic, accent, Trager-Smith system, velar softening. Terms specific to other, languages are included if they feature prominently in the literature:, Grassmann's Law, liaison, radoppiamento sintattico, rendaku, seseo,, soft mutation, yer., I have made a point of including a number of terms largely, confined to the older philological literature, since these are often, maddeningly difficult to look up elsewhere: anlaut, cacuminal,, implosive position, surd, tenuis., There is a good deal of coverage of phonological change and, variation, both traditional terms and recent ones: apocope, Bill Peters, effect, chain shift, lexical diffusion, reversal of merger, rhotacization,, umlaut. Given the current importance of metrical ideas in phonology,, traditional terms from metrics are well covered: crasis, masculine, rhyme, synizesis, tetrameter, trochee., For many entries there are multiple definitions; competing and, conflicting usages are noted and described, and recommendations, are often provided; examples of troublesome terms are breathy voice,, dorsum, flap, heavy syllable, hypercorrection, prosody, tone. As far, as possible, I have tried to identify the original sources of the terms,, and for many of the more important terms I have suggested further, reading., The alphabetical order used is one which ignores both hyphens, and spaces between words. Thus, for example, provection precedes, P-rule, while off-glide precedes off rhyme, which precedes offset, phase., The pronunciation given is that typical of the south of England., Speakers of other varieties of English will, I hope, find little difficulty in making any necessary adjustments., In an enterprise of this kind, it is no doubt inevitable that there, will prove to be a few errors and omissions. If you find any, I shall, be pleased to hear about them. You can write to me at the School, of Cognitive and Computing Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer,, Brighton BNl 9QH, UK, or e-mail
[email protected].
Page 10 :
Acknowledgements, , I should like to thank Julia Hall, Emma Cotter, Alison Foyle and, Caroline Cautley of Routledge for encouraging this book and for, putting up with several exasperating delays along the way. To Dick, Hudson I am indebted for getting me into the linguistic lexicography, business in the first place. Two anonymous readers, and later Richard, Coates, John Goldsmith and most especially Max Wheeler, read and, commented on early drafts of varying sizes; I am grateful to all of, them, and I have managed to incorporate most of their comments, into the final version. I regret that Goldsmith's 1995 book appeared, too late to be taken into account in preparing the dictionary; this, book contains useful further reading on many of the entries in the, dictionary. I am further indebted to Kasia Jaszczolt for making available to me a body of unpublished work in Optimality Theory. And,, as always, I am deeply grateful to Jenny Potts for an impeccable job, of copy-editing., Naturally, lowe an enormous debt to all my fellow linguists, past, and present, whose works I have combed for terms and definitions., Among those phoneticians and linguists of whose work I have made, particularly heavy use are David Abercrombie, John Anderson;, Stephen Anderson, Sheila Blumstein, Philip Carr, 1. C. Catford,, Noam Chomsky, John Clark, Alan Cruttenden, David Crystal, Peter, Denes, Jacques Durand, Eli Fischer-J~rgensen, Victoria Fromkin,, D. B. Fry, Hans Giegerich, A. C. Gimson, John Goldsmith, Morris, Halle, Richard Hogg, Larry Hyman, Daniel Jones, Francis Katamba,, Michael Kenstowicz, William Labov, Peter Ladefoged, Roger Lass,, John Laver, Philip Lieberman, C. B. McCully, Elliot Pinson, Peter, Roach, Iggy Roca, Alan Sommerstein, John Wells and Colin Yallop, - though these names certainly do not exhaust the sources I, consulted., Needless to say, none of these people bears any responsibility for, any shortcomings the dictionary may prove to have., The author and publisher would like to thank the following for, permission to reprint copyright material: Figure AI: from D. B. Fry, (1979) The Physics of Speech, p. 56 and p. 77, by permission of, Cambridge University Press; Figure CI and Figure PI: from 1. C., Catford (1977) Fundamental Problems in Phonetics, p. 143, p. 145
Page 11 :
Acknowledgements, , x, , and p. 185, by permission of Edinburgh University Press; Figure Vl:, from William Labov (1994) Principles of Linguistic Change, vol. 1:, Internal Factors, p. 205, by permission of Blackwell. Every effort was, made to clear permission of all figures reprinted in this dictionary,, and the publisher would be very happy to hear from the copyright, holders whom we are unable to trace.
Page 13 :
A Dictionary of, Phonetics and Phonology
Page 14 :
A, /~lbri:vieItri k~nvenf~n/ n. Any notational convention which allows two or more distinct but seemingly, related statements to be written as what appears to be a single, statement by combining common elements. The object of such a, convention is the conftation of related rules into a rule schema,, thereby gaining economy by avoiding restatement. Among the, conventions which have been widely used in phonology are braces,, parentheses, angle brackets, mirror-image environments and the, alpha notation. Analysts differ as to whether these conventions, should be regarded as representations of an underlying reality or, merely as descriptive conveniences with no theoretical standing., , abbreviatory convention, , abduction, , /rebldAkf~n/, , n. The moving apart of the vocal folds. \I:, abduct. Ant. adduction., , ablaut /1 reblout/ n. (also vowel gradation, apophony) 1. A morphological process expressed by a change in the quality of a vowel, within a root or stem for purely grammatical purposes, with the, vowel alternation typically serving as the only exponent of the, grammatical distinction. English examples include the inflectional, patterns exhibited by ~strong' verbs like sing/sang/sung and, write/wrote/written. The term is most usually applied to such, phenomena in the older Indo-European languages, in which it was, grammatically central: Latin tego ~cover' but toga ~toga', Greek lego, ~read' but logos 'word', Latin sedeo 'sit' but sodtilis 'companion';, but it is also sometimes applied to similar phenomena in other, languages. Ablaut differs from umlaut only in its historical source:, originally, 'ablaut' was applied to cases of vowel alternation for, which no phonetic motivation could be identified. See also e-grade,, o-grade and zero grade. 2. A historical change by which such an, alternation comes about. Coates (1994) recommends restricting 'ablaut' to, sense 2 and using 'apophony' for sense 1. He also suggests the term 'consonantal apophony' for those instances of Celtic mutation in whkh no overt, trigger is present., , abrupt release, , /~'brApt/ n. (also instantaneous release, abrupt, offset) 1. The phenomenon in which a complete oral closure is
Page 15 :
absolute bleeding, , 2, , released suddenly, without perceptible friction noise. Abrupt, release is the property that distinguishes plosives from corresponding affricates. 2. (abrrel) See instantaneous release., lirebs~lu:tl n. The relation between two ordered, rules A and B in which the earlier rule A destroys all possible cases, to which B could apply, leaving B without function. See bleeding, order., , absolute bleeding, , absolute feeding n. The relation between two ordered rules A and, B in which the earlier rule A creates all the possible inputs to B., See feeding order., Ip~IZIJt;l1 n. The position of the last segment, in an utterance, before a following pause; utterance-final position., , absolute final position, , absolute initial position n. The position of the first segment in an, utterance, after a preceding pause; utterance-initial position., , absolute neutralization n. An analysis which posits an underlying, contrast which is never realized phonetically on the surface. Such, analyses have most often been invoked to account for an observation that some single segment exhibits two distinct and conflicting, types of behaviour. A famous example concerns Hungarian vowel, harmony. In general, a Hungarian word consists entirely of back, vowels or entirely of front vowels, but the front vowels Iii and lei, are anomalous, behaving (as expected) like front vowels in some, words but like back vowels in others. The analysis of Vago (1973), accounts for this anomaly by positing the two additional back, vowels IUI/ and I¥/, unattested on the surface, which participate, normally in vowel harmony and then merge unconditionally, (absolutely) with Iii and lei, respectively. Absolute neutralizations, were an important if highly controversial feature of classical generative phonology, but were generally prohibited in Natural, Generative Phonology and its successors by the Alternation, Condition. Useful summaries of the issues can be found in Hyman, (1975: 3.3.5), Sommerstein (1977: ch. 9) and Lass (1984: ch. 9); Lass, (1984: 234) enumerates the most important papers. See also abstract, segment. Kiparsky (l968b); an extension of neutralizatioD., , absolute slicing hypothesis IlslaISIl)/ n. The claim that speech can, be exhaustively divided into a linear sequence of segments., Accepted by most earlier theories of phonology (though not by, Prosodic Analysis), this claim is generally denied by non-linear, approaches. Goldsmith (1976).
Page 16 :
3, , abstract feature, 1'9re.fh~ld/ n. The intensity at, which sound is just distinguishable from silence, commonly taken, for reference as a value of 10-16 watts per square centimetre, arbitrarily but conveniently equated with a value of zero decibels., , absolute threshold of hearing, , absolute universal n. A universal which holds for every single, natural language without exception, hence, a statement which, partially defines the notion 'natural language'. Among the absolute, universals often suggested in phonology are 'Every language has, both consonants and vowels' and 'Every language has at least one, high vowel'. Cf. statistical universal., , absorption, , l~b's~:pf~nI n., , The phonological phenomenon in which, the end point of a contour tone is lost when immediately followed, by another tone which is identical to the end point of the contour., For example, if HL represents a high-to-Iow contour tone and L a, low tone, the sequence HL L might undergo absorption to yield, H L. Such absorption is a common phenomenon in tone languages., Cf. spreading, and see the Obligatory Contour Principle. Hyman, (1973)~, , Hyman and Schuh (1974)., , abstract I'rebstrrektl adj. (of an analysis) Characterized by the use, of an underlying form which is significantly different from the, surface form. Except perhaps for the most extreme versions of, American Structuralism, all theories of phonology permit some, degree of abstractness, but abstract analyses flourished in a particularly unconstrained way within classical generative phonology., For example, SPE represents reduction underlyingly as, re=duke+re:t+iVn and courage underlyingly as kdorregde, with a, long sequence of phonological rules applying in each case to derive, the surface form. Absolute neutralizations represent another, striking kind of abstract analysis. See Lightner (1975) for a defence, of extreme abstractness. Abstr. n. abstractness., , abstract feature n. A proposed distinctive feature for a particular, language which lacks any clear phonetic motivation but which, serves to distinguish a class of segments which unexpectedly, pattern together in that language. For example, in many dialects of, Basque, the coronal consonants It s S ts ts n U all palatalize after, a high front vowel, but the coronals Id r rrl do not. There being, no clear phonetic basis for the distinction, one might conceivably, distinguish the two groups by means of an abstract feature, say,, [+P] for the first group and [-P] for the second. Most analysts,, however, regard such abstract features with distaste. See Clark
Page 17 :
abstract segment, , 4, , and Yallop (1990: 314-315) for some discussion. See also cover, feature., , abstract segment n. In an analysis employing absolute neutralization, a segment posited as underlyingly present which never shows, up overtly on the surface. For example, some analyses of French, set up an abstract word-initial segment /hi which, like any consonant, blocks liaison; having done so, the segment then disappears, (merges with zero), accounting for the failure of certain words, which are vowel-initial on the surface to undergo liaison., , abstract sound n. A conception of varying nature invoked, frequently in the development of phonetics and phonology in the, early twentieth century, notably by Daniel Jones in his refinement, of the phoneme concept. Trubetzkoy (1939) distinguishes abstract, sounds of the first level (hypothetical phonetic targets for the, slightly varying individual phones occurring in different tokens) and, those of the second level (allophones of a phoneme)., , abstract suffix n. An abstract element, conveniently if somewhat, arbitrarily regarded as an affix, posited in some analyses to account, for the derivation of such forms as kiss (noun) from kiss (verb),, belief (noun) from believe (verb) and record (noun) from record, (verb), or possibly the other way round. See also zero morph,, conversion., , acatalectic, , /eIkret~'lektIkJ, , adj. (of a line of verse) Possessing the, full number of syllables in the final foot. Abstr. n. acatalexis. Ant., , catalectic., , accent, , /'reks~nt/ n. 1. A particular way of pronouncing a language,, seen as typical of an individual, a geographical region or a social, group. Every speaker of a language necessarily speaks it with some, accent or other. 2. [non-technical] A popular term for an accent in, sense 1 which happens to be regarded as striking or unfamiliar by, the person making the judgement. 3. (also word accent) Particular, prominence attached to one syllable of a word or phrase by some, phonetic means such as stress or pitch. 4. A particular system for, assigning prominence to certain syllables of words or utterances,, such as the stress accent of English or the pitch accent of Japanese., 5. An occasional synonym for sentence stress. Bolinger (1951). 6. See, lexical accent. 7. [non-technical] A loose term for a diacritic, often, especially for a diacritic written above a letter, such as the acute, accent. Adj. accentual /~k'sentJu~I/.
Page 18 :
5, , ach-Laut, , accent I n. The unmarked tone pattern of Swedish and Norwegian,, characterized by a single fall in pitch and conventionally marked, by the symbol " as in Swedish 'anden 4the duck'. Cf. accent II., , accent D n. The marked tone pattern of Swedish and Norwegian,, characterized by a fall-rise-fall in pitch and confined to certain, words with initial stress, conventionally marked by the symbol " as, in Swedish 'anden 'the spirit'. Cf. accent I., , accent d';ns;stance /aksu dcsistfis/ n. [French: 'tone of insistence'], A particular, highly marked intonation pattern in French, characterized by high pitch and exaggerated length and loudness attached, to a syllable which would not normally carry a stress, and expressing, some kind of emphasis., , accented adj. (of a particular syllable, mora or nucleus) Assigned, particular prominence by the presence of a stress or pitch accent, (sense 3)., , accent range IreInd3/ n. That proportion of an individual's total, pitch range within which the intonation pattern of a particular, nuclear tone is enclosed. Variation in the most usual accent range, (in particular, raising the upper boundary) is typical of many, marked intonation patterns. Cruttenden (1986)., , accidental gap, , IreksIdent~1, , 'grep/ n. A possible word which is, phonologically well formed in every respect but which happens not, to exist, such as Ibhk/ in English. Cf. systematic gap. Swadesh (1935)., , /~kDm~'deIJQ./ n. 1. (also coarticulation) Modification in the articulation of a segment for the purpose of easing, a transition to a following segment, as when English /k/ is fronted, before a front vowel or glide (key, back yard), or when ItI shifts, from alveolar to dental before a dental fricative (eighth). Cf., spreading. See also allophone. 2. The behaviour of a speaker who, (consciously or unconsciously) adjusts her/his speech towards (or, less usually away from) the speech of an interlocutor or of a, surrounding social group. See also adaptation., , accommodation, , acephalous, , /eI'sef~l~s/ adj. (of a line of verse) Lacking the first, syllable expected according to the regular metre. Abstr. n., acephalexis /eIsef~'leksIs/. Greek: 'headless'., , ach-Laut /'axlout/ n. The voiceless back fricative occurring in, German after back and low vowels, as in ach 4alas', Buch ~book',, lachen 'laugh' and acht 4eight'. Textbooks usually describe this as
Page 19 :
achromatic, , 6, , a velar [xl, but many speakers use a uvular [xl. The ach-Laut is in, complementary distribution with the ich-Laut if and only if, morpheme boundaries are taken into account., /elkr~u'mretlk/ adj. In the analysis of vowels in some, privative systems, notably Dependency Phonology, lacking the, cardinal properties of palatality and labiality; high in sonority, such, as the vowel [a]. Ant. chromatic., , achromatic, , /~'kU:stlk/ adj. 1. Pertaining to acoustics. 2. Pertaining to, sounds, especially speech sounds., , acoustic, , acoustic analysis n. The determination, for a complex sound, of its, component frequencies and their amplitudes (intensities). The, result of the analysis is conveniently displayed in an acoustic spectrum. For a sound which varies with time, the time dimension may, also be displayed; this is the kind of display produced by a sound, spectrograph., , acoustic assimilation n. A type of assimilation in which acoustic, characteristics are assimilated, rather than (as more usually) articulatory ones. Lass (1984: 176) cites the example of certain varieties, of Austrian German in which' front vowels are rounded before a, velarized lateral. There is no articulatory basis for this, but there, is an acoustic one: both velarization and lip-rounding produce 'low, tonality' - specifically, lowering of the second and third formants, - and it is these formants that are being assimilated., /'kDr~lelt/ n. (of an articulation) An observable, acoustic characteristic which is typical of, and to some extent diagnostic for, that articulation, particularly as evidenced in a sound, spectrogram. For example, Ladefoged (1975: 180) cites the, following (approximate) correlates: a velar articulation shows a, high locus for the second formant and a common origin for the, second and third formant transitions, while a nasal consonant shows, a formant structure similar to that of a vowel but with nasal, formants at about 250, 2,500 and 3,250 Hz., , acoustic correlate, , acoustic cue /kju:/ n. Any acoustic characteristic of a segment which, aids in the recognition of that segment in speech. Such a cue is, essentially the perceptual effect of an acoustic correlate., , acoustic energy, , /'en~d3i/, , n. The energy transmitted by a sound, wave, in phonetics usually by a speech wave. The energy of a speech, wave is very small by most standards; according to Denes and
Page 20 :
7, , acoustic invariance, Pinson (1993: 140), speaking normally for one second produces only, 200 ergs of sound energy, while keeping a 100-watt bulb lit for one, second requires a billion ergs. Only about 0.05 per cent of the, energy carried by the airstream flowing out of our lungs is, converted to sound energy in speech, but the human ear is so sensitive that this is quite adequate., , acoustic feature n. A distinctive feature which is related primarily, to an acoustic characteristic of a segment. rather than to an articulatory characteristic. The earliest work in distinctive features by, Jakobson and his colleagues, such as Jakobson et ale (1952) and, Jakobson and Halle (1956), emphasized acoustic features like, compact, grave, Oat, voiced and strident. With the publication of, SPE in 1968, acoustic features mostly gave way to the articulatory, features of that work, though strident and grave, and perhaps also, Oat, have continued to find some use. See Jakobson-HaUe feature, system., , acoustic filter n. Any device which allows certain frequencies of, sound waves to pass through while suppressing the passage of other, frequencies. Most familiarly, the resonating cavities of the vocal, tract act as acoustic filters; varying the configuration of these cavities changes the frequencies which are preferentially passed, and, hence the quality of the resulting sound., , acoustic impedance IImlpi:d~ns/ n. A measure of the total tendency, of a medium to oppose the passage of sound waves through it. If, one tries to pass a sound wave from one medium to another of, very different impedance, most of the sound energy will simply be, reflected at the boundary. For example, little sound could be passed, from the air-filled middle ear across the oval window to the fluidfilled inner ear if the eardrum and auditory ossicles were not, present to reduce the impedance mismatch., , acoustic invariance lIn lvreri~ns/ n. A theory of speech which holds, that invariant acoustic patterns or properties corresponding to, phonetic features are directly derivable from the speech signal invariant, that is, with respect to individual variations in the size, and shape of the vocal tract, to the rate of speaking and to variations in the immediate phonetic environment. See Stevens and, Blumstein (1981) and Blumstein and Stevens (1981) for presentation of the evidence and Lieberman and Blumstein (1988) for a, brief summary.
Page 21 :
acoustic nerve, , 8, , acoustic nerve In3:vl n. See auditory nerve., acoustic phase n. The fifth of the seven phases of speech, in which, sound waves produced by vibrating air in the speaker's vocal tract, travel through the air to reach a hearer's ear., , acoustic phonetics n. The branch of phonetics which deals with the, physical characteristics of the sound waves which carry speech, sounds between mouth and ear. Acoustic phonetics makes heavy, use of a battery of electronic instruments, perhaps most notably the, sound spectrograph; these days it also makes considerable use of, computers for analysis and modelling. See Fry (1979), Ladefoged, (1962), Lieberman and Blumstein (1988), Borden and Harris (1980),, Pickett (1980) or Kent and Read (1992) for an introduction., , acoustics n. The scientific study of sound and sound waves. Adj., acoustic, rarely acoustical., , acoustic spectrum n. A graphical representation of a (typically, complex) sound in which amplitude is plotted against frequency., The resulting graph shows the relative contribution to the overall, sound made by every component frequency. The two graphs in, Figure AI, from Fry (1979), illustrate the spectrum of a clarinet, note (middle C) and that of the vowel [i:]., , acoustic stability, , Ist~'blhtil, , n. The property of a speech sound, whose acoustic and perceptual characteristics are little affected by, small variations in the articulation used to produce it. For example,, the vowels [i] and [u] are far more acoustically stable than [e] or, even [a]. In tests, acoustically stable segments are recognized far, more consistently than others. See also quantal vowel., , acoustic wave n. See sound wave., acquisition of phonology /rekwl'zlfQ/ n. The process by which a, child learning a first language gradually acquires adult control over, the phonological system of the language, usually passing through, a series of characterizable stages on the way. See Yeni-Komshian, et ale (1980) for a comprehensive review, Smith (1973) for a famous, case study, Locke (1983) for the relation between acquisition and, phonological change and Ingram (1989) for a review of disability, in acquisition., , across-the-board l~krDS O~ 'b:>:dl adj. Exceptionless; applying in all, circumstances throughout an entire language.
Page 22 :
9, , across-the-board, 1.0, , Q), , "'0, , ~ 0.5, , a., E, , c(, , o, , I, , I, , I, , 500, , 1000, , 1, , 1500, , I, , I, , II, , T, , 1, , I, , 2000, , 2500, , 3000, , 3500, , Clarinet middle C (264 Hz), (a), , 10 -, , F1, , [i:], , Q), , "'0, , ~, , a., E, «, , F2, , 5-, , F3, , I, , o, 600, , 1200, , 1800, , 2400, , Frequency (Hz), (b), , Figure A I The acoustic spectra of a clarinet note (a), and of the vowel [i:] (b), , 3000
Page 23 :
across-the-board ordering constraint, , 10, , across-the-board ordering constraint n. In a framework employing rule ordering, any constraint which requires that two rules A and, B must always apply in the same order in all derivations in which, they are both involved. Classical generative phonology took such, constraints as the norm, but they were rejected in the developments, known as local ordering and partial ordering in favour of more, complex and flexible ordering constraints., , Action Theory I'rekJ;)n/ n. A particular model of speech production. The framework has been developed out of the general physiological study of the muscular control of cyclic events such as, walking; hence it is strongly informed by neurophysiology, and it, stresses the concept of a coordinative structure, a group of muscles, acting together. Particularly associated with the Haskins Laboratories, the framework contrasts markedly with the older and, more widely used Translation Theory; it was introduced by Fowler, (1980) and Fowler et ale (1980). See Laver (1991: 107-109) for a, brief introduction, Laver (1989) or Nolan (1982) for a comparison, of the two frameworks, and the special issue of the Journal of, Phonetics (14:1, 1986) for a debate., , active articulator /'rekttv/ n. In the articulation of a consonant, the, lower of the articulators involved in forming the constriction (most, usually a part of the tongue), conventionally regarded as moving, towards the upper passive articulator., , actualized notation f'rektfu;)laIzd/ n. In Glossematic phonology, a, phonetically underspecified representation for a segment which, undergoes a systematic alternation, corresponding fairly closely to the, morphopboneme of the American Structuralists. Cf. ideal notation., , actuation /rektfu'eIfJ)./ n. The appearance of a particular change in, a particular language at a particular time., , ~, , actuate., , acute /;)'kju:t/ adj. In the Jakobson-HaUe feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting a concentration of energy in the, upper frequencies of the spectrum', interpreted as representing a, non-peripheral (dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal) articulation. The specification [acute] corresponds approximately to the, SPE specifications [+coronal] for consonants and [-back] for, vowels. Abstr. n. acuteness. Ant. grave., , acute accent n. The diacritic " conventionally used in various, orthographies and transcription systems for a variety of purposes., It was first used in Ancient Greek orthography to mark one of the
Page 24 :
11, , adenoidal, , distinctive pitch accents of that language. In French, (e-) represents, a different vowel quality from plain (e), and in Polish (s) represents, a different sibilant from (s). In Spanish, the acute accent represents, an irregular word stress. In the IPA, the acute accent is used to, mark a high level tone. Cf. grave accent, circumflex accent. Latin, acutus 'sharpened', an impressionistic label for the perceptual effect of the, Greek pitch accent it denoted., , Adam's apple I'red~mz rep~ll n. The visible projection of the thyroid, cartilage of the larynx at the front of the throat, usually far more, prominent in men than in women. Translation of Hebrew tappiiah, haadam., , adaptation lredrep'teIJQI n. The process by which a speaker, consciously adjusts her/his speech towards a different variety, perceived as more desirable, as when a speaker of a regional accent, attempts to produce something approximating to Received, Pronunciation, or when a non-rhotic American speaker attempts, to acquire a rhotic accent. See also hypercorrection (both senses), and accommodation (sense 2). Adj. adaptive 1~'dreptIv/., , adaptation rule n. A systematic modification, expressible in the, form of a phonological rule, consciously introduced by a speaker, attempting adaptation. For example, a Briton trying to acquire an, American accent might add a rule deleting the glide Ijl after a, coronal consonant and before lu:/, generally producing the correct, result. An American trying to acquire a British accent, however,, would face problems: adding the opposite rule, inserting the glide, in this environment, would produce the correct result with some, words, like dew, but the wrong result with others, like do., , ADC, , leI di: Isi:1 n. See analog-to-digital converter., , addition of rules n. See rule addition., additive interfereace I'redltlvl n. [rare] See feeding order., , Chafe, , (1967)., , adduction lre'dAkJQI n. The moving together of the vocal folds. \I:, adduct. Ant. abduction., lred~'n=>Id~11 adj. [non-technical] A label frequently, applied to a voice quality distinguished by an unusually low degree, of nasalization" resulting either from obstruction of the nasal cavity, (as by mucus or swollen tissue in a person with a head cold) or, from the speaker's propensity to hold the velum in a consistently, , adenoidal
Page 25 :
adequacy, leveh of, , 12, , high position, thus reducing air flow through the nasal cavity (as, in the speech of Liverpool)., , adequacy, leveh of I'redIkw~iJ n. pl. Any of various sets of criteria, for evaluating formal grammars, some of which can be plausibly, invoked for judging phonological descriptions. The best-known, criteria are those of Chomsky (1964): a description achieves observational adequacy if it correctly predicts all the data; it achieves, descriptive adequacy if it also expresses all linguistically significant, generalizations. A theoretical framework achieves explanatory, adequacy if it also provides a principled basis for choosing among, competing descriptions which achieve descriptive adequacy., Chomsky (1957) proposes a different characterization: a description is internally adequate if it correctly accounts for the data; it is, externally adequate if it also exhibits generality, economy and, simplicity. See criteria for phonological analysis., 1~ld3els~nsiJ n. (also locality) In Government, and Charm Phonology, a fundamental principle: a governor (head), must be linearly adjacent to its governees (dependents)., , Adjacency Principle, , adjunction, , 1~ld3AlJkJ~nl n., , 1. In Dependency Phonology, the relation between two adjacent elements one of which linearly precedes, the other within the overall structure. Cf. subjunction. 2. In some, frameworks, a procedure invoked in order to augment a syllable,, often in violation of the Sonority Sequencing Principle, for example, to account for both occurrences of lsI in English spits. It: adjoin, , 1~ld3:)In/., , Levin (1985)., , admissible, , l~d'mls~b~U adj. Permitted by the ordinary phonological rules of a language. Thus, for example, an admissible consonant cluster is one not violating any constraints imposed by the, phonotactics of a language. Some (not all) analysts consider that, certain phenomena which actually occur may nevertheless not be, admissible, so that, for example, since English does not normally, permit word-initial clusters of fricatives, the cluster Isf-I occurring, in sphere and sphinx would not be regarded as admissible. Abstr., n. admissibility. Ant. inadmissible., , 1~'dDptIvl n. In the classification of Wells (1982), a, version of Received Pronunciation used by adults who did not speak, RP as children. Adoptive RP may blend almost imperceptibly into, mainstream RP, but is often distinguished by a lack of command over, informal and allegro characteristics typical of native RP speakers., , adoptive RP
Page 26 :
13, , affection, , adstrate II redstreItl n. With respect to a particular language, a second, language of comparable prestige which is spoken side by side with, it in a largely bilingual community and which has some effect upon, it. It is sometimes suggested that the English of South Africa, for, example, is influenced phonologically and otherwise by Afrikaans., Cf. substrate, superstrate., , advanced I~dlvo:nstl adj. 1. (of an articulation) Articulated with the, tongue position closer to the front of the mouth (than some reference position). In the IPA, an advanced articulation is transcribed, with the diacritic LJ. 2. In the study of phonological change,, denoting a pronunciation which appears to be innovating with, respect to a competing but more conservative pronunciation, often, especially when the competing forms in question appear to be part, of a process of drift. Ant. conservative., , advanced RP n. In the classification of Gimson (1989), a variety, of Received Pronunciation exhibiting some innovations with, respect to conservative and general varieties of RP and often associated particularly with younger upper-class speakers. The precise, characterization of advanced RP is a matter of controversy., , advanced tongue root n. See ATR., aerodynamic myoelastic theory of phonation Ic~r~daIlnremIk/ n., The universally accepted explanation of phonation. In this view, air, passing up through the glottis forces the vocal cords apart, allowing, the air to pass between them; the resulting pressure drop caused, by the Bernoulli effect forces the vocal cords to close again. The, rapid repetition of this sequence constitutes voicing. See van den, Berg (1958, 1968). Cf. neuro-chronaxic theory of phonation., , aerodynamic phase n. The fourth of the seven phases of speech,, in which the air in the vocal tract is set into motion by the movements of the vocal..organs., , aerometry, , Ic~lrDmItril n., , See electroaerometry., , /~lfekJ~n/ n. A term applied in historical philology, particularly in respect of Celtic languages, to any of various historical, developments in which the quality of a vowel is partly assimilated to, C'affected' by) the quality of a vowel in a following syllable. Welsh, for, example, historically exhibits both i-affection (raising before Iii) and, a-affection (lowering before laI); the conditioning vowel often disappeared later. Examples: *bardl> beirdd 'bards'; Latin piipilio > pebyll, , affection
Page 27 :
affective form, , 14, , 'tent'; *butii > bod 'be'; Latin grammatica > gramadeg. The term, umlaut, used in the Germanic languages, means the same as 'affection'., , affective form /a'fektlv/ n. A linguistic form which has undergone, some kind of deliberate phonological modification (very often, palatalization) for the purpose of expressing some particular attitude, on the part of the speakers, most commonly one of warmth or affection. For example, Basque zoko 'corner' has an affective form xoko, or txoko, roughly, 'familiar place' or 'little place of my own', and zuri, 'white' exhibits an affective form txuri in Txuri-Urdinak 'the Whiteand-Blues', nickname of the football team Real Sociedad., , affix /'reflks/ n. ~ bound morpheme which can only occur attached, to a word or stem. Affixes may be derivational, like -ness and, pre-, or inftectional, like plural -s and past-tense -ed. Affixes are, divided into prefixes, suffixes, circumfixes, infixes, superfixes and, transfixes; see also parafix, interfix. Adj. affixal., Affix Rule n. The putative rule which accounts for the stress shift, induced by the addition of certain English affixes, as illustrated by, dialect/dialectal, anecdote/anecdotal and theatre/theatrical. Chomsky, and Halle (1968)., , affricate rrefrlkat/ n. (rarely also affricative /a'frlkatlv/, affricated, stop) A consonant whose articulation involves a complete oral, closure followed by a comparatively slow release with perceptible, friction noise. English examples include the [tf] of church and the, [d3] of judge. .An affricate is most often regarded as a single, segment (though see Roca 1994: 4 on the English affricates), but, it can usefully be thought of as a plosive immediately followed by, a homorganic fricative, and the IPA symbols for affricates take, advantage of this fact. Adj. affricated l'refrlkeItId/; abstr. n. affrication. Latin affricatus 'rubbed against'., , affricatioD /refrI'keIfl}/ n. 1. The fricative release of a stop; the property of an affricate which distinguishes it from a plosive. 2. A, phonological process in which a plosive acquires a fricative release,, as in the realization of /tl as an affricate [tS] in the speech of London., See Laver (1994: 363-374)., , age-grading l'eId3greldllJ/ n. The phenomenon in which a speech, variable operating at a high level of social awareness is modified, throughout a speaker's lifetime, so that the variable shows a clear, correlation with age even in the absence of generational change., Labov (1994).
Page 28 :
15, , alliteration, , /lc~tri:mI n. In speech, the movement of air through the, vocal tract, or through some part of it. An airstream is essential for, the production of any speech sound. See airstream mechanism., , airstream, , airstream mechanism, , /'mek~nIztp/, , n. (also initiation) Any of the, various ways in which a stream of moving air can be produced within, the vocal tract. The three principal mechanisms are pulmonic, (involving lung air), glotta1ic (involving pharynx air) and velaric, (involving mouth air). Each of these may produce an egressive, (moving outward) or an ingressive (moving inward) airstream,, resulting in six possible airstreams. Of these, the pulmonic egressive, mechanism is by far the most widespread, but the glottalic egressive, and glottalic ingressive mechanisms are also well attested, and the, velaric ingressive mechanism occurs in some languages. There is also, the highly unusual oesophagic egressive airstream mechanism., /'eItk~n/ n. A general rule governing the distribution, of the phonetic length of certain vowels in Scottish accents of, English. It says: a vowel is phonetically short unless it is followed, by a morpheme boundary, a voiced fricative or Irl, in which case, it is long. See McMahon (1991). Aitken (1962); Lass (1974)., , Aitken's Law, , Aitken's vowel n. The vowel leI, occurring in many Scottish varieties of English, in which it contrasts with both III and leI. Lexical, incidence of this vowel varies enormously, but many speakers have, it in never, which rhymes with neither river nor sever. Aitken (1962);, Lass (1974) or Abercrombie (1975)., , aliasing, , l'edi~sIIJI, , allegro, , 1~'legr~1, , n. A phenomenon which can occur during the, digital processing of acoustic signals. If the sampling frequency is, too low, the high-frequency components of the signal will be misinterpreted, producing spurious frequencies which distort the quality, of the sound after reconversion to analog form; this is aliasing. See, Denes and Pinson (1993)., , •, , adj. (of speech) Rapid and fluent, and hence, exhibiting the phonological processes typical of connected speech., Ant. lento. From the musical term allegro 'rapid', from Italian allegro 'lively'., , allegro form n. A reduced form which is typical of rapid or casual speech,, such as 'Sright ('That's right'), 'Cha doin '? ('What are you doing?')., l~ht~'reIfQI n. The repeated use of the same initial, consonant sound in a string of words in a connected text: The, burghers of Brighton briskly bundled the belligerent boatmen back, , alliteration
Page 29 :
16, , aUochrone, , to Brest. Cf. consonance, and see assonance. It: alliterate; adj. alliterative 1~'ht~r~tIv/., , aUochrone, , I'rel~kr~unl, , n. Any positional variant of a chroneme., , Jones (1950)., , aUomorph I'rel~m~:fl n. (also altemant) One of two or more surface, forms which are assumed by a single morpheme in varying circumstances. The negative prefix in-, for example, exhibits several, allomorphs in such words as indecent, impossible, irrational and, ignoble. Abstr. n. allomorphy I'rel~m~:fi/; adj. allomorphic, lrel~'m~:fIk/. Nida (1948): Greek, , alios 'other' + morphe 'form'., , aUophone I' rel~f~unl n. 1. One of two or more phonetically distinct, segments which can realize a single phoneme in varying circumstances. For example, the English phoneme Itl may be realized, phonetically as aspirated [t h ] in tin, as unaspirated [t=] in stand, as, dental [t] in eighth, as nasally released [t n ] in cotton, as laterally, released [til in bottle, as glottalized [1t] in hit, and possibly in other, ways, depending upon the particular accent. The set of realizations, used by a speaker constitute the allophones of the phoneme ItI in, that speaker's speech. For two phones to be classed as allophones, of a single phoneme, they must exhibit phonetic similarity, and they, must not be in contrastive distribution. See further under phoneme., Note: This is the prevailing sense of the term; the following senses, however., are also well attested in the literature. 2. An allophone which is a posi-, , tional (conditioned) variant of a phoneme, as opposed to a free, variant. 3. An allophone which is conspicuously different from, other allophones of the same phoneme; this is the sense intended, when a particular phoneme is said to have, say, 'three allophones'., 4. [obsolete] See phone. Abstr. n. allophony I~'lof~ni/; adj., allophonic /rel~'fonlk/. Whorf (1938)., , aUophonic transcription n. A phonetic transcription which includes, no information beyond the marking of the major allophones of, phonemes., , aUophonic variation n. The phonetic variation exhibited by a single, phoneme in varying phonological environments; see the example, under allophone., /:):I~'nAnl n. In the study of intonation, a, binary contrast imposed by the analyst upon a corpus of data, such., as in the common classification of all falling patterns in English, into high falls and low falls. Cf. gradient., , all-or-none contrast
Page 30 :
17, , alpha notation, , allotone, , I'rel~t~nl, , n. Any positional variant of a toneme. Jones, , (1950)., , alpha I' relf~1 n. 1. See under alpha notation. 2. In some privative, theories, a phonological component lal posited as equivalent to the, specification [+ATR], the specification [-ATR] being represented, by a separate component R. Anderson and Ewen (1987)., , alpha notation n. An abbreviatory convention which allows the, conflation of two rules which differ only in the values assigned to, binary features at two (or sometimes more than two) points. The, notation uses a Greek letter (a feature coefficient) as a variable, ranging over the values + and -; the variable must of course assume, a single value on anyone reading of the resulting rule schema. For, example, the soft mutation of Welsh may be broadly described by, the following two rules:, [-cont, -nas, -voi], , ~, , [+voi, -cont], , (a voiceless plosive becomes voiced), and, ~, , [-cont, -nas, +voi], , [+voi, +cont], , (a voiced plosive becomes a fricative). These may be conflated by, means of the alpha notation:, [-cont, -nas, a voi], , ~, , [+voi, a cont], , Similarly, the following schema states that a word-final nasal is, syllabic if it follows a non-syllabic segment but non-syllabic otherWIse:, , [+nas], , ~, , [a syll] I, , [~, , syll] _, , #, , When additional such variables are required, succeeding letters of, the Greek alphabet are used. The following schema states that a, nasal segment assimilates completely in place of articulation to a, following segment:, .J, , [+nas], , ap cor, ant], [ 'Y high, 5 back, , 1_, , ant], aP cor, [ 'Y high, 5 back, , Zwicky (1970) suggests an extension of the alpha notation to cases, like a[-cons, +voc] to represent the disjunction of [-cons, +voc], and [+cons, -voc], but this extension has not been generally, accepted.
Page 31 :
alpha-switching rule, , 18, , Another rarely encountered extension of the alpha notation is, illustrated in the following rule posited for Zulu: [-son, a. cont, ~, hsp] ~ [-cont, a.~ hsp, a. delrel]. Here the notation "a.~' means 'the, algebraic product of the values of a. and ~'., Labov (1994) extends the alpha notation to describe sound, changes in progress: in his system, a statement of the general form, [z feature] ~ [z+ax feature] means that the existing value z of, some feature is incremented or decremented by an amount x,, depending on whether a has the value + 1 or -1. Halle (1962)., , alpha-switching rule /ISW1tJIIJ/ n. See exchange rule., alternant /'::>:It;ln;lntl n. 1. See allomorph. 2. One of two or more, segments which participate in some alternation (sense 1). For, example, English le/ and /rel are alternants in such pairs as, sane/sanity, state/static, grave/gravity, profane/profanity and, deprave/depravity. Bloomfield (1933)., , Alternating Stress Rule /'::>:It;lne1tllJ/ n. The putative rule which, accounts for the stress pattern in the majority of English nouns of, three or more syllables; these usually have primary stress on the, antepenult and secondary stress on the ultima: pedigree, baritone,, antelope, hypotenuse and formaldehyde. Certain words are exceptions: Tennessee, kangaroo, chandelier. Cf. Main Stress Rule., Chomsky and Halle (1968)., /:l:lt~lneIJQ/ n. 1. A synonym for allomorphy, but one, often preferred for instances in which the variation is systematic in, nature, such as the [s]/[Z]/[IZ] alternation in the English plural, morpheme (cats/dogs/boxes), or in which it is confined to a single, segment, as in the [k]/[s] alternation observed in electric/electricity, or the [al ]/[ I] alternation in divine/divinity. Bloomfield (1933: 207ff.), classifies alternations as phonetic or suppletive, as automatic or, grammatical, and as regular or irregular, to these Hockett (1958:, 277ff.) adds a contrast between internal and external sandhi. 2. The, phenomenon in which a single word or morpheme exhibits free, variation in a particular position. between two segments which, normally contrast. For example, economics can be pronounced with, either /i:1 or /el in the initial syllable. See also asymmetric alternation. ~ alternate., , alternation, , Alternation Condition n. The principle that obligatory neutralization rules may not apply to all occurrences of a morpheme - In, other words, it prohibits such analyses as underlying /pi:nI for the
Page 32 :
19, , ambidependency, , non-alternating pine, while allowing underlying li:1 for the alternating divine . . . divinity. This principle is designed to constrain, abstract analyses and specifically to prohibit the diacritic use of, phonological features. It was succeeded by the Revised Alternation, Condition. Kiparsky (1968b, 1973b)., lrelvi'~ul~1 1. adj. Pertaining to the alveolar ridge. 2. adj., (formerly also gingival) (of an articulation) Involving the alveolar, ridge as the upper articulator. In this usage, often short for one of, the more specific terms apico-alveolar and lamino-alveolar. 3. n. A, consonant articulated in this way, such as [s], [d] or [n]. 4. In the, Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one of the eleven, possible values of the feature articulatory place. Ultimately from Latin, , alveolar, , alveolus 'small cavity', referring to the tooth sockets., hElvi'~uli:z/, alveolar, arch) The bony ridge behind the upper teeth, important in the articulation of alveolar consonants., , alveolar ridge Irld31 n. (also alveoli, alveoles, , Irelvi'~ulaII n. pl. 1. The tiny air sacs which make up most, of the spongy tissue in the lungs. 2. See alveolar ridge. Latin alveoli, , alveoli, , ·small cavities'., /relvi~ul~u'prel~t~lI 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated in a position which is further back than palato-alveolar but, further forward than palatal. An alveolo-palatal articulation might, more systematically be called a lamino- or dorso-prepalatal articulation, as recommended by Catford (1988). The term is little used, except in connection with the fricatives [~.] and [~] . when these, need to be distinguished from the palato-alveolar fricatives [I] and, [3].. as in Polish. 2. 11. A segment so articulated. 3. 11. or adj. [rare], (of a segment) Articulated in a position which is further back than, alveolar but further forward than palato-alveolar. 4. n. or adj. [obsolete] A former synonym for palato-alveolar. NOTE: TI1C last two senses, , alveolo-palatal, , should be avoided., lrelvi~u'prel~t~ll n. or adj. 1. [rare] A cover term, including both palato-alveolar and alveolo-palatal. 2. See palatoalveolar. NOTE: This second usc, while not rare. is ohjectionahle., , alveopalatal, , /'rembldlpend~nsi/n. In Dependency Phonology., the structural relation in which a single vertex terminates more, than one dependency arc - in other words, in which a single element, occupies more than one position in the dependency structure., , ambidependency
Page 33 :
ambisyUabic, , 20, , ambisyUabic lrembIsI'lrebIkl adj. (of a consonant) Simultaneously, forming part of two consecutive syllables, such as the Ikl of ticker, or the ItI of petrol. In petrol, for example, the presence of ItI in, the first syllable is shown by the occurrence in that syllable of the, checked vowel lei (and in some accents by the glottalization of, the It/), while its presence in the second syllable is shown by, devoicing of the Ir/. The existence of ambisyllabic consonants poses, problems for some theories of syllable structure, but it has been, addressed with some success within Metrical Phonology. Abstr. n., ambisyllabicity lrembIsIl~'bIsIti/., 1~'merIk~nl n. A distinctive version of, structuralism developed in the United States in the 19408 and 19508,, strongly influenced by the work of Leonard Bloomfield, though it, is clear that Bloomfield would not have approved of some of its, more extreme characteristics. The American Structuralists (or ~post, Bloomfieldians') were often fieldworkers struggling to describe and, record the dying languages of North America; they attached great, importance to developing efficient and reliable techniques for, analysing, describing and transcribing unfamiliar languages. Partly, as a consequence, they were sometimes perceived by European, linguists as hostile to theory, while they themselves occasionally, sneered at the Europeans as 'armchair theorists'. The Americans, championed the (autonomous) phoneme as the fundamental unit, in phonology, and often preferred the term phonemics to, phonology. They eventually developed a view of phonology distinguished by a remarkable battery of doctrines, including the separation of levels and the conditions of biuniqueness, invariance,, linearity and local determinacy. Motivated by a particular view of, what constituted a scientific approach to language, these doctrines, frequently compelled analyses which were inelegant and counterintuitive; the introduction of juncture phonemes and morphophonemes provided only partial relief. But perhaps the single, characteristic most objected to by a later generation of phonologists, was the structuralist emphasis upon representations at the expense, of rules (generalizations); beginning with Halle (1959), which, presented the celebrated Halle's argument against structuralist, doctrines, this priority was reversed, and within a few years generative phonology had supplanted American structuralist phonology, as the mainstream in the United States. See Anderson (1985:, chs 10-11) or Fischer-J0rgensen (1975: ch. 6) for an account of, American Structuralist phonology, Makkai (1972) for a collection, , American Structuralism
Page 34 :
21, , amplitude, , of classic papers, Stark (1972) or Huddleston (1972) for a more, general account of American Structuralism, and Newmeyer (1986), for an account of the confrontation between structuralism and, generative linguistics. See also criteria for phonological analysis., , American transcription n. An important phonetic alphabet (sense, 1) developed in the United States in the first half of the twentieth, century, the only significant alternative to the International, Phonetic Alphabet. Designed by and for fieldworkers using typewriters, the American system differs from the IPA in a number of, respects, but primarily in its avoidance of specially designed characters; it prefers to use ordinary Roman letters with diacritics, instead. For example, the American system uses [s Z c j] for IPA, [f 3 tf d3] and [ti 0] for IPA [y ~]. There is no ~official' version of, the system, and hence there is some variation in use. The American, system continues to be used in the United States, but it appears to, be slowly giving way to the IPA. See Pullum and Ladusaw (1986), for a comparison of American and IPA usages, and Abercrombie, (1985) for an account of the competition between the two systems., , amphibrach /'remfIbrrek/ n. A metrical foot consisting of three syllables in the order unstressed-stressed-unstressed, or, in quantitative, metre, short-long-short, as in the word consider or the verse, Remember, remember the fifth of November. Greek amphibrakhys 'short, at both ends'., , amphimacer /rem1ftmasa/ n. (also cretic foot) A metrical foot, consisting of three syllables in the order stressed-unstressedstressed. or, in quantitative metre, long-short-Iong, as in the name, John McGraw or the phrase jingle bells. Greek amphimakros 'long at, both ends'., , amplification /remphft'keIfl)/ n. The process of increasing the intensity of a sound and hence its perceived loudness. In human hearing,, amplification is performed chiefly by the auditory ossicles of the, middle ear. Amplification is also performed electronically for a, number of purposes. V amplify /'remphfaI/., , amplifier /'remphfaIa/ n. Any device, most familiarly an electronic, one, which increases the intensity of a sound and hence its, perceived loudness., , amplitude /'remphtju:d/ n. That characteristic of a sound wave most, directly related to the intensity of the associated sound and hence,, in a complex manner, to the perceived loudness. Amplitude may
Page 35 :
22, , anacrusis, , be expressed in terms of the displacement of the vibrating medium, from its rest position or, for a sound wave in air, in terms of the, pressure of the air., /ren~'kru:sIs/ n. 1. One or more unstressed syllables at the, beginning of a line of verse, before the reckoning of the normal, metre begins. 2. One or more unstressed syllables at the beginning, of an utterance; in English, such syllables are often pronounced, very rapidly and strongly reduced. Sense 2: Cruttenden (1986). Greek, , anacrusis, , anakrousis 'a pushing back'., , anacusis /ren;}'kju:SIS/ n. Total deafness. Cf. hearing loss., , Greek an-, , 'without' + akousis 'hearing'., /ren~'lod3Ik~1 lk IstenJ ~n/ n. A process in, which a morphological pattern occurring in some words or forms is, extended to others in which it was not historically present, as when, earlier English help/holp/holpen was remodelled to help/helped/, helped under the influence of the more frequent pattern illustrated, by love/loved/loved. The development of dive/dived in American, English into dive/dove by analogy with verbs like drive/drove, illustrates analogical extension in the opposite direction., , analogical extension, , analogical levelling n. A process by which a morphologically, irregular paradigm resulting from regular phonological change, undergoes analogy in such a way as to remove the irregularity. The, following example shows the phonologically regular Old French, reflexes of the present-tense forms of the Latin verb meaning 'love', and the morphologically regular modern French forms derived by, levelling of the stem-vowel alternation:, , Isg., 2sg., 3sg., Ipl., 2pl., 3pl., , Latin, , Old French, , Modern French, , amo, amas, amat, amamus, amatis, amant, , aim, aimes, aimet, amons, amez, aiment, , aime, aimes, aime, aimons, aimez, aiment, , analog model, , /'ren~log mod~l/ n. Any mechanical, electrical or, computational device which models the behaviour of a system of, interest (such as the vocal tract) by using easily manipulated and, measured quantities which are reJated mathematicaJly to one, another in the same way as the quantities important in the system
Page 36 :
23, , analogy, , of interest. For example, the physical quantities force (F), mass (m), and velocity (v), which are important in the study of air movement, through the vocal tract, are related by Newton's law of motion, (where dv/dt is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time):, F = m (dv/dt). The electrical quantities voltage (V), inductance (L), and current (i) are related mathematically in the same way: V = L, (dildt). Hence the behaviour of a suitably designed electrical circuit, can provide valuable insights into the behaviour of moving air in the, vocal tract, and is far easier to study. See Lieberman and Blumstein, (1988) for a brief introduction to analog modelling in speech,, Flanagan (1972) for a comprehensive account of electrical analog, modelling. NOTE: The American spelling "analog' is often preferred in Britain, to the British spelling "analogue' for the terms entered in this dictionary., /~Jnrel~g~s/ n. pl. Similar but not identical environments in which can occur two phonetically similar, segments whose phonological relationship is at issue. In English,, for example, it is very difficult to find minimal pairs for [J] and [3],, but the occurrence of these sounds in such analogous environments, as pressure and pleasure (a near-minimal pair) is usually taken as, adequate evidence that they must be assigned to different, phonemes, since assigning them to a single phoneme would result, in an impossibly complex distribution. Pike (1947a)., , analogous environments, , analog signal, , n. A waveform which varies continuously, so that, as, it passes from one value to another, it passes through all values in, betweeen. An ordinary sound wave is an analog signal. Cf. digital, signal., Ik~n'v3:t~/ n. (ADC) An electronic, device which converts an analog signal to a digital signal. It does, this by sampling the analog signal at very frequent intervals., According to the Sampling Theorenl, if the signal is sampled at a, frequency not I~s than double the frequency of its highestfreq uency component, no information is lost. and the original signal, can be exactly reconstructed from the samples. ADCs are the basis, of nl0dern high-quality sound recording and reproduction., , analog-to-digital converter, , analogy, , 1;}'nrel~d3il n. The process by which a form or pattern is, altered so as to conform to another form or pattern existing in the, language. Examples: Middle High German »'ort 'word', pI. wort, has been remodelled in modern German to Wort, pi. Warter on, the analogy of nouns like Lafllm 'lamb', pI. Liiffllller, in which the, alternation results from regular phonological developments in
Page 37 :
analysis-by-synthesis, , 24, , German; the French numeral quatre 'four' has for some speakers, acquired a final liaison consonant [z] by analogy with deux 'two' and, trois 'three', in which the liaison consonant is historically regular; after, the regular rhotacism of intervocalic lsI had converted early Latin, honos 'honour', genitive hon6sis into the morphologically irregular, honos, honOris, the first form was analogically altered to produce, the classical forms honor, honOris. As can be seen, the operation of, analogy often disrupts the effects of regular phonological change. See, also analogical extension, analogical levelling. Adj. analogical., bal ISlne~slsl n. An analytical, procedure in which the receiver compares an incoming signal to, one or more internally generated signals~ when a match is found,, the receiver has succeeded in analysing the incoming signal as, equivalent to the known characteristics of the internally generated, match. This approach underlies the motor theory of speech perception. Halle and Stevens (1959)., , analysis-by-synthesis, , I~'nrel~sls, , analysis-synthesis system n. See vocoder., anapaest II ren~pestl n. (also anapest) A metrical foot consisting of, two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed one, or, in quantitative verse, of two short syllables followed by one long. The form, is illustrated by the phrase to the back of beyond and by Clement, Moore's famous poem: 'Twas the night before Christmas, and all, through the house . .. Adj. anapaestic. Greek anapaistos 'reversed' (an, anapaest is a reversed dactyl)., , anaptyxis lren~p'tlkslsl n. (also svarabhakti) A variety of epenthesis, in which a vowel is inserted between two consonants, as in the, pronunciation ofjilm as 'fillum', of athlete as 'athalete' and of Henry, as 'Ennery'. The inserted vowel is called an anaptyctic vowel, a, parasite vowel or a svarabhakti vowel. Adj. anaptyctic lren~p'tlktIk/., Ant. syncope. Greek anaptyxis 'unfolding'., , anataxis, , lren~'trekslsl, , n. In Stratificational phonology, the phenomenon in which elements occurring in one order at a more abstract, level of representation occur in the opposite order at a less abstract, level, as when underlying Korean lalh! + Ikol is realized as lalkho/., Most other frameworks treat such cases as instances of metathesis., Adj. anataetic lren~'trektlk/. Lamb (1966)., , anemometer, , lrenI'mDmIt~1 n., , A device for measuring the velocity, of moving air, such as the hot-wire anemometer used in instrumental phonetics.
Page 38 :
25, , anterior, , angle(d) brackets /l reI)9J(d) brreklts/ n. pl. 1. An abbreviatory, convention which allows the inclusion in a schema of two or more, optional elements which must be either all present or all absent in, anyone reading. For example, consider a language in which all, consonants become palatalized ([+high]) before a high front vowel,, and coronal consonants additionally become palato-alveolar, ([-ant]). This could be expressed as follows:, , [;~~r)], , ~, , [~~~t~, , ], , +syll ], +high, [, -back, , By Proper Inclusion Precedence, the full expansion, including the, material in angle brackets, takes precedence over the expansion, without the material in angle brackets, and the two expansions are, disjunctively ordered. 2. A notational device for setting off, extraprosodic material in phonological representations., , anglicization /rel)ghsaI'zelfJ}./ n. The process of modifying the, pronunciation of a word or name from a foreign language so as to, produce a version which is more or less compatible with the ordinary phonology of English, as when French detente /detot/ and deja, vu /de3a vy/ are rendered as /deIto:nt/ and /del3a vU)u:/, or German, Kant /kant/ is rendered as /ko:nt/ or /krent/. Cf. naturalization. V, anglicize., , angma, , /Irel)m~/, , n. See eng., , anlant I' anloutl n. The first segment in a word, or less commonly,, in a syllable. Cf. inlaut, auslaut. German: ·on-sound'., , antepenult /rentIpI'nAlt/, , n. In a word, the third syllable from the, end. Cf. penult, ultima. Ad}. antepenultimate. Latin anle "before' +, , paene 'almost' + ultima 'last'., , anterior /renltl~ri~(ad}. 1.(ant) In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined as "produced with an obstruction located in, front of the palato-alveolar region'. Thus, labial, dental and alveolar consonants are [+anterior], while palato-alveolars, palatals,, velars, uvulars and glottals are [-anterior]. Vowels are assumed, to be universally [-ant]. Though arguably derived from the, diffuse/compact contrast of the Jakobson-Halle feature system, this, is the most unsatisfactory and controversial of all the SPE features,, since neither [+ant] nor [-ant] segments ever appear to behave as, a natural class, and the definition appears to be little more than an
Page 39 :
26, , anterodorsum, , ad hoc device for distinguishing alveolars from palato-alveolars., Ant. non-anterior. 2. (of a phonation type) Produced exclusively, with the front (ligamenta!) part of the glottis, the back (arytenoidal), part being tightly closed. Anterior voice has a hard, sharp quality,, and is also called tense voice, sharp voice or ligamental voice., Anterior creak and anterior whisper are also possible. See Catford, (1977) for discussion. Abstr. n. anteriority lrentI~rI':):rIti/. Ant., posterior., , anterodorsum, , lrentI~r~'d:):s~m/ n., , Another name for the front of, the tongue, preferred by Catford (1988). Cf. posterodorsum. Adj., anterodorsal., lrener~p~'fDnIksl n. [rare] The study of the entire, range of speech sounds which can be produced by the human vocal, apparatus, independently of whether or how the sounds are used, for any linguistic purpose in any language. Revived by Catford, (1977), this term is nowadays usually avoided in favour of general, phonetics, though it is occasionally preferred for investigations into, such matters as the variation of the vocal tract with sex, age or, ethnic background. Adj. anthropophonic. Baudouin de Courtenay, , anthropophonics, , (1881), probably borrowed from Winteler., , anticipation lrentIsI'peIf:Q1 n. The phenomenon in which a speaker, produces a segment or a feature earlier in an utterance than is, necessary or appropriate. The term is applied both to instances of, anticipatory assimilation, in which it is usually normal, and to slips, of the tongue such as 'blake fluid' for brake fluid and 'bread and, breakfast' for bed and breakfast. Cf. perseveration. v: anticipate., , anticipatory assimilation lren'tIsIpeItri/ n. (also anticipatory coarticulation, regressive assimilation) The phenomenon in which a, phonetic feature spreads from a segment to a preceding segment,, as when English ItI or lsi is pronounced with lip-rounding, when immediately followed by lu:1 or Iwl, as in soon and twice. Cf., perseverative assimilation., , antiformant II rentIf:):m~ntl n. (also zero) For a given resonator, such, as a particular configuration of the vocal tract, a frequency range, in which the system absorbs energy (that is, it exhibits an antiresonance). The result shows up in a sound spectrogram as a white, space. Ant. formant., , antigemination lrentId3emIlnelf:Q1 n. The phenomenon, occurring, in certain languages, by which an otherwise regular phonological
Page 40 :
27, , aphaeresis, , process is blocked whenever it would lead to the creation of a, geminate. See McCarthy (1986)., /'rentln~ud/ n. In a standing wave, anyone of the points, of maximum displacement. Cf. node. Adj. antinodal., , antinode, , /lrentIreZ;}n~ns/ n. The filtering effect of a vibrating, chamber which is unable to vibrate at certain frequencies and which, hence removes those frequencies preferentially from the source, sound. In a sound spectrogram, this results in an antiformant. Cf., resonance., , antiresonance, , anywhere rule /'enIWC;}/ n. (also persistent rule) In a theory of, phonology employing rule ordering, a rule which has no place in, the order but which applies at any and all stages in the derivation, where its structural description is met. Such a rule may therefore, apply several times in the course of a single derivation. Chafe (1967);, Anderson (1974)., /eIpI~rI'odlk/ n. An irregular waveform in which, no consistent pattern of repetition can be observed. Among speech, sounds, fricatives provide the clearest examples of aperiodic waves., Cf. periodic wave., , aperiodic wave, , Apert's syndrome /Irep;}t/ n. A congenital pathological deformation of the supralaryngeal vocal tract in which the palate lies abnormally far back and the pharynx is constricted. The sufferer is unable, to produce the formant frequency range of normal speech and, hence cannot produce the ordinary vowel distinctions; high vowels, are typically absent entirely., , aperture I'rep;}tf;}/ n. 1. The degree or size of an opening, as of the, mouth. 2. [obsolete] A synonym for vowel height. Translation of, German Schallfiille 'sonority' (Trubetzkoy 1939). 3. (also openness) In, Particle Phonology, the conventional name for the particle a. 4. In, some versions of feature geometry, a superordinate node governing, distinctions of vowel height. Sense 4: Clements (1991)., , aperture feature n. One of two features invoked to treat differences, in degree of stricture: stops are [-continuant], fricatives are [+coninuant, -sonorant], and approximants are [+continuant, +sonorant]., See Kenstowicz (1994: 503-506). Donca Steriade, unpublished work., , apex /'e1peks/ n. The tip of the tongue. Adj. apical; CF apico-., aphaeresis lre'fI;}r;}SIs/ n. (also aphesis /'ref;}SIS/) The loss or, omission of one or more segments from the beginning of a word.
Page 41 :
aphetic, , 28, , Examples include the reduction of opossum to possum, esquire to, squire, nadder to adder, acute to cute, and alone to lone, as well as, the loss of initial [k] in knife and the reduction of am and have to, 'm and 've in contractions like I'm and we've. Some sources distinguish aphesis (loss of an initial unstressed vowel) from aphaeresis, (loss of any other initial material), but this distinction is neither, usual nor obviously useful. Some would also extend the term to, instances of clipping like helicopter to copter and airplane to plane., Adj. aphetic or (very rarely) aphaeretic. Ant. prothesis. Cf. syncope,, apocope, and see also initial dropping. The longer form (from Greek, aphairesis "a taking away') was used by the Latin grammarians; the shorter, form (from Greek aphesis "letting go') was coined by James Murray in 1880, with the intended narrower sense just cited., , aphetic, aphonia, , /~'fetIk/ adj., , See under aphaeresis., , /;'I'f~uni~/ n., , The total loss of the ability to use the vocal, , folds to produce phonation. Adj. aphonic, , apical, , /~I'fonlk/., , Cf. dysphonia., , /'repIk~lI, , 1. adj. Pertaining to the tip (apex) of the tongue., 2. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with the tip of the tongue, as in, an apico-alveolar segment. 3. n. A segment so articulated. In the IPA,, an apical articulation may be explicitly represented by the use of the, diacritic Ll below the symbol for an alveolar consonant: [tl, [§]. 4. adj., A binary distinctive feature used in some recent work, chiefly for, distinguishing apical segments ([ +apical]) from laminal segments, ([-apical]), and largely replacing for this purpose the feature distributed used in the SPE feature system. 5. adj. In the Williamson feature, system, one of the three possible values of the feature apicality., , apical-dorsal vowel n. (also apical vowel, coronal vowel) A, phonetic vowel (sense 1) articulated with the tip of the tongue, raised sufficiently to produce audible colouring but not friction., Such vowels occur in certain varieties of Swedish and Chinese. Sec, Laver (1994: 319-320)., , apicality /repl'krehti/, , n. 1. In the Williamson feature system, a, , distinctive feature with the possible values laminal, apical and, retroflex. 2. One of the components of Dependency Phonology,, conventionally represented It I., , apical vowel n. See apical-dorsal vowel., /repIk~u/ 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with, the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge forming the primary, , apico-alveolar
Page 42 :
appeal, , 29, , occlusion. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as [t d n I] in some, languages., , apico-dental 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the tip of the, tongue and the upper teeth forming the primary occlusion. 2. n. A, segment so articulated, such as the dental fricatives [8] and [0] in, Spanish., , apico-Iabial 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the tip of the, tongue and the upper lip forming the primary occlusion: one type, of lingnolabial. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as the plosives., fricatives and nasals reported for the South American language, Umotina (Ladefoged 1971) and for a number of Pacific languages, (Maddieson 1987). In the IPA. an apico-Iabial may be represented, by the use of the diacritic [... ] below the symbol for an alveolar, segment: [1]. [[1]., , apico-post-alveolar 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the tip, of the tongue forming the primary occlusion just behind the alveolar ridge, one type of retroflex articulation. 2. n. A segment so, articulated, such as [1], the most usual realization of English Irl in, England., , apocope, , /~'pok~pi/ n. (also apocopation) The loss or omission of, one or more segments from the end of a word. as in the reduction, of earlier singan to sing. mine to my. passion to pash. fnargarine, to marge and David to Dave. as well as the common reduction of, and to [~n] and of first to [f3:S) in first time [f3:S taim]. Sometimes, the term is extended to cases like Swedish fiicka "girl'. pluralflickor., in which the stem-final -a is dropped before the plural suffix -or., Adj. apocopic Ia:p~'koplk/. Ant. paragoge. Cf. aphaeresis. syncope., , (Jfcck apokopi' 'a cutting off., /~'pof~nV n. A synonym for ablaut hut Coates (1994), recommends that this term should be specialized in a synchronic, sense to denote internal modification of the stem for exclusively, grammatical reasons and as the sole indication of those reasons., Adj. apophonic /rep~'fDnJk/., , apophony, , apparent time, , /~Iprer~nt, , talm/n. The distrihution of linguistic forms, across age groups in a speech community., , appeal j;}'pi:1/ 11. 1. One of the three planes posited for, , phonology~, , with the function of treating such "expressive' phenomena as, exaggerated lengthening and exaggerated pitch differences. Cf.
Page 43 :
appendix, , 30, , expression, representation. 2. In the study of intonation, a label, occasionally applied to certain highly marked patterns with some, kind of ~expressive' function., /~'pendIks/ n. (pI. appendices /~'pendlsi:z/) In some, analyses of (especially English) syllable structure, a consonantal, segment which appears in syllable-final position following another, consonant, such as the final consonants in mind, begged, looked,, heds, fox, width, strange and drinks. The term is particularly, associated with Metrical Phonology., , appendix, , application /reph'keIJI;l/ n. See rule application., /~lpr~otJ/ n. (also closing phase) In the articulation of a, consonant, particularly a plosive, the initial stage of the articulation, during which the articulating organs arc moving together. Cf., hold, release., , approach, , appropriate order /~'pr~opri~t/ fl. [rare] See unmarked order., , Chafe, , ( }1.)67)., , /~'prokslm~nt/ n. 1. (also frictionless continuant) A, segment, usually a consonant (either sense), articulated with a constriction which is typically greater than that required for a vowel but, not radical enough to produce turbulent air flow and hence friction, noise, at least when voiced, though a voiceless approximant may, involve some friction, and necessarily does so in some definitions., Examples: [w j V J]. Ladefoged (1964, 1971), Abercrombie (1967),, Catford (1977) and Laver (1994) offer a range of non-equivalent, definitions of the term. Ladefoged's includes lateral resonants (or, lateral approximants) like /1/, excluded by some others, and also, includes all vowels, a usage which is elsewhere unknown and which, in more recent works he has abandoned (Ladefoged equivocates, over (h j): Catford's includes high vowels like Ii] and [u], not usually, regarded as approximants by other analysts, and also voiceless highvowel realizations of [h], but excludes non-high vowels and non-high, versions of [h): Laver, uniquely, includes the specification ~non, syllabic' in his definition, thereby including (h] but excluding, ordinary vowels. See Laver (1994: 297-3(6). Ladcfogcd (11.)64).2. In the, Ladefoged feature system, one of the three possible values of, the feature stop. 3. In the Williamson feature system, one of the flvc, possihle values of the feature stricture. 4. (app) A distinctive feature, proposed by Clements (1992), by which obstruents and nasals are, (-app] while all other segments are [+app]., , approximant
Page 44 :
31, , archiphoneme, , arbitrariness lo:bI'trC;}rln;}sl n. The general property of human, languages by which there is no necessary, predictable, a priori relation between a particular meaning and the phonological form used, to represent that meaning in a particular language. Thus English, dog, French chien, German Hund, Basque txakur, Turkish kijpek,, Arabic kalb all express approximately the same meaning, while, English mean, Welsh min 'edge', Basque min 'pain', French mine, '(coal) mine', Arabic min 'from', all with roughly the same pronunciation, have quite unrelated meanings. Instances of iconicity, such, as onomatopoeia, constitute partial exceptions to arbitrariness., /o:b~:ri~l k~'nektldn~s/ n. The relation, between two elements which are connected by a unidirectional path, in a metrical tree or a similar representation., , arboreal connectedness, , arboreal framework l'frelmW3:kl n. (also arboreal structure) See, metrical tree., , arc lo:kl n. A directed line in a graph in any of various types of, phonological representations but most familiarly in those used in, Dependency Phonology., , archi- lo:kll A prefix sometimes used in coining convenient labels, for particular archiphonemes. For example, a segment representing, the neutralization of three nasal phonemes might be called an, 'archinasal'., , archiphoneme Ilo:klf;}oni:m/ n. In Prague School phonology, the, name given to a segment which represents the neutralization of, two or more phonemes in a specified environment, often conventionally represented by a capital letter. In English, for example, the, phonemes Ipl and fbi contrast in most positions but are neutralized, after lsi in the same syllable; the unaspirated [p] occurring in the, word speak, for example, would be analysed in the Prague system, as containing the archiphoneme IP/, representing the neutralization, of Ipl and Ibl in this position: hence IsPi:k/. In terms of distinctive, features, the archiphoneme corresponds to the matrix of features, shared by /pl and fbI but excluding those features which otherwise, distinguish the two segments. The archiphoneme analysis contrasts, strongly with most versions of classical phonology, in which the, bilabial in speak must necessarily be assigned to one or the other, of the phonemes Ipl and fbi, most often to Ip/. Adj. archiphonemic., ), , The term was coined by Jakobson (1929), but was given its modern sense by, Trubetzkoy (1939).
Page 45 :
area function analog, , 32, , area function analog /'c~ri~ fAlJkJ~n ren~IDg/ n. An electrical circuit, designed to model the vocal tract, consisting of some number of, subcircuits each modelling one small part of the tract. Widely used, in the 1950s, these circuits were eventually replaced by computer, models. See Dunn (1950) and Fant (1960) for descriptions., /c~ri~U n. A particular phonetic or linguistic characteristic which occurs in a number of (often unrelated) languages in, a single geographical region, such as the absence in East Asia of, a contrast between lateral and non-lateral liquids, the presence, of phonemic tone in West Africa, the presence of click consonants, in southern Africa, and the existence of an unusually large number, of place contrasts for plosives, nasals and laterals in Australia., , areal feature, , k~nsepJ~n/ n., The interpretation of long syllabic nuclei as geminates or other, sequences of short elements, sometimes said to be appropriate for, languages in which the mora, rather than the syllable, is the smallest, prosodic unit. Trubetzkoy (1939)., , arithmetic conception of quantity /rerI9 metIk, l, , arrow /Jrer~u/ n. The symbol-), conventionally used in writing a phonological rule to separate the elements to which the rule applies (on the, left of the arrow) from the result of the application (on the right)., , articulation /o:tIkju'leIJQ./ n. 1. The use of the organs of speech in, the supralaryngeal vocal tract to produce speech sounds. 2. Any, particular posture or movement of these organs involved in the, production of some particular speech sound; the term is most, commonly applied to the production of a consonant (sense 1), but, is sometimes also applied to the production of a vowel (sense 1)., See these terms for information on the description and classification of articulations. Adj. articulatory., , articulation rate n. The tempo of performance of all audible speech,, including filled pauses but excluding silent pauses. Cf. speaking rate., Laver (1994: 539)., , articulation test /test/ n. A common but inappropriate name for a, recognition test., , articulator /0: 'tIkjulelt~/ n. Any specific part of the vocal tract which, may be involved in the articulation of a segment, particularly a, consonant. See active articulator, passive articulator., /'mDd~l/ n. A model of the representation of, speech sounds which posits a close relation between phonetics and, , Articulator Model
Page 46 :
33, , articulatory perturbation, , phonology, in that it represents the actions of each individual articulator - each movable part of the speech organs - by suitable, distinctive features. It differs from traditional models in that each, feature is associated with some specific muscular activity, rather, than with some configuration of the vocal tract. The model has, been developed by Morris Halle and Elizabeth Sagey in a series, of publications beginning with Halle (1983); feature geometry is, a direct outgrowth of this work. See Kenstowicz (1994: 136-168,, ch. 9) for a lengthy presentation with references., , articulatory 10: 'tIkjuleItril adj. Pertaining to articulation(s)., leI 'prreksi~1 n. (also articulatory dyspraxia,, verbal apraxia) A pathological condition characterized by speech, production which is laboured, distorted or impossible, resulting, from damage to specific areas of the brain and not from damage, to motor or sensory faculties., , articulatory apraxia, , articulatory complexity Ikam'pleksIti/ n. A proposed parameter, for classifying consonant articulations in terms of departures from, a default mode of production; consonants are classified as basic,, elaborated or complex segments. Lindblom and Maddieson (19,88)., , articulatory feature n. A distinctive feature which is related, primarily to some aspect of the posture of the vocal organs during, the articulation of a segment, and not to the acoustic qualities of, the sound produced. The earliest distinctive features were mostly, acoustic in nature, but in 1968 Chomsky and Halle introduced a, new set of articulatory features (the SPE feature system), including, such features as coronal, anterior, rounded, nasal and lateral, and, these articulatory features have largely displaced the older ones., , articulatory gesture n. See under gesture., articulatory overlap, , I'auv~lrepl n. The phenomenon in which the, articulatory posture of a following consonant is formed before, the preceding consonant has been completed. This occurs regularly, in English: e.g., [pt] in tiptoe, [tb] in football, [sf] in this fact., , IP3:t~'beIJQ.I n. An experimental technique in which a speaker's articulation is interfered with by mechanical means, such as a biteblock, that would prevent an ordinary, articulatory effort from producing the required sounds. Speakers, tend to compensate strongly for the effects of such interference, and, the nature of the compensation is usually the object of investigation., , articulatory perturbation
Page 47 :
articulatory phonetics, , 34, , articulatory phonetics n. The branch of phonetics which studies, the organs of speech and their use in producing speech sounds., , articulatory phonology n. An attempt at extending the analytical, ideas of Autosegmental Phonology to articulatory phonetics. See, Browman and Goldstein (1986, 1990) for a presentation, Steriade, (1990) and Ladefoged (1990) for critiques., , articulatory place n. (also place) A multivalued distinctive feature, used in some systems, notably in the Ladefoged and Williamson, feature systems. Following the traditional description of place of articulation, this feature can assume anyone of eleven values: (Ladefoged), bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, retroflex, palato-a1veolar,, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal; (Williamson) bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, post-/palato-alveolar, palatal, central, velar,, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal. This feature is intended to supersede the, various binary features used for characterizing place of articulation in, the SPE feature system, such as coronal and anterior., , articulatory posture /'pDStJ;)/ n. The particular configuration of the, organs of speech employed in the articulation (sense 2) of some, particular segment., , articulatory setting n. The overall tendency, on the part of an individual or of the speakers of a particular language, to maintain the, organs of speech in some particular configuration throughout, speech, as reflected in such factors as the height of the velum, the, degree of lip-rounding and the tension of the tongue and lips., Examples of particular settings include the low velum of some, Americans (producing a nasal 'twang'), the high velum of many, speakers in Liverpool (producing 'adenoidal' speech), the weak-tononexistent lip-rounding of some British speakers and the tense, oral cavity of many French speakers. Laver (1994: 406-413) distinguishes longitudinal, cross-sectional and velopharyngeal settings,, with further distinctions within each., , artificial larynx /O:tI'flfV n. A portable device which provides a, replacement for the vibration of the vocal cords for a speaker whose, larynx has been surgically removed. The user presses the device, against the front of her/his throat and speaks as normally as, possible. The resulting speech has a rather strange quality but is, quite comprehensible., , artificial speech n. (also synthesized speech) The output produced, in speech synthesis.
Page 48 :
35, , aspirated, , /rerI'ti:n~)Id ko:t~hd3/ n. Either of the two, triangular cartilages located just above the cricoid cartilage within, the larynx, attached to the back of the vocal folds and capable of, separating the vocal folds or of bringing them partially or wholly, together., , arytenoid cartilage, , /~'send~nsi/ n. In Ireland, a prestigious accent, somewhat resembling Received Pronunciation but not generally, regarded as a norm for Irish pronunciation. From its use by people in, , Ascendancy Accent, , positions of power, traditionally known as the 'Ascendancy' in Ireland., , ash lref/ n. The symbol (reI' used in various orthographies and transcriptions to represent an unrounded front vowel intermediate in, quality between cardinals 3 and 4, as in General American cat. The, symbol [re] is so used in the IPA; the character (re) occurs in the, orthographies of Old English and modern Icelandic. The character, was invented by the Anglo-Saxon scribes; the name is that of the Old English, rune letter representing this vowel., , aspect of articulation I'respektl n. Any factor in articulation beyond, the location and degree of stricture. Laver (1994) recognizes three, general classes: conformational, topographical and transitional, aspects. Laver (1994); Laver credits Elizabeth Uldall with the term., /respl'ro:t~/ n. (pl. aspiratae /-ti:1) (also aspirate) [obsolete], A label commonly applied in nineteenth-century philological, treatises in an indifferent manner to aspirated voiceless plosives,, to murmured plosives Cvoiced aspirates') and to fricatives, all of, which were regarded as united by the presence of breath in their, articulation. Cf. tenuis, media. Latin aspirata "breathed upon'., , aspirata, , I'resp~r~tl n. 1. See aspirata. 2. A segment which is, aspirated (sense 1), such as [ph]. 3. See aspiration (sense 2)., , aspirate, , /'resp~reltld/ adj. 1. (of an obstruent) Immediately, followed by a delay in the onset of voicing; equivalently, followed, by a period of voiceless breathing. In the IPA, an aspirated segment, is represented by the use of the diacritic [h]: hence [ph] represents, an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive. Abstr. n. aspiration. See also, pre-aspiration. Ant. unaspirated. 2. (asp) A distinctive feature used, in some systems for distinguishing aspirated sounds ([+asp]) from, unaspirated ones ([-asp]). This feature is not used in the SPE, feature system, in which aspiration is largely handled with the, feature heightened subglottal pressure. 3. In the Ladefoged feature, system, one of the three possible values of the feature aspiration., , aspirated
Page 49 :
aspirate mutation, , 36, , aspirate mutation n. (also spirantization) One of the mutations of, Welsh, in which, in certain grammatical circumstances, a voiceless, plosive is converted to the corresponding fricative, and a vowelinitial word acquires a preceding [h]. For example, the possessive, ei 'her' induces this mutation (ch, ph and th represent [x], [f] and, [0], respectively): cath 'cat', ei chath hi 'her cat'; pen 'head', ei phen, hi 'her head'; tad 'father', ei thad hi 'her father'; enw 'name', ei, henw hi 'her name'., , aspiration, , lresp~'reIJf.l1 n. 1., , The phonetic phenomenon in which a, segment (normally an obstruent) is followed by a period of voiceless breathing, a 'puff of breath'. Adj. aspirated. See also voice, onset time, preaspiration. See Laver (1994: 348-358). NOTE:, Aspiration is simetimes called voice-onset delay, but this term is actually of, wider applicability than 'aspiration'. 2. (also aspirate) A label sometimes, , applied to the segment [h], the so-called 'voiceless glottal fricative',, actually a voiceless vowel. 3. In the Ladefoged feature system, a, distinctive feature invoked to handle distinctions in voice onset, time; it can assume any of the three values aspirated, unaspirated, or voiced. 4. See lenition (sense 2). 11: (all senses) aspirate., , ASK leI es '0:1 n. See automatic speech recognition., 1~'sIbI1~ntl n. [rare] An affricate whose fricative element, is a sibilant, such as the affricate [ts]., , assibilant, , l~sIbI'leIJf.l1 n. The phonological process in which, another segment is converted to a sibilant. The process t ~ s / _, i, for example, occurs in many Pacific languages. 11: assibilate., , assibilation, , 1~'SIm~leItIdl n. A loan word which has been, completely adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing, language. English examples include music (all speakers and styles),, from French musique [myzik], beret (when homophonous with, berry), from French beret [beRe], and tsetse (when pronounced, /'tetsil), from Tswana tsetse [tsetse]., , assimilated loan, , assimilation, , l~sIm~'leIJf.l/ n., , Any of various phonetic or phonological processes in which one segment becomes more similar to another, segment in the same word or phrase. Examples: the pronunciation, of ten pence as te[m]pence, in which Inl assimilates in place to the, following Ip/; the pronunciation of has she as Iha3Ji:/; the pronunciation of bacon as /beikl)/; the development of earlier *munO, into Icelandic munn. The first two of these illustrate anticipatory, (regressive) assimilation, the last two perseverative (progressive)
Page 50 :
37, , associative relation, , assimilation. Mutual assimilation (assimilation in both directions), is also possible, as when Basque iduri 'seem' becomes uduru in, the Zuberoan dialect (u is a front rounded vowel). The first four, examples also illustrate contact assimilation (between adjacent, segments); the Basque example illustrates distant assimilation, (between non-adjacent segments). Some analysts regard coalescence as a kind of assimilation. Especially in historical phonology,, certain types of assimilation in particular languages have often been, given distinctive names such as affection, umlaut, metaphony and, vowel harmony. Assimilation is usually articulatory in its motivation, but see also acoustic assimilation. See Lass (1984: 8.2) for a, summary of assimilation types. V assimilate;. adj. assimilatory., , assimilation site /salt/ n. For a segment, a position in which that, segment is likely to undergo, or at least capable of undergoing,, assimilation. In English, for example, an alveolar consonant may, undergo assimilation in place when immediately followed by a, bilabial or a velar consonant; this position is an assimilation site, for alveolars., , association /gsgusi'eIJQ./ n. (also linking) In Autosegmental, Phonology, the relation holding between elements which are linked, by association lines and which are hence to be realized simultaneously in the resulting phonological form. Adj. associated, /g'sguJieltld/., , Association Convention n. A central principle of Autosegmental, Phonology. It states: when unassociated autosegments and skeletal, units appear on the same side of an association line, they will be, automatically associated in a one-to-one fashion, radiating outward, from the association line. This convention acts as a kind of default,, assigning all remaining associations straightforwardly after any, special requirements have been met., , association domain n. In some analyses of intonation, a particular, part of an utterance (often a grammatical phrase) over which a, single identifiable intonation contour is realized., , association line n. 1. In Autosegmental Phonology, anyone of the, arcs connecting an element on one tier to an element on another, tier. 2. In Dependency Phonology, anyone of the vertical lines, linking a dependency arc to a phonological element., , associative relation, , /g'sguJi~tIv/, , paradigmatic relation., , n. Saussure's original term for a
Page 51 :
assonance, , 38, , assonance, , Ilres~n~nsl n. 1. Narrowly, the recurrence of the same, vowel sound (or sometimes of similar vowel sounds) in two or more, words in a phrase or in a poem, as in the phrase sweet dreams or, in Dylan Thomas's lines Flash, and the plumes crack, I And a black, cap of jackdaws. 2. Broadly, and now more usually, any repetition, of the same or similar sounds or sound sequences in a short text,, including consonance (sense 2) but often excluding both rhyme and, alliteration. \I: assonate l'res~neItl., , asterisk II rest~rIskl n. (also star) 1. In historical phonology, a symbol, used to mark an unattested earlier form which has been reconstructed on the basis of some evidence, as when English father is, derived from an unattested Proto-Germanic *fadar, or when, English fierce is traced back to a hypothetical Proto-Indo-European, root *ghwer-. 2. A symbol used to mark a form as either nonexistent or impossible. The form /blrekl is a real English word, while, */brrekl is possible but non-existent and */bnrekl is impossible; some, scholars prefer to write **/bnrekl for the impossible case, reserving, the single asterisk for merely non-existent forms. 3. An ad hoc, diacritic occasionally added to a character in a transcription to, represent some segment not otherwise readily representable, such, as p* for the 'tense' bilabial plosive of Korean or v* for the labiodental flap of Shona. 4. In a metrical grid, the usual device for, representing the presence of a beat on a syllable; a larger number, of asterisks represents a more prominent beat., , asymmetric alternation /elsIlmetrIk/ n. An alternation in which a, form A alternates with another form B in some words but not in, others. For example, in Received Pronunciation, the nuclei /u:~1, and /u~/ alternate freely in such words as brewer and fluent, but, other words, such as poor and during, allow only /u~/ and never, /u:~/., , Wells (1982, 1: 56)., , asymmetric vowel n. A vowel in a particular language which,, uniquely among its vowels, undergoes or fails to undergo or to, trigger a number of phonological processes. Recognition of, asymmetric vowels lies at the heart of Radical Underspecification, theory., lellslm~tri/ n. Any of, various phenomena demonstrating that speakers either can produce, distinctions which they cannot hear or can hear distinctions which, they cannot produce. See Labov (1994: chs 12-13) for a review., , asymmetry of production and perception
Page 52 :
39, , ATR, , athematic /edlI'mretlk/ adj. In the morphologies of certain inflected, languages, denoting a lexical item which, in contrast to other items, in its class, lacks a thematic vowel. Most Latin verbs, for example,, are inflected with the use of a thematic vowel: am-a- 'love',, mon-e- 'warn', aud-f- 'hear', but the verbs es- 'be' and fer- 'carry', are athematic. Ant. thematic., , atom, , /Iret~m/, , n. See phonological prime., , Atomic Phonology, , /~'tomIkl n., , A theory of phonology developed, by Daniel Dinnsen in the late 1970s. The framework maintains that, all variation requiring differing formulations of phonological rules, is predictable from a distinguished set of atomic rules and certain, universal principles. These atomic rules express basic phonological, processes like nasalization and lenition in the least general forms, possible; generalizations of these rules (complement rules) are, permitted only in terms of natural classes. No purely phonological, rule may be written which is neither an atomic rule nor a complement rule. The framework is presented in Dinnsen (1978, 1979b);, see Wheeler (1985) for a critical view., , atonic leI'tonIkl, , adj. (of a syllable) Lacking a stress or pitch accent, (sense 3). Abstr. n. atonicity /elt~'nlsIti/. Ant. tonic., , ATR leI ti: '0:1 n. (also advanced tongue root) A distinctive feature, defined as follows: a [+ATR] segment is articulated with the root, of the tongue drawn forward, thus enlarging the pharyngeal, cavity, giving the longitudinal profile of the tongue root a tighter, curve than otherwise and often raising the body of the tongue., This feature has been invoked specifically to handle the unusual, vowel harmony systems of some African languages, in which the, harmony is basetr upon two groups of vowels with advanced and, retracted tongue root. See Stewart (1967), Ladefoged (1968), and Lindau (1978) for instrumental evidence and discussion, and, see Durand (1990) or Laver (1994) for a summary. In the SPE, feature system, the equivalent feature is [covered], with [+cov], corresponding to [-ATR]. In much recent work, [ATR] has been, interpreted as a successor of the earlier feature [tense] and has, accordingly been invoked to double the number of vowel heights, obtainable from the features [high] and [low], in most cases without, any experimental evidence that the feature is realistic. See also, expanded, peripheral. Ant. retracted tongue root. }--lalle and Stevens, (1969).
Page 53 :
attested form, , 40, , 1~'testIdl n. A form which is explicitly recorded in a, text. The term is most commonly used in connection with dead, languages and with earlier forms of living languages. Cf. reconstruction., , attested form, , attitudinal function, , lretI'tju:dIn~ll, , n. The use of some aspect of, speech, most commonly an intonation pattern, to express a particular attitude, such as doubt or enthusiasm. The existence of such, uses is not in doubt, but they have proved extraordinarily difficult, to study in a systematic way., , 1~'trIft:t1 n. The phonological phenomenon in which, segments or syllables are entirely lost from the pronunciation of a, word over time, as in the development of Old English singan, Isil)ganl to sing Isil)/, of Old English hliifdige to lady, of Latin consobrinum to French cousin Ikuzel or of Latin augustum to French, aout luI., , attrition, , I':):di~ul n. The range of frequencies of sound waves, audible to the human ear, conventionally taken as about 20 Hz to, 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), though individuals vary significantly in this, respect., , audio band, , audiogram I':):di~grrem/ n. A graph recording an individual's ability, to hear pure tones of varying frequencies, used to test for and to, characterize hearing loss., 1:):di'Dl~d3il n. The study of hearing and hearing disorders, including diagnosis and treatment. A practitioner is an, audiologist., , audiology, , 1:):di'Dm~tril n. The measurement of hearing and hearing loss. The instrument used is an audiometer 1:):dI'DmIt~/., , audiometry, , audition 1:):'dIft:t1 n. 1. The act of hearing sounds. 2. The sense of, hearing., , audition coloree lodisj5 koloRel n. [French: 'coloured hearing'] The, phenomenon in which an individual associates particular colours, with particular vowels, and occasionally also with particular consonants. Associations vary, but a common pattern is to associate [i], with yellow, [u] with red and [a] with deep blue. First described by, the psychologists Stumpf and Kohler, the phenomenon was brought, to the attention of linguists by Jakobson (1941). See Fischer-·, J~rgensen (1967) for an account. (The associations given in, Rimbaud's famous sonnet Voyelles are anomalous, but are perhaps
Page 54 :
41, , auditory theory, , associations with the shapes of the vowel letters, not with their, sounds.), , auditory, , /'~:dltri/ adj., , Pertaining to hearing., , /~'kju:Iti/ n. An individual's ability to detect sound, and to discriminate various types of sounds., , auditory acuity, , auditory area n. (also auditory cortex /'k:l:teks/) Either of the, two regions of the cerebral cortex of the brain responsible for, processing auditory inpdt. The auditory area is located just below, the lateral (Sylvian) sulcus and in front of Wernicke's area., , auditory discrimination n. The ability of an individual to distinguish sounds with slightly different physical properties; in phonetics,, particularly the ability to distinguish speech sounds or words., , auditory feedback /'fi:dbrek/ n. The phenomenon in which a, speaker hears her/his own speech via the conduction of sound both, through the air and through the bones of the head. Such feedback, is important in monitoring and controlling speech; loss of feedback,, as in severe deafness, may result in abnormal speech. Cf. kinaesthetic feedback and see delayed auditory feedback., , auditory nerve /n3:v/ n. (also acoustic nerve) Either of the two, bundles of nervous tissue connecting the cochlea of the inner ear, to the auditory area of the cerebral cortex., , auditory ossicles n. pI. The three small bones (the malleus, or, hammer, the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup) located in, the middle ear. Vibration of the eardrum is transmitted mechanically by the ossicles to the oval window; the nature of the linkage, is such that it overcomes the mismatch in acoustic impedance, between the middle and inner ears and amplifies sound pressure, by a factor of about 80, or by about 38 decibels., , auditory phonetics n. The branch of pbonetics dealing with the, way in which the human ear and brain process and interpret speech, sounds. See Borden and Harris (1980), Pickett (1980), Denes and, Pinson (1993) or Lieberman and Blumstein (1988) for an introduction., /'eI~ri/ n. Any theory of the manner in which, hearing is performed by the human ear. The accepted theory today, is the place theory of hearing; obsolete views include the resonance, theory and the telephone theory., , auditory theory
Page 55 :
auditory verbal agnosia, , 42, , auditory verbal agnosia /v3:b~1 reg'n~uzi~/ n. A pathological condition in which the sufferer is unable to recognize speech sounds. Cf., visual verbal agnosia. Greek agnosia 'lack of recognition'., , augment /I~:gment/ n. 1. A sequence of one or more segments added, to the stem of a word when certain suffixes are added to it. For, example, while the pair music/musical illustrates the most typical, behaviour of the suffix -al in English, the pairs professor/professorial and intellect/intellectual show the use of an augment [i] or [ju], between the stem and the ~uffix. 2. In the morphologies of certain, languages, notably Ancient Greek, a prefix added to a stem in, certain formations; for example, the verb pempo 'send', stem, pemp-, forms aorist epempon and pluperfect epempsa, both with, the augment e-., /~:gmIn'teIJQ./ n. An analytical procedure for adding, additional consonants to the margins of syllables, in order to, account for consonant clusters in these positions. Steriade (1982)., , augmentation, , /~:g 'mentld/ n. A syllable which has acquired, additional consonants as a result of the loss of a vowel in an, adjacent syllable. For example; the common British pronunciations, of correct and police as /krekt/ and /pli:sl illustrate augmentation, of the second syllable. This process can produce consonant clusters, not otherwise attested, as when tomato is pronounced /t1ma:t;}u/., , augmented syllable, , auslaut /'ousloot/ n. The last segment in a word, or, less commonly,, in a syllable. Cf anlaut, inlaut. German: 'out-sound'., /~:tg'mretIkl n. 1. A highly regular morphological alternation whose conditioning factors are purely, phonological, such as the lsI - Izl - IIzI alternation in the English, plural. Bloomfield (1933: 211). 2. An alternation which applies exceptionlessly to all morphemes and contexts meeting its structural, description. An example is the /r/ - 0 alternation occurring in, the speech of those who use the intrusive r. Ant. non-automatic, alternation. Wells (1949). NOTE: These definitions are not equivalent., , automatic alternation, , automatic rule n. A rule which expresses an exceptionless phonetic, process which takes place below the level of a speaker's awareness,, such as (in English) the aspiration of voiceless plosives before, stressed vowels or the lengthening of vowels before voiced consonants. These are essentially the P rules of Natural Generative, Phonology. See veto phenomenon.
Page 56 :
43, , Autosegmental Phonology, , automatic speech recognition n. (ASR) The use of electronic, systems to process ordinary speech into a form which is suitable, for feeding into a computer program called a 'parser' which can, then interpret its grammatical structure and finally its meaning. The, successful development of ASR systems will allow human beings, to communicate with computers merely by talking to them., , autonomous phoneme, , /~:ltDn~m~s/ n. (also classical phoneme, and, dismissively, taxonomic phoneme) The view of the phoneme, adopted by the American Structuralists and also by the British, phoneticians, in which the phoneme is regarded essentially as a, family of phones related by distribution and phonetic similarity. See, the discussion under phoneme, and see also systematic phoneme., , autonomous phonemics n. [rare] The view that phonology should, be independent of grammar; a term of abuse applied by Postal, (1968) to (some) structuralist approaches., , autosegment, , /I~:t~segm~nt/ n. In Autosegmental Phonology, any, one of the more-or-Iess independent elements recognized as, existing on anyone of the various parallel tiers posited in that, framework, though usually excluding the ordinary segments occurring on the segmental tier, when such a tier is recognized. Adj., autosegmental. 'Auto(nomous) segment'., , autosegmental intonation n. The analysis of intonation within the, framework of Autosegmental Phonology, typically involving for, English only two level tones (High and Low) plus a set of rules, for applying these tones to utterances, in contrast to the three or, four tone levels posited by most earlier approaches. See Hayes and, Lahiri (1991)., /~:t~segment~laI'zeIJQ/ n. The analytical, process of extracting a phonological element, such as [nasal] or, [back], from segmental representations and placing it on its own, tier as an autosegment., , autosegmentalization, , Autosegmental Morphology n. An extension of the ideas of, Autosegmental Phonology to morphology, first proposed by, McCarthy (1979, 1981) for the non-concatenative morphology of, Semitic languages and extended by Halle and Vergnaud (1987) to, concatenative morphology., , Autosegmental Phonology n. A major contemporary theory of, phonology, one of the most prominent of the frameworks collectively
Page 57 :
autotemplatic, , 44, , known as non-linear approaches. In this framework, a phonological, representation takes the form of a chart typically consisting of two, or more parallel tiers; each tier is a linear sequence of elements called, autosegments, and the autosegments on different tiers are related by, association lines. The principal tier, variously called the skeletal tier,, the CV tier, the timing tier or the X-tier, serves as a kind of backbone to which elements on other tiers are associated. Various types, of phonological information are distributed among some number, of additional tiers, typically including at least the segmental tier, (ordinary segments) and (in tone languages) the tonal tier (tones)., The number of distinct tiers recognized is highly variable and, analysis-specific; there has been a notable tendency for the number, of tiers postulated to increase steadily, and some recent analyses, seem to posit a separate tier for every individual distinctive feature., The framework is derivational in conception; phonological processes, apply so as to modify particular tiers or so as to modify the, associations between tiers. Among the principles of the framework, are several weU-fonnedness conditions, notably the Association, Convention and the No-crossing Constraint. Autosegmental, Phonology, which is in many respects a reincarnation of Prosodic, Analysis, was originally developed by John Goldsmith as a way of, treating tones, which frequently seem to act independently of the, segments they are associated with (Goldsmith 1976, 1979); it has, been extensively developed by Goldsmith and others, most notably, Kahn (1980) and Clements and Keyser (1983). Goldsmith (1990) is, the most convenient introduction; Durand (1990) provides a briefer, one. Goldsmith (1976)., /:l:t~tem'plretlk/ adj. Denoting an analysis in which, no template is supplied by the morphology and prosodic structure, is projected from the string of segments by syllabification rules., , autotemplatic, , McCarthy and Prince (1991)., , auxiliary symbol /:l:g'zI1i~ri/ n. Any notational device used in some, system of phonological representation which serves only to provide, a suitable environment for the application of certain rules and never, receives any overt phonetic realization of its own, such as the hash, mark #, representing a word boundary, the plus sign +, representing, a morpheme boundary, and the dollar sign $, representing a syllable, boundary., , avoidance of homonymy /~'v=)ld~ns/ n. See semantic transparency., Gillieron (1921).
Page 58 :
45, , avoidance of merger, , avoidance of merger n. A putative functional principle by which, phoneme systems undergoing change tend to resist mergers in order, to maintain lexical distinctions. Though obviously plausible in, motivation, and supported by such data as chain shifts, the principle has so far not been constrained sufficiently to account for the, numerous mergers which have indisputably occurred, for example, in English, Greek and (most spectacularly) Mandarin Chinese., Appeals to functional load have clearly not been adequate.
Page 59 :
B, babbling /'brebhlJ/ n. The type of sound production characteristic, of an infant immediately before the onset of recognizable speech, production, typically involving the production of repeated syllables, such as [baba] and [dadada]. Cf. cooing. Imitative., , baby talk /'beIbi t:l:k/ n. [non-technical] 1. Any of the various immature forms of speech used by young children. 2. The distinctive, form of speech used by adults in addressing young children, and, sometimes also in other circumstances, typically involving short, sentences with reduced syntax, exaggerated intonation, limited, vocabulary and distinctive lexical items like bikkie and choo-choo., , back /brek/ 1. adj. (of a vowel) Articulated with the highest point, of the tongue at the back of the mouth, as with [u] or [0]. Ant., front. 2. adj. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined, as ~produced with the body of the tongue retracted from the neutral, position'. Back vowels and the glide [w] are [+back], as are velar,, velarized, uvular, uvularized, pharyngeal and pharyngealized consonants; other segments are [-back]. 3. adj. In the Ladefoged feature, system, a binary acoustic distinctive feature defined 'in terms of the, inverse of the difference between the frequencies of formants two, and one' and invoked to distinguish front and back vowels. 4. In, the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to treat, distinctions of backness, with the three possible values front, central, and back. 5. n. See dorsum. Abstr. n. (senses 1-4) backness., , back-formation, , /f:l:'meIf~/, , n. 1. A word formed by the removal, from another word of a morph which resembles a familiar affix,, e.g., edit from editor, sculpt from sculptor and peddle from pedlar,, all by removal of a morph resembling the agent suffix -er, as in, writer. 2. A word formed by the reanalysis of a compound word, and the subsequent removal of an affix which was not originally, an immediate constituent, such as sky-dive from sky-diving (originally [sky] + [diving], but reanalysed as [sky-dive] + [-ing]. 3. The, process of forming a word in either of these ways., , background /'brekgroond/ n. In some analyses of intonation, notably, the three-tone approach, any part of an utterance which is marked
Page 60 :
47, , bandpass filter, , as being out of focus (not new information) by the absence of any, of the distinctive tones associated with material in focus., , backing l'brekIIJI n. Any phonological process in which the articulation of a segment, particularly a vowel, is moved backwards within, the oral cavity, such as the retraction of III to [~] in New Zealand, and the backing of leI to [A] in several northern American cities., Adj. backed. Ant. fronting., , backing diphthong, , in which the second element, is further back than the first, such as [ju] or [ew]. Ant. fronting, diphthong., n. A diphthong, , backness n. 1. The parameter which represents the horizontal, dimension within the vowel space and which corresponds, at least, in principle, to the horizontal location of the highest point of the, tongue during the articulation of a vowel. 2. In some versions of, Dependency Phonology, an element Iwl introduced to separate the, backness and labiality attributes of the more usual lu I. Lass (1984:, 278)., IlpreJ~1 n. Resistance to the flow of air through the, vocal tract caused by articulatory constriction within that tract., , back pressure, , back slang IslrelJl n. A type of word play in which words are, pronounced as though spelled backwards; a well-known British, example is the creation of yob from boy, while French has meuf, from femme., , ballistic movement, , /b~'hstlk mu:vm~ntl, , n. A single rapid movement by an active articulator, most often a part of the tongue,, during which the moving articulator is not held in place for any, significant length of time. Both taps and flaps involve such ballistic, movements. Greek ballein 'throw'., , band-limited signal I'brend hmItIdl n. A signal, such as a sound, wave, which contains only those frequencies lying within a, specified bandwidth. Since the upper limit of the human hearing, range lies at about 20 kHz, most high-quality sound reproduction, operates with signals limited to the band 0-20 kHz, which makes, digital processing easier. An ordinary telephone line is limited to, a bandwidth of 0-3.2 kHz., , bandpass filter I'brendpo:s/ n. An electronic circuit which has the, property that it allows waves within a certain frequency range, (the 'pass band') to pass through undisturbed, while at the
Page 61 :
bandwidth, , 48, , same time it drastically reduces the energy contained in higher, or lower frequencies and hence selectively filters them out. Such, a filter might, for example, have a pass band of 135-180 Hz,, giving it a bandwidth of 45 Hz. A battery of bandpass filters with, adjoining pass bands can be used to analyse a sound wave into, components of varying frequencies; this is how a sound spectrograph works., , bandwidth !lbrendwld9! n. 1. The range of frequencies present in a, complex sound wave. High-quality sound reproduction apparatus,, for example, normally produces sound waves ranging from 20 Hz, to 20,000 Hz (the audio band). 2. The range of frequencies passed, by a bandpass filter, most commonly expressed as a difference. A, filter that passes frequencies in the range 135-180 Hz has a bandwidth of 45 Hz., !k~mlpreJQ.! n. The operation of converting a signal of a certain bandwidth into a form occupying a, much smaller bandwidth so that it can be economically transmitted., All systems for doing this necessarily involve some loss of information and require elaborate apparatus for compressing the signal, and for reconstructing it at the receiving end. Such compression, offers obvious benefits in, for example, maximizing the use of, telephone cables., , bandwidth compression, , !bc~(r) lrelJk~! n. In Autosegmental Phonology, a, position on the skeletal tier which has no material associated with, it on other tiers. Cf. lIoating., , bare anchor, , barred; /bo:d laII n. The symbol [t], used in the IPA to represent, a high central unrounded vowel., , barred u !ju:!, , n. The symbol [u], used in the IPA to represent a, high central rounded vowel., , barrier, , l'breri~1, , n. (also blocker) Any segment or boundary in a, phonological form which prevents some otherwise regular phonological process from applying to a domain including it, often, especially a process involving two other non-adjacent segments on, opposite sides of the barrier., , base /beIS! n. 1. (also base form) In morphology, a morph, variously, consisting of a root, a stem or a word, which serves, upon the, addition of a single further morpheme, as the immediate source of, some particular formation: thus, for example, happy is the base for
Page 62 :
49, , basic stress rule, , the formation of both unhappy and happily, while unhappy is the, base for the formation of both unhappily and unhappiness. 2., See stem., , base form n. 1. (also basic altemant) A single, abstract representation of a morpheme, in terms of phonemes and frequently also, morphophonemes, posited as the form from which all a1lomorphs, of that morpheme can be derived by regular rules or statements., Base forms were used in one form or another by Sapir, Bloomfield, and Harris, among others, and are the direct ancestors of the underlying forms of generative phonology. See Sommerstein (1977:, 43-44) for some discussion. 2. See base (sense 1)., , baseline /'beIslaIni n. In some analyses of intonation, a pitch level, which acts as a reference level with respect to which heights and, contours can be identified; the floor of the current pitch span. The, baseline is not necessarily of constant pitch throughout an utterance; see declination. Cf. topline., , basic alternant /'beISIk/ n. A former term for the underlying form, of a morpheme. The term is still sometimes applied to that one, alternant of a morpheme which can be identified with the underlying form, if such an alternant exists. Bloomfield (1933)., , basic beat n. In some versions of Metrical Phonology, the name, given to a strong demibeat - in most cases, simply a stressed, syllable., , Basic Beat Rule n. In some (especially grid) versions of Metrical, Phonology, a rule or set of rules with the function of applying to, a more elementary representation to pick out the syllables with, primary stress., , basic components of speech n. pi. The minimal set of physical, phenomena without which speech is impossible, identified as, airstream mechanism (initiation) and articulation (both obligatory),, with phonation optionally but frequently also present. Catford (1977)., , basic segment n. In the articulatory complexity model, a segment, whose articulation does not depart from the default mode of, production., , basic stress rule n. A set of putative rules for determining the position of the stress in English words. For example, Kreidler (1989:, 2ooff.) presents a set of rules in terms of lexical category, syllable, quantity and number of syllables.
Page 63 :
basic tone, , 50, , basic tone n. In some analyses of intonation, anyone of a small, number of tones (sense 3) regarded by the analyst as fundamental, in that every other tone is analysed as a variant of one of these, basic tones., , basilar membrane, , IbrezI1~, , 'membrelni n. The membrane running, through the length of the cochlea, responsible for transmitting, vibrations from the oval window to the organ of Corti., , BBC accent fbi: bi: Isi:/ n. (also BBC English) A name formerly, given to the type of British English accent usually called Received, Pronunciation, reflecting the fact that this sort of accent was once, regularly used by newsreaders and announcers on the BBC. Today, few BBC personnel have such an accent, and the term is no longer, appropriate., /'bc~rIIJ ju:nlt/ n. In Autosegmental Phonology, any, class of autosegments with which some other class of autosegments, is most typically associated. For example, in many tone languages,, tones are typically phonetically realized on vowels, and hence, vowels are tone-bearing units., , bearing unit, , beat /bi:t/ n. 1. The accent, stress or ictus in a metrical foot. 2. In, grid versions of Metrical Phonology, any mark in the grid above, the bottom (syllabic) level, representing a metrical unit which is, ~strong' at that level. Cf. demibeat. Selkirk (1984)., , Beat Addition n. In some versions of Metrical Phonology, a procedure for inserting an extra beat into a grid. Hayes (1984)., , Beat Movement n. See iambic reversal., bedroom voice /lbedru:m1 n. [non-technical] A semi-jocular label, for whispery voice (murmur), applied because such phonation is, thought to be particularly appropriate in the bedroom., , bel /bel/, , n. A unit of sound intensity, equal to 10 decibels. After, Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922), inventor of the telephone., , Bell-Sweet model /bel swi:t/ n. See tongue-arching model., Bernoulli effect /b3: 'nu:li Ifekt/ n. (also Bernoulli principle) The, physical phenomenon by which the sideways air pressure on a solid, body is reduced when the air is flowing past the body; the faster, the air moves~ the lower the pressure. Responsible for such effects, as the curvature of a pitched baseball and the lift on an airplane, wing, the principle is chiefly important in phonetics in causing
Page 64 :
51, , bilateral opposition, , the vibration of the vocal folds: air flowing upwards forces the, vocal folds apart, but, as soon as it flows past them, the pressure, drops, and the folds spring back together; the rapid repetition, of this sequence constitutes voicing. The effect is also crucial in, the production of trills. After Daniel Bernoulli (1700--1782), Swiss, mathematician., lbaIldent~11 1. adj. (of an articulation) Produced with the, main constriction occurring between the upper and lower teeth., 2. n. A segment so articulated. Bidentals are virtually unknown,, but Catford (1977: 148; 1988: 85) reports that a voiceless bidental, fricative occurs in a dialect of the Caucasian language Adyghe, (Circassian); see also Laver (1994: 248). There are no IPA symbols, for bidentals., , bidental, , bidirectional spreading, , lbaldllrekJ~n~11, , n. The phenomenon in, which an autosegment or other phonological element, once introduced into a phonological form at any poinC is extended both, to the left and to the right up to the relevant boundaries. In, Akan, for example, the feature [+ATR], once present on any, vowel in a root or affix, spreads to every vowel in the phonological, word., , bidirectional tone n. In intonation, a tone (sense 3) whose contour, involves a change of direction: a fall-rise or a rise-fall., , bilabial IbaI IIeI bi~ll 1. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with both, lips; the conventional label for what might more systematically, be called ~labio-Iabial'. 2. n. A consonant so articulated, such as, [m], [p] or [b]. 3. adj. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature, systems, one of the eleven possible values of the feature articulatory place., , bilabialized, , Ibaillelbi~lalzdl adj., , An accurate but rare synonym for, , labialized., IbaIllret~r~lI n. or adj. Denoting a lateral consonant in, which air flows through openings on both sides of the medial, closure, as in most pronunciations of English 11/. Cf. unilateral., , bilateral, , bilateral opposition n. In Prague School phonology, the relation, holding between two contrasting segments which are the only ones, contrasting along a particular dimension. For example, English ItI, and Idl represent a bilateral opposition, as do IfI and lvi, since these, pairs contrast in voicing (voiceless vs. voiced), and there is no third
Page 65 :
Bill Peters effect, , 52, , member of the opposition exhibiting a third value of voicing. Cf., multilateral opposition., 'pi:t~z Ifektl n. The phenomenon in which a, single speaker consistently produces a conspicuous difference, between certain segments in spontaneous speech but pronounces, these segments identically, or nearly identically, in self-conscious, speech, possibly to the extent of not being able to distinguish them:, a special case of near-merger apparently resulting from the unconscious acceptance, in adulthood, of an innovating (near-)merger as, the norm. Labov (1994: 363): after an individual who showed this phenom-, , Bill Peters effect IbI1, , enon particularly clearly in respect of the cot/caught merger., , bimodal /hal 'm~ud~l/ adj. (of a phonological property) Capable of, being expressed either in articulatory or in acoustic terms. Lass (1984:, 177)., Ibalm~'reIIkl n. A long vowel. Cf. monomoraic, vowel, non-moraic vowel. Hayes (1989)., , bimoraic vowel, binarism, , I'baln~rlztp/ n., , (also binarity) The use of binary features., , binarity Ibal 'nrerltil n. 1. The property of being binary, as of a binary, feature or a foot with binary branching. 2. (also binarity hypothesis) The proposal that distinctive features should always be binary,, at least at the phonological level. See Sommerstein (1977: 109-110), for some critical discussion., I'baln~ril n. 1. The property of a node in a, metrical tree or other arboreal structure which has exactly two, branches. 2. The requirement, advocated by some linguists, that no, such node may have more than two branches; some would go, further and require every node to have exactly two branches., , binary branching, , binary feature n. A distinctive feature which can assume one of, only two possible values; most typically, though not necessarily, the, two values are represented as + and -, indicating that the feature, in question is present or absent, respectively; two segments which, differ only in having the + and - specifications for a single feature, represent a bilateral opposition. For example, the feature nasal is, binary in many systems: nasality is either present ([+nasal]) or, absent ([-nasal]), and there is no third possibility. Binary features, are convenient because (1) they are easy to manipulate, and (2), they impose an explicit decision procedure about whether an input, meets the structural description of a rule, and such features as nasal,
Page 66 :
53, , biuniqueness, , coronal, continuant, lateral and syUabic have often seemed to be, intrinsically binary. However, such parameters as place of articulation, vowel height and phonation tyPe are not obviously binary at, all, since they typically allow three or more contrasts along a single, dimension; consequently, attempts to treat these parameters in, terms of binary features have often led to a good deal of seemingly ad hoc manoeuvring. The Jakobson-HaUe feature system is, exclusively binary in principle, though the sharp/plain/Oat features, actually represent a disguised ternary feature, and there is the, complication that features are sometimes also allowed to assume, the third value zero, meaning 'irrelevant'. The SPE feature system, is rigidly binary, but suffers from severe shortcomings, for example, in its treatment of vowel height and in its invoking of the highly, ad hoc feature anterior. More recent systems, such as the Ladefoged, and Williamson feature systems, have abandoned binarism and, allowed multivalued features with any number of possible values;, this approach retains phonetic reality and minimizes ad hoc-ness,, but the resulting features are sometimes cumbersome to manipulate. See also unary feature., , binaural lbal'nJ:rdll adj. Involving the use of both ears. Human, hearing in ordinary circumstances is binaural, and the slight difference in timing and intensity between the sound waves reaching the, two ears is important in locating the source of a sound., , binyan I'blnjdn/ n. (pI. binyanim IbIn'jo:nIm/) (rarely also wazn), In Semitic languages, one of the systematic sets of derived forms, of a verbal root typically expressing distinctions of grammatical, categories such as voice. Examples from Arabic: katab 'write',, kattab "cause to write', kaatab 'correspond', 7aktab 'cause to, write" takaatab 'write to each other', nkatab 'subscribe'. See nonconcatenative morphology. Hebrew grammar., , bisegmental lbaIseg'mentdll adj. Consisting of a sequence of two, segments. While Russian tsar, for example, begins with a single, consonant Itsl, the initial [ts-] of English tsar must be analysed as, bisegmental, since English has no affricate /ts/., , bisyllable /'baIsIldbdl/ n. See disyllable. Adj. bisyllabic /baIsl'lrebIk/., biteblock I'baltblnkl n. A mechanical device which prevents complete, closure of the jaw, used in articulatory perturbation experiments., , biuniqueness /balju'ni:knds/ n. The principle, a strengthened form, of the consistency requirement, that a phonetic transcription of a
Page 67 :
blade, , 54, , known language must be uniquely translatable into a phonemic, transcription, and vice versa, down to the level of free variation in other words, a given phone in a given environment must be an, allophone of one and only one phoneme. Acceptance of biuniqueness entails rejection of any analysis involving complete overlapping, and typically compels the recognition of extensive, morphophonemic alternation. First advanced by Bloch (1941), this, principle was named by Harris (1944), and it formed a cornerstone, of the phonology of the American Structuralists. Perhaps more than, any of the other structuralist principles, this one obliged its proponents to accept distasteful and counter-intuitive analyses, a fact, recognized by Bloch himself. Biuniqueness was the target of Halle's, argument, and is rejected by all more recent theories of phonology., , blade /bleld/ n. (also lamina) That part of the upper surface of, the tongue extending about one centimetre behind the tip. The, blade is involved in the most widespread articulations of English, [s t n 1]. Adj. laminal. CF lamino-., , blade vowel n. See laminal-dorsal vowel., blank-filling rule /'blrelJk fdIIJ/ n. A rule specifying a non-distinctive, phonetic feature of a segment, such as the rule specifying that all, English vowels are non-nasal, or the rule specifying that all English, non-obstruents are voiced., , bleeding order /'bli:dIIJ/ n. In a system allowing ordered rules, an, ordering between two rules such that the earlier one destroys some, cases to which the later one could otherwise have applied. The first, rule is said to bleed the second. The opposite order is counterbleeding order. Cf. feeding order. Kiparsky (1965, 1968a)., , blend /blend/ n. (also portmanteau word) A word formed by, blending., , blending /'blendIIJ/ n. The process of word formation by the combination of arbitrary parts of existing words: smog (smoke plus fog),, paralympics (parallel plus Olympics), Oxbridge (Oxford plus, Cambridge), chunnel (channel plus tunnel). See Bauer (1983) for, discussion., , Bloch and Trager system /blok ;)nd 'treIg;)/ n. A phonological, analysis of the English vowel system presented by Bernard Bloch, and George Trager (Trager and Bloch 1941). Bloch and Trager, analysed all the vocalic nuclei of English into combinations of just
Page 68 :
55, , borrowing, , nine elements: six simple vowels and the three prosodies j, wand, h. Nuclei were classed into four types: (1) V (short vowels); (2) Vj, (diphthongs with fronting offglides); (3) Vw (diphthongs with, backing offglides); (4) Vh (both long vowels and diphthongs, with centring offglides, the difference being conditioned by the, identity of V). The Bloch and Trager system was superseded by, the modified version called the Trager-Smith system, published in, 1951., , block /blnk/ n. Anyone of the minimal tone units, each consisting, of a single rise or fall, posited in the Collier-'t Hart analysis of, intonation., , blockage constraint l'blnkId31 n. Any constraint on the application, of a rule of the form 4No form may undergo rule A, even though, it meets that rule's structural description, if it has already undergone rule B'. Here rule B is said to block rule A. Cf. precedence, constraint. Sommerstein (1977: 177)., , blocker, , l'blnk~1 n., , See barrier., , blocking l'blnkIIJ/ n. 1. The phenomenon in which a particular, segment or boundary acts as a barrier to the propagation of vowel, harmony or consonant harmony through a word or morpheme. See, opaque vowel. 2. In word formation, the phenomenon by which, the existence of a regular derived form is apparently prevented by, the prior existence of a distinct word, or of a form derived by a, less productive path, of identical meaning. Thus, *inhabiter is, blocked by inhabitant, *cooker eone who cooks') is blocked by, cook, and *stealer is blocked by thief., , body I'bndi/ n. 1. The entire mass of the tongue. 2. In some analyses, of intonation, all the syllables occurring between the head and the, nucleus., l'bnr~uIIJ/ n. The process by which words (or less, commonly bound morphemes) which exist in one language are, copied into another language; words borrowed in this way are, called loan words. Extensive borrowing can have significant consequences for the phonology of the borrowing language: English, for, example, has largely acquired its phonemes lvI, /3/ and /d3/ as a, result of borrowings from French like very, pleasure and joy. More, recent loans like pueblo (Spanish) and tsunami (Japanese) have, altered the phonotactics of English. See also coexistent phonemic, systems. Adj. borrowed., , borrowing
Page 69 :
boundary, , 56, , I'bound~ril n. 1. Any of various elements which have, often been recognized as separating phonological elements at some, level of representation. The syllable boundary ($ or .) is unique in, having no lexical or grammatical correlate. Others which have often, been regarded as universal are the morpheme boundary (+), the, single word boundary (#), the double word boundary (##) and, the phonological phrase boundary (II). Further language-specific, boundaries have also been proposed, such as the equal sign, boundary (=) recognized by Chomsky and Halle (1968) for separating prefixes from roots in certain English words of Latin origin., 2. A proposed multivalued distinctive feature invoked to handle, phonological boundaries in sense 1, in which the value zero represents no boundary, 1 represents a morpheme boundary, and further, values are invoked as necessary for distinguishing among further, boundaries. Sense 2: McCawley (1968)., , boundary, , boundary signal n. (also Grenzsignal) The Prague School term for, the junction prosody of Prosodic Analysis and the juncture of, the American Structuralists. The notion was little developed by the, Prague School theorists. See Fischer-J0rgensen (1975: 40)., , boundary tone n. In the generative analysis of English intonation,, a special type of tone (sense 3) which falls on the very last syllable, of a tone-group and handles any tonal movement associated with, that syllable. Two types are recognized, denoted HOlo and LO/o., , bounded foot I'boundldl n. In Metrical Phonology, a metrical foot, which is limited to occurring over a specified maximum number of, syllables. Ant. unbounded foot. See Katamba (1989: 229-231) for, discussion., , bound form /bound/ n. A morph which can never stand alone to, make a word but which must always be combined with other material. Examples are the English derivational affixes re- (as in rewrite), and -er (as in writer), the inflectional affixes plural -s (as in dogs) and, -ing (as in writing), the clitics -'ll (as in He'll do it) and possessive, -'s (as in John's book), the combining forms step- (as in stepmother),, eco- (as in ecosystem) and -phobia (as in arachnophobia), the Latin, verbal root am- 'love' and the present and perfect stems ama- and, amav- of the same verb (as in amat 'he loves' and amavi 'I have, loved'), the Turkish passive inflection -n- (as inyenmek 'to be eaten'), and the Arabic verbal root ktb 'write' (as in kataba 'he wrote' and, maktu:b 'written'). A bound form which is a single morpheme, like, most of the examples above, is a bound morpheme Cf. free form.
Page 70 :
57, , brackets, , braces /'brelSIZ/ n. pI. (also curly braces, curly brackets) 1. An abbreviatory convention used to combine in a single rule schema two or, more rules which are identical except for the presence of different, elements at one point; the alternative elements are listed within a, pair of braces. For example, the two rules [+obstr] ~ [-voice] / _, [-voice] and [+obstr] ~ [-voice] / _ # could be combined into, the schema [+obstr] ~ [-voice] / _ {[-voice], #}, indicating that, an obstruent is voiceless either before a voiceless segment or wordfinally. Cf. brackets. 2. A similar notation used to express a disjunction of feature specifications. For example, the notation, , [{:~It }], identifies the class of coronals which are either voiceless or noncontinuant (or both). 3. In some contemporary frameworks, the, symbols used to enclose the symbols for the phonological primes, of the system or clusters of such primes; for example, Ii}, {u} and, {a} are the components of Dependency Phonology and Ii, a} and, {a; i} represent various possible combinations of these elements., , Bracket Erasure Convention /'brrekIt, , IreI3~/, , n. In Lexical, Phonology, the convention by which all internal brackets, (morpheme boundaries) are deleted at the end of each level of, processing. This principle largely guarantees the modularity of LP, by denying later levels of processing access to structural information relevent to earlier levels., , bracketing paradox /'brrekItII), , prer~dDks/ n. Any of various, phenomena in which the structure required by the phonology is in, conflict with the structure required by the morphology. For, example, the morphological structure of ungrammaticality must be, [[[un-][grammatical]]-ity], since un- cannot be attached to a noun,, but standard views of phonology require the stress-affecting suffix, -ity to be added before the stress-neutral prefix un-., , brackets /'brrekIts/ n. pi. (also square brackets) 1. The conventional, notation for enclosing symbols representing either individual, phones or sequences of phones in a phonetic transcription. Thus,, for example, [m] represents a voiced bilabial nasal, [k h] represents, an aspirated voiceless velar plosive, and [khrem] represents a typical, pronunciation of English cam. Cf. slashes. 2. The conventional, symbol for enclosing distinctive features, with or without their
Page 71 :
58, , Branching Rhyme Hypothesis, , values: [tense], [+coronal], [-voice]. 3. A conventional device for, identifying the morphological structure of a form: [[[ un-] [[know], [-ing]]][ -ly]]. Such a bracketing is equivalent to a tree. 4. An abbreviatory convention which has (very rarely) been used in generative, phonology for combining two or more phonological rules into a, single rule schema in the following way: the notation, , D and B ~ C I, E. That, abbreviates the two rules A ~ C I, is, the bracket notation requires that corresponding elements must, be selected from each pair of brackets in anyone reading of the, schema, and hence any schema involving brackets must contain at, least two pairs of brackets. (Note that if the two sets of brackets, were replaced by braces here, the resulting schema would then, abbreviate four rules, the two given above and the two additional, ones A ~ C I _ E and B ~ C I _ D.) 5. In Lexical Phonology,, the conventional device for enclosing material which is accessible, during the current cycle or at the current level., haIpD8~sISI n. A, proposal within Autosegmental Phonology for making a principled, distinction between light and heavy syllables. It says: a syllable with, a non-branching rhyme is light, while one with a branching rhyme, is heavy., , Branching Rhyme Hypothesis Ibro:ntJIIJ raIm, I, , breaking IlbreIkIIJI n. (also fracture) 1. More generally, any form of, diphthongization in which a (typically long) vowel acquires a, centring off-glide. Such breaking often accompanies the raising of, a long vowel. See Labov (1994: ch. 5). Ant. smoothing. 2. More, specifically, this development when it occurs before a following, consonant, sometimes still more specifically one in which a front, vowel acquires an off-glide before a following velarized consonant., The term in this narrow sense is applied to certain developments, in the early history of English, as examplified by the development, of *rerm into earm and of *herte into heorte. Translation of German, Brechung, coined by Jakob Grimm, though Grimm's use of the term was rather, wider., , breaking of the voice n. See voice mutation., breath /bre81 n. A phonation type, involving turbulent, noisy voiceless flow of air through the open glottis, typically at volume velocities above about 2Q{}-300 cm 3/s; below this rate only nil phonation
Page 72 :
59, , British school of phonetics, , occurs. Breath is typically used in English for producing aspirated, plosives and [h]. Breath differs from whisper in that, in breath, the, glottis is wide open, the larynx is relaxed, the volume-velocity of, air flow is lower and the sound produced is less loud. Breath is one, type of voicelessness., , breath group /gru:p/ n. In principle, a stretch of utterance produced, within a single, defined, but it, purposes - for, be the domain, , expiration of breath. The notion is not really well, has often been invoked for various phonological, example, the breath group has often been said to, of stress in French., , breathy voice /'bre9i/ n. 1. A phonation type produced with very, low muscular tension in the larynx; the vocal folds vibrate but do, not meet completely, and the rate of air flow is therefore high,, producing a 'breathy' or 'sighing' voice quality. Breathy voice is, not known to be used contrastively in any language, but is characteristic of some individuals on some or all occasions. 2. A very, common, but erroneous, synonym for whispery voice., , breve /bri:v/ n. The diacritic ['"'], used in various orthographies and, transcriptions for various purposes. The breve was originally used, in classical scansion to mark a short syllable, and is still used in, English scansion to mark unstressed syllables. Many dictionary, transcriptions of English pronunciation use the breve to mark, 'short' (lax) vowels. The breve is currently recognized by the IPA, for marking extra-short vowels. Latin breve, neuter of brevis 'short', , bright /braIt/ adj. (also clear) An impressionistic label occasionally, applied to a vowel which is front and unrounded, such as [i] or [e], - roughly, then, to a vowel which is acute and non-flat in the, Jakobsen-Halle feature system. Ant. dark., , brightening /'braIt~nIlJ/ n. A term used in Germanic phonology for, certain instances of the fronting of back vowels. The word for 'day', is Gothic dags, Old Icelandic dagr, Old High German tag, but, Old English dreg and Old Frisian deg, the last two exhibiting, brightening., , British school of phonetics /'brItI! sku:l/ n. The name commonly, given to the long and continuous tradition of work in phonetics, (especially articulatory phonetics) in Britain, particularly in, England and most especially in London. Serious work on phonetics, began in England as early as the sixteenth century, but the label, 'British school' is usually reserved for the work that began in the
Page 73 :
broad a, , 60, , nineteenth century with A. 1. Ellis, A. M. Bell and, most famously,, Henry Sweet, one of the originators of the phoneme principle. The, pivotal figure in the tradition, however, was Daniel Jones, who, created the cardinal vowel system and established at the University, of London the world's premier centre for the study of phonetics;, those trained by Jones or by his students include David, Abercrombie, A. C. Gimson, 1. D. O'Connor, Peter Ladefoged and, John Wells. Jones and his successors are variously responsible for, such important contributions as EPD, OEP, the Gimson-O'Connor, system of transcribing English, the Ladefoged feature system and, LPD., , broad a Ibr:J:d leII n. The long low back vowel used in the pronunciation of such words as as car and father, and also in dance, bath,, half, grass and example by certain speakers of English, notably by, speakers of Received Pronunciation; other speakers pronounce, these words with the short front vowel of cat., , broad accent n. [non-technical] An accent (sense 2) which is, perceived as rustic, vulgar or difficult to understand., , broad consonant n. In Irish, a consonant which is not palatalized, and which contrasts with a palatalized ('slender') consonant having, the same place and manner of articulation: thus b6 'cow' Ibo:/, with, a broad plosive, contrasts with beo 'alive' /b'o:/, with a slender, plosive, and bad 'boat' Iba:dl contrasts with baid 'boats' Iba:d'/., , broad focus n. In intonation, the case in which the whole of the, intonation group is in focus, as typically occurs in an 'out-of-theblue' utterance. See Cruttenden (1986). Ant. narrow focus., , broad transcription n. See phonemic transcription. Cf. narrow transcription., , brogue Ibr;}ugl n. [non-technical] 1. A popular term for a conspicuously Irish speech variety. 2. Occasionally, any conspicuous, regional accent. From brogue, a type of heavy shoe worn by Irish farmers., , bronchi /'brolJkaI/ n. pl. (also bronchial tubes) The two tubes formed, by the conjunction of the bronchioles at the tops of the lungs; they, unite at the base of the trachea., , bronchioles /'brolJkI;}ulzl n. pI. The multiply-branching small tubes, running throughout the lungs and connecting the bronchi to the, alveoli.
Page 74 :
61, , burst, , Brooklynese /brukh'ni:z/ n. [non-technical] A label for the speech, of the borough of Brooklyn in New York City, or often for a stereotyped media caricature of such speech. While similar in most, respects to the speech of metropolitan New York generally,, Brooklynese is conventionally characterized by the oil/earl merger,, often perceived by outsiders as a reversal of these two nuclei,, leading to such conventional representations of the variety as the, baseball commentator's 'Hoiman hursted to Hoisf for 'Herman, hoisted to Hurst'. This merger is said to be now sharply recessive., , Brummie /'brAmi/ n. [non-technicalJ The traditional label for, the distinctive speech variety of the West Midlands of England,, centred on the city of Birmingham, or for a person who uses this, variety. From Brummagem, a representation of the local pronunciation of, 'Birmingham'., , buccal, , l'bAk~l/ adj., , 1. A less usual synonym for oral (sense 1)., 2. More specifically, pertaining to sounds articulated within the, cavity of the cheek(s), as in the buccal speech of Donald Duck., , buccal cavity n. See oral cavity., bunched r IbAntJtl n. See molar, , T., , bunching l'bAntJuJI n. Any configuration of the tongue in which the, tongue body is held tensely in a position far from its rest position,, as in the production of [i] or [J], or of molar T. Adj. bunched., , bundle, , /'bAnd~l/, , n. A segment regarded as a collection of feature, specifications. The view of segments as feature bundles was first, put forward in Prague School phonology~ it was accepted in all, versions of generative phonology, and most contemporary theories, of phonology, in so far as they recognize segments at all, interpret, them as bundles of phonological primitives of one sort or another., , burr /b3:1 n. [non-technical] 1. A uvular realization of the phoneme, Irl in English, such as that found in Northumbria. 2. Occasionally,, a trilled realization of Irf, such as occurs in some Scottish varieties, , of English. 3. An accent using one of these pronunciations. Imitative., , burst fb3:stf n. (also stop burst) The small audible explosion which, accompanies the release of a plosive, often especially its appearance as a sudden peak of energy in a sound spectrogram.
Page 75 :
c, c Isi:1 n. A symbol sometimes used to represent a consonant, position in graphical presentations of syllable structure., , C n. In phonology, the conventional cover symbol for any consonant, used in presenting canonical forms (as in the CV syllable, structure) and in abbreviating phonological rules (as in C ~ 0 I, C _ C ). Often this symbol is restricted to [-syllabic] segments,, and hence excludes glides., Ik~'kDf~ni/ n. Jarring, discordant, unharmonious sound, or speech. Adj. cacophonous., , cacophony, cacuminal, , Ik~'kju:mln~l/ adj., , [obsolete] See retroftex. Latin cacilmen, , "point, top'., , cadence, , l'keId~nsl n., , 1. A rhythmic beat, as in verse or music. 2. A, fall in the pitch of the voice at the end of an intonational phrase., 3. In some analyses of intonation, a binary distinctive feature in, which [+cadence] indicates the presence of a fall. Old Italian cadenza, "a, , fall'~, , sense 3: Vanderslice and Ladefoged (1972)., , caesura ISI'zju~r~1 n. (also cesura) 1. A pause or break within a line, of verse, conventionally indicated by the symbol II, as in Pope's line, To err is human, II to forgive, divine. 2. The presence of a word, boundary within a metrical foot. Latin: "a cutting'., , calque Ikrelkl n. (also loan translation) A lexical item or phrase which, is borrowed from another language, not directly, but by translating, the foreign item more or less literally, morpheme by morpheme. For, example, Greek sympathia (literally, 'with-suffering') was calqued, into Latin as compassio (also literally ~with-suffering'), and this in, turn was calqued into German as Mitfeid (also literally 'withsuffering'). The entire French phrase if va sans dire has been calqued, into English as it goes without saying. v: calque., Ik~'neIdi~n/ n. The phenomenon, occurring in, most Canadian and some American accents, by which the first, element of the diphthongs lail and laul is centralized ('raised') in, specified circumstances. Most typically, such raising occurs when, , Canadian raising
Page 76 :
63, , cardinal vowel system, , the diphthong is immediately followed by an underlyingly voiceless consonant in the same morpheme - hence the famous contrast, between rider and writer, which, thanks to the tapping of ItI and, Id/ in these accents, are distinguished phonetically only by the, quality of the diphthong: raised in writer but not in rider. Some, speakers, however, also exhibit such raising before certain voiced, consonants or before voiced consonants in certain words; thus, fire,, file, tidy, fibre and powder may also show raising. Some speakers, additionally exhibit raising in the nucleus larl, so that the nuclei of, hard and heart, for example, differ in exactly the same way as those, in ride and write. NOTE: Historically, the term is perhaps a misnomer, since, the historical process is probably an absence of lowering., /k~'nDnlk~l/ adj. Most frequent, most usual, most typical, or least marked (among competing possibilities) in a language or, in languages generally., , canonical, , canonical form n. 1. The most general or most typical form of a, linguistic element, such as a syllable, a word, a morpheme or a, verbal root, usually in terms of its component consonants (C) and, vowels (V). For example, the vast majority of Proto-Indo-European, roots have the structure CVC, and this is therefore the canonical, form of PIE roots; Japanese syllables have the canonical form, (C)V(n) - that is, a syllable consists of a vowel optionally preceded, by a single consonant and optionally followed by the nasal n., 2. The phonetic form of a word when it is spoken carefully in, isolation., , cardinal vowel l'kQ:dln~l/ n. Anyone of the reference vowels recognized in the cardinal vowel system., , cardinal vowel diagram /'daI~grreml n. The conventional graphical, device for representing the cardinal vowels within the vowel quadrilateral; see the Appendix. The diagram was devised by Daniel Jones, and, first appeared in Ward (1929)., , cardinal vowel system n. A system of conventional, arbitrarily, chosen vowel qualities in terms of which actually occurring vowels, may be identified. The conventional reference vowels are arranged, in a kind of grid (represented graphically by the vowel quadrilateral), and an experienced practitioner can locate a real vowel, within this grid in much the same way that points on a map are, identified by reference to a superimposed grid. The traditional, cardinal vowel system first defines a set of primary cardinal vowels;
Page 77 :
64, , carrier, , from this is derived a second set, the secondary cardinal vowels., Each of these traditional sets, however, mixes rounded and, unrounded vowels, an outcome regarded by some as a descriptive, inconvenience, and today it is more usual to regroup the cardinal, vowels into rounded and unrounded sets for presentation. See the, Appendix for both types of presentation, and see also Ladefoged, experiment. The idea of a cardinal vowel system was first put forward by, A. 1. Ellis in the late nineteenth century; the term 'cardinal' was coined, by A. M. Bell and was used by Henry Sweet; Daniel Jones was the first to, work out a complete system of cardinal vowels (in the first (1917) edition of, EPD and in the second (1922) edition of OEP), and his system is still essentially that in use today., , carrier, , /lkrerI~/, , n. In some analyses of certain phonological, processes, such as epenthesis, a set of features assumed to be added, to another single feature which has been introduced into a position where no segment is present in order to yield a pronounceable segment. Lass (1984: 185)., , case vide /kaz vid/ n. [French: 'empty space'] See hole in the pattern., catachresis, , /kret~lkri:sls/ n., , See malapropism. Greek katakhresis 'a, , misusing'., /kret~llektIk/ adj. (of a line of verse) Lacking a final unaccented syllable which is technically required to complete the last, foot: Tyger! Tyger! burning bright[ ] / In the forests of the night[ ]., Abstr. n. catalexis /kret~'leksls/. Ant. acatalectic., , catalectic, , categorical perception of speech, , /kret~'gDrlk~l/ n., , The frequently, observed phenomenon in which a speaker perceives both natural, speech and synthesized sequences in terms of a small number of, discrete categories, most typically the phonemes of the speaker's, language. For example, a synthesized sequence showing formant, transitions intermediate between those typical of [ba] and those, typical of [da] is almost invariably perceived either as an instance, of [ba] or as an instance of [da]; very rarely does anyone report, hearing something intermediate. This phenomenon is most marked, with plosives, less marked with other consonants, and virtually, absent with vowels, which are usually perceived on a continuum,, like most non-speech sounds. The phenomenon has been invoked, as evidence both for the psychological reality of phonemes and for, a distinct 'speech mode' of perception which functions differently, from the perception of non-speech stimuli.
Page 78 :
65, , Catford classification, , categorical-phonetic level n. In some versions of generative, phonology, that level of representation having the property that, the only rules still to apply are phonetic rules and that the last rule, to have applied was not a phonetic rule. This is effectively the level, of representation, usually still in terms of binary features, at which, all information required to produce a careful pronunciation is, present. Sommerstein (1974: 72)., , categorical property, , /'prDp~ti/, , n. Any property characterized by, an absolute either/or, yes/no distinction. For example, at the phonological level, nasality is usually regarded as categorical: a segment, either is nasal or is not nasal, and no intermediate positions are, possible. At the phonetic level, however, since the velum can be, raised or lowered along a continuum, any number of degrees of, nasality can in principle be distinguished, and nasality is not a categorical property., , categorical view /vju:/ n. The high-level principle that linguistic, categories are separated into mutually exclusive sets. While necessary to some degree if any analysis is going to be performed at all,, this view, taken to its logical conclusion, has unrealistic consequences: for example, that a given speech variety 'has' a fixed set, of phonemes and that a given segment must be unambiguously, assigned to one of those phonemes. Such devices as the morphophoneme, the systematic phoneme, the archiphoneme and the, recognition of coexistent phoneme systems represent varied, attempts at forcing recalcitrant data into the categorical view. See, Labov (1994: ch. 12) for a critical discussion., , Category Change, Principle of /'kret~gri tJe1nd3/ n. A putative principle governing the course of lexical diffusion. It says: changes that, affect several features of a sound simultaneously proceed by altering, the category memberships of individual words. Labov (1994: 603)., , Category Stability, Principle of /st~'bI1Iti/ n. The observation that, individuals who change their accents on moving to a different, speech area tend strongly to preserve the distribution of lexical, items among the phoneme categories of the system - that is, while, they may change their phonetic realizations, they do not introduce, mergers, splits or different distributions of phonemes which are, typical of their new area. Labov (1994: 109-111)., , Catford classification, , /'kretf~d/, , n. A partially distinctive division, of the supralaryngeal vocal tract, particularly the oral cavity, for
Page 80 :
67, , central, , purposes of labelling the place of articulation of consonants,, proposed by 1. C. Catford (1977, 1988). See Figure Cl. The lower, part of the oral cavity is divided more simply (and more traditionally) into the following zones: labial (consisting of exolabial, and endoLabiaL subzones), dentaL, subLaminal, apical, Laminal,, anterodorsal (the front of the tongue), posterodorsal (the back of, the tongue) and radical (the root of the tongue)., /m~'kInil n. A box containing a mouthpiece, a flow-transducer, a microphone and a window, allowing an, investigator to obtain simultaneously volume-velocities, sound, recordings and high-speed films of a subject speaking into the box., , Catford-McKinney box, , After its inventors, 1. C. Catford and N. S. McKinney., , cavity /'krevltil n. Any more-or-Iess well-defined empty space within, the vocal tract: the oral cavity, the nasal cavity or the pharynx., , cavity feature n. In the SPE feature system, anyone of the eleven, distinctive features invoked for handling variations in the configuration of the supralaryngeal vocal tract: coronal, anterior, high, low,, back, round, distributed, covered, glottal constriction, nasal, lateral., , c-command, , /'si:k~mQ:nd/ n. A syntactic relation occasionally, appealed to in phonology, for example by Kaisse (1985). In a, syntactic structure, a node A c-commands a node B iff the lowest, branching node which properly dominates A also properly dominates B., , ceceo /OeIOeo/ n. See under seseo., ceiling /'si:hlJ/ n. In some analyses of intonation, the upper limit of, a speaker's pitch range., Isi:n~'mretIksl n. In Glossematic phonology, the study, of the behaviour of cenemes; essentially phonology., , cenematics, , ceneme /'si:ni:m1 n. In Glossematic phonology, a minimal unit in, the phonological system of a language, corresponding approximately to the phoneme in other systems., , cenetics, , lSI Inetlks/ n. In Glossematic phonology, the study of the, phonetic details of cenemes; essentially phonetics., , Iisentr~l/ adj. 1. (of vowels) Articulated with the highest, point of the tongue in neither the front third nor the back third of, the oral cavity; in other words, neither front nor back. Among the, central vowels are [i], [~] and [3]. 2. In the Williamson feature, , central
Page 81 :
68, , central closure, , system, one of the eleven possible values of the feature articulatory place, identified with central vowels. 3. (of consonants) A, synonym for median, best avoided because of the possible confusion with sense 1., , central closure n. A binary distinctive feature proposed by, Sommerstein (1977: 103) for distinguishing medial occlusion of the, vocal tract from total occlusion, as follows: ordinary plosives, are [+occlusive, +central closure, -lateral]; lateral affricates are, [+occlusive, +central closure, +lateral]; lateral fricatives and resonants are [-occlusive, +central closure, +lateral]. This feature (which, would more properly be called 'median closure') seems never to, have been taken up. Cf. mid-closure., , centrality /sen ·trrel~ti/ n. In some versions of Dependency, Phonology, an element, centralized vowels., , I~I,, , posited as a component of central and, , /·sentr~lalzd/ adj. (of vowels) Articulated with the, highest point of the tongue somewhat closer to the centre (between, front and back) of the mouth than occurs with some standard of, comparison. A centralized front vowel is retracted; a centralized, back vowel is advanced; a central vowel cannot be centralized., The diacritic [".] may be used for representing centralization;, equally, the diacritics for retraction and advancement may be used, as appropriate. Abstr. n. centralization., , centralized, , central release n. (also central plosion) See median release., central resonant n. Any resonant which is not a lateral approximant (lateral resonant)., , centre, , /·sent~/ n. 1. A label sometimes applied to that part of the, upper surface of the tongue lying between the front and the back,, that is, that part of the tongue which is highest in the articulation, of central vowels. 2. See nucleus., , centring diphthong /'sentrIIJ/ n. (also ingliding diphthong) A diphthong during whose articulation the tongue moves toward the, central vowel schwa, such as the diphthongs [I~], [u~] and [c~] in, non-rhotic pronunciations of beer, poor and fair., /sepstr~l ·smu:3IIJ/ n. A procedure for, processing a sound spectrogram which removes the voicing ripple, and provides a smooth curve highlighting the frequency bands, which are predominantly present., , cepstral smoothing
Page 82 :
69, cerebral/'ser~br~lIadj., , characteristic tone, [obsolete] See retro8ex. Translation of Sanskrit, , murdhanya., , chain of speech ItJelnI n. See speech chain., chain shift n. (also chaining, enchainement) Any complex phonological change in which several segments (most often vowels) all, change their phonetic realizations, with some segments (entering, elements) moving into spaces vacated by other segments (leaving, elements). Two types are recognized: push chains and drag chains., Chain shifts were championed by Martinet (1955) and- have been, most extensively studied by Labov (1994)., change from above ItJeInd31 n. An innovation introduced by the, dominant social class, often with full public awareness, typically, appearing primarily in careful speech and reflecting a superposed, variety learned after the vernacular is acquired. An example is the, self-conscious switch from a rhotic to a non-rhotic accent in Britain,, or the opposite in the United States. Cf. change from below. Labov, (1966)., , change from below n. An innovation appearing first in vernacular, speech, typically representing the operation of internal linguistic, factors, and most often occurring below the level of social awareness, at least until the change has nearly gone to completion. Such, a change may be introduced by any social class but is perhaps most, typically introduced by members of lower social classes. An, example is the spread of glottal reinforcement and glottalling in, England. Cf. change from above. Labov (1966)., channel !'tJren~lI n. 1. In articulation, the passageway through which, the airstream flows. 2. A particular, sharply defined frequency band, through which a signal may be sent., channel vocoder !'v~uk~ud~/ n. A type of vocoder employing a, bank of filters with adjacent frequency bands. The device transmits, only the intensity of activity in each band, together with the fundamental frequency of the vocal folds; at the receiving end, a similar, device is used to reconstruct the original speech. Though now little, used in telecommunications, the channel vocoder is the basis of the, sound spectrograph., characteristic tone Ikrer~kt~'rlstIkln. A system found in some tone, languages with polysyllabic words in which words are divided into, classes, each with its own distinctive tonal pattern. For example, in
Page 83 :
charm, , 70, , LuGanda, there are two classes of verbs, one with sustained high, pitch, the other with a falling pitch., , charm Itfa:m/ n. A fundamental notion in Govemment and Charm, Phonology. Each component (phonological prime) in this framework is considered to possess exactly one of positive charm, negative charm or no charm. Positive charm corresponds intuitively to, a high degree of vowel-like character, and elements of like charm, are prohibited from combining. Charm is carried over from, elements into segments containing them, and, as a result, most (not, all) vowels are considered to be positively charmed, most (not all), obstruents are negatively charmed, and other segments are charmless. These charm properties are appealed to in formulating various, principles of the framework, such as phonotactic constraints. By, analogy with particle physics, in which charm is a property of certain quarks., , chart Itfa:tl n. In Autosegmental Phonology, a set of tiers along, with the association lines that relate them., , checked Itfektl adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'involving a higher rate of energy discharge', and associated with ejective and implosive consonant articulations., In the SPE feature system, this feature is replaced by the three, features ejection, implosion and glottal constriction. Ant. unchecked., , checked syllable n. See closed syllable., checked vowel n. 1. A vowel occurring in a closed syllable. 2. A, vowel (in a particular language) which can only occur in this position, such as the vowels Ie re u/ in English. Ant. unchecked vowel, or free vowel., , chest pulse I'tfest pAls/ n. A single contraction of the muscles, involved in expelling air from the lungs during speech., , chest-pulse theory of syllable production n. The view that every, individual syllable in speech production is associated with a single, respiratory movement. Once widely held, this view is now generally rejected. Stetson (1951)., , chest register n. (also chest voice) The lowest-pitched of the three, distinguishable speech registers (sense 1), in which the vocal folds, are shorter and thicker than in other registers. Voicing in chest, register is characterized by repeated complete closure of the vocal, folds and by a frequency of vibration of about 60-150 Hz (in men),
Page 84 :
71, , circumflex accent, , and a glottal stop involves a large area of contact between the vocal, folds. Chest voice is the register most typically used in ordinary, speech. Cf. mid-register, falsetto., , Chomsky-Halle feature system ItJomski 'hrelil n. See SPE feature, system., Ikr~u'mretlkl adj. In the analysis of vowels in some, privative systems, especially Dependency Phonology, low in, sonority, such as [i] or [u]. Ant. achromatic., , chromatic, , chrone Ikr~unJ n. Any positional variant of a chroneme., , Jones (1950)., , chrone language n. A language which uses contrastive length of, segments (chronemes) for phonological purposes, such as those, varieties of French in which mettre Imetrl 'put' contrasts with maitre, /mc.:tr/ 'master'. Jones (1950), by analogy with tone language., /'kr~uni:m/ n. In some versions of classical phonology, a, phonological unit, essentially a type of phoneme, serving only to, lengthen a preceding segment. For example, the five short and five, long vowels of Latin (i e a 0 u i: e: a: 0: u:) could be analysed, into six phonological units: the five short vowels Ii e a 0 ul and the, chroneme hI. Jones (1950)., , chroneme, , ISInireldi'ogr~fi/ n. A technique for taking X-ray, films of the movements of the organs of speech - exceedingly useful, for tracking the movements of organs which are opaque to X-rays, or which can be rendered so, as when a chain of tiny lead weights, is laid across the upper surface of the tongue., , cineradiography, , /'s3:k~mfIks/ n. An affix which is realized as a combination of a prefix and a suffix, such as Tigrinya bi- ... -gize 'at, the time when' or the Chukchi "recessive' e- ... -ke, the latter, illustrated in e-tejkev-ke it-ek "not to fight'; cf. tejkev-ek "to fight'., , circumfix, , circumflex accent n. The diacritic, , used in various orthographies, and transcriptions for various purposes. It was first used in Ancient, Greek orthography to represent the distinctive rise-fall pitch accent, of that language. In Rumanian, the character (I) is used for a vowel, distinct from that represented by (i). In French, the circumflex was, originally used to mark a lengthened vowel resulting from the loss, of a following [s], as in fie and bete (from earlier isle and beste)., The later shortening of these vowels in French has deprived the, circumflex of its function, and the French Academy has recently, proposed its elimination from most words. This diacritic has no, 1\,
Page 85 :
citation form, , 72, , recognized function in the IPA. Cf. acute accent, grave accent. Latin, circumflexus 'bent round', from its shape., , citation form Isal'teIJt:l1 n. 1. That particular form of a lexical item, which is used to name it when talking about it as a linguistic object, or when entering it in a dictionary. When a linguistic item has only, a single form, like English under or beautiful, or when it has one, form that shows no overt inflection, like dog, big or take, the choice, of citation form is obvious (at least to linguists and lexicographers,, though native speakers may prefer an inflected form). When a, lexical item exists only as a set of overtly inflected forms, however,, one of these must somewhat arbitrarily be chosen as the citation, form, and different choices are usually possible. For example, the, Basque verb meaning 'see' has the root -kus-, a bound form;, linguists, lexicographers and native speakers have variously used, ikus, ikusi and ikustea as a citation form: ikus is the morphologically simplest free form, ikusi is the most convenient form for, predicting the remaining forms, and ikustea is semantically the least, marked. 2. That particular phonetic form which a phonological, word assumes when it is pronounced carefully in isolation, typically, free of any reduction, assimilation or coalescence which may affect, its pronunciation in connected speech., , clash IklreJI n. Particularly in Metrical Phonology, the occurrence, of (usually identical levels of) stress on two consecutive syllables., Some would extend the term to other instances of consecutive identical specifications, such as consecutive high tones. A number of, syntagmatic phonological processes are interpreted as repair, devices for avoiding such clash, such as the iambic reversal of, English. Cf. lapse., , class I suffix Iklo:s 'wAnl n. See primary affix., class II suffix n. See secondary affix., classical generative phonology I'klreslk~ll n. The version of generative phonology originally presented in SPE; see generative, phonology for further information., , classical phoneme n. See autonomous phoneme., classical phonology n. A label sometimes applied to the bulk of, the work in phonology between the mid-1920s and the mid-1960s,, characterized above all by its emphasis upon the identification of, phonetic features which serve, or might serve, to distinguish one
Page 86 :
73, , cleft lip, , word or utterance from another of different meaning, and hence, by its emphasis upon representations, with a corresponding lack of, interest in mles., , classificatory function IklreslfI ' keltril n. The role of a distinctive, feature in specifying an opposition (contrast) between segments, or, in formulating a natural class of segments. Cf. phonetic function., , classificatory matrix n. A matrix which displays some or all of, the segments of a particular language together with a complete, specification of the relevant distinctive features of those segments., Such a matrix is in no sense part of the phonology of the language;, it serves purely as a convenient summary, for the analyst or the, student, of the role of the features in the phonology of that, language. Figure C2, for example, is such a matrix for the consonants of a central dialect of Basque., , class node Iklo:sl n. In feature geometry, a superordinate node., clear, , Ikh~1, , adj. See bright., , clear I n. A coronal lateral articulated with the back of the tongue, held low, and hence without velarization. Many speakers in Ireland, and Wales use a clear I as their realization of III in all positions., Speakers in England typically use a clear I for III only before a, vowel, using a dark I elsewhere. Many Scottish and American, speakers never use clear I at all. Cf. dark I., , cleft lip Ikleft/ n. (also hare lip) A congenital split in the upper lip, and/or the upper teeth ridge, often cooccurring with a cleft palate., NOTE:, , The traditional term 'hare lip' is no longer in respectable use., P t, , syllabic, consonantal, continuant, sonorant, voice, delrel, coronal, anterior, nasal, lateral, long, , c k b d J 9 f, , s, , s, , J, , X, , ts, , t, , n, , A, , f, , r, , + + +, +, + + +, + + +, + + +, + - +, , -, , -, , -, , +, +, +, +, , +, +, +, +, , +, +, +, +, , s tJ m n, , + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +, - - - - + + + + +, - - - - +, - - - - - - - +, + + + + - + + + + + + + + - + + - - + + - - + + + - + + + + + - - + + - - + + + - - + + - +, +, , + + +, - + +, , + + -, , + + - - - +, , Figure C2 A classificatory matrix for the consonants of Basque
Page 87 :
cleft palate, , 74, , cleft palate n. A congenital permanent opening between the roof, of the mouth and the nasal cavity. The sufferer's speech is characterized by strong and persistent nasalization., , click /khk/ n. 1. A stop consonant produced with a velaric ingressive airstream, such as [!] or [=t=]. Clicks occur as segments only in, certain languages of southern Africa, but may occur paralinguistically elsewhere, as in the English use of [!] ('tsk tsk') to express, pity or of [II] to make a horse go. See Laver (1994: 174-179,239), for a summary. In 1989 the IPA replaced its earlier symbols for, clicks with those traditionally used by specialists in click languages., Cf. reverse click. 2. In the SPE feature system, an ill-defined feature, invoked to distinguish click consonants [+click] from all others, [-click]. 3. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one, of the two possible values of the distinctive feature velaric suction, (or velaric)., , click accompaniment /~'kAmp~nlm~nt/ n. Any of various phenomena which may accompany the articulation of a click, such as, affrication, aspiration, nasal release, the use of a particular phonation type, or the lowering of the velum throughout. Ladefoged and, Traill (1994)., , clipped /khpt/ adj. 1. [non-technical] A label applied to an accent, (sense 2) which is perceived as being characterized by prominent, reduction or loss of syllables. The term is commonly applied by, Americans to the speech of southern England, reflecting the striking, effect on the American ear of the usual south-of-England pronunciations of such words as temporarily, primarily, police and geography., 2. [non-technical] A label applied to a speech style which is exceptionally terse, abrupt and close-mouthed, such as the stereotypical, speech of British army officers. 3. (of a speech signal) Distorted as a, result of overloading of the system. 4. See under clipping., , clipping /'khpIIJ/ n. The process by which a word is derived from a, longer word of identical meaning by the removal of some arbitrary, part of the longer word: bus from omnibus, phone from telephone,, gym from gymnasium, porn from pornography, mike from microphone, mimeo from mimeograph and bi from bisexual. Sometimes, the term is extended to cases like Havana (from Havana cigar) and, canary (from canary bird). Adj. clipped., , clitic /'khtlk/ n. An item which exhibits behaviour intermediate, between that of a word and that of an affix. Typically, a clitic has
Page 88 :
75, , close juncture, , the phonological form of a separate word, but cannot be stressed, and is obliged to occupy a particular position in the sentence in, which it is phonologically bound to an adjoining word, its host. A, proclitic precedes its host; examples include the French subject, pronouns je, tu, etc.: je vais 'I'm going', tu as or t'as 'you have'. An, enclitic follows its host; examples include the English negative -n't, (as in couldn't) and Basque be and Turkish de, both meaning 'also':, zu be, siz de 'you too'. See Klavans (1985), Zwicky (1985)., , clitic boundary n. The type of boundary which occurs between a, clitic and its host, often represented as #. Chomsky and Halle (1968)., , clitic group n. In some versions the Prosodic Hierarchy model, a, level of the hierarchy posited to account for certain processes which, apply when clitics are present but not when phonetically similar, non-clitics are present, such as the common loss of [v] in Give me, some but not in Give Mary some., , cliticization Ikhtlsal'zeIJQ.1 n. Any process by which an independent, word is reduced to a clitic. See Jeffers and Zwicky (1980)., , close, , Ikl~usl adj. (of vowels) An older synonym for high (sense 1),, still preferred by some, and officially recommended by the IPA at, its Kiel Convention in 1989. Ant. open., , close approximation n. The degree of stricture required to produce, a fricative. Cf. open approximation., , closed phase, , /kl~uzd/, , n. See hold., , closed syllable n. (also checked syllable) A syllable which ends in, one or more consonants. All the syllables occurring in the English, words cut, aim, handle, accent and companion are closed; the syllables of murmur are closed in a rhotic accent but not in a non-rhotic, accent. See under ambisyllabic for the problem posed by words, like ticker and petrol. Ant. open syUable., , closed-syllable shortening /JJ:t~nIlJ/ n. The phenomenon in which, an underlying or historical long vowel is shortened when it finds, itself in a closed syllable., , closed tone n. Any falling intonation pattern. Ant. open tone (sense, 2). Cruttenden (1986)., , close juncture n. 1. The close phonetic association that exists between, consecutive segments not separated by any kind of grammatical, boundary, such as between ItI and Irl in nitrate (as opposed to
Page 89 :
76, , close-mid, , night-rate). 2. A similar phenomenon sometimes taken as typical of, consonant clusters in certain languages, and realized, for example, by, lack of release of the first of two consecutive plosives. English has, close juncture: in such words as apt and grabbed, the first plosive in, the cluster is unreleased. Ant. (both senses) open juncture., , close-mid adj. A synonym for high-mid, recommended by the IPA, at its Kiel Convention in 1989., , close rounding n. A variety of lip-rounding in which the lips are, pursed tightly together, as in a typical articulation of [y]. Ant. open, rounding., , close transition n. The absence of any audible gap between two, consecutive consonants, typically characterized by articulatory, overlap in heterorganic sequences (like [kp] in take part) and, complete continuity in homorganic sequences (like [vf] in five feet)., Close transition is typical of relaxed English. Ant. open transition., , closing diphthong /'kl~uzIIJ/ n. A diphthong whose second element, is higher (closer) than its first, such as rei] or [au]. Ant. opening, diphthong., , closing phase n. See approach., /'kl~U3~/ n. 1. See hold. 2. The maximal degree of stricture:, a total blockage of air flow in the mouth., , closure, cluster, , /'kIAst~/, , n. See consonant cluster., , /'kIAt~rIIJ/ n. A pathological disorder of speech, characterized by an intolerable rapidity and hence by frequent loss or, distortion of speech sounds and often by abnormal rhythm and, sequencing., , cluttering, , Co A frequent symbol for coda in representations of syUable structure., , This symbol should not be confused with the notational device, Co' which stands for a sequence of zero or more consonants., NOTE:, , /k~utJ/ n. An elaborate procedure for testing whether, subjects can distinguish potential minimal pairs. A narrative is, constructed in which either of the two key items could be sensibly, used at one point but the two possibilities lead to radically different, interpretations of the narrative; a subject hears the narrative with, one or the other item at the crucial point and is then questioned., to determine what has been understood. See Labov (1994:, 403-4(6). From a particular narrative involving a football coach., , coach test
Page 90 :
77, , coda, , Ik~u~'les~nsl n. (also fusion) The phonological process, in which two segments occurring in sequence in a single linguistic, form combine into a single segment, usually one exhibiting some, characteristics of both of the original segments. Examples include, the historical development of Izjl into 131 in English, as in vision,, the rapid-speech development of English Idjl into Id3/, as in would, you l'wud3U:/, and the historical development in western varieties, of Basque of original Irsl (with an apical trill and a laminal, sibilant) into lsi (an apical sibilant), as in western uso 'dove, pigeon', vs. eastern urzo (orthographic (s) and (z) represent voiceless apical, and laminal sibilants, respectively). Some analysts regard coalescence as a variety of assimilation and hence call it coalescent assimilation. V coalesce Ik~u~'les/. Ant. unpacking. Cf. merger., , coalescence, , coarticulation Ik;)uo:tlkju'leIJQI n. 1. (also double articulation) Any, articulation involving constriction of the vocal tract at two (or rarely, more) distinct points. The two constrictions may be equally radical, (as in the coarticulated stop [kp]), or one may be less radical than, the other (as in the labialized velar plosive [k W ]). The first type is, called 'coordinate coarticulation', the second 'secondary coarticulation', by Catford (1977). 2. See accommodation (sense 1). Adj., coarticulated., /'kokli~1 n. A tightly coiled structure in the inner ear, filled, with viscous fluid, and containing the organ of Corti. The mechanical motion of the auditory ossicles in the middle ear is transmitted, across the oval window into the cochlea; it travels through the, basilar membrane to the organ of Corti, where the mechanical, signal is converted into nervous impulses. Adj. cochlear., , cochlea, , Cockney I'koknil n. [non-technical] The traditional label for the, distinctive speech variety of the metropolitan London area, centred, on the East End of the city, or for a person using this variety. From, coken-ey 'cock's egg', a label applied originally to a pampered, squeamish or, effeminate person, then by countrymen to city-dwellers generally., , cocktail party effect l'kokteI1 po:til n. The phenomenon by which, an individual surrounded by a large number of people speaking, simultaneously can attend selectively to one of them, ignoring the, others., , coda, , l'k~ud~1 n. (Co) In most views of syllable structure, that part, of the syllable which follows the nucleus and which contains any, syllable-final consonants, such as ItI in sit and Iks9s1 in sixths. The
Page 91 :
coexistent phonemic systems, , 78, , nucleus and the coda together constitute the rhyme. Hockett (1955):, Italian coda 'tail', used in music., /k~uIg'zIst~ntl n. pl. The phenomenon in which a language exhibits a significant number of loan, words whose phonological characteristics are different from those, of native words, often particularly in that the loan words show a, clear phonemic contrast between segments which in native words, are merely allophones of a single phoneme. Turkish is a good, example of the phenomenon. In native Turkish words, Ik/, Igl and, 11/ are single phonemes exhibiting palatalized allophones in frontvowel words and non-palatalized allophones in back-vowel words:, kar [karl 'snow'; kopek [k'opek'] 'dog'; karga [karga] 'crow'; gelmek, [g'elmek'] 'to come'; yol Uol] 'road'; yel Uel'] 'wind'. Turkish has,, however, borrowed many words from Arabic, Persian and French, in which palatalized versions of these consonants occur in backvowel words: kar [k'ar] 'profit'; gavur [g'avur] 'infidel'; kabus, [k'abus] 'nightmare'; laziin [l'a:zlm] 'necessary'; plan [pl'an] 'plan'., , coexistent phonemic systems, , Fries and Pike (1949)., , cognate l'kogneItl n. or adj. Anyone of two or more words in genetically related languages which are descended from a single common, ancestor in the common ancestral language. For example, English, foot and German Fuss 'foot' are cognate, both being derived from, Proto-Germanic *f6t-, and both are cognate with Spanish pie,, French pied and Ancient Greek pous, all being ultimately derived, from Proto-Indo-European *ped-., Ik~u'hI~rIlJI n. An affix which is fully integrated into, the phonological word of which it forms a part. Ant. non-cohering, affix. Dixon (1977)., , cohering affix, , cola, , l'k~ul~1, , n. In grid versions of Metrical Phonology, a level of, representation above the foot and below the word, sometimes, regarded as having theoretical significance. Greek kOla, pI. of k610n, 'limb'., Ik~uld/ adj. 1. (of a feature) In Government and Charm, Phonology, having an unmarked value. 2. (of a segment) Consisting, only of cold features. Ant. hot., , cold, , collapsing /k;)'lrepSIIJI n. See conflation., , v:, , collapse., , Ikolj~ tho:tl n. A model of intonation, employing a number of building blocks which are put together in, , Collier-'t Hart analysis
Page 92 :
79, , commutation, , varying sequences to form the tunes of sentences. Collier and 't Hart, (1981)., , colon /'k~ul~n/ n. 1. The symbol :, occasionally invoked to mark the, distinctive type of boundary occurring between the elements of a, compound. McCawley (1968). 2. The symbol [:], used in the IPA to, indicate that a preceding segment is long, as in Finnish /kis:a/ 'cat', (vs. /kisa/ 'game')., , coloured vowel, , /'kAI~d/, , n. A vowel phoneme in a particular, language which contrasts with another vowel phoneme of similar, quality by the presence of any of several secondary articulations, or of a distinctive phonation type: nasalization (as in French), rhotacization (as in American English), whispery voice (as in north, Indian languages), creaky voice (as in Danish), etc. Jones (1950)., , combinatorial constraint, , /kombIn~'t:):ri~l/, , n. Any restriction, , imposed by the phonotactics of a language., , combinatory variant /'kombIneItri/ n. [obsolete] The Prague School, term for a conditioned allophone., , combining form, , /k~m'baInIlJ/ n., , 1. A bound form of a lexical stem, which is used in word formation. For example, Basque gizon 'man', has the combining form giza- in such formations as gizajo 'poor, fellow' (suffix -jo) and giza-sorgin 'sorcerer' (sorgin 'witch'). 2. A, bound form, usually of Greek or Latin origin, which in word forma~, tion behaves as an affix in some respects but not in others:, astro-, bio-, eleetro-, -erat, -phile, -phobia. The difficulty with, regarding such forms as affixes is that words can be formed, consisting entirely of such combining forms, such as bioerat and, eleetrophile; if these forms are affixes, then such words contain no, root. See Bauer (1983) for discussion., , common core, , /'kom~n/, , n. The set of phonemic contrasts common, to all varieties of a language. Cf. diasystem. Hockett (1958)., , communal change, , /'komjun~l/, , n. A type of language change in, which all or most members of a speech community acquire innovations simultaneously or change their frequency of competing, forms in step. Common in lexical and syntactic change, communal, change is rare or non-existent in phonological change. Cf. generational change. Labov (1994: 84)., , commutation /komju'teIft;i/ n. Especially, but not exclusively, in, Glossematic phonology, the paradigmatic relation which holds
Page 93 :
80, , commutation test, , between two segments such that replacement of one by the other, in a particular word or morpheme yields a different word or, morpheme. For example, the contrast between English feel [fi:l], and veal [vi:l] shows that [f] and [v] stand in the relation of commutation. The notion is essentially the same as the contrastive distribution of the American Structuralists. See Fischer-J~rgensen, (1975: 120-121). v: commute Ik~'mju:t/. Hjelmslev (1936)., , commutation test n. 1. A procedure for demonstrating the existence of a contrast between two segments. In a given phonological, form, a segment of interest (or zero) is replaced by another segment, (or zero); if the result is a different phonological form, the segments, in question are shown to commute Ik~'mju:tl (i.e., to contrast). For, example, English has a form rap [rrep]; replacing [r] by [1] yields, lap [lrep], which has a different meaning: hence [r] and [1] commute, (contrast) in English. Similarly, clap [klrep] is different again,, showing that [k] commutes with zero. The test does not always, yield the desired result. For example, Martinet (1960) points out, that English chip [tfIp] contrasts with both tip [tIp] and ship [fIp] ,, showing that both [t] and [f] commute with zero and suggesting, that the affricate [tf] should be analysed as a sequence of two, phonemes, ItI and IfI. This analysis is, however, to be rejected on, independent grounds. Hjelmslev (unpublished work 1941)~ FischerJ0rgensen (1956). 2. Any of various adaptations of the preceding, designed to examine the speech of an individual for evidence of a, contrast, or lack of it, between two potentially different groups of, phones. The subject is recorded while reading out a list of words, containing the segments of interest, and either the recordings are, analysed to find whether a distinction is made or not, or the same, or a different subject listens to the recorded items (in a different, order) and tries to identify them. See Labov (1994: 356-357)., , compact, , Ik~m 'prektl adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting a concentration of energy, in the central area of the spectrum', interpreted as representing an, articulation in which the front resonating cavity in the mouth is, large compared to the rear cavity, and associated with low vowels, and with palatal and velar consonants. The feature [compact] corresponds very roughly to [+ low] for vo\\'els and to [-anterior] for, consonants in the SPE feature system. Abstr. n. compactness. Ant., diffuse., , compacting, , /k~m'prektIlJ/, , n. See morphologization.
Page 94 :
81, , complement rule, , Ik~mlprer~tlvl n. In historicallinguistics, a procedure for establishing the forms of words and grammatical morphemes in an unattested ancestral language by, comparing the forms found in its several daughter languages. In, the most straightforward case, we first identify groups of items from, the daughter languages which exhibit systematic correspondences,, and each systematic correspondence is assumed to represent the, development in each daughter of a single ancestral segment., , comparative reconstruction, , Ik~mpretllbI1Itil n. The degree to which particular, articulatory gestures or settings can be produced simultaneously., Those which can be simultaneously produced are compatible, Ik~mlpretlb~l/; those which cannot, for physiological reasons, are, incompatible., , compatibility, , Ilknmp~nseltri/ n. Any phonological, process in which a vowel is lengthened when a following segment, is lost. The most familiar variety involves loss of an immediately, following consonant, as when Proto-West-Germanic *yans, *munO,, *finf developed into Old English gas 'goose', milO 'mouth', fif 'five',, with lengthening compensating for the loss of following In/., Compensatory lengthening can also occur when the vowel of a, following syllable is lost, as in the development of Proto-Slavic, *bogu, *bobu into pre-Serbo-Croatian bag 'God', bob 'bean'., , compensatory lengthening, , complement Ilknmphm~ntl n. A synonym for dependent, preferred, in Government and Charm Phonology., , complementary distribution Iknmph1mentril n. The relation which, holds in a given speech variety between two phones which never, occur in the same environment. For example, in the English of, England, clear I occurs only before a vowel, while dark I never, occurs before a vowel; in many varieties of English, [h] occurs only, before a stressed vowel, while [IJ] never occurs before a stressed, vowel. In each of these cases, the phones in question are therefore, in complementary distribution. Providing additional criteria are, satisfied, most notably phonetic similarity, such segments can be, assigned to a single phoneme. Clear I and dark I are accordingly, assigned to a single phoneme Ill, while [h] and [IJ] are not., Complementary distribution is a fundamental notion in classical, phonology, especially in American Structuralism., , complement rule n. 1. In Radical Underspecification theory, any, rule which, for some segments, provides a default value for a feature
Page 95 :
completely specified, , 82, , which is different from the single value which, in this framework,, is permitted to be specified underlyingly. Such rules effectively, provide unmarked values for features, the marked values being, underlyingly specified. 2. In Atomic Phonology, any rule which is, a generalization of an atomic rule constructed by extending the, atomic rule in terms of natural classes., Ik~mpli:tli 'spesIfaIdl adj. Of a distinctive, feature matrix for a particular segment, having values assigned for, all features which are phonetically relevant, including those which, are non-distinctive for the segment in question., , completely specified, , Ik~m 'pli:tnIsl n. A fundamental criterion for phonological analysis by which an analysis must account for all the utterances in the language under investigation. Hockett (1942)., , completeness, , Ik~mpli:t ~uv~'lrepIIJI n. The phenomenon, in which two or more phonemes receive identical phonetic realizations in identical environments. For example, in German and, Russian, both voiced and voiceless obstruents are realized as voiceless obstruents in word-final position: German Rat Ira:tl [ra:t], 'advice', genitive Rates Ira:t~sl [ra:t~s]; Rad Ira:dl [ra:t] 'wheel',, genitive Rades Ira:d~sl [ra:d~s]. Analyses involving complete overlapping (such as the one assumed in the German example) violate, the principle of biuniqueness and hence were rejected by the, American Stmcturalists, even though this rejection frequently led, to complex and unsatisfying analyses, as they themselves realized:, here they were forced to recognize a morphophonemic alternation, in which the morpheme for 'wheel' variably exhibits the phonological forms Ira:tl and Ira:d/, and the obvious generalization about, final devoicing is nowhere expressed. Almost all other approaches, to phonology reject biuniqueness and consequently accept analyses, with complete overlapping. Cf. partial overlapping. Bloch (1941)., , complete overlapping, , complex coda Iknm'pleksl n. A syllabic coda containing more than, one consonant., , complex nucleus n. A syllabic nucleus which is not a pure vowel, but a diphthong, triphthong or tetraphthong., , complex onset n. A syllabic onset containing more than one consonant., , complex oral-nasal stop n. Any stop during the oral closure of, which the velum does not remain either closed or open throughout.
Page 96 :
83, , complication, , Four types exist: a pre-nasal oral stop, a post-nasal oral stop, a preoccluded nasal stop, and a post-occluded nasal stop. See Laver, (1994: 227-235) or Herbert (1986). Cf. simplex stop., , complex segment n. 1. A segment which has two (or rarely more), different specifications for a single feature, where the phonetic, correlates of these specifications are taken as appearing in temporal, sequence. Such a representation is intended to treat segments, whose phonetic character changes during the articulation (contour, segments); most obviously, an affricate might be analysed as, [-+continuant], and a diphthong [ail, if treated as a single segment,, might be analysed as [+-low]. Illegal in most conventional feature, systems, this idea has frequently been taken up in recent work,, especially in Autosegmental Phonology. Hoard (1971).2. By extension of the preceding, an analysis sometimes adopted for certain, apparent consonant clusters which are problematic in the description of syllable structure. For example, Selkirk (1982) treats all, initial [sC-] clusters in English (such as [st-] in strip) as single, complex segments. Prenasalized stops like [fip] , labialized consonants like [k W ] , coarticulated stops like [kp] and many other, such cases have often been treated as complex segments. In, Kinyarwanda, even such startling sequences as [tkw] (tkwaaI)ga, 'we hate') and [ndgw] (kariindgwi 'seven') have been treated as, complex segments, since the language normally allows no consonant clusters. 3. A segment whose articulation involves a coarticulation. 4. In the articulatory complexity model, a consonant whose, articulation involves at least two independent departures from the, default mode of production, such as a whispery-voiced retroflex., , complex sound n. Any sound other than a pure sine wave. Virtually, all sounds, including speech sounds, are complex even apart from, time variation, but every complex sound can be analysed into a, number of sine waves of identifiable frequency and amplitude., , complex stop n. 1. A coarticulated stop, such as [gb]. 2. See complex, oral-nasal stop., , complex tone n. Any intonation pattern involving at least one fall, and one rise. Cruttenden (1986)., , complex wave n. Any wave other than a sine wave. Any sound, other than a pure tone is carried by a complex wave., , complication /knmph'keIJQ./ n. See rule complication.
Page 97 :
component, , 84, , component Ik~mIp~un~ntl n. (also element) In a privative (holistic), theory of phonology, anyone of the phonological primes recognized. Such a component is essentially a unary feature, such as, [labial], [nasal] or [gravity], which is either present or absent in the, specification of a particular segment. The term is particularly associated with Dependency Phonology and with Stratificational, phonology, though the latter framework also uses phonon. The, early attempts at distinctive features proposed by the Prague School, may also be regarded as components., Ikomp~nent.n ~'nrehSIsI n. A label applied, to a version of distinctive feature analysis advocated by certain, American Structuralists, notably by Charles Hockett (1947, 1955), and Zellig Harris (1951)., , componential analysis, , composition IkDmp~'zIfJ)1 n. The relation which holds between two, linguistic levels of representation such that units on the higher level, can be analysed as sequences of units on the lower level, as when, morphemes are considered to be composed of morphophonemes,, or morphs of phonemes. Cf. representation (sense 3). Hockett (1961)., , compound I'kompoundl n. A word formed by combining two (or, rarely more) other words, occasionally with additional affixes: girlfriend, blackboard, skinhead, voice-over, talking-to, blue-eyed. See, Bauer (1983) for a survey of patterns in English., , compound phonation type n. Any phonation type in which two or, more simple phonation types are produced simultaneously. All of, the following are possible: whispery voice, whispery falsetto, whispery creak, creaky voice, creaky falsetto, breathy voice, whispery, creaky voice, whispery creaky falsetto. Of these, only whispery voice, and creaky voice are known to be used for linguistic purposes., , compound phoneme n. [obsolete] A sequence of phonemes which, patterns like a single phoneme, such as an affricate or a diphthong, when these are analysed as sequences. Bloomfield (1933)., , Compound Rule n. The rule which assigns stress in English, compound words like blackbird (cf. black bird). Chomsky and Halle, (1968)., , compound sound n. See contour segment. Ant. simple sound., , Jones, , (1950)., , compressed Ik~m IprestI adj. In the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to treat distinctions of vertical lip-compression
Page 98 :
85, , conditioning, , (as in Swedish), with the possible values compressed and noncompressed., IkDmpju'teIJ~n~l/ n. Any of various, applications of computing to the study of phonology. See the special, issue of Computational Linguistics 20:3 (1994) for a survey., , computational phonology, , Ik~n'kret~n~tIvl n. Morphological, structure of the most familiar type, in which a word is conveniently, analysed as a linear sequence of continuous morphemes. Cf. nonconcatenative morphology., , concatenative morphology, , concomitant feature, , Ik~n'kDmIt~ntl n., , conditioned allophone, , See redundant feature., , Ik~n'dIJQdl, , n. An allophone whose, phonetic nature is entirely predictable from the nature of the neighbouring segments., , conditioned alternation n. Any alternation in which the identity, of the variant occurring can be predicted from its environment. For, example, the choice between the three regular allomorphs of the, English plural morpheme ([s]-[Z]-[IZ]) can be predicted from, the phonetic nature of the preceding segment (it is phonologically, conditioned), while the [k]-[s] alternation observed in cases like, electric - electricity can be predicted from the identity of the, following suffix (it is grammatically conditioned)., , conditioned merger n. Any phonological change which eliminates, a contrast (introduces a neutralization) between two segments in, certain positions only, while leaving the contrast intact elsewhere., For example, leI and hI merge only before InJ in many southern, American varieties, so that pen and pin become homophones, while, pet and pit remain distinct., , conditioned variant n. An allophone or allomorph whose form is, entirely determined by, and predictable from, the nature of neighbouring segments or morphemes., /k~n'dIJ~nllJ/ n. 1. The selection in" a given environment of one particular allophone of a phoneme in a way which is, completely predictable from the phonological context. Such an, allophone is a conditioned allophone. 2. The selection in a given, environment of one particular allomorph of a morpheme. Such, conditioning may be phonological, grammatical or lexical; particularly in the phonological case, the allomorph is a conditioned, variant., , conditioning
Page 99 :
86, , conditioning factor, , l'frekt~1 n. Any phonetic, phonological, grammatical or lexical element or property whose presence in a particular form is sufficient to determine the realization of some other, element also present. For example, in Basque, any plosive, even an, underlyingly voiced one, must be voiceless when preceded by a, voiceless fricative, and the preceding fricative is therefore the, conditioning factor for the realization of the following plosive., , conditioning factor, , /k~n'dAktlvl n. Any variety of deafness in, which sound fails to reach the cochlea. Cf. sensorineural deafness., , conductive deafness, , conflation /k~n'flelfl}./ n. (also collapsing) The grouping of formally, related rules into a rule schema, so that those rules become expansions of that schema. See the example under rule schema. 11:, conflate Ik~n'flelt/., /kDnfJ:lmelf~n~lI n. Any aspect of articulation which pertains to the routing of air through the air channel., The chief conformational distinctions are the oral/nasal contrast, and the medianllateral contrast., , conformational aspect, , congener, , /k~nld3i:n~/ n. A segment which differs from a second,, contrasting, segment only in having a different specification for a, single feature: hence English fbI is the voiced congener of Ip/., , /'kDnd3~g~tl adj. Denoting two objects in a representation which mutually implicate each other's presence., , conjugate, , conjunction /k~n'd3AlJkJ~n/n. Any notational device which requires, two or more specifications to be simultaneously present, as in the, familiar format [+coronal, +high, -voice], which picks out segments, having all three of these specifications at once. Cf. disjunction., /k~n'd3AlJktIV/ n. The relation between two, rules, especially the expansions of a rule schema, in which the, successful application of one does not prevent the other from, applying, if it can. Ant. disjunctive ordering., , conjunctive ordering, , connected speech, , /k~'nektldl n. Ordinary spontaneous speech, as, opposed to the production of individual words or phrases in isolation., , connective, , /k~'nektlV/, , n. An older term for an empty morpho, , conservative /k~n 'S3:V~tIVI adj. In the study of phonological change,, denoting a pronunciation which appears to be older with respect to, a competing but innovating pronunciation. Ant. advanced (sense 2).
Page 100 :
87, , consonantal hierarchy, , conservative RP n. In the classification of Gimson (1989: 88), those, varieties of Received Pronunciation 'used by the older generation, and, traditionally, by certain professions or social groups' and, contrasting with general RP and advanced RP., Ik~nlslst~nsil n. A fundamental criterion for phonological analysis - in its simplest form, the requirement that a single, phonological representation must receive only a single phonetic, representation, excepting only recognized free variation. Adding to, this the opposite requirement, that a single phonetic representation must correspond only to a single phonological representation,, yields the much stronger principle of biuniqueness., , consistency, , consonance, , /lkDns~n~ns/ n. 1. Harmony of sound; euphony. Ant., dissonance. Adj. consonant. 2. Especially in verse, the use of words, with identical or similar consonants in identical positions but, different vowels, as in Shakespeare's sweet silent thought, with its, s ... t s ... t (J ••• t, or in Gilbert and Sullivan's In matters that are, animal or vegetable or mineral, I am the very model of a modern, major-general, with its repeated final Is. Some people restrict the, use of the term to word-final consonants. Consonance was formerly, contrasted with assonance, but the modern tendency is to regard, consonance as a variety of assonance. Cf. alliteration., , consonant, , /lkDns~n~nt/ n. 1. (also contoid) In phonetics, a segment, whose articulation involves a significant obstruction to air flow in, the vocal tract. 2. In phonology, a segment which occupies a syllabic, margin. 3. A letter of the alphabet which, generally or in a particular case, represents a consonant in sense 2. Adj. consonantal. Ant., (all senses) vowel. See also true consonant., , consonantal, , /kDns~lnrent~l/, , adj. 1. Pertaining to consonants., 2. Having the nature of a consonant. 3. In the lakobson-Halle, feature system, a distinctive feature defined as ~exhibiting low total, energy' and interpreted as representing an obstruction in the vocal, tract. Ant. nonconsonantal. 4. (cons) In the SPE feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as ~involving a radical obstruction in the, mid-sagittal region of the vocal tract'. Obstruents, nasals and liquids, are [+cons]; vowels and glides (including [h] and [1]) are [-cons]., Ant. non-consonantal. Cf. vocalic., , consonantal hierarchy n. Any of various proposals for ranking consonants according to some intrinsic property or according to their, susceptibility to some process. For example, many analysts have
Page 101 :
consonantality, , 88, , proposed a hierarchy of lenition, such as pp > p > b > v or pp > p >, f> h, according to which lenition processes in particular languages, proceed by shifting segments from left to right along the hierarchy., , consonantality /kDns;}n~n'trehti/ n. In some versions of Dependency, Phonology, a component which is assumed to be present in all, consonant segments., , consonant cluster n. (also cluster) A sequence of two or more, consonants (especially sense 2) within a single morpheme or word., Languages differ markedly in their tolerance for such clusters:, Hawaiian permits no clusters at all; Japanese allows only a very, few word-medial clusters; English allows clusters of three consonants word-initially and four word-finally, though with severe, constraints on the possible sequences; Georgian allows clusters of, up to six consonants. NOTE: It is not proper to apply the term 'consonant, cluster' to mere orthographic sequences; the word scythe, for example, in spite, of its spelling, contains no consonant clusters at all., , consonant harmony n. The phenomenon, occurring in certain, languages, by which only certain combinations of consonant, phonemes are permitted to occur in a specified domain, usually a, single phonological word. Basque, for example, has four contrasting, voiceless sibilants: the apical (s) and (ts) and the laminal (z) and (tz),, two fricatives and two affricates. A single Basque lexical item may, contain only apicals or only laminals: sasi 'bramble', itsusi 'ugly',, itsatsi 'adhere', sinetsi 'believe', zezen 'bull', zortzi 'eight', zurtz, 'orphan', izotz 'ice'; there are no such words as *sazi or *itzusi., Compounds undergo assimilation: thus sinetsi 'believe' is derived, from zin 'oath' + -etsi 'consider'. Something similar occurs in, Navaho. Consonant harmony is much rarer in the world's languages, than vowel harmony. See Shaw (1991)., /kDnS;}n~ntaI'zeIJf)J n. A label occasionally, applied to an instance of fortition in which a glide is strengthened, to an obstruent. In many varieties of Basque, for example, the, historical [j] (as in jan 'eat') has been strengthened to [J], [d3], [3],, [J] or even [X]., , consonantization, , consonant system n. The complete set of consonant phonemes, occurring in a particular language or language variety. Standard, varieties of English, for example, exhibit a system of 24 consonants:, /p t k b d 9 tJ d3 f e s J v 0 z 3 h m n I) 1 r w j/. See under phoneme, system for references.
Page 102 :
89, , constriction, , conspiracy !k~n'spIr~sil n. The phenomenon in which the phonology, of a language exhibits several independently motivated and, formally quite distinct rules whose combined effect is to produce, a surface generalization which is expressed by none of the rules in, question, most often a phonotactic one. The classic case is that of, Yawelmani (Kisseberth 1970): Kisseberth motivates six distinct, rules which have the combined effect of guaranteeing that no, Yawelmani syllable can begin or end with more than one consonant. The identification of such conspiracies by the proponents of, generative phonology has often been interpreted by critics as, evidence of a fundamental weakness in such a process-orientated, approach and as an argument for approaches to phonology in which, surface phonotactic constraints can be stated directly. v: conspire, /k~n'spaI~/., , constant opposition I'konst~nt/ n. In Prague School phonology, the, relation between two contrasting segments which are never neutralized in any position, such as that between III and Irl in rhotic accents, of English, or between Ibl and 1m! in all varieties of English. Ant., suspendable opposition., , constituent, , Ik~n'stltfu;)ntl, , n. In some analyses of phonological, structure, particularly of syllable structure, any part of the structure which is dominated by a single node. The concept is particularly important in Government and Charm Phonology., , constraint !k;)n 'strelntl n. Any statement, in some particular framework or description, which prohibits some derivation, process,, structure or combination of elements which would otherwise be, allowed., , constricted Ik;)n'strIktldl adj. 1. (of some part of the vocal tract), Characterized by the presence of a constriction. 2. See constricted, glottis., , constricted glottis n. (also constricted) A binary distinctive feature, proposed to handle certain aspects of glottal activity and somewhat, resembling the SPE feature glottal constriction. The segments, which are [+constricted] are glottal stops, ejectives, implosives, glottalized continuants and creaky-voiced vowels. See Ladefoged, (1973) for a critical view. Cf. spread glottis. Halle and Stevens (1971);, Halle (1972)., , constriction !k;)n'strlkJ;)n! n. (also stricture) A narrowing or closure, of the vocal tract at some particular point during an articulation,
Page 103 :
construction, , 90, , by the movement of the organs of articulation. See degree of, stricture., Ik~n'strAkJ~nJ n. In some versions of Metrical, Phonology, the procedure by which metrical feet are built by, combining smaller elements according to the principles of the, framework and any relevant language-specific parameters., , construction, , contact I'kontrektl n. 1. The phenomenon in which speakers of one, language or dialect encounter speakers of another, as a result of, which at least one variety acquires characteristics from the other., 2. The parameter along which checked vowels (with 'close contact'), are distinguished from free vowels (with 'open contact'). Martinet, (1964)., , contact assimilation n. An instance of assimilation between two, adjacent segments, as when Spanish In/, which is [n] in most circumstances, is realized as velar [lJ] before another velar, as in banco, [balJko] 'bank'. Cf. distant assimilation., , content feature I'kontentl n. In some views, any distinctive feature, which is not a major-class feature. Cf. stricture feature., , context I'kontekstl n. See environment., context-determined neutralization IdI't3:mlndl n. Any neutralization determined by the nature of the neighbouring segmental, phonemes. Cf. structure-determined neutralization. Trubetzkoy (1936)., , context-free rule Ifri:1 n. A phonological rule for whose application no environment is stated, and which hence applies in all, environments. For example, the rules p ~ f and h ~ 0 are contextfree. Such a rule is said to apply unconditionally. Ant. contextsensitive rule. Abstr. n. context-freedom l'fri:d~mI., , context-sensitive rule I'sensltlvl n. A phonological rule for whose, application an environment is stated and which applies only in that, environment. For example, the context-sensitive rule k ~ tJ I _, V[-back] states that k is palatalized in the context (environment), of a following front vowel. Abstr. n. context-sensitivity IsensI'tlvlti/., , contiguous, , Ik~n'tIgju~sl adj. Of two consecutive consonant articulations, involving adjacent parts of the same articulator, with the, consequence that the articulators used in the two segments cannot, be manipulated independently. Examples include [bv], [sa], [tj] and, [kjl. Cf. homorganic, heterorganic. Catford (1977: 218).
Page 104 :
91, , contour analysis, , contingent ordering constraint Ik;}n'tInd3;}ntl n. Any constraint, on rule ordering of the general form 'Rules A and B apply in the, unmarked order, if there is one; if not, A precedes B'. Such, constraints are associated with local ordering., , continuant, , Ik;}n'tInju~nt/ 1., , n. Any segment during whose articulation there is no complete closure in the mouth. 2. adj. In the, Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature defined as, 'lacking any interruption or abrupt transition in the spectrum' and, interpreted as representing the absence of any rapid closure, and opening of the vocal tract. Ant. discontinuous. 3. adj. (cont), In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'involving, a primary constriction which is not narrowed to the point where, the air flow past the constriction is blocked'. Plosives, affricates and, nasals ('stops') are [-cont]; all other segments are [+cont]. This, feature has proved to be problematic; nasals, laterals and trills have, all at times been taken as having the opposite value for this feature, to that specified in SPE, a position entertained for laterals in SPE, itself. Ant. non-continuant., , continuity /knntI'nju:Iti/ n. The degree to which speech is uninterrupted by pauses., , continuous palatography /k~n'tInju~s/ n. A variety of palatography, involving a false palate with electrodes implanted, allowing palatal, contact to be recorded continuously over time during a series of, articulations., , continuous speech n. Uninterrupted speech by a single individual., Laver (1994: 536) defines it as ~a speaking-turn containing no silent, or filled pauses, nor any non-linguistic prolongation of linguistic, elements'., , contoid l'knntJldl n. (also non-vocoid) Any segment which is a, plosive, a nasaL a fricative or a lateral resonant - in other words,, any segment other than a central resonant. Cf. vocoid. This term was, proposed by Pike (1947a) as a replacement for consonant in the phonetic sense, of that term (sense 1) in an effort to avoid the ambiguity between the phonetic, and phonological senses of the term; while possibly useful, it has never become, established, though it has recently been revived by Laver (1994)., , contour analysis /'knntu;}/ n. Any analysis of intonation which is, constructed in terms of rises and falls as primitives, rather than in, terms of jumps between predesignated pitch levels. Cf. levels, analysis.
Page 105 :
contour interaction, , 92, , IInt~'rrekJ~nI n. A name given to a view of, intonation in which the basic units are phrase-level (or larger), contours which are overlaid by independent components reflecting, such factors as accent, emphasis and emotional colouring. Cf. tone, sequence. Ladd (1984)., , contour interaction, , contour segment n. (also compound sound) A single segment, during the articulation of which there is a conspicuous movement, of the vocal organs, such as an affricate or a diphthong, when these, are analysed as single segments. Contour segments are sometimes, treated analytically as complex segments., , contour tone n. (also dynamic tone, kinetic tone, melodic tone) In, a tone language, a single tone which is realized as a changing pitch, pattern on its syllable: a rise, a fall, a fall-rise, or a rise-fall. Cf., level tone., Ik~n'trrekJ~nl n. 1. Any phonological process in which, a word or (more commonly) a sequence of words is reduced by, the removal of some internal material, possibly with the application of some further phonological processes. Paradigm cases include, the reduction of I am to I'm, of she would have to she'd've, and of, ever to the ~poetic' e'er. The label is often applied also to more, complex cases such as the (obligatory) reduction of French de le, to duo 2. The result of such a process. Clipping is not properly, contraction., , contraction, , contrast I'kontro:stl n. 1. (also opposition) The paradigmatic relation between two or more segments which can occur in the same, environment to produce different meanings. Such segments must, be assigned to different phonemes. Since English fat [fret] and vat, [vret], for example, have different meanings, [f] and [v] exhibit, contrast and must belong to different phonemes. Labov (1994: 351), proposes the following account of contrast: two types are in contrast, when (a) there is at least one environmt.nt where the difference, between them is the only difference between two utterances that, differ in meaning; (b) the distribution of the two types is not, predictable by any general rule; (c) native speakers are sensitive, to the difference between the two types, at some level of behaviour, but not to the differences between tokens of the same types., 2. The syntagmatic relation between consecutive syllables which, differ in stress, pitch or tone. ~ (both senses) contrast Ik~n'tro:st/;, adj. contrastive Ik~n'tro:stlv/. NOTE: The Prague School, especially, Martinet, and some American Structuralists use 'opposition' for sense 1 and
Page 106 :
cooccurrence restriction, , 93, , reserve 'contrast' for sense 2, but most American Structuralists and nearly all, generative linguists use 'contrast' in both senses., , Contrast-based Underspecification n. See Contrastive Underspecification., , contrastive distribution n. The relation between two (or more), phones in which either can occur in the same position in identical, surroundings to produce different meanings. See the examples, under contrast. Cf. complementary distribution, free variation., , contrastive stress n. 1. Stress which is placed on some "element of, an utterance in order to contrast it with some other element, either, in the utterance or in the context: I said Accept, not Except. 2. See, emphatic stress, and see the remarks there., , Contrastive, , Underspecification, , n., (also Contrast-based, Underspecification, Restrictive Underspecification) A version of, Underspecification Theory which holds that a feature specification, may be omitted from an underlying representation if the opposite, specification would violate some independently determined property of the language (usually, the phoneme inventory). Cf. Radical, Underspecification. Archangeli and Pulleyblank (1989)., , conus elasticus, , /k~un~s I'lrestlk~s/, , n. A cone-shaped structure of, ligamental tissue extending upward from the top of the cricoid cartilage in the larynx; its thickened top edges are the vocal ligaments., /k~n 'ventJ ~n/ n. 1. Any notational or representational, device used in some system. 2. Any once-and-for-all statement, made in some framework, by which some operation or state of, affairs automatically has certain consequences, which need not be, spelled out repeatedly. An example is the Association Convention, of Autosegmental Phonology., , convention, , /k~n 'V3:J ~n/ n. (also functional shift, zero-derivation), The process in which a lexical item is moved from one part of, speech to another, with no overt morphological modifications, as, when the nouns access, network and napalm are turned into verbs,, the adjectives goofproof and brown are turned into verbs, and the, verbs wash and delay are turned into nouns., , conversion, , cooccurrence restriction, , /k~u~'kAr;)nS rlstrlkJ~n/, , n. Any type of, restriction on the ability of phonological elements to occur simultaneously in a single phonological form. Examples include phonotactic constraints on permissible sequences of segments, rules of
Page 107 :
94, , cooing, , vowel harmony, limitations on permissible sequences of stressed, and unstressed syllables and restrictions on the ability of two, autosegments to be associated with the same skeletal position., , cooing /'kU:IIJ/ n. The earliest identifiable stage in infant vocalization, typically beginning around three months and characterized, chiefly by vowel-like sounds of rather indeterminate character., Cooing eventually gives way to babbling., , coordination /k;lo:J:dI'neIJQ/ n. The articulatory relation between, consecutive segments in connected speech. Among the various, phenomena included under this heading are the articulatory overlap, of adjacent segments, initial and final devoicing, aspiration, and the, various ways of releasing (or failing to release) a plosive. See Laver, (1994: 149-151, ch. 12)., , core /k':):/, , n. See rhyme., , core syllable n. Any syUable which is no more complex than the, pattern CCVCC, where the peripheral consonants are less sonorous, than the non-peripheral ones. Thus cat and front are core syllables,, but cats, stay and stream are not. Steriade (1982)., , cornu /'k:J:nju:/ n. (pI. cornua /'k':):nju;l/) Anyone of the four hornlike projections of the thyroid cartilage. The two inferior (lower), cornua form a joint with the cricoid cartilage; the two superior, (upper) cornua connect to the hyoid bone, providing the upper, suspension of the larynx., /'kDr;ln~l/ 1. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with the, tip or the blade of the tongue. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such, as [t], [n] or [s]. 3. adj. (cor) In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'produced with the blade of the tongue raised, from its neutral position'. Dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar and, retroflex segments are [+cor]; other segments are [-cor]. In postSPE work, palatals have often been taken as [+cor]. 4. [obsolete], See retroflex. Ant. non-coronal. Latin corOna 'crown'; the modern sense, , coronal, , of the term was apparently established by Bloomfield (1933)., , coronal assimilation n. The phenomenon in English by which an, alveolar consonant is, in certain circumstances, assimilated to a, following palato-alveolar, as in Is she here? [I3Ji: 'hI;l]., , coronal-dorsal adj. or n. A segment articulated with simultaneous, coronal and dorsal constrictions, such as Czech [c].
Page 108 :
95, , coupling, , coronal section I'sekJ';lnJ n. In anatomy, a section through the body, along a plane which separates the front from the back. Cf. sagittal, section, transverse section. NOTE: In phonetics, a coronal section is often, loosely called a transverse section., , coronal underspecification n. The proposal that coronal articulations are unmarked for consonants, and hence that only noncoronal consonants need have their place of articulation, underlyingly specified. Paradis and Prunet (1989, 1991)., , coronal vowel n. See apical-dorsal vowel, laminal-dorsal vowel., Corti, organ of n. See organ of Corti., k~:t/ n. The merger of the historically, distinct English vowels exemplified by the words cot and caught., This merger is virtually universal in Canada, has gone to completion in eastern New England, western Pennsylvania and much of, the American far west, and is now spreading rapidly across the, remainder of North America; it is also widespread in Scotland., Other varieties of English have so far avoided the merger either, by raising the vowel of caught (as in southern England) or by, lowering and unrounding the vowel of cot (as in most of the United, States). See Labov (1994: 316-319)., , cot/caught merger /kot, , counterbleeding order /'kount';lbli:dIIJ/ n. In a framework allowing, ordered rules, the opposite order to bleeding order. Thus, if rule, A bleeds rule B (but not the other way round), then the order 'B, precedes A' is counterbleeding order. Kiparsky (1965, 1968a)., , counterexample /'kount';lrIgzo:mp';ll! n. Any datum which, superficially at least, appears to be inconsistent with some proposed rule, or principle, and which might therefore be interpreted as casting, doubt on its validity. The dividing line between counterexamples, and mere exceptions is far from clear, and is often a subject of, controversy., , counterfeeding order /'kount';}fi:dIIJ/ n. In a framework allowing, ordered rules, the opposite order to feeding order. Thus, if rule A, feeds rule B (but not the other way round), then the order 'B, precedes A' is counterfeeding order. Kiparsky (1965, 1968a)., , coupling /'kAphlJ/ n. The presence of some kind of connection, between two bodies which are capable of vibration, so that vibration of one of them produces vibration of the other. Adj. coupled.
Page 109 :
covered, , 96, , /'kAv~d/ adj. (cov) In the SPE feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'articulated with the pharynx walls narrowed and, tensed and the larynx raised'. This feature was introduced specifically to deal with the unusual vowel harmony systems of certain, African languages. More recently, it has been generally superseded, by the feature [ATR], with [+cov] corresponding to [-ATR]. Ant., non-covered. From the terminology of singing., , covered, , cover feature l'kAV:}1 n. 1. Any convenient but somewhat ad hoc, distinctive feature which is invoked to pick out some required, natural class of segments but which corresponds to no single, phonetic parameter. In more straightforward instances, a cover, feature represents a bundle of identifiable phonetic features or, represents merely the absence of some single phonetic feature;, examples are the features consonantal, vocalic and syllabic. In the, extreme case, in which the feature corresponds to no identifiable, phonetic content of any kind, we speak of an abstract feature., Ladefoged (1965). 2. A label occasionally applied to an acoustic, feature which represents any of several distinct articulations, such, as flat., , cover symbol n. Any symbol used outside a rigorous formalism as, a shorthand device for representing any of a variety of possibilities. For example, the symbol C is a cover symbol meaning 'any, consonant'; Co is a cover symbol meaning 'a sequence of zero or, more consonants', and C~ is a cover symbol meaning 'a sequence, of one to three consonants'., I'k:}uvou~l/ n. Any of various proposed phonological, elements which, in some analyses, can follow a simple (short) vowel, to produce a long vowel or a diphthong. Such co-vowels as hi, Ih/,, Ir/, Iwl and Iyl (= Ij/) are posited in many analyses of the English, vowel system, such as the Trager-Smith system. Hockett (1955)., , co-vowel, , crasis l'krelSlsl n. The combination of two vowels across a word, boundary into a single long vowel or diphthong. Greek krasis 'mixture'., , crazy rule I'krelzil n. [informal] A phonological process, or (more, usually) an assembly of phonological processes, in some language,, arguably constituting a unitary phenomenon, and possibly even, formalizable as such, but none the less consisting of what appear, to be highly unnatural phenomena. An example is the treatment, of coronal obstruents in standard Japanese, in which the segments, It d s z/, all of which contrast unremarkably before non-high vowels,
Page 110 :
97, , crescendo stress, , undergo the following changes before high vowels: t ~ tJ / _ i;, t ~ ts _ / u; d ~ d3 / _ i; d ~ z / _ u; s ~ J _ i; z ~ d3, / _ i. These diverse processes, some of which look very unnatural, can in fact be stated in a single rule schema, though only with, a blizzard of angle brackets and braces. Bach and Harms (1972)., , creak /kri:k/ n. (also vocal fry, glottal fry) A simple phonation type, produced by holding the entire glottis laterally compressed but, untensed, except for a small opening near the anterior (ligamental), end, which vibrates very slowly (typically 20--60 Hz), producing a, series of clearly audible taps. The ventricular folds are also, adducted and may actually press against the vocal folds. Pure creak, is not known to be used phonologically in any language, though it, sometimes occurs paralinguistically; it can often be heard at the, end of an utterance with falling intonation in the speech of a, speaker of Received Pronunciation. See Laver (1994: 194-197)., NOTE: The term 'creak' is sometimes used interchangeably with creaky voice,, but this usage should be avoided., , creaky falsetto /Ikri:ki/ n. A compound phonation type in which, falsetto and creak are produced simultaneously., , creaky voice n. (also laryngealization, voiced creak) A compound, phonation type in which one part of the glottis produces creak, while another part of it produces ordinary voicing; the precise, mechanism of this is not well understood, and it may well differ, from speaker to speaker. The IPA represents creaky voice with a, tilde placed below the symbol for the corresponding segment with, ordinary voicing. In many languages creaky voice is phonologically, contrastive: Hausa, for example, has creaky-voiced /1] Q j /, contrasting with voiced /b d j/. See Laver (1994: 195-197). Creaky, voice can occur in English in the same circumstances as pure creak;, see the remarks under that entry., , crescendo-diminuendo stress n. A variety of stress in which the, prominence first rises and then falls during the stressed syllable., Jones (1950); attributed to D. B. Fry., /krIIJend~u/ n. (also rising diphthong) A, diphthong consisting of an on-glide followed by a more prominent, second element, such as [ju] or [we]. Ant. diminuendo diphthong., , crescendo diphthong, , crescendo stress n. A variety of stress in which the prominence, increases during the the stressed syllable. Ant. diminuendo stress., Jones (1950); attributed to D. B. Fry.
Page 111 :
cretic foot, , 98, , cretic foot /'kretIk/ n. See amphimacer., /kraIk~urerI'ti:n:)Id mAS~U n. A muscle, connecting the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages. When contracted,, it pulls the arytenoid cartilages back and down and also rotates, them, thus abducting the vocal folds and opening the glottis., , cricoarytenoid muscle, , cricoid cartilage /'kraIk:)Id kQ:t~hd3/ n. The large ring-shaped cartilage at the base of the larynx, connected to the trachea below it;, the arytenoid cartilages lie just above it, and the thyroid cartilages, are hinged to it by means of the inferior cornua., /kraIk~u'eaIr:)Id/ n. A muscle connecting the, cricoid and thyroid cartilages. When contracted, it tilts the thyroid, cartilage forward and pulls the arytenoid cartilages back; this, stretches and tautens the vocal folds, increasing their length and, tension and hence modifying phonation., , cricothyroid muscle, , /kraIk~eaI'rDmlt~/n. An instrument which uses a, small telescope to track and measure vertical movements of the, larynx., , cricothyrometer, , /kraI'tI~ri~/ n. pi. (sg. criterion, Any of various putative principles which have been proposed, at one time or another for determining or evaluating an analysis of, the phonology of a particular language. The identification of such, criteria was a major goal of classical phonology, and particularly of, American Stmcturalism. Among the classical criteria variously, proposed for identifying phonemes were completeness, consistency, (and its strong form biuniqueness), complementary distribution,, phonetic similarity, phonetic plausibility (sense 1), invariance,, linearity, local determinacy, pattern congmity and economy., Postclassical phonologists have, of course, invoked their own rather, different criteria; among those associated with generative phonology, are the Unique Underlyer Condition, the principle that every, significant generalization should be expressed as a single statement,, and a version of economy very different from the classical ones., , criteria for phonological analysis, /-~n/), , /'krItlk~l v~IDSlti/ n. The velocity of a moving fluid, below which turbulent flow changes to laminar flow (strictly, the, ~lower critical velocity'), Of, less usually, the (typically higher), velocity above which laminar flow changes to turbulent flow (the, ~upper critical velocity'). Since critical velocity depends on a, number of variables, it is usual to characterize a fluid system in, terms of an invariant quantity, its critical Reynolds number., , critical velocity
Page 112 :
99, , cycle, , ~v:)Id~nsl n. A proposed, principle of Autosegmental Phonology, a weaker form of the NoCrossing Constraint. It says: association lines must not be allowed, to cross gratuitously. McCarthy and Prince (1986)., , Crossing Avoidance, Principle of IlkroSIIJ, , culminative, , /'kAlmln~tIvl adj., , (of a prosodic element) Making one, syllable more prominent than others; producing accent on certain, syllables, without necessarily having any contrastive function. Both, stress accent and pitch accent systems are culminative. Martinet, (1954)., , cupping IlkApIIJI n. Hollowing of the tongue body by allowing the, midline of the tongue body to drop lower than the sides, producing, a concave hollowed shape. Cupping sometimes, though not always,, accompanies the articulation of retroflex segments., , curly brackets II k3:li/ n. pl. (also curly braces) See braces., cut-glass accent IkAt Iglo:sl n. [non-technical] A dismissive label, sometimes applied to the speech of a person who uses Received, Pronunciation, sometimes more particularly to the speech of a, person whose command of the accent is uncertain. From the association of such accents with wealth and privilege, and perhaps also from the, irritating effect of such accents on some non-RP speakers., , CV language lsi: 'vi:/ n. A language which permits no consonant, clusters., , CV phonology n. A label applied to versions of Autosegmental, Phonology positing a CV tier. Clements and Keyser (1983)., , CV tier n. (also timing tier) In some versions of Autosegmental, Phonology, the form taken by the skeletal tier, in which that tier, contains no information beyond the specification of particular, ~slots' as consonants (C) or vowels (V). Cf. X-tier., , cycle, , /lsaIk~l/ n. 1. Any single one of the repeated changes in the, magnitude of a periodically varying quantity, such as the aperture, of the glottis during voicing. 2. A mode of rule application favoured, in a variety of frameworks for a range of phonological phenomena., The idea is that all relevant rules apply (possibly in some specified, order) to the minimal domain, after which all the rules apply again, to the next larger domain, and then again to a still larger domain,, and so on, until the rules have applied to the maximal domain., 3. Anyone application of these rules to a particular domain. Adj., cyclic.
Page 113 :
cyclic domain, , 100, , cyclic domain /'saIkhk, 'sIkhk/ n. In a framework employing the, cycle (sense 2), any part of a structure which undergoes a single, application of the cycle., , cyclicity /saI'khsIti/ n. The putative principle by which the phonological rules of a language are all applied (where applicable) first, to a smaller domain, then again to a larger domain, then again to, a still larger domain, and so on, until the largest domain is reached, - hence, for example, first to a morpheme, then to a word containing, that morpheme, then to a phrase containing that word. First, proposed by Chomsky et al. (1956) for English stress assignment,, cyclicity was extended by Chomsky and Halle (1968) to all phonological rules and was widely accepted within generative phonology., This extension was strongly criticized by Anderson (1974), but, cyclicity is still prominent in Lexical Phonology. See also Strict, Cyclicity Condition, derived environment., , cyclic rule n. A phonological rule which applies to representations, in the manner of the cycle.
Page 114 :
D, dactyl II drektIU n. 1. A metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable, followed by two unstressed syllables, or, in quantitative verse, of a, long syllable followed by two short ones. 2. A word illustrating this, pattern, such as murmuring or capital. Adj. dactylic Idrek'tlhk/., , damping l'dremp1lJI n. The absorption of energy from a sound wave, by the medium carrying it, with consequent reduction in amplitude, and blurring of resonance peaks. The soft tissues of the vocal tract, are highly absorbent, and hence the speech wave is highly damped., Adj. damped., , dangling l'drelJghlJI adj. [rare] See floating., dark Ido:k/ adj. An impressionistic label formerly applied to vowels, characterized acoustically by a low second formant, such as [u]., Ant. bright., , dark I n. A coronal lateral articulated with the back of the tongue, raised towards the velum, represented by the IPA symbol [fl., Except in Ireland and Wales, where dark I is generally absent,, English III is almost universally realized as a dark I when not, followed by a vowel; many Scottish and North American speakers, use a dark I for III in all positions. Cf. clear I., , dB n. The abbreviation for decibel(s)., , deactivation (of a rule) IdirektI'veIJI}.I n. See rule deactivation., I'defn~sl n. Partial or total loss of the ability to hear. Total, deafness (anacusis) is not common, but varying degrees of hearing, loss can be distinguished. Adj. deaf., , deafness, , dearticulation Idi:o:tIkju'leIJI}.I n. The total loss of a segment from, a phonological form, often particularly as the final step in a historical process of lenition. For example, Proto-Indo-European *k was, lenited in Proto-Germanic to *x, then further in English to h; the, final step of dearticulating h to zero has occurred in many accents, of England. Dearticulation is often accompanied by compensatory, lengthening. Lass (1984: 179).
Page 115 :
debuccalization, debuccalization, , 102, IdibAk~laIJzeIJQ.I n., , See deoralization., , decibel l'desIbell n. (dB) The standard scientific unit for expressing, the intensity of a sound. Strictly, the decibel scale does not express, the absolute intensity of a sound, but only the ratio between its, intensity and some reference intensity. In practice, the reference, intensity is usually taken to be 10-16 watts per square centimetre,, the lowest intensity audible to an average human ear. The decibel, scale is a logarithmic scale, reflecting the fact that the perceived, intensity of a sound is roughly proportional to the logarithm of the, physical intensity. If the reference intensity is R, then a sound of, intensity S may be expressed on the decibel scale as follows:, intensity in dB = 10 x log (SIR), Thus, for example, a sound which is 100 times as intense as the, reference intensity is expressed as 10 x log (100) dB, which works, out as 10 x 2, or 20 decibels. From deci- 'one-tenth' plus bet a decibel is, one-tenth of a bel., , declination Idekh'neIJt:l1 n. 1. The gradual lowering of pitch during, an utterance~ simultaneous lowering of baseline and topline, often, accompanied by a reduction in'pitch span. Cf. downdrift, downstep., 2. A similar gradual reduction in loudness during an utterance., , deep Idi:pl adj. (of a level of representation) Remote from the, surface~, , requiring the application of phonological rules to produce, the appropriate surface phonetic form., , default Idi 'f:l:ltl n. Any phonological element which, in some, language, is automatically supplied whenever some element of its, class is required. For example, in Basque, an impermissible consonant cluster is always broken up by the insertion of the vowel lei,, the default vowel of Basque. Some tone languages have a default, tone which is automatically attached to any syllable lacking a tone., Im~ud/ n. The most normal, least, marked mode of producing speech sounds. Laver (1994: 575) gives, the following characterization of default mode: pulmonic egressive, airstream~ single stricture~ oral and central air flow~ active and, passive articulators are opposite each other in neutral configuration~ no comment required about effect of neighbouring segments, (he adds further stipulations for particular classes of segments)., Any segment is assumed to be produced in default mode except, where otherwise specified., , default mode of production
Page 116 :
103, , defooting, , default rule n. (also default specification) Any universal or, language-specific statement which assigns a feature specification, which is predictable or unmarked in a particular circumstance., For example, the observation that sonorants universally tend to, be voiced may be expressed by the default [~bstr] ~ [+voice],, while the absence of front rounded vowels in many languages, can be expressed by the default [+syll, -back] ~ [-round]., A default rule applies automatically unless it is overridden by, an explicit statement to the contrary. Default rules have been, widely invoked in phonology, but are particularly important, in Underspecification Theory. Note that in Radical Underspecification the term 'Default rules' (usually capitalized) is, applied to a much broader class of rules, including markedness, rules: for example, voiceless obstruents are said to be specified, as [-voice] not only in languages which have only voiceless, obstruents (as in the ordinary use of default rules).. but even in, languages with contrasting voiced and voiceless obstruents. This, extension is confusing and unfortunate. Cf. feature co-occurrence, restriction., , defective distribution Idi 'fektIvl n. The distribution exhibited by a, segment which fails to appear in some of the environments occupied by other members of its class. For example, English IIJI has a, defective distribution since, unlike the other English nasals, it, cannot appear word-initially or after lsi., , defective r n. Especially in British English, the realization of Irl as, a labiodental approximant [u], often wrongly perceived as [w]. Best, attested among upper-middle-class males, this is perhaps more often, an affectation than a true speech defect., , defective segment n. In a framework in which feature matrices are, organized into submatrices, a segment containing an empty submatrix. For example, if matrices consist of two parts representing, an oral gesture and a laryngeal gesture, a segment with an empty, oral gesture, such as might be proposed for [h] or [1], is a defective segment. Lass (1984: 116)., , defective speech n. The speech of an individual suffering from a, speech defect., , defooting Idi:'fotIIJI n. In some versions of Metrical Phonology, the, process by which an unstressed grammatical word ceases to belong, to a foot of its own and is incorporated into an adjoining foot, as
Page 117 :
104, , deforestation, , when the of of lots of people is shifted into the preceding foot, headed by lots. Giegerich (1985)., , deforestation Idi:fJ:rIs'teIfQ.I n. In some versions of Metrical, Phonology, the procedure by which, at the beginning of any, cycle, all prosodic structures are erased in the domain of that cycle., That is, when an affix is added, the existing tree is obliterated,, and a new tree is constructed from scratch. Liberman and Prince, (1977)., , degemination Idi:d3emI'neIfQ.I n. The phonological process (a form, of lenition) in which a geminate consonant is reduced to a simple, one. Degemination is common, for example, in the development of, Spanish from Latin: L CUPPA > Sp. eopa 'wine glass'; L GUITA >, Sp. gota ~drop'; L SICCU > Sp. seeo 'dry'; L ossu > Sp. hueso 'bone'., v: degeminate. Ant. gemination., Idi'd3en~r~tl n. In some versions of Metrical, Phonology, a foot (sense 2) which fails to exhibit binary branching,, such as a monosyllabic word, or which falls short of the maximal, number of elements. See also zero syllable., , degenerate foot, , degree of aperture IdI'gri:/ n. See vowel height., degree of stricture n. The extent to which the vocal tract is, obstructed during an articulation. Laver (1994) distinguishes, closure, close approximation and open approximation, but some, others make finer distinctions., , delabialization, , /di:leIbi~laI'zeIfQ.1 n., , Any phonological process in, which a segment loses its labial character, such as the development, of Latin QUEM Ikwem/ and QUID Ikwidl to Spanish quien /kjenl, 'who?' and que Ikel 'what?' v: delabialize., /di:lret~r~laI'zeIJQ./ n. Any phonological process in, which a segment loses its lateral character. A common type of delateralization affects a velarized alveolar lateral [t] (dark I), which is, reduced to a labial-velar glide [w]; this has occurred in standard, Polish and in certain circumstances in English (walk, folk, H olborn);, in much of the south of England it applies to all non-prevocalic, Ills: feel, field, milk, ball, etc. V delateralize., , delateralization, , delayed auditory feedback IdI'leId J:dltri fi:dbrek/ n. The laboratory technique in which a speaker hears her/his own voice, not, directly, but via tape recording which has been deliberately delayed, by a fraction of a second. The effect of this is usually devastating:
Page 118 :
105, , dental, , the speaker is reduced to stammering and stumbling, and is unable, to speak fluently., , delayed onset of voicing n. An appreciable lapse of time (> 20 ms), after the release of a voiceless consonant before the vocal cords, begin vibrating for a following voiced segment., , delayed release n. (also gradual release) 1. (delrel) In the SPE, feature system, a distinctive feature defined as '[released with], turbulence ... in the vocal tract', and designed to distinguish, affricates [+delrel] from plosives [-delrel]. (In fact, SPE. introduces, two such features, one for primary closures, the other for secondary, closures, but the second has attracted little attention.) Ant. instantaneous release. 2. In the system of Anderson (1974), a similar, feature, but one accompanied by a second feature instantaneous, release, with unreleased plosives being negatively specified for both., Chomsky and Halle (1968); the authors credit R. Carter with the term., , deletion IdIlli:Jql n. The loss of a segment from a word or other, phonological form. Named varieties are aphaeresis, syncope and, apocope. v: delete Iddi:t/. Ant. epenthesis or insertion., , delinking Idi:1hJ)kIJ)1 n. In some frameworks employing -feature, geometry, the procedure by which a feature is 'disconnected' from, its superordinate node and hence removed from the phonetic, realization of a segment. For example, the three contrasting, Thai plosives fbi, Ipl and Iphl are neutralized in final position as unreleased [p]; this is interpreted as delinking of the features [± voice], and [± aspirated] from some superordinate node such as [laryngeal]., , demarcative, , IdIlmo:k~tIvl adj., , Serving to indicate the presence of, a boundary. For example, stress in a language with fixed accent is, demarcative with respect to word boundaries., , demibeat Iidemibi:tl n. In grid versions of Metrical Phonology, any, element appearing on the bottom line of the grid, corresponding, roughly to a (strong or weak) syllable. Cf. beat. Selkirk (1984)., Idi:neIz~laIIzeIJql n. Any phonological process in, which a segment loses its nasal character. For example, the nasalized vowels of pre-Basque are reduced to oral vowels in most varieties: ziii 'watchful' (preserved in eastern dialects) is zai in other, varieties. v: denasalize., , denasalization, , dental, , Ildent~U, , 1. adj. Pertaining to the teeth. 2. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with the primary occlusion involving the teeth.
Page 119 :
dentalveolar, , 106, , 3. n. A segment so articulated, such as English [9] or [0] or, French [t]. In the IPA, a dental articulation may be represented by, the use of the diacritic [J under the symbol for a dental/alveolar, segment: [1], [I)]. 4. adj. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature, systems, one of the eleven possible values of the feature articulatory place., , dentalveolar Identrelvi '~ul~1 adj., , A convenient cover term, embracing all of the more specific terms dental, alveolar and postalveolar when these are used in labelling place of articulation., , denti-alveolar Identirelvi'~ul~1 (also gingival) 1. adj. (of a segment), Articulated at the junction of the upper teeth and the alveolar, ridge. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as [s] in Lisbon, Portuguese or in some articulations of [s] in English aesthetic., The diacritic [J may be added to a character to represent such an, articulation., Identi'leIbI~lI adj. 1. (of an articulation) Involving the, lower teeth and the upper lip as the primary articulators. Dentilabial segments are not known to occur normally in any language,, but Catford (1977: 148) suggests they may sometimes be used in, place of labiodentals by persons with a projecting lower jaw. 2. An, erroneous usage for labiodental., , denti-Iabial, , deoralization Idi:~:r~laI'zeIJQ.In. (also debuccalization) Any phonological process in which a consonant segment loses its oral articulation. For example, non-prevocalic [s] is deoralized to [h] in many, varieties of Spanish: mismos 'same' (plural) [mihmoh]., IdI'pend~nsil n. (also government) A particular type, of relation between phonological elements posited in some systems,, notably in feature geometry, in Dependency Phonology and in, Government and Charm Phonology. The idea is that one element,, the 'head', 'governs' one or more other elements, which are in turn, "dependent' on it; in some systems these elements may possibly, also appear in left-to-right order (adjunction), or they may be realized simultaneously as a single bundle in which the governing, element is most prominent (subjunction). This idea has been, applied to word structure, in which a stressed syllable governs an, unstressed syllable, to syllable structure, in which the syllable, nucleus governs the margins, and to the structure of contour, segments such as diphthongs, in which the more prominent element, governs the less prominent. Most notably, though, it has been, , dependency
Page 120 :
107, , dephonologization, , applied to the analysis of segments: the segment governs gestures,, which in turn govern subgestures, which in turn govern components, or distinctive features; these features may in turn govern, other features, which are therefore not connected directly to the, phonological skeleton. There have been attempts to interpret, phonological change in terms of dependencies: for example, the, common change [ai] ~ [e] is interpreted as a dependency of [i], upon [aJ changing from one of adjunction to one of subjunction,, and various other changes are interpreted as the delinking of a, feature from the dependency structure. See Lass (1984: ch. 11) for, an introduction., , Dependency Phonology n. (DP) A prominent contemporary, theory of phonology, a non-linear and privative framework. Like, feature geometry, DP aims to account for the composition of all, segments; it employs a number of privative elements called components, which are grouped into dependency structures called subgestures and gestures. Certain components are scalar (present to, varying degrees); others are merely present or absent. In combinations of components, one component may 'preponderate' to a, greater or lesser extent. The components recognized in Anderson, and Ewen (1987) are as follows: consonantality (scalar, ranging from, lei to IVI), degree of glottal opening 101 (scalar), glottalicness IGI,, velaricness IKI, frontness (palatality) Iii, lowness (sonority) lal,, roundness (gravity) lui, centrality I~I, linguality Ill, apicality Itl,, dentality Idl, retracted tongue root Irl, advanced tongue root lal,, laterality IAI and nasality Inl. The DP approach may be illustrated, by vowel systems: in a Spanish-type five-vowel system, lei would, be li,al (or li<=:>al); in a seven-vowel Italian-type system, lei would, be li;al (or li=}al) and le/ would be la;il, the semicolon or arrow, indicating that the first element is dominant. Similarly, /y/ could be, represented as li;ul and /yj/ as the more complex Ili;ul;al. The DP, programme was initiated by Anderson and Jones (1974); its most, comprehensive presentation is Anderson and Ewen (1987). Brief, introductions can be found in Lass (1984: ch. 11), Clark and Yallop, (1990), Carr (1993) and Roca (1994)., , dependent, , /dI'pend~nt/ n. In a framework employing dependency, relations, an element which is governed by a second element,, commonly called the head., , dephonologization, , /di:f~nohd3aI'zelfQ/, , phonologization. lakobson (1929, 1931)., , n., , See merger. Ant.
Page 121 :
depressor consonant, , 108, , IdI'pres~1 n. In certain tone languages, a, consonant which has the effect of lowering the tones of adjacent, vowels., , depressor consonant, , derivation IderI'veIJQI n. 1. The procedure by which an underlying, form (a phonological representation) is converted into a phonetic, form by the application of relevant phonological rules. 2. A particular instance of this process. For example, French vous ecriviez, 'you wrote' might be derived from an underlying form 1##Vuz#, ekriv+i+ez##1 as follows: (by Glide Formation) ##Vuz#ekriv+j+ez##I;, (by Sonorant Devoicing) 1##Vuz#ekrv+j+ez##I; (by Final Obstruent, Deletion) 1##Vuz#ekriv+j+e##I, yielding the phonetic form, [vuzekrivje]. 3. In word formation, the process of obtaining new, lexical items by adding affixes to existing lexical items, as in the, derivation of happiness and unhappy from happy or of rewrite and, writer from write. Adj. derivational., IderI'veIJ~n~l/ n. (also global constraint), Any constraint by which the applicability or lack of it of a phonological rule can be determined only by reference to earlier stages, of the derivation in question. Acceptance of such constraints, enormously increases the power of the framework, but it has none, the less often been argued that they are inescapable. For example,, Kisseberth (1973) notes a rule in Klamath which shortens a long, vowel if and only if that vowel is derived from an underlying glide:, underlying vowels are not affected., , derivational constraint, , derivational history II hIstril n. For a derivation (sense 2) at any, given stage, the totality of the preceding stages of that derivation., It has usually been assumed that derivational history is unavailable, to a rule about to apply, but see derivational constraint., , derivational morphology n. (also lexical morphology) The branch, of morphology dealing with word formation, particularly (but not, exclusively) with derivation (sense 3). Cf. inflectional morphology., Id~'rIv~tIvl n. (also derived form) A word or form which, is obtained from another by some morphological process. For, example, happiness and unhappy are both derivatives of happy., , derivative, , derived contrast IdI'raIvdl n. A surface phonetic contrast arising, from the presence of a morpheme boundary. The contrast between, the fricatives of German kuchen 'cook', with [xl, and Kuhchen 'little, cow', with [~], is an example, as the vowel-length contrast in Scottish, English between brood (short vowel) and brewed (long vowel).
Page 122 :
109, , devoicing, , Some English speakers have a similar contrast in vowel length in, words like manner and scanner. Harris (1990)., , derived environment n. A possible situation for one or more, segments in a phonological form which is potentially subject to, some phonological rule. A segment is in a derived environment, with respect to a phonological rule R if either (a) the effects of, an earlier phonological rule created the environment that now, satisfies that rule or (b) the material that satisfies the environment, of rule R belongs to two different morphemes. The notion is important in Lexical Phonology in constraining the application of rules., A rule that applies only in a derived environment is a derived, environment rule. Kiparsky (1973a)., , Derived Environment Constraint n. An important constraint in, Lexical Phonology. It states: lexical rules may apply in derived, environments only. This is equivalent to the Revised Alternation, Condition. See Strict Cyclicity Condition., , derived form adj. 1. A phonological form or segment which is not, underlying but which is obtained from an underlying form by the, application of phonological rules. 2. A lexical item which is obtained, by the addition of one or more affixes to a simpler lexical item., , descriptive adequacy IdI'skrIptIvl, , fl., , See under adequacy., , Designated Terminal Element l'dezIgneItIdl n. (DTE) In tree, versions of Metrical Phonology, that unique element in a metrical, tree which is dominated by s nodes (strong stress) all the way up, the tree., , desyllabification Idi:sdrebIfI'keIJJ}1, , fl. Any process by which a, syllabic segment loses its syllabic character, most usually the, conversion of a vowel to a glide. v: desyUabify Idi:sI'lrebIfaI/., , detail rule I'di:tedl, , fl., , See phonetic role., , devocalization Idi:v~uk~laI'zeIJJ}1 n. 1. Any phonological process in, which a vowel or a glide is converted into a consonant: one form, of fortition. An example is the process occurring in western varieties of Basque, in which gau night' and ao 'mouth\ when, combined with the article -a, yield gaba and aba. v: devocalize., Ant. vocalization. 2. [obsolete] See devoicing., 4, , devoicing Idi:'V:)ISIJ)1 n. (formerly also devocalization) Any phonological process in which a segment which is historically or
Page 123 :
diachronic phonology, , 110, , underlyingly voiced loses its vOIcIng, as when word-final voiced, plosives became voiceless in German. See partial devoicing, full, devoicing, initial devoicing, final devoicing. See Laver (1994:, 339-348). v: devoice; adj. devoiced. NOTE: The use of the term 'devoiced', in the sense of voiceless is an error., /daI~'krDnlk/ n. The branch of historical, linguistics dealing with phonological change., , diachronic phonology, , /daI~'krltlk/ n. (also [non-technical] accent) Anyone of, various written or printed marks which, in some particular system, of orthography or transcription, may conventionally be added to a, letter, phonetic symbol or other character in order to represent, some distinction not otherwise representable in the system being, used. Greek diakritikos 'distinguishing', , diacritic, , diacritic feature n. 1. A distinctive feature with no phonetic content, which is invoked by the analyst to label instances of a segment, which behave exceptionally with respect to other instances of the, same segment, or to a morpheme which exhibits anomalous behaviour. For example, basic and strategic fail to show the regular vowel, laxing before -ic (cf. conic, manic). See Sommerstein (1977:, 155-159). Cf. rule feature, abstract feature and see minor rule., 2. [rare] A distinctive feature whose phonetic content cannot be, specified in isolation, and which acts only as a kind of 'modifier', of another feature. Examples include distributed and retracted, articulation., , diacritic use of phonological features n. The treatment of phonologically irregular forms by the arbitrary use of phonetic features, which are non-distinctive for the segments in question. For example,, while most English stems undergo Trisyllabic Laxing (sane/sanity,, serene/serenity, divine/divinity), a few stems fail to undergo it: obese/, obesity, pirate/piracy. We might propose to mark the exceptional, vowels with some feature not otherwise required for English vowels,, such as [+strident], and then add the specification [-strident] to the, trisyllabic laxing rule. Such arbitrary exercises were condemned by, Kiparsky (1968), and have usually been avoided in favour of more, straightforward devices such as rule features. Cf. phonological use, of diacritic features. Kiparsky (1968)., /daI'I~r~SIS/ n. (also dieresis) 1. (also trema; the name, umlaut is not usual in the function described here) The diacritic ..,, particularly when this is used to show that the second of two, , diaeresis
Page 124 :
111, , diaphone, , consecutive written vowels forms a distinct syllable from the first,, as in French (je) hais 'I hated', where orthographic ar represents, two syllables raj], as opposed to (je) hais 'I hate', where the digraph, ai represents the single vowel [c]. The diaeresis is occasionally, found in English in such words as cooperate and the name Zoe,, but its use is not standard in English. Cf. umlaut (sense 3). 2. [rare], The pronunciation of two consecutive vowels as two syllables. Greek, diairesis 'separation', , dialect, , l'daI~lektl n., , A regionally or socially distinctive variety of a, language, differing from other varieties in its grammar and/or, lexicon. Cf. accent. Adj. dialectal. NOTE: The form *dialectical is an error., , dialect atlas II retl;lsl n. A book in which the results of dialectology, in some area are exhibited in the form of maps showing the regional, distributions of various words, forms or pronunciations., , dialect borrowing n. (also dialect mixing l'm1ksII)/) The putative, process by which speakers acquire non-native pronunciations for, certain words from speakers of other dialects with significantly, different phonological histories, rejecting their own native pronunciations for these words in the process. Though such borrowing no, doubt happens, the concept is now in some disrepute because it, has been constantly invoked as a near-magical 'explanation' of the, innumerable instances of exceptions to the Neogrammarian, Hypothesis of absolutely regular sound change. See Labov (1994:, chs 15-18) for a contemporary view., Idal~lek 'tol;ld3il n. The branch of linguistics dealing, with the distribution of accents and dialects in space and time. Adj., dialectological., , dialectology, , diaphone l'daI;lf;lun/ n. 1. (also diaphoneme) An abstract phonological unit posited for a language as a whole, represented in each, of several distinct varieties of that language as a phoneme with the, same distribution but with a significantly different phonetic realization; diaphones are sometimes represented by symbols enclosed, in vertical bars. A simple example is English lei, represented by, American lei = [c], RP lei = [e], and Australian lei = [e], all with, essentially the same lexical incidence. A more spectacular example, occurs in Basque, in which the diaphone Ij I (orthographic d), as in, jan 'eat') is realized in various regional dialects as [j], LJ.], [d3], [3],, [f] or [xl See Jones (1950) for discussion. 2. Anyone of the individual realizations of a diaphone in sense 1. Adj. diaphonic
Page 125 :
diaphoneme, , 112, , /daIlref~nil. Jones (1918 (3rd edn, [1932]»: Greek dia 'across' + phone. NOTE: These two senses are conflicting., It is clear that Jones intended the first sense, but, as a result of a misunderstanding, the term has very frequently been used in the second. Later Jones, introduced the term 'diaphoneme', also for sense 1, but this term has been, little used by anyone. It would be very convenient to use 'diaphone' for sense, 2 and to reserve 'diaphoneme' for sense 1, so that we could speak of 'diaphones, of a diaphoneme' (on a par with 'allophones of a phoneme'), but this proposal, is only partly in accord with observed usage. 3. [obsolete] Either of two, , /dal;}lfonlk/; abstr. n. diaphony, , or more phonemes in an unfamiliar speech variety (or even, language) which are identified by an individual with a single, phoneme in his own speech. Sense 3: Haugen (1957)., , diaphoneme /dal;}lf;}uni:m1 n. See diaphone (senses 1 and 2)., , Jones, , (1939)., , diaphragm /ldaI;}frrem/ n. The dome-shaped muscular partition, between the chest and the abdomen, partly responsible for, contracting the lungs during breathing. During speech, the, diaphragm relaxes and is passively pushed against the chest cavity, by the contraction of the abdominal muscles., , diastole /daI1rest;}lil n. [rare] The lengthening of a short syllable., Ant. systole. Greek diastole 'expansion'., , diasystem /ldaI~sIst~m1 n. (also overall pattern analysis) An analysis,, particularly a phoneme system, which is set up, not for a particular, language variety, but for a range of phonetically or phonologically, different varieties of the language handled simultaneously. This may, involve the use of diaphones, or it may involve setting up more, phonological units than actually occur in any single variety. A wellknown example is the Trager-Smith system for treating the vowels, of American English. Cf. common core. Weinreich (1954)., , dichotic listening /daI1kotlk IhSnIIJ/ n. An experimental technique, for determining which side of the brain is most directly involved, in hearing sounds. Typically, different sounds are presented simultaneously to each ear of a subject wearing headphones, and the, subject is then asked what she/he has heard. Most speech sounds, are heard preferentially by most subjects in the right ear (linked, to the left hemisphere of the brain)., , diction /ldIkJ ~n/ n. The degree of clarity with which an individual, enunciates when speaking.
Page 126 :
113, , diminuendo diphthong, , ditTuse /dI'fju:s/ adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting a spread of energy throughout, all frequencies of the spectrum' and interpreted as representing, high vowels and front consonants. The specification [diffuse], corresponds roughly in the SPE system to [+high] for vowels, and to [+anterior] for consonants. Abstr. n. diffuseness. Ant., compact., , diffusion /dI'fju:3l)./ n. The process by which an innovation spreads, through a speech community., , ~, , diffuse /dI'fju:z/., , /dld3It~1 'pr~usesIIJI n. A technique for transmitting and reproducing complex sounds with very high (in practice, virtually perfect) fidelity. An analog signal (an ordinary sound, wave) is sampled at very frequent intervals by an analog-to-digital, converter which produces a set of digits representing the amplitude, and frequency of every component; by the Sampling Theorem, if, the sampling rate is high enough, no information whatever is lost, in the resulting digital signal. This digital signal is highly robust; it, can be transmitted without interference from the noise found in, every transmission system; it can be very easily processed by simple, multiplication of frequencies (for example, to amplify the whole, signal or to enhance selected frequencies); and it can be converted, back into an ordinary analog signal which is indistinguishable from, the original. Digital processing is the basis of all modern highfidelity sound reproduction, and it is increasingly used in sound, transmission., , digital processing, , digital signal n. The signal produced by digital processing, consisting, entirely of a stream of numbers. Cf. analog signal., , digraph l'daIgro:fl n. In an alphabetic orthography, a sequence of, two letters which conventionally represents a single segment, such, as English (sh) for IfI, (ch) for ItJI, (ng) for IfJ/, (th) for 181 or 10/ or, (00) for lu:/, or such as Spanish (ch) for ItJ/, (11) for / AI or (rr) for Ir/., Cf. trigraph, tetragraph. NOTE: The use of the term diphthong in this sense, is an error., , dimeter, , l'dlmIt~/ n., , A metrical foot containing two syllables., , /dlmInju'end~u/ n. (also falling diphthong), A diphthong consisting of a more prominent first element followed, by a less prominent off-glide, such as raj], [awl, [c~] or [oj]. Ant., crescendo diphthong., , diminuendo diphthong
Page 127 :
114, , diminuendo stress, , diminuendo stress n. A variety of stress in which the prominence, decreases during the stressed syllable. Ant. crescendo stress. Jones, (1950); attributed to D. B. Fry., , diphonemic sound Idalf~'ni:mlk/ n. [rare] A single phone which,, in some analysis, is variously assigned to either of two phonemes, even in a single environment. Jones (1950)., diphthong /'dlf8oIJI n. A single syllabic nucleus which begins with, one vowel quality and changes more or less smoothly to a second, quality, as in [ju] and [ai]. Usually one of the two vocalic elements, is more prominent than the other, this other consisting only of a, preceding glide (an on-glide, as in [ju]), or a following glide (an, off-glide, as in [ai]). The first type is called a crescendo (or rising), diphthong, the second a diminuendo (or falling) diphthong., Diphthongs may be further classified as wide or narrow, as closing, or opening, or as backing, fronting or centring. Cf. monophthong,, triphthong, tetraphthong. NOTE the spelling and the pronunciation of this, word. It is an error to use the term, diphthonggos ~double sound'., , ~diphthong', , in the sense of digraph. Greek, , diphthongization Idlf8oIJal'zeIJQ./ n. Any phonological process in, which a simple syllabic nucleus (a pure vowel) is converted into a, diphthong. The history of English, for example, has been characterized by extensive diphthongization, as when the Middle English, vowels li:/ and lu:1 developed into lail and lau/, as in fine and house., Some particular varieties have special names, such as breaking. V, diphthongize., diplophonia Idlpl~'f~unI~1 n. (also diplophonic voice, See double voice., , Idlpl~'fonlk/), , directional clitic Id~'rekJ~n~l/ n. A clitic which always binds to a, host on one particular side of it, regardless of its grammatical, relation to the rest of the sentence. Klavans (1985)., directionality /d~rekJ~'nrehtil n. Particularly in Autosegmental, Phonology, the parameter by which some phonological property or, process, such as tone or syllable formation, must be analysed as, proceeding either left-to-right or right-to-Ieft, depending on the, language and the property. Analysts invoke a directionality parameter to handle differences among languages., Direct Syntax Hypothesis /d;)'rekt 'slntreks haI'po8~SIS/ n. The, view that syntactic structure directly influences phonology -
Page 128 :
115, , disjunction, , reflected, for example, in an analysis in which the applicability or, lack of it of a phonological rule is determined by the presence of, a syntactic constituent boundary. This view has been widely, accepted within generative phonology and its successors. Cf., Indirect Syntax Hypothesis, and see Prosodic Hierarchy., /dlsk~n'tlnju~s/ adj. In the Jakobson-HaUe feature, system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting an interruption, or an abrupt transition in the spectrum' and interpreted as representing rapid closure and opening of the vocal tract, as with, plosives. The specification [discontinuous] corresponds approximately to the SPE specification [~ontinuant]. Ant. continuant., , discontinuous, , discrete-level tone system /dI'skri:t, , lev~l/ n., , A system of tones in, which the pitch values of different tones are maintained in discrete,, non-overlapping pitch ranges throughout an utterance. Navaho is, an example. Welmers (1959)., , discreteness /dI 'skri:tn~s/ n. The fundamental property of language, by which continuous speech can be conveniently and insightfully analysed into a single linear sequence of elements, with, no intervening material; at the phonetic and phonological, levels, these elements are segments. Adj. discrete. Ant. nondiscreteness., , discrimination /dlskrlmI'nelfQ./ n. The ability of an individual to, hear small differences between sounds - in phonetics, of course;, speech sounds., , disharmonic root /dlsho:'mnnlk/ n. In a language with vowel, harmony, a root (sense 2) which fails to obey the usual harmony, rules, either in containing an opaque vowel which blocks the normal, application of vowel harmony, or in combining vowels from the, two harmonic groups., /dls'd3AlJkf~n/ n. 1. In a rule schema, a listing of two, or more elements or groups of elements such that exactly one of, them must be taken on anyone reading of the schema; the elements, in the disjunction are commonly enclosed in braces. See braces, (sense 1) for an example. 2. In a feature matrix, a listing of two, or more feature specifications such that exactly one of them, must be taken at anyone time; the alternative specifications, are commonly enclosed in braces. For example, the disjunctive specification [[~or], {[+ant], [+back]}] picks out just those segments, which are either non-coronal and anterior or non-coronal and, , disjunction
Page 129 :
disjunctive ordering, , 116, , back, and hence would pick out the class Ip k/ in a language with, Ip t c k/. Adj. disjunctive IdISld3AI]ktlvl or disjoint Idlsld3~Int/., , disjunctive ordering n. The relation that holds between a set of, related rules (typically rules combined in a single rule schema) such, that, as soon as anyone of the rules has successfully applied to a, phonological form, none of the other rules is permitted to apply, to that form, even if its structural description is met. Disjunctive, ordering often holds, for example, for a set of rules assigning stress:, as soon as anyone syllable has received stress, no other rules may, apply to assign stress to other syllables as well. Disjunctively, ordered rules need to be checked for application in some specified, order, and general principles must be invoked to determine whether, two rules are disjunctively ordered at all. The SPE proposal that, all and only those rules that can be combined in any kind of rule, schema are disjunctively ordered has proved to be inadequate;, more successful attempts are represented by Proper Inclusion, Precedence, the Elsewhere Condition and the Stifling principle., Ant. conjunctive ordering. Chomsky and Halle (1968)., , displaced articulation Idls1plelstl n. Any articulation in which the, lower articulator forms a constriction with an upper articulator, which is not directly opposite it, and hence in which the lower articulator is displaced from its neutral position. Examples include labiodental, linguolabial and retroflex articulations. Cf. place-neutral, articulation., , disproportionation IdISpr;)p:J:J;)lneIJI}.I n. A type of phonological, change in which a phoneme disappears, some instances of it, merging with one other phoneme but other instances with a, different phoneme, sometimes in an unpredictable manner. For, example, Old Turkish leI merged in some cases with Iii but in, other cases with leI, in a seemingly arbitrary manner, yielding the, eight-vowel system of modern Turkish. v: disproportionate. From, chemistry., , dissimilation IdIsImIlleIJ1}.1 n. Any of various phonological processes, in which one segment changes so as to become less similar to, another segment in the same form. For example, Latin arbor 'tree', yields Spanish arbol, with dissimilation of the second r to I; the, Ancient Greek root *thrikh - 'hair' exhibits nominative thriks, in, which the second plosive loses its aspiration regularly before s, but, genitive trikh 6s, in which the first plosive loses its aspiration by, dissimilation before the second aspirated plosive; Latin libellum
Page 130 :
117, , distinctive feature, , 'level' yields French niveau, in which the first I has dissimilated to, II (with other later changes producing the, modern form). ~ dissimilate; adj. dissimilatory /dI'sImdeItri/. Ant., assimilation., , n before the following, , /'dIs~n~ns/ n. The use or presence of unharmonious, sounds. Ant. consonance (sense 1) or euphony. Adj. dissonant., , dissonance, , distant assimilation, , /'dIst~nt/, , n. Any instance of assimilation, between segments which are not adjacent, as in vowel harmony, or, as in Sanskrit, in which a nasal becomes retroflex if the word, contains a preceding retroflex sibilant and no coronal segment, intervenes., , distinctive feature /dI'StIl)ktIV/ n. One of a specified set of phonological primes defined in such a way that every segment in a, language, at least at the phonological level, can be exhaustively, characterized as some permitted combination, or 'bundle', of, features, each with an associated value. There have been various, approaches to defining systems of features. First, a feature may be, an articulatory feature (defined in terms of the action of the organs, of speech), an acoustic feature (defined in terms of the physical, properties of the speech sound bearing the feature), or a perceptual feature (defined in terms of the perception of the associated, sound by the ear and the brain). Second, a feature may be binary, (it can take one of only two possible values, conventionally represented as + and -) or multivalued (it can take anyone of several, possible values). Third, a feature system may be intended as, universal (capable of handling all phonological distinctions in all, languages) or as language-specific (designed to treat only a single, language or variety)., Interest in features grew from the realization that it was often, unrealistic to treat segments as phonological primes: many phonological properties and processes are better understood as involving, only particular characteristics of segments, and the now fundamental concept of a natural class can only be articulated by an, appeal to these characteristics. Though the general idea of features, can be traced back a long way, it was the Prague School which first, explicitly introduced features, but without ever developing a fully, articulated theory of features. Roman Jakobson pursued the idea, in the United States, but his early work focused on language-specific, analyses only; Charles Hockett (1942, 1955) also made some, proposals in this vein. The first full-blown system was the
Page 131 :
distinctive feature, , 118, , Jakobson-Halle feature system of the 19508, which proposed a, rather minimalist set of only twelve features, all of them binary,, and all of them defined primarily in acoustic terms, though with, articulatory interpretations offered; this set was intended to be, universal. The J-H system was followed in 1968 by the very, different SPE feature system, which posited more than two dozen, binary features, almost all of them defined in articulatory terms; in, spite of some obvious shortcomings, the SPE system quickly, became orthodox in phonology, though there were endless attempts, to improve it by tinkering., The most serious objections derived from SP E's rigidly binary, features, which were awkward or worse in dealing with non-binary, parameters like vowel height and place of artiCUlation, and it was, Peter Ladefoged who led the reaction in a series of publications,, culminating in the Ladefoged feature system, which makes liberal, use of multivalued features, mostly also articulatory; this system, rejects the somewhat ad hoc contortions of SP E in favour of, hugging the phonetic ground. Others followed suit, and the, Williamson feature system constitutes a distinctive development of, Ladefoged's ideas, as does the Lindau feature system for vowels, only. In contrast, the Wickelgren feature system represents an, unusual attempt at constructing a system based on the perceptual, characteristics of sounds., In all these systems, a segment is regarded as a feature matrix,, a bundle of feature specifications (features with values) having no, internal ordering or structure. Thus, for example, the English, phoneme lsI is represented in the SPE system as [+consonantal,, -vocalic, -syllabic, -voice, -sonorant, +continuant, +coronal,, +anterior, +strident, -nasal, -lateral], in which all these specifications are present simultaneously and there is no more to say, (I have omitted a few specifications of minimal significance). More, recently, however, there have been two major developments in, feature theory., First, the development known as feature geometry introduces, considerable structure into feature matrices, in the form of trees:, a single feature at the top of the tree governs some other features,, each of which in turn may govern further features, and so on., Second, the various approaches known as privative (or holistic), frameworks replace conventional binary or multivalued features, with components (or elements), which are in effect unary features:, features which can take no values, but which can only be present, or not. Though such a component as [nasal] may not look different
Page 132 :
119, , distribution, , from the conventional [+nasal], the absence of [nasal] is very, different from the specification [-nasal]: in the conventional system,, [-nasal] can be used to pick out a natural class, but the absence of, [nasal] has no such consequence. In holistic frameworks, there is, no way of referring to the absence of a component, in principle, anyway, though a few versions have tried to sneak this capacity, into the system., See Fromkin and Ladefoged (1981) for an account of the very, early history of features, Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: chs 8-9) for a, history of features, Sommerstein (1977: ch. 5) for a historical and, critical summary, Lass (1984: chs 5-6) for a critical discussion, including some original proposals and a review of feature geometry,, Anderson (1978) for a survey of the attempts at extending features, to the analysis of tone, and Singh (1976) for a review of features, from a clinical point of view., /dllstIlJktn~s/ n. A linguistically significant difference, between two segments or two phonological representations. Every, theory of phonology is obliged in principle to provide some formal, machinery for determining whether two forms are distinct or not., In SPE, two segments are distinct if they bear opposed specifications for at least one feature, and two strings are distinct if they, are of different lengths or if they contain distinct segments in at, least one position. Definitions of distinctness have also been offered, for some non-linear frameworks, but tend to be more elaborate., Adj. distinct., , distinctness, , distributed /dIlstrIbjutId/ adj. (dist) In the SPE feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'produced with a constriction that, extends for a considerable distance along the direction of the air, flow'. This feature is primarily invoked to distinguish fricatives,, notably bilabials ([+dist]) from labiodentals ([-dist]), laminals, ([+dist]) from apicals and retroflexes ([-dist]), and the Polish, alveolo-palatal sibilants ([+dist]) from alveolar sibilants ([-dist]),, and sometimes also the English alveolar fricatives ([+dist]) from, the dental fricatives ([-dist]). Most recent work has eschewed this, feature, preferring to handle apical/laminal contrasts in particular, by some more direct means, such as a feature apical(ity)., , distribution /dlstrI1bju:fQ/ n. (also privilege of occurrence) The full, range of environments in which an element (most often a segment), can occur. See complementary distribution, contrastive distribution,, free variation, defective distribution.
Page 133 :
distributional analysis, , 120, , distributional analysis n. An idealized type of phonological analysis, suggested by certain American Structuralists, in which a complete, analysis is performed on a sufficiently large corpus of recorded and, transcribed material, without reference to meanings or native, speakers. The most determined attempts in this direction were, carried out by Bernard Bloch (1948, 1953)., , distributional equivalence II 'kWIVglgnsl n. The relation between, two phones which have exactly the same distribution, that is, which, exhibit parallel distribution in the strict sense. Lyons (1968)., , disyllable, , l'dalsI1gb~11, , n. (also bisyllable; formerly also dissyllable, l'dlssI1~bgl/) A word consisting of two syllables: money, delay,, trouble. Adj. disyllabic IdaIsI'lrebIk/. Greek di- 'twice' + syllabe 'syllable'., , D-licensing l'di:lals~nsIlJI n. In Government and Charm Phonology,, any case of licensing which does not fall out of any principles and, which must be stipulated by the analyst. Cf. G-licensing. From 'direct, licensing'., , docking l'dnkII]I n. The process by which a floating autosegment, associates with a skeletal position or (in early autosegmental work), with a vowel or a consonant. Goldsmith (1976)., I'dnl~ saInI n. The auxiliary symbol $, representing a, syllable boundary in some frameworks., , dollar sign, , domain IdgumeInl n. The stretch of phonological material to which, some rule or constraint applies., I'd~umgll adj. 1. A cover term for palatal, velar and uvular,, when these terms are used to label place of articulation. Catford, (1977: 142).2. [obsolete] A former synonym for palatal. Hockett (1955)., 3. [obsolete] A former synonym for retroflex., , domal, , Idnmln~nt rI'seSlvl n. A type, of vowel harmony occurring in certain languages in which all vowels, are divided into two disjoint sets, the dominant vowels and the, recessive vowels. The presence of a dominant vowel at any point, in a word, even in an affix, requires all vowels in that word to be, dominant, even the vowels in a root which, in isolation, contains, only recessive vowels. See Carr (1993: 259-262) for examples from, the East African language Kalenjin., , dominant/recessive vowel harmony, , Domino Condition, , l'dnmIn~ul, , n. A putative principle by which,, when metrical structure is deformed by some process (such as vowel
Page 134 :
121, , double articulation, , insertion), the deformation is repaired by a complete metrical, reorganization of the form from left to right from the point of, disruption. Halle and Vergnaud (1987)., , Doric /Idordu n. or adj. [non-technical] A popular label for any, distinctively rural Scottish speech variety, or less usually for, any conspicuously rural speech variety. Coined in contrast to the speech, of Edinburgh, the 'Athens of the North', from a supposed resemblance to the, Doric accents of Ancient Greek, allegedly regarded as 'rustic' and 'unrefined', by Attic and Ionian speakers., , dorsal II d~:s~l/ adj. 1. Pertaining to the back (dorsum) of the tongue., 2. Pertaining to the body of the tongue, both front and back. 3. (of, a segment) Articulated with the back of the tongue involved in the, primary constriction, as in the dorso-velar consonants [k], [g], [x], and [I)]. 4. (of a segment) Articulated with either the front or the, back of the tongue involved in the primary constriction. 5. An occasional synonym for velar (senses 2 and 3). 6. In some versions of, feature geometry, a superordinate class node taking the features, high, low and back as dependents. Sense 6: Sagey (1986). NOTE: Senses, 1-4 represent conflicting usages; I recommend retaining senses 1 and 3 and, avoiding senses 2 and 4., , Dorsey's Law /'d~:sil n. In the Siouxan language Winnebago, a rule, which inserts a copy of the following vowel within a preceding, voiceless-obstruent-plus-sonorant cluster: ho-J-waiti --7 hoJawaiti, 'be sick'., /d~:s~'vi:I~1 (commonly reduced to velar) 1. adj. (of a, segment) Articulated with the back of the tongue and the velum, as the primary articulators. 2. n. A segment so articUlated, such as, [k], [g] or [x]., , dorso-velar, , dorsum, , /Id~:s~m/ n. 1. adj. (also back) The back third or so of the, upper surface of the tongue. Cf. front. 2. In the terminology of, Catford (1977, 1988), and of many phonologists, the entire upper, surface of the tongue behind the blade, including the traditional, front of the tongue. In Catford's usage, the conventional front and, back are called the anterodorsum and the posterodorsum. Adj., dorsal. CF dorso-. NOTE: These inconsistent usages are most unfortunate;, , when encountering or using the terms 'dorsum' and 'dorsal', you should take, care that the intended sense is clear., , double articulation, , /ldAb~l/, , n. 1. Broadly, a synonym for coarticulation. 2. Narrowly, and more usually, an instance of coarticulation
Page 135 :
double-bar juncture, , 122, , in which both constrictions are of equal degree: Catford's 'coordinate coarticulation'. Laver (1994) includes vowels in this category,, since they involve both tongue and lip action, but this is not usual., See Laver (1994: 314-320) for a survey. Jones (1950). 3. See duality., Martinet (1949)., , double-bar juncture l'dAbglbo:1 n. In some American Stmctur:alist, analyses, a juncture phoneme posited to account for the presence, of a rising intonation contour and symbolized as II. Cf. single-bar, juncture, double-cross juncture. Trager and Smith (1951)., , double-cross, , juncture l'dAbglkrosl n., , In some American, Structuralist analyses, a juncture phoneme posited to account for, the presence of a falling intonation contour and symbolized as #., Cf. single-bar juncture, double-bar juncture. Trager and Smith (1951)., , doubled consonant or doubled vowel l'dAbgldl n. See geminate., double fricative n. A double articulation consisting of a fricative, made simultaneously at two places of articulation, such as the [sx], reported for some varieties of Swedish and the [i'<I>] of U rhobo., , double geminate n. A sequence of three identical consonants,, reported as occurring in certain African languages., , double hash mark n. The symbol ##, representing a boundary, between two adjacent words. Cf. hash mark., , double slashes n. pl. 1. A notation sometimes used for enclosing, morphophonemic representations in frameworks which recognize, a distinct morphophonemic level. Thus the German morpheme Rad, ~wheel' might be represented as Ilra:TII, variously corresponding to, phonemic Ira:tl or Ira:d/; see under complete overlapping for the, point of this, and see Lass (1984: 57-58) for alternative notations., 2. A notation used in marking the environment in the mirror-image, convention. 3. The symbol II, used to mark the end of an intonational phrase., , double stop n. A stop (particularly a plosive) whose articulation, involves simultaneous complete closure at two positions, such as, the [gb] in the language name Igbo and the [pt] of Bura (West, Africa)., , doublet /'dAblgt/ n. A pair of words in the same language which, have the same ultimate origin, or either of the words involved:, « Latin factio); castlelchateau « Latin castel/urn)., , factionlfashion
Page 136 :
123, , drag chain, , Larger groups exist: hospital/hostel/hotel « Latin hospitalium);, gentilelgenteel/gentleljaunty « Latin gentilis)., , double voice n. (also diplophonia, diplophonic voice) 1. A complex, and highly unusual phonation type in which ordinary voicing (vibration of the vocal folds) is combined with ventricular voice, (vibration of the ventricular folds). Unknown in linguistic usage,, double voice is used in certain types of singing in which it allows, the simultaneous production of two different notes, as in the, chanting of 'certain Tibetan monks' (Catford 1977: 104) and, less, melodiously, in the jazz style known as 'scat singing'. 2. A pathological condition resulting from a congenital deformation of the, vocal folds, in which the vocal folds vibrate with two different simultaneous fundamental frequencies., , double word boundary n. The boundary between two consecutive, phonological words, commonly represented as ##. Cf. single word, boundary., , downdrift I'doundrlftl n. In some tone languages, the phenomenon, by which the pitch of high tones is lowered slightly after a low tone,, so that the pitch difference between high and low tones becomes, steadily smaller during an utterance. Cf. declination, downstep., , Down East accent Idoun 'i:stl n. [non-technical] The traditional, label for the distinctive speech variety of the American state of, Maine, the quintessential 'Yankee' accent. The name 'Down East' is, applied to Maine in recognition of its geographical position and its low-lying, terrain., , downstep(ping) l'dounstep(IIJ)1 n. In some tone languages, the, phenomenon by which the pitch of high tones is (or may be), steadily lowered even in the absence of intervening low tones, so, that the pitch difference between high and low tones becomes, steadily smaller during an utterance. Cf. upstep, downdrift, declination. Welmers (1959)., , drag chain I'drreg tJelnl n. A putative type of phonological change, in which the presence of a hole in the pattern induces a nearby, segment to undergo phonetic modification so as to move into the, hole, with other segments in the system then often undergoing, further phonetic changes to fill the new holes which appear. For, example, Greek, Swedish, Occitan and the Zuberoan dialect of, Basque have all at some time undergone the fronting of u, leaving, a hole; in all four, the hole has been filled by raising some or all
Page 137 :
drawl, , 124, , instances of 0 to u; in Swedish, a has additionally been raised to, o. The Great Vowel Shift of English is perhaps another instance of, a drag chain. Cf. push chain, and see paradigmatic imbalance., Martinet (1955)., /dr~:l/ [non-technical] 1. n. An impressionistic label for any, style of speech which is perceived by the person making the judgement as involving an unusual degree of lengthening of vowels,, syllables or words or as merely being unusually slow in tempo., British speakers often regard many North Americans as having a, drawl, while northern Americans consider a drawl to be characteristic of southern American accents. 2. v. To speak with a drawl., , drawl, , Related to 'draw (out)'., , drift /drIft/ n. The phenomenon in which a linguistic process, or a, set of such processes, continues to occur in an identifiable direction over a period of many generations. In one type of drift, sometimes called a conspiracy, a number of formally distinct processes,, often occurring at different times, combine to produce a single, result. It is clear, for example, that all consonants could be distinctively geminated in intervocalic position in pre-Basque, but a, variety of formally unrelated processes have combined to eliminate, all geminate-simplex contrasts except for r/rr, which is now isolated, and is itself now being eliminated in some varieties, either by loss, of r or by merger of rand rr. The overall effect of all these changes, is to eliminate geminates from the language, but the process has, taken many centuries and is still not quite complete in most varieties. Other types of drift exist, however, such as the centuries-old, tendency to diphthongize tense vowels in English. Sapir (1921)., , duality /dju'rehti/ n. (also double articulation) The property of, human speech by which a small number of meaningless elements, (the phonemes) can be combined into a limitless number of meaningful expressions (words and sentences). The existence of duality, is arguably the single most far-reaching difference between human, languages and the signalling systems of other species., ~v Ij~:k/ n. A derivation in which, a form A is converted by rules to a different form B, which is then, converted by other rules back to A again. Pullum (1976); from a, , Duke of York derivation /dju:k, , satirical verse., , dumping /'dAmpIIJ/ n. In Autosegmental Phonology, the phenomenon in which an otherwise unassociated ('floating') autosegment
Page 138 :
125, , dysprosody, , is associated with a skeletal position which is already associated, with another autosegment on the same tier, as when a second tone, is added to a vowel that already bears a tone. Cf. spreading., , duplex perception II dj u:pleksl n. A phenomenon in which listeners, hear two different signals at different fundamental frequencies, simultaneously, each consisting of one or two different formants, from a single syllable such as [da] or [ga]. What they hear is two, different sounds at once: the syllable, constructed from its components, and a buzz corresponding to the single formant at one, frequency., , duration Idju'reIJI)/ n. The amount of time occupied by an articulation, usually measured in milliseconds (ms); the primary phonetic, correlate of length and sometimes one phonetic correlate of stress., , dynamic phonetics Idal'nremlkl n. See parametric phonetics., Dynamic Phonology n. A label given to an approach to phonology, which attempts to integrate parametric phonetics into phonological, descriptions. The name reflects a statement of intent, rather than, a distinct theory of phonology. Griffen (1985)., , dynamic tone n. 1. See contour tone. 2. One of several prosodic, elements forming a system in a language, resembling tones but realized primarily by variations in duration and intensity, rather than, by variations in pitch. Tsimshian, for example, has a system of three, dynamic tones called 'clipped', 'sustained' and 'fading'., , dynamophone Idal'nrem;lf;lunl, , n. [rare] An abstract sound unit, , whose members are the strong and reduced realizations of a particular segment in a particular word, such as [i] and [;l] in English, the: one type of metaphone. Palmer (1930)., , dysperiodicity /dlspl;lri;l'dlslti/ n. Any departure from perfectly, regular vibration, especially of the vocal folds. Adj. dysperiodic., Idls'f;luni~1 n. The partial loss of the ability to use the, vocal folds to produce phonation. Adj. dysphonic Idls'fnnlk/. Cf., aphonia., , dysphonia, , dysprosody Idls'prns;ldil n. Any pathological disturbance of the, ability to produce speech with normal rhythm, intonation or loudness.
Page 139 :
E, l'I~drAmJ n. (also tympanum, tympanic membrane) The, membrane separating the canal of the outer ear from the middle, ear. Sound waves striking the eardrum cause it to vibrate, and these, vibrations are passed across the eardrum to the auditory ossicles, of the middle ear., , eardrum, , early onset of voicing, , 11 3 :lil, , n. The initiation of voicing in a stop, substantially before the release. Cf. simultaneous onset of voicing,, late onset of voicing., , ear training II I~ trelnIlJI n. The procedure by which students of, phonetics learn to identify and characterize a wide range of speech, sounds by listening to them., , ease of acquisition li:zl n. The degree to which a language can be, readily learned by children, sometimes cited both as a limiting, factor on possible grammars and as a factor in phonological, change., , ease of articulation n. (also ease of production) The degree to, which speech sounds, sequences of speech sounds and contrasts, between speech sounds may be readily produced by speakers, sometimes cited as a factor in phonological change. This notion underlies the concept of natural processes., , ease of perception n. The degree to which speech sounds, and, contrasts between speech sounds, may be readily and correctly, detected by a hearer, sometimes cited as a factor in phonological, change., lek~lleI1i~1 n. A pathological condition in which the, sufferer automatically repeats, typically without comprehension,, part or all of what someone else has just said., , echolalia, , echo word, , Ilek~u w3:dl n. A word constructed by repeating an, existing word with a fixed alteration (usually to the beginning), as, in Yiddish-influenced American English Jaguar-Schmaguar!, , eclipsis II'khpSISI n. 1. The conventional label in Irish for the mutation in which, in any of about a dozen specified grammatical circum-
Page 140 :
127, , e-grade, , stances, the initial consonant of a word is affected as follows: a, voiceless plosive or IfI becomes voiced; a voiced plosive becomes, a nasal; a vowel-initial word acquires a preceding In/. Examples:, tigh [fig'] 'house', an dtigh [an d'ig'] 'at the house'; ptiipear, [pa:1p'e:r] 'paper', i bptiipear [i ba:'p'e:r] 'in a paper'; fear [fiar], 'grass', sa bhfear [sa v'iar] 'in the grass'; gn6 [gno:] 'business', bhur, ngn6 [vur I)no:] 'your business'; b6 [bo:] 'cow', fear se mb6 [f'iar, se: mo:] 'the grass of six cows'; 6g [o:g] 'young', Tir na n6g [t'i:r', na no:g] 'The Land of the Young'. 2. Loss of a segment, especially, word-medially. It: eclipse II'khps/., , economy, , !I'kDn~mil n. Any of various criteria for phonological, analysis, such as minimization of the number of phonemes or other, units, minimization of the number or complexity of descriptive, statements or maximal use of distinctive features. These criteria, may conflict., , edge led31 n. The position at the left or right extremity of a grammatical constituent. The edge position is often important in determining whether some phonological process applies or not. Cf. 8ank., , edge effect n. The physical process by which an airstream striking, an obstruction produces friction noise. See obstacle fricative., , edge-in association n. In Autosegmental Phonology, the procedure, by which some phonological property, such as tone, is ~anchored', at an edge by an explicit statement, and is then extended as, necessary to the rest of the constituent by spreading or by, default., , edge inflection n. A bound grammatical morpheme which is always, attached to one edge of a constituent, regardless of the position, of the head of that constituent, such as the English possessive, marker -so, , edh leol n. See eth., editing l'edItII)I n. Monitoring of speech by the speaker. Covert, editing is carried out below the level of consciousness and produces, smooth speech; overt editing is performed consciously and is readily, detectable by the listener. Hockett (1967)., , e-grade l'i:greIdl n. In the phonology of Proto-Indo-European, that, form of a root exhibiting the vowel e, considered the unmarked, form of the root: *yek- ~speak', *bher- 'carry', *kleu- 'hear'. Cf., o-grade, zero-grade.
Page 141 :
egressive, , 128, , egressive Illgreslvl adj. 1. (of an airstream) Going outward from the, body. Ant. ingressive. Pike (1943). 2. (egr) A distinctive feature, proposed by Lass (1984: 93): segments with an ingressive airstream, are [-egr]; all others are [+egr]., , ejection II'd3ekf;}nf n. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'produced by an upward movement of the, glottal closure' and invoked to distinguish ejective consonants, ([+ejection]) from all other segments., , ejective II Id3ektlvI 1. n. or adj. (rarely also recursive) Any segment,, often especially a stop, made on a glottalic egressive airstream, mechanism. Ejective stops, affricates and fricatives are all attested., The IPA notates ejectives with a following apostrophe: [k'], [s']., 2. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one of the, three possible values of the feature glottalic (Ladefoged) or larynx, movement (Williamson)., , elaborated segment 11'lreb;}reltldl n. In the articulatory complexity, model, a segment whose production requires one departure from, the default mode of production, such as a creaky-voiced vowel or, a palatalized plosive., , electroaerometry Idektr;}u£;}I rnm;}tril n. (also aerometry) The, measurement of air flow during speech. The device used is an, (electro)aerometer., , electroglottography Idektr;}gl;}'tngr;}fil n. A technique for examining and recording the movement of the vocal folds in speech,, either by passing an electric current across the glottis or by, shining a beam of light across it (photoelectroglottography). The, device is an electroglottograph; the printout is an electroglottogram., , electrokymography Idektr;}kal'mngr;}fi! n. An instrumental technique employing a face mask connected to instruments which, can continuously measure, record and display the velocity and, volume-velocity or air flow through the mouth and the nose., The instrument is an electrokymograph; the output is an electrokymogram., , electrolaryngography Idektr;}lrerIIJ'gngr;}fi! n. See laryngograph., electromyography Idektr;}maI'ngr;}fi! n. (emg) A technique for, investigating the movements of muscles by using electrodes to, detect the firing of motor neurones.
Page 142 :
129, , ernic, , II1ektr~prel~'tDgr~fi/ n. A version of palatography using a false palate implanted with electrodes, so that, contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth may be, continuously recorded and displayed. The instrument is an electropalatograph; the output is an electropalatogram., , electropalatography, , element, , I'el~m~ntl n., , See component., , elicitation II1IsI'telft;t1 n. The technique of obtaining linguistic data, from native speakers. In direct elicitation, the investigator presents, a form or utterance and asks for an opinion; the more exacting,, but more reliable, indirect elicitation involves a good deal of cunning, manoeuvring in order to obtain the required information in the, form of spontaneous, unselfconscious utterances. v: elicit hlllslt/., , elision II'II3QI n. Any of various processes in which phonological, material is lost from a word or phrase. Specific varieties of elision, include aphaeresis, syncope, apocope, synaeresis, synizesis and, synaloepha. Not infrequently this name is given to specific processes, in particular languages, such as the French process that converts la, + arnie to l'arnie 'the (female) friend', or the Spanish process in, which Santa Ana 'Saint Anne' is pronounced Santana. v: elide, h'lald/. Latin elisio 'a striking out'., , elocution, , /el~'kju:fQI, , n. The art of effective public speaking, or, , training in this art., , Elsewhere Condition l'elswc~1 n. A fundamental, and putatively universal, constraint on the applicability of rules. It says: two rules of the, forms (i) A ~ B / P _ Q, and (ii) C ~ D I R _ S are disjunctively, ordered iff (a) the set of strings that match PAQ is a subset of the, strings that match RCS, and (b) the structural changes of the two rules, are identical or incompatible. In other words, wherever (i) can apply,, it does so, and (ii) does not; (ii) applies only 'elsewhere'. Similar, but, not identical, to Proper Inclusion Precedence, this condition is, designed to minimize extrinsic ordering. See Stiffing. Kiparsky (1973b)., , elusive /I'lju:SIV/ adj. (of a segment) Having a somewhat indeterminate and often variable nature, such as English schwa or Russian, yers. Jones (1950)., , emg Ii: em 'd3i:1 n. See electromyography., ernic Ili:mlkl adj. (of a description) Formulated in terms of a system, of relations, contrasts and/or functions, ignoring functionless details., Cf. etic. Kenneth Pike, in various works: from phonemic.
Page 143 :
emphasis, , 130, , l'emf~sIsl n. A very broad and general term applied to, any kind of prominence attached to a linguistic element., , emphasis, , emphatic IIm'fretIkl adj. 1. Characterized by the presence of some, kind of empbasis. 2. A traditional label for certain consonants in, Arabic which are pharyngealized or velarized and which contrast, with other, similar, segments lacking this secondary articulation., , emphatic stress n. Stress placed on a particular part of an utterance in order to draw attention to it, as in English I did NOT say, that. Cf. contrastive stress. NOTE: Many analysts use the terms 'emphatic, stress' and 'contrastive stress' interchangeably., , Empty Category Principle I'emptil n. (ECP) In Government and, Cbann Pbonology, a principle restricting empty positions. It says:, a melodically empty slot must be properly governed. Here 'proper, government' is a version of government meeting certain additional, conditions. From a comparable principle in syntax., , empty morph n. An overt morpb which cannot be assigned to any, morpbeme. For example, in Basque mendietan 'in the mountains',, mendi is the noun 'mountain', -e- is the usual form of the plural, morpheme in oblique cases and -n is the usual form of the locative case ending, leaving -ta- unassigned as an empty morpho Hockett, (1947)., , empty nucleus n. (also null vowel) In some analyses of consonant, clusters at syllable margins, a hypothetical vowel which is posited, to bear a consonant whose presence is not otherwise permitted in, the analysis, as when depth is syllabified dep. fJ6. Kaye (1990)., , empty onset n. A syllable onset containing no material., , e muet /~ mqe/ n. (also mute e) The name given to schwa in French,, including instances of 'potential' schwa which are not normally, pronounced in standard northern French., , enchainement lofcn( ~ )mO! n. [French: 'chaining'] 1. See chain shift., 2. In French, the phenomenon in which a word-final consonant, which is always pronounced is, when preceding a word-initial vowel,, pronounced as part of the first syllable of the following word: hence, par [paR] 'by' but par accident [pa.Rak.si.do] 'by accident'. Cf., liaison., , enclitic /In'khtlkl, , n. A clitic which follows its host, such as -n't in, couldn't. Cf. proclitic.
Page 144 :
131, , EPD, , encliticization IInkhtlsal1zeIIQI n. The process by which a weak, syllable is attached to a strong syllable on its left to produce a metrical foot, as when, in the phrase lots of wine, the weak syllable of is, combined with lots to form a foot [lots of]. According to Giegerich, (1985), this is the only possibility in English. Cf. procliticization., lend~ulleIbi~l/ adj. (of an articulation) Involving the, inner surfaces of the lips, as in inner rounding. Cf. exolabial., , endolabial, , eng leIJI n. (also aOgota, tailed n) The name of the character IJ, used, in the IPA to represent a velar nasal consonant, as in English, singing [IJ]' Modification of en 'n'; the character dates from the seventeenth century, the name from the 1950s., , English Stress Rule n. (ESR) In Metrical Phonology, the rule, posited as accounting for the position of the stress in most English, lexical items, essentially a later version of the Main Stress Rule and, the Primary Stress Rule. Liberman and Prince (1977)., IIn'ho:nsm~ntl n. The phenomenon by which certain, articulatory movements increase the acoustic differences between, segments. For example, back vowels differ from front vowels in, having a lower F2 and F3; lip-rounding further lowers F2, thus, enhancing the perceptual distinctness of back vowels. v: enhance., , enhancement, , Stevens and Keyser (1989)., , entering element, , Ilent~rIIJI n. In a chain shift, a segment which, moves into the phonological space formerly occupied by another, segment moving out of it, the leaving element. Labov (1994: 119)., , enunciation IInAnsi'eIIQ/ n. The articulation of speech, often particularly clear and distinct articulation., , v:, , enunciate., , environment, , /In'vaIr~nm~nt/ n. (also context) The position in the, speech chain in which a segment (or sometimes a larger unit), appears; all the preceding and following material within some relevant domain, such as a syllable, a word or a phrase., , environmental context, , IInvalr~n'ment~l/ n. The location of a, segment expressed in terms of its neighbouring segments. Cf. structural context., , environment bar n. (also slash, oblique) In a phonological rule, the, symbol /, used to separate the environment in which a rule applies., , EPD Ii: pi: 'di:1 n. (in full, the English Pronouncing Dictionary) The, most comprehensive and influential pronouncing dictionary of
Page 145 :
EPD transcription, , 132, , British English for many years. The first edition appeared in 1917,, edited by Daniel Jones, who also edited a number of succeeding, editions. The EPD transcription which it used was long the standard system for transcribing Received Pronunciation. After Jones's, death, the volume was taken over by A. C. Gimson, and the 14th, edition (1977), edited by Gimson and Susan Ramsaran, changed, over to the Gimson-O'Connor transcription. EPD has now been, succeeded by LPD., , EPD transcription (also Jones transcription and, among lexicographers, IPA transcription) The system used for transcribing the, phonemes of English (more precisely, of Received Pronunciation), in the first thirteen editions of EPD and in most of the published, works of Daniel Jones and of other British analysts until 1960 or, so, since when the system has been generally superseded by a modified version, the Gimson-O'Connor system. The EPD system was, invented by members of the International Phonetic Association, early in this century; it became the definitive transcription for, English thanks to its use by Daniel Jones, who, however, did not, invent it and reportedly didn't even like it much., /e'pen9~sIs/ n. The insertion of a segment into a word, in a position in which no segment was previously present. The, history of English provides examples like the development of remtig, into empty, with epenthetic p, and of punor into thunder, with, epenthetic d. The word prince is commonly pronounced like prints,, with epenthetic t. Non-standard pronunciations include 'athalete', for athlete and 'fillum' for film, with epenthetic vowels. The, epenthesis of a vowel is also called anaptyxis (or svarabhakti), and, some linguists restrict the term 'epenthesis' to consonant insertion,, while others restrict it to word-medial position. Epenthesis in a, specific position is prothesis or paragoge. Adj. epenthetic, /epen 'getIk/. Ant. deletion. Greek: 'insertion'., , epenthesis, , epiglottal, , /epI'glot~l/, , 1. adj. Pertaining to the epiglottis. 2. adj. (of, a segment) Articulated with the primary stricture occurring at the, epiglottis. 3. n. A segment so articulated, such as the voiceless, epiglottal plosive ('epiglottal stop') found in several Caucasian, languages and in certain varieties of Arabic and Hebrew (Catford, 1988: 101). Epiglottal fricatives are also possible; the IPA provides, symbols for all of these., , epiglottis /epI'glotIS/ n. A spoon-shaped cartilage whose base is, attached to the front of the thyroid cartilage and whose other end
Page 146 :
133, , ESR, , is free. During swallowing, the root of the tongue pushes the, epiglottis partially down over the larynx, giving limited protection, against food entering the trachea. The epiglottis plays a very limited, part in speech production. Adj. epiglottal., , epithesis, , le'pIe~sISI, , n. A rare synonym for paragoge. Greek: 'a, , setting on'., , epitrite /'epItraIt/ n. A rare metrical foot consisting of three stressed, syllables and one unstressed one, or, in quantitative metre, of three, long syllables and one short one, in any order. Greek epitritos 'onethird more'., /'i:kw~l saIni n. The auxiliary symbol =, representing a, special type of boundary sometimes posited as occurring in English, between an original prefix and an original root in a verb of Latin, origin: hence re=sist, de=sign, per=mit, com=pel, trans=jer,, inter=sect, com=pre=hend. The boundary is invoked to handle, various peculiarities of these words, including their failure to, undergo the Alternating Stress Rule and the voicing of s in cases, like resist and design (compare consist and consign). Chomsky and, , equal sign, , Halle (1968)., , Equational Phonology, , II'kweI3~n~l/ n., , The application of Gerald, Sanders's Equational Grammar to phonology. This approach, stresses what are regarded as universal natural principles of grammatical function; it restricts the content of descriptions to what are, called 'lawlike rules about representational equivalences'; and it is, presented in a kind of algebraic formalism. Sanders (1979)., lekwI'pDI~ntl adj. In Prague School, phonology, a contrast between two segments which are distinguished neither by the presence or absence of a single feature (as, in a privative opposition) nor by variation in degree along a single, dimension (as in a gradual opposition); instead, the two segments, differ in respect of multiple phonetic characteristics and must be, regarded as logically equivalent: for example, the /p/-/t/ contrast or, the If/-/kl contrast in English., , equipollent opposition, , esh lefl n. The symbol f, used in the IPA to represent a voiceless, palato-alveolar fricative, as in English ship IfIp/. By analogy with 'ess', for (s)., , esophagus, esophageal, esophagic See oesophagus., ESR Ii: es '0:1 n. See English Stress Rule.
Page 147 :
134, , Estuary English, , Estuary English II estjuril n. [non-technical] A name sometimes, given to a wide spectrum of accents used in southeastern England, and falling somewhere between broad Cockney at one extreme and, unmistakable Received Pronunciation at the other. Associated, particularly with upwardly mobile working-class speakers, these, accents are also adopted by middle-class speakers eager to identify themselves with 'popular' culture. Some observers have, suggested that Estuary English may be slowly replacing RP as the, prestige accent of southern England. David Rosewarne, Times, Educational Supplement, 19 October 1984; from its putative origins in the, Thames Estuary region., , eth, , leol n. (also edh) The character 0, used in the IPA to represent, a voiced dental fricative, as in English this and mother. It was, invented and used by the Old English scribes to represent the, (single) dental fricative of Old English as an alternative to thorn, (p); it is used in modern Icelandic orthography to represent the, voiced dental fricative, with a capital form D., , etic l'etIkl adj. (of a description) Characterized by scrupulous attention to minute detail, without regard to any system of relations or, functions. Cf. emic. Kenneth Pike, in various works: from phonetic., , etymology, , letI'mnl~d3il, , n. The study of the historical sources of, words (lexical items). Adj. etymological., , etymon l'etImnnl n. (pI. etyma, , l'etlm~/), , An ancestral form from, which a later form is directly derived. English father has the Old, English etymon freder, which in turn has the PIE etymon *p;Jter., Cf. reflex., , euphony I'ju:f~nil n. 1. Attractiveness of sound. 2. [obsolete or nontechnical] Any alteration in the pronunciation of a word which, makes it easier to pronounce, such as an assimilation., , eurhythmy Iju:'rIomil n. (also eurythmy) Metrical symmetry; the, existence of a highly regular metrical structure in utterances. Adj., eur(h)ythmic., , evaluation measure IIvrelju'eIft:l1 n. Any mechanical procedure for, evaluating either the phonological system of a language or a proposed description of such a system for the purpose of providing a, valuation of it in terms of some set of supposedly objective criteria., , Event Perception II'ventl n. A theory of speech perception which, holds that what the hearer perceives is the actions of the speaker's
Page 148 :
135, , expansion, , vocal tract. See the special issue of the JournaL of Phonetics (14:1,, 1986) for presentation and discussion., , exception /Ik'sepf~n1 n. Any form or datum which is, or appears to, be, in conflict with the ordinary rules or constraints constituting the, phonology of a language. See veto phenomenon for an instance., Cf. positive exception, counterexample., , exception feature n. A more or less ad hoc diacritic posited in, some analyses as existing on certain morphemes and serving to, indicate that those morphemes exceptionally fail to undergo a, regular phonological process of the language., , exchange rule /Iks'tfelnd31 n. (also alpha-switching rule, ftip-Oop, rule) A rule in which the sign attached to a Greek-letter variable, in the alpha notation is reversed by the action of the rule. For, example, Chomsky and Halle (1966: 265) posit the following rule, for Early Modem English:, , a high ], [ -low, , ~, , [-Q high] /, , +tense ], [ +stress, , This rule exchanges ('flip-flops') high and mid tense vowels under, stress., , exclamation mark lekskl~'melfl}ln. The symbol !, sometimes used, in transcribing tone languages to mark the onset of downstepping., , excrescence !Iks'kres~ns/ n. The (usually sporadic) insertion of a plosive into word-final position: vermin> varmint, no > nope, Old English, betwihs> betwixt. This is one type of paragoge. Adj. excrescent., , exolabial, , /eks~'lelbi~l/ adj. (of an articulation) Involving the outer, surfaces of the lips, as in outer rounding. Cf. endolabial., , expanded IIk'sprendld/ adj. 1. In the Lindau feature system, a, distinctive feature invoked to treat differences in the size of the, pharynx, with the possible values expanded, neutral and constricted,, only two of which can be used contrastively in a given language., The values expanded and constricted correspond approximately to, the wide and narrow (respectively) of Ladefoged and to [+ATR], and [-ATR] (respectively). 2. In the Williamson feature system,, one of the three possible values of the feature expansion., , expansion Ilk'sprenf~n1 n. 1. (also subrule) Anyone of the individual rules conflated by some abbreviatory convention within a
Page 149 :
Expansion Convention, , 136, , rule schema. 2. In the Williamson feature system, a distinctive, feature with the possible values expanded, normal and narrowed,, invoked to handle distinctions of pharynx constriction and covering, roughly the same ground as the features ATR and wide in other, systems. 3. A type of phonological change in which the phonological space previously divided between two phonemes is reassigned, to a single phoneme, leading to a merger of the original phonemes., Sense 3: Labov (1994). V (senses 1 and 3) expand., , Expansion Convention n. A putative convention governing certain, types of sound change. It says: given a process of sound change, described by a rule [z F] ~ [z+ax F] / ... , apply the rule to anyone, segment by increasing x until a segment bearing [z+a(x+1) F] would, be non-distinct from another segment, or until z-ax == O. (Here F is, any feature, a == ±1, z is a conservative value for F, and x is an increment to the value of F.) This convention is intended to describe the, behaviour of chain shifts involved in long-term drift. Labov (1994: 264)., , experimental phonetics, , !Iksperllment~l/, , n. See instrumental, , phonetics., , experimental phonology n. An approach to phonology which, attempts to integrate the findings of experimental phonetics and of, experimental psychology, in the hope of relating phonological, descriptions to observable behaviour. The most prominent advocate is John Ohala: see Ohala (1986) for an introduction and Ohala, and Jaeger (1986) for a collection of studies., , expiratory reserve volume, , /Iklspalr~tri, , rlZ3:V volju:m/ n. The, volume of air which an individual can breathe out beyond the, minimum value of the tidal volume. Cf. inspiratory reserve volume., , explanatory adequacy, , /Iklsplren~tri/ n., , See under adequacy., , exponent !Iklsp~un~nt/n. The phonetic realization of a phonological, element. The term is particularly associated with Prosodic Analysis,, but is used elsewhere. Abstr. n. exponence., expression IIk lsprefQ./ n. One of the three planes of phonology., Roughly, the plane of expression includes all those aspects of, phonology which express the identity of the speaker: sex, social, class, individuality, and so on. Cf. appeal, representation., , extended articulation /IklstendId/ n. An articulation involving a, constriction which extends for some considerable distance along, the axis of the vocal tract. Catford (1977: 194-195).
Page 150 :
137, , extrasyUabicity, , extended chain shift Ilk ·stendJ(lJ n. Any chain shift involving three, or more segments all of which move along a single identifiable, trajectory. Labov (1994: 119)., , extemal adequacy, , IIk·st3:n~11 n., , See under adequacy., , l·eVld~nsl n. Any of various types of evidence, which can be brought to bear upon a proposed phonological, analysis other than the characteristics of the analysis itself, (economy, generality, simplicity, etc.). Possible sources of external, evidence include characteristics of child language, aspects of, language pathology, certain types of psycholinguistic experiment,, treatment of loan words, conformity to proposed universals, and, (in certain circumstances) the orthographic preferences of native, speakers. Cf. internal evidence., , extemal evidence, , extemal open juncture n. In American Structuralist work, the type, of juncture which marks either boundary of an utterance. See, juncture phoneme. Trager and Bloch (1941)., , extemal sandhi n. Any form of sandhi occurring across word, boundaries, such as the process t + j ~ tf in English sequences, like can't you [krentf u:]. Cf. internal sandhi. Hockett (1958)., , extra-long /'ekstr~/ adj. 1. See overlong. 2. In the Williamson feature, system, one of the four possible values of the feature length., , extraprosodicity, , lekstr~prDs~·dIsItiJ, , n. (also extrametricality, /ekstr~-metrI'krehtiJ) A device which renders a peripheral (initial, or final) element in a phonological form invisible to certain phonological processes, such as tone spreading or stress assignment. An, extraprosodic element is conventionally enclosed in angle brackets., See Roca (1992) for a historical account. Adj. extraprosodic., Liberman and Prince (1977)., , extra-short adj. (of a vowel) Having an unusually short duration, while retaining syllabicity. In the IPA, extra-short vowels are, marked with a breve: [ill., /ekstr~sIl~'bISIti/ n. Any of various extensions of, extraprosodicity to syllable structure. One use of it is to deal with, a latent consonant in syllable-final position (as in French mes 'my'):, this is initially assigned to no syllable; unless rescued by a following, vowel-initial during a derivation, it receives no phonetic realization. Another is the treatment of Palestinian Arabic kittibit 'I, wrote', which has stress on the 'wrong' syllable: taking kitab+t as, , extrasyUabicity
Page 151 :
extratonality, , 138, , the underlying form, with an extrasyllabic affix, allows stress to be, assigned correctly. Adj. extrasyllabic. Clements and Keyser (1983)., lekstr~t~lnrehti/ n. In certain tone languages, a, phenomenon in which a word-final syllable is exempt from the usual, rules applying to tones. Myers (1987)., , extratonality, , extrinsic allophone Ilk 'strlnslkl n. An allophone whose phonetic, nature cannot be predicted from its phonetic environment, and, which must therefore be stipulated by rule in a description, such, as the dark I which occurs only in non-prevocalic position in the, English of England. Cf. intrinsic allophone. Wang and Fillmore (1961)., , extrinsic ordering n. Any version of rule ordering in which the, order of rules is stipulated by the analyst instead of being derived, from universal principles. Ant. intrinsic ordering (especially sense, 2)., , eye dialect lall n. In writing, the use of non-standard spellings to, indicate the use of non-standard speech: wuz for was, sez for says,, massa for master., oc~urrence in rhyming position of two, words whose spelling suggests that they should rhyme but which, do not in fact rhyme, such as movellove or greatlmeat., , eye rhyme n. In poetry, the
Page 152 :
F, FO lef, , 'ZI~r~ul n., , See fundamental frequency., , Fl, F2, F3 lef WAn, tu:, eri:1 n. See first, second, third formant., facultative, , l'frek~lt~tIvl adj., , (of alternative forms) In free variation., , fall If:):l/ n. A lowering of the pitch level during an utterance., falling diphthong n. See diminuendo diphthong., falling tone n. A contour tone characterized by a drop in pitch., false quantity If:1:ls1 n. 1. In quantitative metre, the use of a heavy, syllable where the metre requires a light one, or vice versa. 2. The, pronunciation of an English word of Greek or Latin origin with a, long (tense) vowel where the original has a short vowel, or vice, versa. For example, Latin stiitus, with short a, 'ought' to yield, English st[ re ]tus, with a short vowel, but the pronunciation st[ eI ]tus,, with a false quantity, is both more usual and more prestigious., , false segmentation n. The putative process by which speakers insert, an apparent morpheme boundary into an unjustified position,, sometimes posited to account for such data as the veto phenomenon. Lass (1984: 34)., , false step Istepl n. In a derivational theory of phonology, an intermediate stage of representation which is ill-formed in some respect,, and which must be corrected by a rescue rule, but which is posited, in order to make the whole analysis more general or more economical. Zwicky (1973)., , falsetto, , If:):l'set~ul n., , or adj. (also head register, head voice) A, distinctive phonation type in which the vocal folds are stretched, longitudinally, yielding a thin cross-section, and usually leaving the, glottis slightly open. The fundamental frequency produced is very, much higher than in modal voice, typically around three times as, high for males; subglottal pressure is lower, and there is often a, slight whispery quality as the air leaks through the glottis. Falsetto, is not known to be used contrastively in any language, but it has, a variety of paralinguistic uses; see Laver (1994: 197-198) for a
Page 153 :
140, , false vocal cords, , survey. Since falsetto is typically used for whole utterances rather, than for individual segments, Laver (1994) recommends notating it, with an F prefixed to the (bracketed) stretch of speech in falsetto., See Hollien (1972) for a detailed description. NOTE: Falsetto has, usually been treated as a register, but John Laver in recent works prefers, to classify it as a phonation type., , false vocal cords n. pl. See ventricular folds., , family universal I'fremlil n. A phonetic or phonological property, uncommon in languages generally but very common in the, languages of a particular family or area, such as clicks in southern, Africa. Lass (1984: 155)., , faucal, , Ilf:>:k~l/, , adj. 1. Pertaining to the fauca) pillars. 2. (of a, , segment) Articulated by means of lateral compression of that part, of the pharynx just behind the mouth, bringing the faucal pillars, together, often with some raising of the larynx: one type of pharyngeal articulation. The Arabic pharyngeal approximants [0] and [~], are commonly articulated in this way., Ilf:>:k~lalzd/ n. A distinctive voice quality, sometimes heard from deaf speakers, in which the fauca) pillars are, moved laterally inwards, constricting the pharynx., , faucalized voice, , Ilpd~z/ n. pl. The two vertical pairs of muscles which, move the velum up and down. When they lower the velum, they, also tend to narrow the side-to-side diameter of the pharynx., , faucal pillars, , FeR lef si:, , 0, , 1, , :1 n. See feature cooccurrence restriction., , feature Ilfi:tJ~I n. See distinctive feature., feature bundle, , IlbAnd~11 n., , feature coefficient, , See feature matrix., , /k~IlfIJ~ntl, , Any of the Greek letters u,, notation., , Il,, , n. (also Greek letter variable), etc., used as variables in the alpha, , feature cooccunence restriction /k~~lkAr~ns rlstrlkJ~nI n. (FeR), Any universal or language-specific statement which either requires, one feature specification to be accompanied by another or prohibits, one specification from being accompanied by another. For example,, the universal FCR [+obstr] ~ [-cons] requires all obstruents to be, consonantal; the universal FCR [+high] ~ [-low] requires all high, segments to be non-low; the Basque-specific FCR [+obstr, +cont], ~ [-voice] requires all continuant obstruents (fricatives) in that
Page 154 :
141, , feature matrix, , language to be voiceless. Some feature systems permit statements, like [-obstr] ~ ,. ., [delrel], which says that a non-obstruent must, carry no specification at all for the feature [delayed release]., , feature dependency n. An analysis in which some feature, instead, of being connected directly to the phonological skeleton, is, connected to another feature which is itself connected (directly or, indirectly) to the skeleton; the first feature is said to be dependent, on the second. Such dependencies underlie the notion of feature, geometry., /dls~'gri:m~nt/ n. The phenomenon in which, the algebraic value of one binary feature must be opposite to that, of another, commonly expressed by means of the alpha notation., For example, the specification [a ant, -a cor] picks out the class of, segments which are either [+ant, -cor] or [-ant, +cor]., , feature disagreement, , feature filling /'fdIIJ/ n. In Underspecification Theory, the process, of filling in feature specifications which are so far blank., , feature geometry /d3i'nmltri/ n. A theory of distinctive features in, which features, contrary to the traditional view, are not combined, into structureless bundles, but are organized in such a way that, some features are grouped together within superordinate nodes, called gestures. For example, many analysts posit a superordinate, feature node {laryngeal} (the laryngeal gesture, representing the, activity of the larynx) upon which both [±voice] and [±aspirated], are dependent. The logical conclusion of this approach, in which, all features are combined in a single structure, is sometimes called, the feature hierarchy. See Kenstowicz (1994: 136-169, ch. 9) for a, detailed account, McCarthy (1988) for a review. Clements (1985)., , feature hierarchy n. The view, the logical consequence of feature, geometry, that all features are related in a single branching tree,, with a single node at the top representing the entire segment, and, the daughters of that node dominating high-level features which in, turn dominate other features, until every relevant feature appears, somewhere in the tree. Figure F1 (p.l44), adapted from Roca (1994:, 105), shows the structure of an aspirated voiceless plosive., , feature matrix n. (also feature bundle) A bundle of feature specifications (features with values attached), particularly one intended, as a representation of a segment. For example, English /k/ might, be represented in the SPE feature system by the following feature, matrix:
Page 155 :
Feature Minimization Principle, , 142, , +cons, , -voc, -syll, -cont, -voice, -ant, -cor, +back, +high, -nas, -lat, , Feature Minimization Principle /mInImaI'zeIIQ./ n. A fundamental, principle of Radical Underspecification. It states: a grammar is most, highly valued when underlying representations include the minimal, , c, , \ [root], {rootl, , ---------, , I supralaryngeal}], {supralaryngeal, , laryngeal I, {laryngeal, , /, , nnasall, [-nasal], place/manner), {place/manner}, +asDirated, , [-voice], -voice], [ manner, {manner}, , /, , {place}, place, , [-sonorant], -sonorant, [-continuant], -continuant, , Figure Fl An aspirated plosive in the feature hierarchy
Page 156 :
143, , feminine rhyme, , number of features necessary to make different the phonemes of, a language. Archangeli (1984)., , feature recursion n. A device sometimes proposed for treating, phonological parameters along which several values need to be, distinguished. Vowel height, for example, is notoriously difficult to, handle with binary features, but, if we posit a single component, (unary feature) of 'openness' A, we can obtain any number of, vowel heights by recursion: Iii = [ ], lei = A, lei = AA, lrel = AAA,, and so on. This is essentially the approach used in privative, theories of phonology, in which differences are seen as resulting, from the presence of differing amounts of a common element., , feature specification n. (also specification, specified feature, valued, feature, F-element) A distinctive feature with a legal value assigned, to it, such as [+nasal], [-coronal] or [4 height] in various systems., , feature tree Itri:1 n. In feature geometry, the tree-like graphical, device showing how subordinate features depend upon superordinate class nodes., , feature valency n. The number of different values which can be, assumed by a particular distinctive feature, or by features generally in some system. Features are classified as unary, binary or, multivalued; multivalued features may be more explicitly labelled, ternary, quaternary, and so on., , feedback I'fi:dbrekl n. The process by which a speaker is able to hear, herlhis own speech through the air and through the bones of the head., Feedback is essential in maintaining proper control over speech., , feeding order l'fi:dIIJI n. The ordering "A precedes B' applied to, two rules A and B in the case in which the application of A creates, new cases for B to apply to, while the prior application of B would, not create new cases for A to apply to. Cf. bleeding order. Ant., counterfeeding order. Kiparsky (1965, 1968a)., , F-element n. See feature specification., fell swoop Ifel 'swu:pl n. An analysis in which some rather complex, phonological process is executed by a single (typically elaborate), statement in the description, instead of by a series of simpler and, more natural rules applying in order. Cf. role chain. Zwicky (1974)., , feminine rhyme I'fem~nlnl n. A rhyme in which the rhyming words, contain one or more unstressed syllables after the stressed syllable:
Page 157 :
144, , festination, , making/taking; billion/vermilion; pentacle/tentacle. Cf. masculine, rhyme., , festination /festIlneIfl}/ n. A gradual, usually pathological, increase, in speed while speaking, characteristic of certain disorders of, speaking. Cf. cluttering., , field of dispersion IdI Sp3:JI}/ n. For a given phoneme, the area of, I, , phonological space which is available to provide varying phonetic, realizations of that phoneme without intruding upon the space, occupied by other phonemes. Cf. margin of security. Martinet (1952)., , filled pause /fIld/ n. (also hesitation noise) A hesitation in speech, which is occupied by some non-linguistic material of the sort, commonly represented as um or er. Cf. silent pause., IlfI1t~/ n. 1. See acoustic filter. 2. (also negative condition), Any statement whose function is to exclude any phonological, structure possessing certain specified characteristics. For example,, the filter *[ +high, -ATR] disallows any segment with this particular combination of feature specifications, while the filter *[V+V], prohibits a sequence of vowels across a morpheme boundary., Filters have been variously invoked in various frameworks for, different purposes; the first example is equivalent to a feature cooccurrence restriction, while the second might simply express a, conspiracy requiring several independent rules to eliminate vowels, in hiatus., , filter, , filtered speech n. Speech which has been passed through an acoustic, filter which selectively removes certain frequencies. Judicious, choice of frequencies can allow effective transmission of speech, using a much smaller range of frequencies than is actually used in, speech; this happens on an ordinary telephone line., , final, , Ilfaln~U, , n. See rhyme (sense 2)., , final devoicing n. The phenomenon in which an underlyingly voiced, segment is pronounced with no voicing during its latter stages, in, which the voicing is turned off before the segment has been, completed., , final lengthening n. The seemingly universal tendency of speakers, to lengthen the last one or two syllables before a pause., , final position n. The position of the last segment in a word, or, sometimes in a syllable, a phrase or an utterance.
Page 158 :
145, , flap, , fine tuning /faIn 'tju:nII)/ n. The putative process by which speakers, modify the articulation of particular segments in order to maintain, a satisfactory phonetic distance from other, contrasting, segments., , first formant /f3:st/ n. (also Fl) The lowest in frequency of the, formants visible in a sound spectrogram., , First Germanic Consonant Shift /d33:'mrenlk/ n. (also Grimm's, Law) The elaborate set of sound changes which affected all the, Proto-Indo-European plosives in Proto-Germanic, or the resulting, correspondences between Germanic and other IE languages. Using, the traditional view of PIE, and ignoring some complications, these, changes were as follows:, p~f, , b~p, , t~e, , d~t, , k~x, , g~k, , bh, dh, gh, , ~, , ~, , b, d, , ~ 9, , Cf. Second Germanic Consonant Shift. These correspondences were, discovered by Rasmus Rask, but were brought to public attention by Jacob, Grimm., , fission /'fIfIJ./ n., , 1. See phonemic split. 2. Any phonological process, which converts a single segment into a sequence of two segments,, such as unpacking or diphthongization., , fixed accent /fIkst/ n. An accentual system in which the accent, always falls upon the same syllable of a word, counting either from, the beginning or from the end of the word; in the case of a stress, accent, this is called fixed stress. In Icelandic and Czech, stress, always falls on the first syllable; in Polish, it always falls on the, penultimate. Cf. free accent., , flank /flrel)k/ n. That end of a constituent at which its head is positioned. A head-initial constituent is, ~flank right'. Cf. edge., , ~flank, , left'; a head-final one,, , flap /flrep/, , n. 1. (also flick) A consonant whose articulation involves, an articulator's being withdrawn from its rest position and then, moved rapidly back to its rest position in such a way that it strikes, another articulator during its trajectory. The most familiar flap is, the retroflex flap [-t] of many Indian languages; several African, languages have a labiodental flap for which Ladefoged has, proposed the symbol [Vb]. Cf. tap. Adj. flapped. NOTE: Those, , who, like Laver (1994), prefer to regard a flap as a type of stop use the, term flapped stop for what most others just call a ~flap'. 2. A frequent
Page 159 :
Oapped, , 146, , but inappropriate alternative term for tap, sometimes used as a, cover term including both 8ap and tap. This usage should be, avoided., , Oapped /flrept/ adj. In the Wdliamson feature system, one of the, three possible values of the feature posture., , Oapped fricative n. A segment which resembles a 8ap except that, the brief constriction is not complete, but leaves a small opening, through which friction noise can be produced. No language is, known to make linguistic use of a flapped fricative. Cf. tapped, fricative., , Oapped lateral n. A 8ap in which the moving organ makes only, lateral contact with the passive articulator. The alveolar flapped, lateral [J] occurs in several languages of India and Africa. See Laver, (1994: 311-312)., , Oapping /'flrepIIJ/ n. 1. The action of producing a ftap. 2. See tapping., NOTE:, , The second sense is inappropriate and should be avoided., , Oat /flret/ adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'exhibiting weakening or downward shift of the, upper frequencies in the spectrum' and interpreted as representing, any of lip-rounding, pharyngealization or retroflexion. The use of, this feature implies the interesting and controversial claim that no, language may contrastively employ more than one of these three, phenomena. In the SPE system, a number of features are used to, cover the same ground: [+round] for lip-rounding, [+low, +back], for pharyngealization and [-anterior, -distributed] for retroflexion., Abstr. n. flatness. Ant. plain. See the remarks under sharp. See, Ohala (1985) for a review of this feature. Impressionistic; applied by, MUller (1855) to non-front vowels; introduced by Trubetzkoy (1939) in its, modern sense., , Dat fricative n. See slit fricative., flexion J'flekJ;.lnJ n. See inftection., flick JflIk/ n. See ftap (sense 1)., Dip-Dop rule J'fllpflop/ n. See exchange rule., Doating /'fl;.lutIlJ/ n. (also dangling) In Autosegmental Phonology, a, label applied to any autosegment which, at some level of representation, is not associated to the skeleton. One may speak of a, floating tone or even of a floating segment.
Page 160 :
147, , form, , 80w transducer I'fl~u trrensdju:s~1 n. Any of various devices serving, to measure the volume of airflow per unit time (the 'volumevelocity') during speech. An example is the hot-wire anemometer., , 8uency I'flu:~nsil n. Rapid, smooth, effortless use of language, often, particularly of spoken language. Adj. Ouent, , l'flu:~nU., , /'f~uk etlmDI~d3i1 n. The process by which a, word or phrase, usually one of seemingly opaque formation, is, arbitrarily reshaped so as to yield a form which is considered to, be more transparent. English examples include sparrowgrass (for, asparagus), Welsh rarebit (for Welsh rabbit), crayfish (from French, ecrevisse) and past master (from passed master). A particularly, striking example is Basque zainhoria 'carrot' (literally, 'yellowroot') from Spanish zanahoria, of Arabic origin., , folk etymology, , foot Ifutl n. 1. The basic unit of rhythm in poetry, generally consisting, of a group of two or more syllables in which one syllable bears the, main stress (or, in quantitative metre, in which the syllables are, heavy or light in some recognized pattern). Among the commonest, types of foot are the iamb, the trochee, the dactyl, the anapaest, and the spondee, though others exist. 2. The fundamental unit, of rhythm in phonology, most typically consisting of a sequence of, syllables one of which bears a stress or other prosodic element; this, notion is of central importance in Metrical Phonology. It is not, clear whether the notion of a foot can be usefully extended to, languages which lack a stress accent or which have syllable-timing., Sense 2: Abercrombie (1967)., , foot formation, , If:):'meIJQI n. In Metrical Phonology, the process,, or an analytical formalization of this process, by which a sequence, of segments is organized into metrical feet in a language., , foot-level shortening n. The phenomenon in English by which the, addition of an unstressed syllable to a foot shortens the duration, of the stressed syllable. Rakerd et af. (1987)., , forensic phonetics If~'renSlkl n. The application of phonetics to the, investigation of crimes in which recorded voices constitute evidence,, most typically in determining the sex, age, social class and, geographical background of an unidentified speaker, and hence in, identifying that speaker. See Labov (1994: 109-111) for examples., , form If':):m1 n. 1. Any particular linguistic item, most often one which, is longer than a single segment: a syllable, a lexical item, an inflected
Page 161 :
148, , formal, , form of a lexical item, and so on. 2. The relationships between, linguistic items, considered independently of the way in which the, items are overtly realized. 'Form' in this sense contrasts with, substance. Sense 2: Saussure (1916)., /'f~:m~l/ adj. 1. Pertaining to linguistic forms, as opposed to, the meanings or functions of those forms. 2. (of a description, an, analysis or a theoretical framework) Completely explicit; leaving, nothing to be filled in by the reader., , formal, , /'f~:m~hzm/ n. Any fully explicit notational device or set, of such devices. Most approaches to phonology since the 1960s, purport to be formalisms, though some are certainly more explicit, and complete than others., , formalism, , formalization, , /f~:m~laI'zeIJQ/, , description into a formalism., , n. The embedding of a linguistic, formalize., , v:, , formal universal n. A universal of language which pertains to the, form a description can take. For example, the use of binary features,, the recognition of the cycle and the Association Convention of, Autosegmental Phonology all represent proposed formal universals. Cf. substantive universal., , formant /'f~:m~nt/ n. A concentration of acoustic energy within a particular frequency band, especially in speech. Any given configuration, of the vocal tract produces resonance, and hence formants, in certain, frequency ranges. During the articulation of a vowel, these formants, show up prominently in a sound spectrogram as thick dark bars; the, three lowest of these, known as the first, second and third formants, (Fl, F2 and F3) are highly diagnostic, and vowels are distinguished, acoustically by the positions of these formants. Sonorant consonants, produce similar but weaker formants. Plosives can often be distinguished by the characteristic transitions which the formants display, as the vocal organs move from a plosive to a following vowel., , formant chart n. See vowel chart., /'f~:m~tIV/ n. 1. A morpheme with an explicitly grammatical function, or a particular phonetic form representing such a, morpheme. 2. A synonym for morpheme. NOTE: The broader second, , formative, , sense is confined to the generative literature, especially Chomsky and Halle, (1968); the first sense is more usual elsewhere., , form class n. A general term for any class of items sharing morphological, and usually also distributional, characteristics. Examples
Page 162 :
149, , free autosegment, , include the class of nouns in English, the class of -a-stem verbs in, Spanish and the class of weak adjective forms in German., , form word n. See function word., I'f~:tIs/ adj. 1. (also intensive) (of a segment) Articulated in, a manner involving more energetic tensing of the articulatory apparatus than a more relaxed but otherwise roughly equivalent, segment. In English, for example, voiceless obstruents are fortis, while voiced obstruents are not. See Catford (1977: 199-208) for a, discussion. 2. (in phonology) In certain languages, such as the, Zapotec languages of Mexico, denoting any of a series of consonant phonemes which contrast with a second (Ienis) series, more, or less identical in place and manner, by virtue of a more vigorous, articulation. The phonetic correlates of the contrast are rather variable, the fortis consonants variously exhibiting greater duration,, greater degree of occlusion, less voicing and more aspiration than, their lenis counterparts. See for example Nellis and Hollenbach, (1980).3. A binary distinctive feature which is occasionally invoked, to handle such contrasts; the feature tense is probably more widely, used. 4. A binary distinctive feature proposed by Ladefoged (1971),, defined as 'articulated with increased subglottal pressure'. Unlike, the SPE feature heightened subglottal pressure, Ladefoged's has, no correlation with aspiration. This feature was abandoned in the, Ladefoged feature system. Ant. (all senses) lenis., , fortis, , fortition, , /f~:'tIJt;l/, , n. (also strengthening) Any phonological process, in which some segment becomes 'stronger' (more consonant-like)., An example is the development of the glide [j] into some kind of, fricative, affricate or plosive in most varieties of Basque. V, strengthen /lstreIJe~n/. Ant. lenition., , Fourier analysis /'furI::>/ n. A mathematical technique by which any, complex wave may be analysed into a number of sine waves, each, with a particular frequency and amplitude., , fracture J'frrektJ::>/ n. See breaking., free accent /fri:/ n. An accent system in which the word accent is, not fixed upon a particular syllable but may occur on any of several, syllables, thus possibly serving to distinguish words or word forms,, as in English or Russian. Cf. fixed accent., , free autosegment n. In some versions of Autosegmental Phonology,, an autosegment which, in lexical representations, is not initially
Page 163 :
free form, , 150, , associated with any segments. Most autosegments are free in this, sense. Cf. lexically bound autosegment. Hyman (1982)., , free form n. A form which can stand alone as a complete word,, such as book, went or under. A free form which is also a morpheme, is a free morpheme. Cf. bound form., , free ride /raId/ n. In a derivational theory of phonology, the phenomenon in which rules posited to account for certain data automatically produce the correct result for other significantly different data, for which they were not <:>riginally posited; these other data are, said to receive a 'free ride'. The statement that maximization of, such free rides is desirable is called the free ride principle. Zwicky, (1970)., , free variant n. Anyone of the segments involved in an instance of, free variation., , free variation n. 1. Most commonly, the phenomenon in which any of, two or more phones can appear in the same position without any effect, upon meaning. For example, a single speaker of English may at, various times pronounce the word eat with two or more of aspirated, [th], unaspirated [t=], glottalized [1t], or unreleased [t'). 2. Less, commonly, the phenomenon in which either of two or more phonemes, may be used in the same position in the same word without affecting, meaning, as when economics or evolution may be pronounced either, with initial li:1 or initial leI. See variphone, metaphone., , free vowel n. (also unchecked vowel) 1. A vowel which occurs in, an open syllable. 2. A vowel phoneme in a particular language, which can occur in this position, such as li:1 or laII in English. Cf., checked vowel., I'fri:kw~nsi/ n. The quantity representing the number of, complete cycles (sense 1) (oscillations) performed by a given wave, per unit time, commonly expressed in Hertz (Hz) and represented, by the symbol f For example, a vibrating violin string that is making, 400 complete vibrations in one second is vibrating at 400 Hz., Generally speaking, the higher the frequency of a sound wave, the, higher the pitch of the perceived sound, though the relationship is, not linear., , frequency, , frequency band n. A particular continuous range of frequencies,, such as the band 135-180 Hz. The difference between the two, extremes is the bandwidth of the band.
Page 164 :
151, , friction, , frequency of occurrence /~'kAr~ns/ n. Any of various measures of, the frequency with which some linguistic element occurs in continuous speech or written texts., /'frlk~tlV/ n. or adj. 1. (also spirant) A segment whose, articulation involves a radical constriction in the vocal tract short, of a complete closure but sufficient to produce friction noise as, the airstream flows through the constricted opening. Fricatives, may be voiced or voiceless; examples include [f v s z]. Since, small differences in articulatory posture can produce large differences in the auditory quality of the segment, the number of, distinguishable fricatives is quite large, and the IPA provides, more distinct symbols for fricatives than for any other manner of, consonants. Fricatives are sometimes classified, both phonetically, and phonologically, into two groups differing in 'noisiness' by, means of such features as [±strident] or [±sibilant]. The most widely, occurring fricative in the world's languages is [s], and most, languages have one or more fricatives in their phoneme inventory,, though some, like Hawaiian and the majority of Australian, languages, have none. The combination of a fricative articulation, with other independent articulatory gestures allows such segments, as a lateral fricative or a fricative trill. See Laver (1994: ch. 9), for a summary. 2. In the Ladefoged feature system, one of the three, possible values of the feature stop. 3. In the Williamson feature, system, one of the five possible values of the feature stricture., 4. (fric) A binary distinctive feature proposed by Ladefoged (1971),, distinguishing affricates and fricatives ([+fric]) from all other, segments ([-fric])., , fricative, , fricative trill n. (also triUed fricative) A trill whose articulation, involves friction noise, at least during the open phases of the trill,, and possibly also during the closed phases, if these are less than, completely occluded. A lamino-alveolar fricative trill (IPA [r]), occurs in Czech, where it is written (f), as in Dvorak., , fricativization, /frIk~tal'zeIJQI), , Ifrlk~tlvaI'zeIJQ/, , n. (also, rarely, fricatization, See spirantization (sense 1)., , /'frlkJ~n/ n. (also friction noise) The auditory effect of air, passing turbulently through a small constriction, important in the, production of fricative and affricate consonants. Voiceless friction, is perceived as some kind of 'hissing' sound; friction accompanied, by voicing is heard as some kind of 'buzzing' sound., , friction
Page 165 :
frictionless continuant, , 152, , frictionless continuant n. In general, a synonym for approximant,, though usage varies as to whether lateral approximants (lateral, resonants) should be regarded as frictionless continuants or not., , front /front/ 1. adj. (of vowels) Articulated with the highest point, of the tongue towards the front of the mouth, below the palate, as, in [i], [e], [a] and [y]. Ant. back (sense 1). 2. adj. A distinctive, feature occasionally invoked, in addition to the established feature, back (sense 2), for treating languages in which central vowels, contrast with both back and front vowels. In such an analysis, front, vowels are [+front, -back], central vowels are [-front, -back], and, back vowels are [-front, +back]. 3. n. (also anterodorsum) That, part of the upper surface of the tongue lying more or less directly, below the palate, usually defined so as to exclude the tip and the, blade (Catford and Ladefoged), but sometimes defined so as to, include them (Laver)., , fronting n. The phonological process in which the articulation of a, segment (especially a vowel) moves closer to the front of the, mouth. For example, a historical [u] has undergone fronting to [u], or [y] at various times in the history of Greek, Swedish and French,, in some dialects of Basque, and in most Scottish and some, American varieties of English. Adj. fronted. Ant. backing., , fronting diphthong n. A diphthong in which the second element, is farther front than the first, such as [oj] or [wi]. Ant. backing, diphthong., , full devoicing /fuU n. The phenomenon in which an underlyingly, voiced segment loses its voicing completely. Full devoicing is represented in the IPA by the diacritic [0] below the character., , full form n. See strong form., , full voicing n. The articulation of a segment with voicing throughout, its duration. French /b d g/, for example, are usually fully voiced, in all positions, while English /b d g/ are partially devoiced initially, and finally., , functional change /'fAlJkJ ~n~l/ n. A general term for any historical, change in which the phonological status of a segment or a feature, is significantly altered, the chief types being called phonologization, and dephonologization., /l~ud/ n. The degree to which a particular phonological contrast is utilized in a particular language. In English, for, , functional load
Page 166 :
153, , fusion, , example, the voiced/voiceless contrast carries a high functional, load, being frequently invoked to carry differences of meaning: pat,, pad, bat, bad; safe, save; race, raze. In Basque, however, the same, contrast carries a low functional load, being hardly ever the sole, exponent of a difference in meaning, the pairs ipar 'north' and ibar, 'valley' and ekin 'continue' and egin 'do' being among the handful, of minimal pairs in the language distinguished only by voicing. A, rough quantitative measure of functional load is given by the, number of minimal pairs distinguished by the contrast in question,, but this measure ignores such factors as the frequency of those, items and the likelihood of possible confusion if they should, become homophonous by loss of the contrast., , Constrained Phonology Ik~n'strelndl n. An, approach to phonology, proposed by Houlihan and Iverson (1979),, which attempts to integrate implicational universals and marking, theory into phonological descriptions, particularly for the purpose, of accounting for neutralization., , FunctionaUy, , functional phonetics n., , [obsolete], , A former synonym for, , phonology. Martinet (1949)., , functional residual capacity IrI'zIdju~1 k~presltil n. The voiume of, air in the lungs at the minimum of the tidal volume, consisting of, the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume., , functional shift n. See conversion., function word n. (also grammatical word, form word) A word which, has a grammatical function but little lexical content, such as and,, of, the or modal can. In English, function words are often phonologically reduced, and their weak forms are more frequent than, their strong forms., , fundamental frequency, , IfAnd~'ment~U n., , (also FO) The frequency, at which a body vibrates when it vibrates in the simplest manner, possible, typically the most prominent frequency produced by a, vibrating body. Cf. harmonic., , fusion l'fju:3I,l1 n. 1. See coalescence. 2. In Dependency Phonology,, the descriptive procedure by which components are combined into, phonetic segments, as when li;al is realized as lei. 3. In Government, and Charm Phonology, the descriptive procedure by which two, feature matrices are combined into one, with hot (marked) feature, specifications overriding cold (unmarked) values.
Page 167 :
G, GA Id3i: 'ell n. See General American., Garde's Principle Igo:dl n. A widely accepted principle in historical, phonology. It says: mergers are irreversible by linguistic means. See, reversal of merger. Principle: Garde (1961); name: Labov (1994: 311)., , gating experiment l'geItIIJI n. 1. An experimental technique in, which subjects are given successively longer stretches of a word, in, order to determine the earliest point at which it becomes recognizable. See Frauenfelder and Tyler (1987). 2. An experimental, technique for investigating sound changes in progress by exposing, listeners to advanced (innovating) pronunciations in isolation, in, phrases and finally in complete sentences. Labov (1994: 194, 214)., , geminate l'd3emlneltl n. (also doubled consonant or doubled vowel), A sequence of two identical segments, especially consonants., Geminate consonants occur in English only at morpheme boundaries: nighttime, bookcase, solely, non-null. Long vowels in some, languages are sometimes analysed as geminates, so that [0:], for, example, might be analysed as 100/. Adj. geminate or geminated, l'd3emlneltld/., , gemination Id3eml'nelJQI n. Any of various phonological processes, in which a segment is converted into a geminate: Proto-Romance, *sapja > Italian sappia 'would know'; Proto-Germanic *sitjan >, *sittjan > Old English sittan 'sit'; Sanskrit patra- > pattra- 'leaf;, Latin AQUA [akwa] 'water' > Italian acqua [akkwa]; Latin RE, PUBLICA > Italian repubblica 'republic'. Sometimes the term is, extended to instances of total assimilation like Latin NOcrE >, Italian notte 'night'. Ant. degemination., , General American Id3en~r~1 ~'merlk~nI n. (GA) The conventional, label for the closely related speech varieties typical of the whole, of the United States excluding the east coast and the south (that, is, excluding the long-settled areas with distinctive and readily identifiable local accents). Krapp (1925)., Id3en~r~lal'zeIJQI n. A statement about the phonological facts of a language, or about the facts of languages, , generalization
Page 168 :
155, , generative phonology, , generally, which holds true in all cases or in nearly all cases. All, contemporary theories of phonology consider it a major goal to, identify generalizations (at least those which are 'linguistically, significant'), to state them within descriptions or within theoretical, frameworks, and to explain them as far as possible by deriving them, from fundamental principles. It is by no means obvious a priori,, however, which generalizations are linguistically significant or even, which generalizations exist at all; this last point arises partly, because linguists disagree about how many exceptions can be, tolerated before a proposed generalization must be abandoned and, partly because derivational theories permit the stating of generalizations which hold at abstract levels of representation but not on, the surface., , general phonetics n. (also anthropophonics). The study of the, entire range of speech sounds which can be produced by the human, vocal apparatus, independently of whether or how the sounds are, used for any linguistic purpose in any language. Cf. linguistic, phonetics., , general RP n. In the classification of Gimson (1989), that variety, of Received Pronunciation which is most typical and least distinctive and which contrasts with conservative and advanced RP. This, is equivalent to Wells's mainstream RP., , generational change /d3en~lreIJ~n~l/ n. A type of language change, in which each individual enters the speech community with a characteristic frequency for a particular variable and maintains this, value unchanged throughout life, but in which each younger generation enters the community with an increasingly incremented value, for the variable, leading to steady change over time. This appears, to be by far the most frequent pattern for phonological and, morphological change. Cf. age-grading, communal change. Labov, (1994: 84)., /ld3en~r~tIv/ n. Any approach, to the description of intonation which is embedded within the, framework of generative phonology., , generative analysis of intonation, , generative phonology n. (GP) 1. Narrowly, an approach to, phonology based upon the setting up of abstract underlying forms, which are converted by the application of a (possibly long), sequence of phonological rules into surface phonetic forms and, which are themselves formulated as linear sequences of segments:
Page 169 :
geno-molar trill, , 156, , essentially an elaboration of what had earlier been called morphophonemics. Generative phonology was adumbrated in Chomsky,, Halle and Lukoff (1956) and presented in some detail in Halle, (1959); the modified and elaborated version presented in Chomsky, and Halle (1968) represented the canonical form of classical generative phonology. Deeply influential, this version proved, however,, to be excessively unconstrained: there was nothing to prevent, underlying representations from being impossibly remote from, surface forms, and such devices as absolute neutralization were, commonplace; extrinsic rule ordering and a wide range of abbreviatory conventions conferred vast power upon the framework., Attempts at restricting this power included Natural Generative, Phonology and Natural Phonology. In the 19808 the whole, approach gave way to the contemporary non-linear frameworks,, though Lexical Phonology still continues the 'feel' of the classical, system. 2. Broadly, a label applied to virtually the entire body of, work in phonology since about 1960, including not only work, referred to in sense 1 but also the various, mostly non-linear,, approaches developed in the 19808. The modern approaches often, differ radically from the earlier ones but are united by a recognition that they are continuing the research programme initiated by, Chomsky and Halle (1968) (SPE)., /d3i:n~u'm~ul~/ n. An unusual type of trill, produced between the cheeks and the back molar teeth, most, readily with a voiceless glottalic egressive airstream, with a distinctive 'rattly' sound. Such trills occur in several Caucasian languages., , geno-molar trill, , Catford (1977: 252)., , Geordie /'d3~:di/ n. or adj. [non-technical] The popular label for the, distinctive speech variety of the Tyne and Wear area of northeastern England, centred on the city of Newcastle, or for a person, who uses this speech variety. Diminutive of 'George'; originally a, northern dialect word for 'coal-miner'., , gesture, , /'d3estJ~/, , n. In some approaches to phonology, anyone of, the several partly independent components into which the articulation of a segment may be decomposed. One simple approach is, to decompose each segment into a laryngeal gesture, including, everything going on in the larynx, and a supralaryngeal gesture,, including everything going on in the mouth and the nasal cavity., Most developments of the idea recognize more than two gestures,, however, usually including some gestures which are subgestures of
Page 170 :
157, , glide, , other superordinate gestures. One typical proposal is to divide a, segment into a categorial gesture, consisting of phonatory and initiatory subgestures, and an articulatory gesture, consisting of locational, and oro-nasal subgestures; each of the four subgestures is the, domain of certain distinctive features or components. The analysis, into gestures underlies feature geometry and is also prominent in, Dependency Phonology. See Lass (1984: chs 5, 11) or Durand, (1990: 99-109)., , Gimson-O'Connor system, , IgIms~n ~u'kDn~1, , n. A conventional, system for representing the phonemes of that type of British accent, called Received Pronunciation, incorporating a particular analysis, of the vowel system, one that 'hugs the phonetic ground'. The, Gimson-O'Connor system is identical to the earlier EPD transcription except in the particular characters used to represent some, of the vowel phonemes, which, in line with the general approach, characteristic of the system, have been modified to reflect changes, in pronunciation. In England this system is almost universally used, for transcribing RP in linguistic works; the name used here reflects, its use by A. C. Gimson and 1. D. O'Connor, two of Jones's successors, in a number of well-known works, of which the various, editions of Gimson's standard work (currently Cruttenden 1994) is, perhaps the most prominent. The system is also increasingly used, in serious dictionaries and in the teaching of English. It is sometimes known as 'modified EPD', or, among lexicographers, as, 'modified IPA'., , gingiva, , l'd3Ind3Iv~1, , n. See gum., , l'd3Ind3Iv~l/ 1. adj. Pertaining to the gums. 2. adj. [obsolete] A former synonym for alveolar (sense 2). 3. (also dentialveolar) (of a segment) Articulated with the primary stricture, occurring at the point at which the teeth meet the gums. 4. n. (also, denti-alveolar) A segment so articulated, such as [t] and [n] in some, varieties of German and Danish., , gingival, , G-licensing l'd3i:1 n. In Government and Charm Phonology, one of, the two recognized types of licensing. A position is G-licensed when, it is governed by another position. Cf. D-licensing., , glide IglaIdl n. 1. A very brief phonetic vowel (sense 1) which functions in some language as a phonological consonant (sense 2); the, English glides Ijl and Iwl (as in yes and win) are brief versions of [i], and [u]. 2. In the SPE feature system, any segment which is [-cons,
Page 171 :
158, , global constraint, , -voc]; this classification includes not only the familiar glides but, also [h] and glottal stop, an extension which has met with severe, criticism; see, for example, Lass (1976).3. See on-glide and off-glide., , global constraint, , /'gI~ub~U, , n. (also global rule) See derivational, , constraint., , Glossematic phonology /glosI'mretlk/ n. The type of phonology, associated with the theory of linguistics called Glossematics., Glossematics was developed in Denmark between about 1928 and, 1953; its chief theorist was Louis Hjelmslev, who sometimes collaborated with H. 1. Uldall. Hjelmslev's writings are exceedingly, abstract; they bristle with novel and opaque terminology; and they, rarely cite linguistic data. As a result, Glossematic work has been, seen as arid and baffling, and Hjlemslev has often been perceived, by Americans, rightly or wrongly, as the paradigm case of the, European armchair theorist who devises magnificent a priori, theoretical edifices on the basis of no data - though Haugen (1954), argues that Glossematic conceptions are at bottom rather similar, to American Stmcturalist ideas. What is clear is that Glossematic, phonology absolutely rejects all appeals to psychological reality, to, semantics and to phonetic substance. Glossematic phonology, an, extreme development of the Saussurean sign, deals only with purely, linguistic relations in isolation from the rest of the world. In the, words of Stephen Anderson, Hjelmslev proposes 'to study systems, of correspondence between sound and meaning with methods ..., completely independent of either sounds or meanings' (1985: 147)., Almost uniquely among structuralist linguists, however, Hjelmslev, pays considerable attention to prosodic phenomena and to syllable, structure, thus adumbrating the concerns of contemporary phonologists. Though Hjelmslev's work is often cited with great respect,, its impenetrable nature has prevented it from having anything like, the influence upon phonological practice which it might have, deserved - though Stratificationa) phonology, at least, acknowledges a debt to Hjelmslev. See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: ch. 7) or, Anderson (1985: ch. 6) for an account., /glos~'ledi~/ n. The peculiar phenomenon, commonly, called 'speaking in tongues'. in which an individual who has been, placed in a kind of trance produces a connected sequence of speech, sounds which are clearly not utterances in any language known to, her/him. Common among devotees of certain fervent Christian, denominations, this behaviour is traditionally regarded by them as, , glossolalia
Page 172 :
159, , glottalic theory of PIE, , representing a God-given ability to speak in a language not known, to the performer. Research has failed to support any such interpretation, suggesting instead that the performer merely produces a, highly repetitive stream of nonsense syllables, mostly of the form, CV, with no discernible structure., /'gIDt~l/ 1. adj. Pertaining to the glottis. 2. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with the primary constriction in the glottis., 3. n. A segment so articulated, such as [1] or (conventionally) [h]., 4. adj. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one of, the eleven possible values of the feature articulatory place., , glottal, , glottal constriction n. 1. Closure or near-closure of the glottis., 2. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined as, 'involving a narrowing of the glottal aperture beyond its neutral, position'. The feature is invoked in the feature analysis of implosives, of ejectives, of certain types of clicks, of the tense, glottalized stops of Korean, and of the 'laryngealized' or 'creakyvoiced' consonants of some African and Caucasian languages., , glottal fry /fraI/ n. See creak. From a supposed resemblance to the sound, of frying food., , glottalic /gl~'trehk/ adj. 1. Pertaining to the glottis in its capacity as, a producer of an airstream mechanism. 2. In the Ladefoged feature, system, a distinctive feature invoked to treat movement of the, larynx during articulation; the feature may assume anyone of, the three values ejective (upward motion), pulmonic (no motion), or implosive (downward motion). This feature is identical to larynx, movement in the Williamson feature system. 3. (glott) A binary, distinctive feature proposed by Lass (1984: 93): segments articulated with a glottalic airstream mechanism are [+glott], while all, other segments are [-glott]., , glottalic airstream mechanism n. An airstream mechanism, produced by closing the glottis more or less tightly and then moving, the larynx sharply either upward or downward. Upward movement, compresses the air in the mouth, producing a glottalic egressive, airstream, as in ejective consonants; downward movement lowers, the pressure in the mouth, producing a glottalic ingressive, airstream, as in implosive and injective consonants. See Laver, (1994: 171-173, 181-182). Beach (1937); Catford (1939)., , glottalic theory of PIE n. The proposal that the conventional view, of the Proto-Indo-European plosive system, consisting of three
Page 173 :
glottalization, , 160, , series represented by [t d dh], should be re-interpreted on typological grounds as a system containing a series of ejectives, most, usually [t t' d]. First suggested by Martinet (1953), the glottalic, theory has more recently been championed by Gamkrelidze and, Ivanov (1973) and Hopper (1973); it has gained some acceptance,, though see Szemerenyi (1985) for a critical view., , glottalization /glnt~laI'zeIJQ/ n. A very broad term applied loosely, to a wide range of phenomena involving some kind of activity in, the glottis, including at least glottalling, glottal reinforcement, the, use of creaky voice, and the use of a glottalic airstream mechanism. Adj. glottalized. NOTE: This last usage is particularly unfortunate,, but it is very widespread., , glottalized l'glnt~laIzd/ adj. 1. (of a segment) Produced with creaky, voice. 2. (of a segment) Produced with a simultaneous glottal stop,, as in an oral--glottal stop. 3. (of a segment) Produced with a glottalic airstream mechanism. NOTE: This last sense is not recommended., l'glnt~hlJl n. 1. The replacement of an oral plosive by a, glottal stop, as in the pronunciation of butter as ['bA1~]. 2. See, glottal reinforcement., , glottalling, , glottal reinforcement Irian 'f:l:sm~ntl n. (also glottalling) The articulation of an oral plosive with a simultaneous glottal stop, as in, the pronunciation of quite good as [kwaIL! gud] or of stop talking, as [stn?p t:l:kIIJ]., , glottal state IsteItl n. In the Williamson feature system, a distinctive feature with the five possible values glottal stop, laryngealized,, voiced, murmured and voiceless. This feature is identical to voice, in the Ladefoged feature system., , glottal stop n. 1. (also glottal catch IkeetJI) A common name for a, voiceless glottal plosive (IPA [1]). In some languages, such as, Hawaiian and Arabic, the glottal stop functions as an ordinary, consonant phoneme; in others, like English and German, it appears, phonetically but non-contrastively in certain positions. In singing,, the glottal stop is called the hard attack. 2. In the Ladefoged and, WiUiamson feature systems, one of the five possible values of the, feature voice (Ladefoged) or glottal state (Williamson)., , glottal stricture n. The name used in Ladefoged (1971) for the, distinctive feature later called voice in the Ladefoged feature, system.
Page 174 :
161, , Government and Charm Phonology, , /'sAbsISt~m/ n. That part of the phoneme system, of a language consisting of segments which are distinctively creakyvoiced or articulated with a glottalic airstream mechanism., , glottal subsystem, , glottal tone n. A suprasegmental phenomenon contrastively present, on certain segments in a language and resembling a tone, but realized by some kind of glottal activity, most usually creaky voice,, rather than by distinctive pitch. Danish stod is an example., , glottal waveform n. A representation of the flow of air through a, vibrating glottis, typically consisting of a series of sharp peaks, separated by flat periods during which no air is flowing., , glottal whistle n. A high-pitched sound produced by voiceless, articulation in the falsetto register., , glottis /'glotIS/ n. The V-shaped space between the vocal folds,, opened and closed by the movement of the arytenoid cartilages., Adj. glottal (in most senses), glottalic (of an airstream)., /gl~'tngr~fil n. Any of various techniques for investigating the behaviour of the glottis during speech. This is variously, done by passing weak electric currents across the glottis (electrogLottography) or by passing light up or down through the glottis, (photoelectric glottography). Adj. glottographic /glntd'grreflk/., , glottography, , gorgia toscana Ig:)rd3ia tos'ka:nal n. [Italian: 'Tuscan throat'] The, phenomenon, typical of the Italian dialects of Tuscany, by which, intervocalic voiceless plosives are realized as the corresponding, fricatives: [p]onte ~ i [<I>]onti '(the) bridge(s)'; [t]orta ~ La [8]orta, '(the) cake'; [k]asa ~ la [h]asa '(the) house'., , government, , IlgAv~nm~ntl n. (also governing relation) A synonym, for dependency, preferred especially in Government and Charm, Phonology, in which the notion has been considerably elaborated., See the special issue of Phonology, 7:2, 1990., , Government and Charm Phonology n. (also Government, Phonology) A major contemporary theory of phonology, developed, by Jonathan Kaye and his colleagues since about 1985. GCP is the, most elaborate of the privative theories, and it is strongly influenced by ideas from syntax. As its name suggests, it makes heavy, use of the concept of phonological government (= dependency);, several different types of government are recognized, and, constraints upon these make up much of the content of the framework. It retains the notion of phonological derivations, but
Page 175 :
governor, , 162, , dispenses with phonological rules altogether; moreover, it declines, to admit such traditional processes as insertion and deletion, of segments. It also makes considerable use of a distinctive type, of markedness called charm. The framework was introduced, in Kaye et ala (1985); Kaye et ala (1990) and Charette (1991), represent major developments and presentations. Brief introductions can be found in Carr (1993: 289-298) and in Roca (1994:, 123-132, 159-176)., , governor /'gAV';ln';l/ n. A synonym for head (sense 2), especially in, Government and Charm PlJonology., , GP /d3i: 'pi:/ n. See generative phonology., gradation /gr';l'deIJQ/ n. See ablaut., gradient /'greIdi';lnt/ adj. In some analyses of intonation, denoting, an approach in which distinctions (especially of pitch) are interpreted as varying continuously along some dimension. Cf. all-ornone contrast., , gradual opposition /'grred3U';lU adj. In Prague School phonology,, the relation holding between. segments which possess the same, property to varying degrees, such as that between [i], [e] and [c],, which differ in having varying degrees of height. Cf. privative opposition, equipollent opposition., , gradual release n. See delayed release. Anderson (1974)., grammatical conditioning /gr';l'mretIk';ll/ n. (also morphological, conditioning) 1. The phenomenon in which an alternation (sense, 1) is determined by the presence of a particular grammatical, morpheme: knife - knives (cf. knife - knife's, in which a phonologically identical suffix fails to trigger the alternation). 2. The, phenomenon in which the course of a phonological change is, affected by the grammatical structure of a word. For example, in, Scottish English, Aitken's Law produces a short vowel in the closed, syllable brood, while brewed retains the long vowel of brew: the, morpheme boundary prevents shortening., , grammatical prerequisites /pri' rekWIzItS/ n. pI. In most views of, phonology apart from American Structuralism, the grammatical, information which is required in order to account for observed, phonological phenomena. Pike (1947b)., , grammatical word n. See function word.
Page 176 :
163, , gravity, , Grammatischer Wechsel /gRamatIJ~R, , 'veks~lJ n. [German: 'grammatical change'] 1. The originally puzzling set of consonantal alternations occurring in many stems in the older Germanic languages, and eventually explained by Verner's Law. A few of these survive, in English: was/were, seethe/sodden, lose/forlorn. 2. By extension,, any comparable set of alternations in any language for which the, phonological basis is obscure. The term 'grammatical' is used here only, , in the sense of 'having no obvious phonological conditioning'., , Grassmann's Law, , /Igrresm~nz/, , n. The process, occurring in the, histories of Sanskrit and Greek, by which the first of two consecutive aspirations in a word was lost: PIE *dhidhemi > Greek tithemi, 'put'. This process was bled by the earlier loss of aspiration before, lsi, leading to alternations like Greek thriks 'hair', genitive trikhos, « PIE *dhrighs, dhrighos). Grassmann (1863)., , grave Igro:v/ adj. 1. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting a concentration of energy in the, lower frequencies of the spectrum', interpreted as representing a, peripheral (labial, velar, uvular) articulation. The specification, [grave] corresponds approximately to the SPE specifications, [-coronal] for consonants and [+back] for vowels. Abstr. n. graveness or gravity. Ant. acute. 2. (also gravity) In the Ladefoged and, WIlliamson feature systems, a similar binary feature, invoked, largely to account for such acoustically based historical developments as that of English [x] to [f] in laugh. See Lass (1976: 197-207), for an assembly of evidence that the feature grave is indispensable, even in an articulatory feature system. Ant. non-grave., , grave accent n. The diacritic ", used in various orthographies and, transcriptions for a variety of purposes. It was first used in Ancient, Greek to mark a tone sandhi variant in that language. In French,, (e) represents a vowel quality distinct from both (e) and (e). In, Italian, the grave accent marks an irregular word-stress. In English,, it is occasionally used to mark the unexpected presence of an additional syllable: hence aged (two syllables) versus aged (one, syllable). In the IPA, the grave accent is used to mark a low level, tone. Cf. acute accent, circumflex accent. Latin gravis 'heavy', an, impressionistic label for the perceptual effect of the Greek accent., , gravity /'grrevIti/ n. 1. The property of a grave (both senses) segment., 2. See grave (sense 2). 3. (also backness) In Dependency, Phonology, the element (u), one of the three primary elements of, vowels in that system. Cf. palatality, sonority.
Page 177 :
164, , Great Vowel Shift, , Great Vowel Shift Igreltl n. 1. A series of related phonological, developments which affected the tense (long) vowels of English, from the sixteenth century onward. The two high vowels li:1 and, lu:1 were diphthongized, eventually reaching their modem values, lail and lau/, and all the other long vowels were raised. See any, history of English for an outline of the process, and see Lass (1976), for a critical examination. 2. (usually vowel shift) In some analyses, (notably that of Chomsky and Halle (1968», a postulated, synchronic process in English phonology mirroring the action of, the historical vowel shift., , Greek letter variable Igri:k, , 'let~1, , n. See feature coefficient., , Grenzsignal l'gRentssIgna:l1 n. (pI. Grenzsignale, , I-I~/), , See, , boundary signal., , grid Igrld/ n. See metrical grid., grid-only theory n. A version of Metrical Phonology which does, not recognize any metrical constituents (feet)., , Grimm's Law /grlm/ n. See First Germanic Consonant Shift., grooved fricative Igru:vd/ n. A fricative whose articulation involves, a longitudinal groove along the upper surface of the tongue, such, as [s]. Cf. slit fricative., , gum /gAm/ n. (also gingiva) Either of, , ~he two bony ridges in which, the teeth are embedded. The upper gum is usually called the alveolar ridge., , guttural /'gAt~r~l/ adj. or n. 1. [obsolete] A synonym for velar (senses, 2 and 3), formerly much used in philological works, where it is, sometimes extended to include palatals as well as velars. 2. In some, recent work, a cover term for uvulars, pharyngeals and glottals. 3., [non-technical] A loose impressionistic label for any consonant, produced in the back of the mouth, including velars, uvulars,, pharyngeals and glottals. 4. [non-technical] A meaningless label, typically applied by the linguistically unsophisticated to any unfamiliar language or speech variety that doesn't sound like Italian., Latin gutturalis 'throaty'. Note the spelling of this word.
Page 178 :
H, hachek /Ihretfekl n. (also wedge) The diacritic ["'], used in various, orthographies and transcriptions for various purposes. Czech hacek, 'little hook'., , half-close, , /Iho:fkl~us/ adj., , (of a vowel) An older synonym for high-, , mid., , half-contrast n. See near-merger., half-open n. (of a vowel) An older synonym for low-mid., half-rhyme n. (also imperfect rhyme, near rhyme, oblique rhyme,, off rhyme, pararhyme, slant rhyme) The occurrence in rhyming, position in verse of words which do not strictly rhyme in the, conventional manner but which exhibit some kind of noticeable, similarity of sound: made/stride, late/paid, crowd/road., , Halle's argument /Ihreli/ n. A famous argument advanced by Morris, Halle (1959) against the phonological doctrines of the American, Structuralists, most particularly against biuniqueness. Examining, Russian, Halle pointed out that Russian obstruents occur in, contrasting voiceless/voiced pairs, except for /ts/, /tf/ and /xI, which, have no voiced counterparts. A word-final obstruent is always, voiceless, unless the following word begins with a voiced obstruent,, in which case it is always voiced. In order to maintain biuniqueness, therefore, we must make the following statements. (1) No, Russian lexical item ends in a voiced obstruent in its citation form., (2) When the following segment is a voiced obstruent, a final voiceless obstruent is replaced by its voiced counterpart (a morphophonemic statement), except for the three segments which have no, voiced counterparts; the resulting level of representation is the, required autonomous phonemic one. (3) A final voiceless obstruent, has a voiced allophone before a voiced obstruent (an allophonic, statement). This messy analysis conforms to biuniqueness, but it, nowhere expresses the obvious generalizations about voicing, which, can be readily stated if the autonomous phonemic level is dispensed, with. Comparable facts had been noted before, of course, but it, was Halle's argument that succeeded in convincing a generation of
Page 179 :
Hallidayan analysis, , 166, , phonologists that it was more important to write rules expressing, generalizations economically than to retain inconvenient levels of, representation required only by a priori principles. This shift from, representations to rules inaugurated the framework later known as, generative phonology. See Anderson (1985: 318ff.) for a summary,, and see Sommerstein (1977: 120-122) for some criticisms of Halle's, argument., /'hrehdeI~nI n. A distinctive and influential, tone-based analysis of English intonation presented by Michael, Halliday (1963, 1967, 1970) within the framework of Systemic, phonology. The framework distinguishes tonality (sense 3), tonicity, and tone (sense 4)., , Hallidayan analysis, , /hrep'IDI~d3i/ n. 1. The morphological process in which, one of two consecutive morphs of identical or similar form is, dropped. For example, the Basque word for 'cider', a compound, of sagar 'apple' and ardo 'wine', ought, by the usual rules of word, formation, to have the form *sagar-ardo, but the actual form is, sagardo, in which one of the -ar- sequences has been dropped., 2. The similar phonological process in which one of two consecutive similar syllables is dropped in speech, as in the common, pronunciation of probably as 'probly'., , haplology, , hard /ho:d/ adj. [non-technicafJ A traditional impressionistic label, applied in an unsystematic and often rather meaningless way to, denote one of two different phonetic realizations of a single orthographic character. For example, English (c) and (g) are said to be, 'hard' when they represent plosives, as in cat-and get, as opposed, to their 'soft' values when they represent affricates or fricatives, as, in centre and gentle. English (s) is similarly said to be 'hard' when, it represents a voiceless sibilant, as in lease, as opposed to its 'soft', value when it represents a voiced sibilant, as in ease. Ant. soft., /~'trek/ n. In singing, the use of a glottal stop at the, beginning of a vowel-initial phrase. Cf. soft attack., , hard attack, , hard consonant n. In certain languages, notably Russian, in which, most consonants occur in pairs, one palatalized and the other not,, anyone of the non-palatalized consonants. The hard consonants of, Russian are usually velarized. The term broad consonant, usual in, Irish, has the same meaning. Ant. soft consonant., , hard mutation n. (also provection) A rather sporadic phonological, process in Welsh, in which a voiced plosive (or, less usually, a voiced
Page 180 :
167, , Haskins Laboratories, , fricative) is devoiced at a morpheme boundary in compound formation, or very rarely in certain other types of formation, sometimes, with reduction of a resulting cluster: pob- 'bake' + ty 'house' ~, popty 'bakehouse'; dryg- 'harm' + hin 'weather' ~ drycin 'stormy, weather'; pob 'every' + peth 'thing' ~ popeth 'everything'; bwyd, 'food' + -ha (verb-forming suffix) ~ bwyta 'to eat'; teg 'fair' +, -(h)ach '-er' ~ tecach 'fairer'. In spite of its name, hard mutation, is not really a mutation in the ordinary sense., , hard palate n. See palate (sense 1)., hare lip, , IhC~lhp/, , n. See cleft lip., , harmonic Iho:lmnnlk/ n. (also overtone) In acoustics, any frequency, which is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. For, example, if the glottis is vibrating at 200 Hz, then 200 Hz is the, first harmonic, 400 Hz is the second harmonic (or first overtone),, 600 Hz is the third harmonic (or second overtone), and so on. A, vibrating body effectively produces all possible harmonics in some, measure; by the phenomenon of resonance, the configuration of, the vibrating body enhances some of these while damping others;, the resulting variable intensity distribution of the harmonics is, largely responsible for the characteristic timbre of each musical, instrument and for the existence of formants in speech., , harmony, , /Iho:m~ni/ n. 1. See vowel harmony and consonant, harmony. 2. In Prague School phonology, the presence of a high, degree of symmetry in phoneme systems, resulting from the nearmaximal use of distinctive features., , harsh voice lho:J/ n. A voice quality characterized by hypertension, in the larynx, resulting in excessive approximation of the vocal folds, and sometimes also in vibration of the ventricular folds. Vibration, of the vocal folds is irregular both in frequency and in amplitude;, the resulting voice is deep and hoarse to an almost pathological, extent. Harsh voice is notated in Laver's system by a prefixed V!;, see Laver (1980 passim). Harshness can also be combined with, falsetto or creak., , hash mark flhreJ mo:k/ n. The symbol #, commonly used to represent a single word boundary., , Haskins Laboratories /Ihresklnz 1~lbnr~triz/ n. A laboratory in New, Haven, Connecticut, which has carried out important work in, speech perception and speech synthesis.
Page 181 :
h aspire, , 168, , h aspire /aJ aspire/ n. The conventional term in French for a wordinitial vowel which, unlike most word-initial vowels, fails to support, liaison or elision of a preceding vowel; h aspire is commonly,, though inconsistently, represented orthographically by an initial (h)., Examples of words with h aspire: harpe 'harp'; herisson 'hedgehog';, hardware 'hardware'; hauteur 'height'; onze 'eleven'. Words with, initial orthographic (h) which do undergo liaison normally, such as, herbe 'grass' and homme 'man', are said to have h muet. French:, 'aspirated h', reflecting the fact that most such words historically did have, an initial [h] which prevented liaison., , h-dropping IIe1tJ drnpIlJI n. The phenomenon, particularly in, English, whereby the phoneme Ihl is lost, so that, for example, hair,, heart and which become homophonous with air, art and witch. Such, h-dropping is exceedingly widespread in England, but is considered, standard only before Iw/, as in which; it occurs sporadically elsewhere, but is virtually unknown in North America, except before Iw/., , head Ihedl n. 1. At any level of structure in a metrical tree, that, daughter of a constituent which bears the main stress. Thus, in the, phrase dew-covered lawn, the syllable cov is the head of covered,, dew is the head of dew-covered, and lawn is the head of the whole, phrase. 2. (also governor) In a dependency relationship, that, element which, in some theory-specific sense, takes priority over, another associated element, its dependent or complement. 3. In, some analyses of intonation, the first accented syllable preceding, the nucleus, or, alternatively, the entire stretch of speech from this, syllable up to (but not including) the nucleus: the body., , head-marked notation Ilhed mo:kt/ n. In Metrical Phonology, a, notational device in which the node representing a foot constituent, is placed directly above the head:, F, , ~, , cr, , cr, , Cf. s1w notation., , head register n. (also head voice) See falsetto., hearing loss, , /lhI~rIlJ, , lns/ n. Partial deafness. See anacusis., , hearing range Irelnd31 n. The range of frequencies over which the, human ear functions, typically about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
Page 182 :
heterograph, , 169, , heavy syUable /'hevil n. (rarely also strong syUable) 1. A syUable, which ends in any of a long vowel, a diphthong, or one or more, consonants, important in languages employing quantitative metre., 2. A syllable which ends in one or more consonants. 3. A syllable, which ends in two or more consonants. 4. A syllable which contains, a long vowel. Ant. light syUable. NOTE: The difference among these, competing definitions is a matter of controversy and is certainly languagespecific, since (C)VC syllables, for example, pattern like heavy syllables in, some languages (at least word-finally) but not in others., , height /haItI n. 1. See vowel height. 2. In the Ladefoged feature, system, a distinctive feature invoked to handle distinctions of vowel, height and taking values from 1 (lowest) to -4 (highest)., , heightened subglottal pressure /'haItQdI n. (hsp) In the SPE feature system, an undefined distinctive feature related to the presence, of tenseness in the subglottal muscles and hence of increased subglottal pressure. Voiceless and voiced aspirated stops are [+hsp], as, are the Korean tense unaspirated voiceless stops; other segments are, [-hsp]. This feature was quickly abandoned as phonetically unrealistic, and variously replaced by aspirated (sense 2) or spread glottis., , heptameter, , /hep'tremIt~/ n. 1. A line of verse consisting of seven, metrical feet. 2. A verse pattern consisting of such lines. Reptameter is very rare in English., , Hertz /h3:tS/ n. (Hz) The standard scientific unit of frequency, equivalent to one cycle per second. A glottis vibrating at 200 Hz is thus, opening and closing 200 times per second. After Heinrich Hertz, (1857-1894), German physicist., , Herzog's Principle /'h3:tsog/ n. A putative principle in the diffusion of phonological changes. It says: mergers expand at the, expense of distinctions. Supported by substantial evidence, this, principle is sometimes regarded as a corollary of Garde's Principle, and is interpreted as demonstrating the purely mechanical nature, of sound change. Principle: Herzog (1965); name: Labov (1994: 313)., , hesitation /hezI'teIJQ/ n. Any of various phenomena interrupting, the smooth flow of speech, including pauses, hesitation noises,, repetitions and prolongation of syllables., , hesitation noise n. See filled pause., heterograph, , /'het~r~gro:f/ n., , the note there., , See under homograph and refer to
Page 183 :
170, , heterography, heterography, , /het~'rDgr~fi/ n. The property of a writing system, which, although designed in principle to represent speech sounds,, lacks a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and written, symbols. English orthography is, of course, a spectacular example, of this, but most European orthographies exhibit some degree of, heterography. Cf. homography. Adj. heterographic., , heteromorphemic, , /het~r~m~:'fi:mlk/, , adj. Belonging to different, , morphemes., , heteronym, , I'het~r~nlm/ n. 1. Either of two words which are either, homophones of different spelling (throughlthrew) or heterophones, of identical spelling (minute (60 seconds)lminute (tiny)). 2. A, frequent but unfortunate synonym for homograph., , heterophone, , /'het~r~f~un/ n., , heterorganic, , Ihet~r~: I grenlkl, , Either of two words which have the, same spelling but different meanings and different pronunciations:, lead (metal)/lead (verb); unionized (organized into a union)/unionized (not ionized); supply (provide )Isupply (in a supple manner);, refuse (say no)lrefuse (rubbish). A heterophone is a particular type, of homograph., adj. (of two adjacent consonants), Having different places of articulation, such as the Ipsl in cups or, the Imdl in mimed. Cf. homorganic, contiguous., , heterosyUabic, , Ihet~r~sI'lrebIk/, , adj. Occurring in different syllables., , Cf. tautosyllabic., , heterotopy, , Ihet~lrDt~pi/ n., , A speech sound inserted into the wrong, , position during speech., , hexameter /hek'sremlt~1 n. 1. A line of verse containing six metrical, feet. 2. A verse pattern consisting of such lines. Hexameter is rare, in English, though Longfellow used it in his poem Evangeline., , hiatus, , IhaI'eIt~sl n. The occurrence of two consecutive vowels, forming separate syllables, as in Leo, skiing, lower or playoff. The, vowels in question are said to be in hiatus. There is considerable, evidence that hiatus is unstable: vowels in hiatus frequently undergo, phonological changes which remove the hiatus. Latin hiatus 'gap'., , hierarchization of features, , IhaI~rQ:kaI'zeIJQI n., , See feature hier-, , archy., , hierarchy, , l'haI~rQ:ki/ n. Any of various linear scales along which, certain phonetic or phonological elements are ranked with respect
Page 184 :
171, , hold, , to certain properties. A familiar example is the Sonority Hierarchy., Adj. hierarchical IhaI~lro:kIk~l/., , high /hall adj. 1. (also close) (of a vowel) Articulated with the tongue, occupying a more-or-Iess maximally high position in the mouth, as, for [i] and [u]. Cf. high-mid. 2. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'produced by raising the body of the tongue, above the ... neutral position'. High vowels and palatal, palatoalveolar and velar consonants are [+high]; other segments are, [-high]. The combination of this with the feature low permits only, three vowel heights to be defined, since the combination [+high,, +low] is forbidden. 3. A somewhat different feature defined so that, all vowels in the top half of the vowel space are [+high] while all, those in the bottom half are [-high]. The combination of this with, the feature mid permits four vowel heights to be defined. Wang, (1968). 4. In the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature invoked, to treat distinctions of vowel height, with the four possible values, high, upper-mid, lower-mid and low., , high fall n. A contour tone which begins with a high pitch and then, falls in pitch., , high key n. The use by an individual of a higher than usual part of, the ordinary pitch range, as may occur during excited or emotional, speech. Ant. low key., , high-mid adj. (also half-close, close-mid) (of a vowel) Articulated, with the tongue slightly higher than its neutral position but not, maximally high, as in the vowels [e] and [0]. NOTE: The IPA now, recommends the term 4close-mid'., , high tone n. A tone in a tone language which is normally realized, with a higher pitch than other tones. Ant. low tone., , high vowel n. In the Williamson feature system, one of the five, possible values of the feature stricture., , historical phonology /hIlstDrIk~l/ n. The study of phonological change., h muet laf mqel n. See under h aspire., Ih~:sl adj. (also husky) [non-technical] (of a voice) Having a, rough, rasping quality; characterized by some degree of harsh voice., , hoarse, , Ih~uld/ n. (also closure, closed phase) That part of the articulation of a stop consonant during which the airstream is completely, blocked within the oral cavity. Cf. approach, release., , hold
Page 185 :
hole in the pattern, , 172, , hole in the pattern Ih~ul/ n. (also case vide) In the phoneme system, of a language, the absence of a phoneme at a point in which the, presence of a phoneme would increase the symmetry of the system., For example, the four-vowel system Ii e a ul shows a gap where 101, would be; if 101 were to be added to the system, the result would, be a more symmetrical five-vowel system. There is evidence that, such gaps encourage the occurrence of chain shifts. The importance, of symmetry in phonological systems was first pointed out by Sapir, (1921: 182), but the idea has been developed most vigorously by, Martinet (1955)., , holistic theory, , Ih~U'hstlkl n., , See privative theory., , IhDmi~ute'lju:t~nI n. The relation between two or, more words which do not rhyme but which end in identical, unstressed syllables: absurditylfelicity; ethical/practical. Greek, , homeotelenton, , homoisos 'same' + teleute 'ending'., l'hDm~gro:fl n. (also heterograph, heteronym) Either, of two words with the same spelling but different meanings and, often different pronunciations: bear (animal)/bear ('carry'); bark, (of tree )/bark (dog noise); refuse (say no )Irefuse (rubbish); lead, (metal)llead (verb). The last two of these pairs are heterophones., Cf. homophone. NOTE: The forms 'heterograph' and 'heteronym', though, , homograph, , widespread, are etymologically misleading; 'homograph' is preferable., Ih~'mDgr~fil n. The property of a writing system in, which there is a one-to-one correspondence between sounds and, written symbols. A phonemic transcription has this property. Very, few European orthographies are so systematic as this, though, Finnish at least comes very close. Cf. heterography., , homography, , l'hDm~nlmI n. 1. A cover term for both homophone and, homograph. 2. See homophone. Abstr. n. homonymy Ih~'mDn~mi/., , homonym, , The abstract noun 'homonymity' is also used, but is not recommended., , NOTE:, , l'hDm~fi:nI n. Either of two words which are, pronounced differently but which look identical on the lips, thus, posing a problem for deaf individuals relying upon lip-reading:, sinklzinc; fatlvat., , homophene, , homophone, , l'hDm~f~unl n., , (also homonym) Either of two or more, words which have different meanings but identical pronunciations;, homophones mayor may not be spelled differently. Examples:
Page 186 :
173, , hypercorrection, , flour/flower; bear 'large animal'/bear 'support'/bare; tide/tied. Abstr., n. homophony /h~lmDf~ni/., /hDm~:lgrendd adj. (of two adjacent consonants), Having the same place of articulation, such as the /nd/ in candy or, the /mp/ in lamp. Cf. heterorganic, contiguous., , homorganic, , horizontal lip-rounding /hDrIlzDnt~l/ n. See inner rounding. Heffner, (1950)., , host /h~ust/ n. The element to which a clitic is bound, such as should, in shouldn't., , hot /hDt/ adj. (of a feature) In Government and Charm Phonology,, having a specification of marked status which overrides any, conflicting specification when feature matrixes are combined, ('fused'). Ant. cold., , hot-wire anemometer, , /hDt'waI~/ n., , A device which measures the, velocity of air flowing past it by the cooling effect of the air on a, heated wire and hence on the electrical resistance of the wire., , hugging the phonetic ground /lhAgIlJ/ n. [informal] The characteristic of a phonological analysis which, in comparison with other, conceivable analyses, is not very abstract and which therefore represents the phonetic facts fairly directly, possibly at the expense of, theoretical elegance or economy. The treatment of English vowels, in the Gimson-O'Connor system, for example, may be said to 'hug, the phonetic ground' in comparison with the more abstract treatment found in the Trager-Smith system. Hockett (1955)., , hushing fricative /lhAJIIJ/ n. A palato-alveolar fricative, [J]., husky /'hAski/ adj. [non-technical] See hoarse., hyoid bone /lhaI~Id b~un/ n. A small V-shaped bone lying just above, the larynx, which is suspended from it by the superior cornua of, the thyroid cartilage. The only bone in the body which articulates, with no other bone, the hyoid is held in place by an array of muscles, connected to the skull, the jawbone and the breastbone; contraction of these muscles moves the hyoid, and hence the larynx, up, and down., , hypercorrection, , /haIp~k~lrekJ~n/, , n. 1. (also hyperurbanism, error, resulting from an attempt at adjusting, one's speech in the direction of a prestige norm, in which a speaker, 'overshoots the mark' and introduces a form not found in the, , /halp~lr3:b~nIzQl/) An
Page 187 :
hypemasality, , 174, , prestige norm. For example, an American for whom dew is, homophonous with do might, on attempting to acquire the British, pronunciation of dew, go too far and also introduce the glide into, do; or a non-rhotic speaker attempting to acquire a rhotic accent, might produce such hypercorrect forms as avoca[r]do. 2. The, phenomenon in which the members of a particular social class,, in very formal contexts, produce a higher proportion of prestige, variants than the social class just above them. Adj. hypercorrect., lhaIp~neI'zrehti/ n. The presence of excessive nasal, resonance in speech, especially when resulting from a clinical condition such as a cleft palate. Ant. hyponasality., , hypemasality, , hyperthesis thaI 'p3:e~SIS/ n. 1. The replacement in a line of verse, of a metrical foot by a mirror-image foot, as of an iamb by a, trochee. 2. A rare synonym for metathesis., /haI'pDk~rIzm/ n. (also hypocoristic /haIp~k~'rIstIk/ or,, rarely, hypocorisma /haIp~k~'rIzm~/) A diminutive, especially one, used as an endearment or pet name, such as Mikey or Lucykins,, or as a euphemism, such as undies or hanky., , hypocorism, , /haIp~neI'zrehti/ It. The absence of normal nasal resonance in speech, as may occur with someone suffering from a bad, head cold. Ant. hypemasality., , hyponasality, , Hz The abbreviation for Hertz.
Page 188 :
I, iamb II aHem! n. A metrical foot consisting of an unstressed syllable, followed by a stressed one, or, in quantitative metre, of a short, syllable followed by a long one. The pattern is illustrated by the, words above and below and by many familiar lines of verse, such, as Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May and Mine eyes, have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. The iamb is the most, frequently used foot in English poetry. Adj. iambic lallremblk/., Greek iambos 'lame'., , iambic lengthening n. The phenomenon in some languages, whereby a light syllable becomes heavy when it is the head of an, iamb: LL ~ LH., , iambic reversal n. (also reversal, Rhythm Rule, Thirteen-Men Rule,, Beat Movement, stress shift, stress retraction, stress reversal) The, phenomenon in English in which a stress is shifted from a later to, an earlier syllable in a word occurring within a phrase in order, to avoid a clash between adjacent stresses. Thus, for example,, thirteen normally has final stress, but it receives initial stress in thirteen men; the same is true of Tennessee in isolation and in the name, Tennessee Williams; good-looking is normally stressed on look,, but in good-looking girl it is stressed on good. Liberman and Prince, (1977)., , ich-Laut IIH;loutl n. The voiceless front fricative (orthographic (ch), occurring in German word-initially, after front vowels, after consonants, and in the diminutive suffix -chen, as in Chemie', 'chemistry', ich 'I', echt 'pure', Bucher 'books', durch 'through',, Miidchen 'young woman'. The sound is usually described by, textbooks as a palatal fricative [~], but many speakers have alveolopalatal [~] or even palato-alveolar [fl. The ich- Laut is in complementary distribution with the Deh-Laut if morpheme boundaries, are taken into account., lalk~lnlsltil n. The existence of some kind of direct, motivated, non-arbitrary relation between a phonological form and its, meaning. The most familiar example is onomatopoeia, but other, types exist. Adj. iconic lallkonlk/. Ant. arbitrariness., , iconicity
Page 189 :
ictus, , 176, , ictus /'Ikt~s/ n. 1. The position of the metrical or rhythmical beat in a, foot or line of verse, typically but not necessarily falling on a stressed, syllable: And I copied all the letters in a hand so free / That now I am, the ruler o/the Queens Navy (W. S. Gilbert). 2. The first place in the, foot (Abercrombie 1991b: ch. 10). Cf. remiss. Latin ictus 'stroke'., /al'dl~U n. In Glossematic phonology, an abstract, level of representation corresponding roughly to the underlying, forms of classical generative phonology. Cf. actualized notation., , ideal notation, , ideal sound n. [obsolete] A phoneme, particularly when regarded, as a mental object. Sapir (1925)., , identification /aldentIfI'keIJQI n. That aspect of ear-training in, which the student learns to recognize speech sounds., , ideophone I' aldi~f;lun/ n. Anyone of an exceptional class of lexical, items occurring in certain languages which typically express some, particular and distinctive type of sound or movement. In many, such languages, ideophones are phonologically exceptional in, permitting segments or sequences not occurring elsewhere, and they, are very frequently reduplicated. Here are a few of the ideophones, in the Carib language Apalai: kute kute kute '(frog) croak', pyh tere, 'jump into canoe', syry tope topa 'falling into the water', kui kui, "screaming', seky seky "creep up', ty ty ty "person walking', wywywywy "hammock swinging', uroruro "trees falling', tututututu "fast, approach'. Adj. ideophonic laldi~'fDnlk/., , idiolect I'Idi;llektl n. The speech of a particular individual. Bloch (1948)., idiophone I' Idi;lf~unl n. [rare] A speech sound which is typical of, the speech of a particular individual., , ill-formed Id'f:l:mdl adj. (of a phonological form or representation), Not in accordance with all of the requirements of the phonology, of the language in question; violating one or more requirements., Abstr. n. ill-formedness. Ant. well-formed., , imperfect diphthong IIm'p3:fIkt/ n. A diphthong consisting of a, lengthened, fully syllabic vowel preceded or followed by a glide., Jones (1918): 8th edition onwards., , imperfect rhyme n. See half-rhyme., /Imph'keIJ;ln~U n. Any relationship, between two phonetic or phonological characteristics by which the, presence of one guarantees the presence or absence of the other., , implicational relationship
Page 190 :
177, , improper bracketing, , Some of these are universal: for example, [+high] ~ [-low] by, definition. Others are language-specific: in English, [+lateral] ~, [+coronal], since English (unlike some other languages) has only, coronal laterals., , implicational universal n. Any universal of the form 'If a language, has property p, it also has property q'. Example: If a language has, voiced fricatives, it also has voiceless fricatives., /Im'pl~u3Q./ n. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'involving a glottal closure producing suction'., Implosives (and presumably injectives) are [+impl]; all other, segments are [-impl]., , implosion, , /Im'pl~usIV/ n. or adj. (impl) 1. An oral stop articulated, with a glottalic ingressive airstream, so that outside air is pulled, into the mouth upon release of the oral closure. Voiced implosives, are fairly common, voiceless ones quite rare. The IPA represents, these with a right-curling hook at the top of the symbol for the, ordinary plosive: [5 cf]. See Laver (1994: 172-173, 237-238)., 2. Specifically, a voiced implosive, in which lung air leaks up through, the vibrating glottis while the larynx is being lowered. In this usage,, a voiceless implosive is called an injective. NOTE: Before 1989, sense, 2 was usual, but since then the IPA has recommended sense 1. 3. In the, Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one of the three, possible values of the feature glottalic (Ladefoged) or larynx movement (Williamson)., , implosive, , implosive position n. [obsolete] (of a consonant) Syllable-final, position. In the word rest, for example, both [s] and [t] are in implosive position., /Im'pDv~rIJm~nt/ n. In some analyses of prosodic, phenomena, the removal from surface syntactic structure of all but, a designated set of syntactic constituent boundaries, leaving only, these remaining boundaries visible to phonological rules. Selkirk, , impoverishment, , (1986)., , impressionistic transcription, , /ImpreJ~lnlstlk/ n., , A less usual term, , for phonetic transcription., /Im'prDp~/ n. A, partial overlap of pairs of brackets, as, Normally regarded as illegal, improper, ally advocated as a way of dealing with, , improper bracketing, , bracketing involving the, in Lci[/]iY]j or Lsi[jstler]j", bracketings are occasionambisyllabic consonants.
Page 191 :
in absentia, in absentia lIn, , 178, reb'senti~1, , adv. See paradigmatic relation., , IIn:>:lt~r~'bdlti/ n. The tendency of, geminates to escape rules whose application would modify one half, of the geminate while leaving the other unchanged., , inalterability of geminates, , independent motivation, , IIndlpend~nt m~utI'veIJQ.I n., , The property of a rule in a particular analysis which is required for the, derivation of forms other than those for which the analysis is explicitly being constructed. Adj. independently motivated., , indeterminacy, terminate, , IIndI't3:mIn~si/ n., , See non-uniqueness. Adj. inde-, , IIndI't3:mln~t/., , index l'Indeksl n. See marker (sense 2). Abercrombie (1967)., index of oddity l'odItil n. A putative metric, so far not well articulated, for expressing the extent to which the phoneme system of, a language departs from universal norms. Lass (1984: 155)., , indicator I' Indlkelt~1 n. A variable which lies entirely below the, conscious awareness of speakers but which nonetheless exhibits, social stratification. Cf. stereotype, marker (sense 3). Labov, (1994: 78)., , indirect opposition /Ind~'rekt/ n. A proposed procedure for establishing the presence of a contrast between two segments for which, no minimal pair can be found. For example, the sequence singer, sitter letter leisure allegedly demonstrates a contrast between, English [IJ] and [3]. See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: 84) for a, demolition of this approach. Trubetzkoy (1939: 32)., , Indirect Syntax Hypothesis n. The proposal that syntactic, structure may be reflected in the phonology only in so far as it, influences prosodic roles, which in turn may have consequences for, ordinary phonological rules. Cf. Direct Syntax Hypothesis., , infix l'Inflks/ n. An affix which occupies a position in which it interrupts another morpheme. In Tagalog, for example, the verbal root, sulat 'write' (a single morpheme) exhibits such inflected forms as, sumulat and sinulat, with infixes -um- and -in-. NOTE: It is an error, to apply the term 'infix' to an affix which merely comes between two other, morphemes. For example, the Turkish verb stem ye- 'eat' forms an active, infinitive yemek 'to eat' and a passive infinitive yenmek 'to be eaten'; in, this case the passive marker -n- is not an infix, but only a suffix which, precedes certain other suffixes.
Page 192 :
179, , initiator, , /InlflekJ~nI n. (also inOexion, Oexion) 1. The variation in, form of a single lexical item for grammatical purposes. 2. A particular word form assumed by a lexical item in some grammatical, environment. For example, gives and gave are two inflections of the, verb give. 3. A particular bound morph expressing an inflectional, distinction, such as the English plural suffix -so Adj. inOectionai, (pertaining to inflection), inOected /In'flektId/ (bearing an inflection); v. inftect. NOTE: The traditional British spelling inflexion has now, , inflection, , largely given way to the American spelling inflection., , inflectional morphology n. The branch of morphology dealing with, the variation in the forms of words for grammatical purposes, as, in cat/cats and eat/eats/eating/ate/eaten. Cf. derivational morphology., , ingliding diphthong IIInglaldIlJ1 n. A less usual synonym for, centring diphthong., , ingressive /In'gresIv/ 1. adj. (of an airstream) Involving a flow of, air from the outside into the vocal tract. 2. adj. or n. (A segment), produced with such an airstream, such as an implosive or a click., Cf. egressive. Pike (1943)., , initial /IlnIJV 1. adj. Occurring in first position in a word or syllable., 2. n. A segment occurring in this position. 3. n. See onset., , initial devoicing n. The absence of voicing from the first portion, of an intrinsically voiced segment, as occurs, for example, with, English word-initial Ib d g/. Adj. initiaUy devoiced. Cf. final, devoicing., , initial dropping I'dropIIJI n. A type of phonological change in which, all or most word-initial consonants, or even word-initial syllables,, are lost. Rare in the world's languages, initial-dropping is widespread in certain regions of Australia. For example, Mbabaram, shows *gudaga > d;,g 'dog', *bamba > mba 'belly', *jawa > we, 'mouth', *naga > ga 'east\ etc. See Dixon (1980: 195-207). Cf., aphaeresis., , initial mutation n. See mutation (sense 2)., initiation /InIJi'eIJQ./ n. See airstream mechanism. Catford (1977)., !I'nIJieIt~1 n. That part of the speech organs involved in, producing a particular airstream mechanism: the respiratory system, in pulmonic air, the larynx in glottalic air and the tongue in velaric, air. Pike (1943)., , initiator
Page 193 :
initiator power, , 180, , Ilpou~1 n. The rate (expressed in watts) at which, an initiator does work (delivers energy) in moving air against the, acoustic impedance of the vocal tract, identified by Catford (1977:, 84) as the primary phonetic correlate of stress., , initiator power, , injective IInld3ektlvl adj. or n. A segment articulated with a, glottalic ingressive airstream mechanism but with no vibration of, the vocal folds. Such segments are rare, but see Laver (1994: 173)., See under implosive for further information., , inlaut Illnloutl n. A segment occurring in the middle of a word. Cf., anlaut, auslaut. German: 'in-sound'., , inner ear, , Illn~1 n., , The innermost and most complex of the three, divisions of the ear, linked to the middle ear by the oval window, and containing the cochlea., , inner rounding n. (also horizontal lip-rounding, outrounding) A, version of lip-rounding in which the lips are projected forward, ('pouted') and the channel between them is formed by their inner, surfaces (it is endolabial). Inner rounding is typical of rounded back, vowels like [u] and [0]. Cf. outer rounding. Sweet (1890): the term, 'inner rounding' derives from the use of the inner surfaces of the lips; the, synonymous 'outrounding' derives from the forward projection of the lips., Both terms are justifiable, but their coexistence is likely to lead to serious, confusion., , in praesentia lIn pral Isenti~1 adv. See syntagmatic relation., input Illnputl n. With reference to a phonological rule, the representation to which the rule applies in a particular instance. Cf. output., , input conditioning n. Any restriction on the application of a phonological mle expressed in terms of its input. Cf. output conditioning., Sommerstein (1977: 73)., , inrounded Illnroundldl adj. (inr) A binary distinctive feature, proposed by Lass (1984: 88): segments with inrounding (i.e., outer, rounding) are [+inr], while segments with outrounding (i.e., inner, rounding) and unrounded segments are [-inr]. The feature is specifically designed to handle the three-way contrast in Swedish among, leI ([-round, -inr]), I(/)I ([+round, -inr]) and luI ([+round, +inr]); all, three of these have identical height and backness., , inrounding n. An unfortunate synonym for outer rounding; see the, remarks under inner rounding.
Page 194 :
181, , interdental, , IInsep~r~'bdIti/ n. The tendency of, geminates to resist the insertion of an intervening segment., , inseparability of geminates, , insertion IIn's3:II).I n. 1. See epenthesis. 2. See rule insertion., IIn'spaIr~tril n. The maximum volume of air, that can be breathed into the lungs above the minimal value of the, tidal volume., , inspiratory capacity, , inspiratory reserve volume IrI 'z3:v vDlju:mI n. The maximum, volume of air that can be breathed into the lungs beyond the, maximal value of the tidal volume., IInst~n'teIni~sl n. (also abrupt release) In, the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to distinguish, affricates ([-abrrel]) from plosives ([+abrrel]). Eventually the, feature delayed release, with exactly the opposite specifications,, came to be the most usual name. Chomsky and Halle (1968); the, , instantaneous release, , authors credit R. Carter with the term., !Instr~'ment~ll n. (also experimental, phonetics) The use of mechanical, electrical or electronic apparatus, to investigate any aspect of l?honetics., , instrumental phonetics, , integration IIntI'greIIQI n. In Prague School phonology, the property of a phoneme whose presence increases the symmetry of the, system and whose absence would leave a hole in the pattern. Adj., (well-)integrated., , intensity IIn'tensltil n. The amount of energy carried by a sound, wave, measured in decibels. The perceptual correlate of intensity, is loudness, but the relationship is far from linear., , intensive IIn'tenslvl adj. See fortis (sense 1). Catford (1977)., interconstituent government /Int~k~n'stltIu~nt/ n. In Government, and Charm Phonology, the type of government holding between, adjacent syllables., , intercostal muscles, , /Int~'kDst~l/, , n. pi. Two sets of muscles, connecting adjacent ribs within the rib cage. The external intercostals are important in inhalation, while the internal intercostals, are important in exhalation., , interdental IInt~'dent~l/ 1. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with, the tip of the tongue slightly protruding between the upper and, lower teeth. 2. n. A segment so artiCUlated, such as American
Page 195 :
182, , interference, , English [9] or [0] (many British speakers pronounce these as, ordinary dentals, rather than as interdentals)., !Int~lfI~r~ns/ n. Imperfections in the use of one, language as a result of the influence of another language, such as, a 'foreign accent' in speaking a second language., , interference, , intemx, , /IInt~fIks/, , n. An empty morph occurring between a stem, and a meaningful suffix, such as the -0- in English kissogram or, the -ov- in Russian Glinkovskij 'of Glinka', where Glinka is a, surname and -skij is the relational suffix. Dressler (1985)., !Int~llelbi~l/ n. The space between the lips, especially when regarded as an articulatory variable., , interlabial space, , f1Int~lev~l/ n. Any level of representation postulated in, some analysis as lying between two other levels regarded as more, firmly established. The most familiar interlevel is the morphophonemic level posited in some analyses between the morphological, and phonemic levels of representation., , interlevel, , /IInt~lu:d/ n. [rare] A word-internal consonant cluster, containing no morpheme boundary. Hockett (1955: 51ft.), , interlude, , !Int~lmi:di~t/ n. Any level of representation posited, in some analysis, as occurring between the underlying form and the surface phonetic form., , intermediate representation, , intermediate vowel n. Any vowel which is not a cardinal vowel., internal adequacy, , /Inlt3:n~l/, , n. See under adequacy., , /levId~ns/ n. Any of several criteria for phonological analysis which may be regarded as primarily aesthetic in, nature, such as consistency, simplicity, economy, degree of independent motivation (freedom from ad hoc-ness) and success in, capturing generalizations. Cf. external evidence., , internal evidence, , internal open juncture n. In American Structuralist work, a, morpheme boundary within a word, represented analytically by, a plus-juncture. Cf. extemal open juncture., , internal reconstruction n. In historical linguistics, a procedure for, establishing an earlier, unattested stage of a single language without, the use of information from related languages. In the simplest case,, it involves observing the presence of a pattern with some exceptions and surmising that the exceptions were formerly regular. A
Page 196 :
183, , interpolation, , famous instance is Saussure's observation that most PIE roots were, CVC in form, while some were CV or VC; he proposed that these, latter had formerly also been CVC, but that certain consonants had, been lost. This laryngeal hypothesis was later confirmed by new, evidence. Cf. comparative reconstruction., , internal rhyme n. The rhyming of words within a single line of, verse, as in A maiden from the Bosphorus with eyes as bright as, phosphorus / Once wed the wealthy bailiff of the caliph of Khelat., , internal rounding n. The phenomenon in which the perceptual, effect of a rounded vowel is produced without lip-rounding by, sulcalization of the tongue., , internal sandhi n. Any instance of sandhi taking place within a, single word, such as the change of the [s] in face to [J] in its derivative facial. Cf. external sandhi., , International Phonetic Alphabet /Int;}'nreJn;}l/ n. (IPA) The most, prominent phonetic alphabet (sense 1) in contemporary use, first, promulgated by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 and, frequently modified since, the most recent revision being that of, 1993. The IPA aims to provide visually distinctive symbols for all, speech sounds which are phonologically distinct in any language;, preferring to keep the use of diacritics to an irreducible minimum,, it has introduced a large number of specially designed characters, such as [:l], [J] and [0]. In spite of the resulting inconvenience in, printing, the IPA is now almost universally used in phonetics and, linguistics, except in the United States, where it is only slowly, gaining ground from the competing American transcription; it is, also increasingly used in serious dictionaries. See the Appendix for, a table of IPA symbols., , International Phonetic Association /;}s;}USi'eIJQI n. (IPA) An, international organization for the study of phonetics, founded in, France in 1886 by a group of European phoneticians, linguists and, language teachers under the leadership of the French linguist Paul, Passy and known until 1897 as the Phonetic Teachers' Association., The first and best-known work of the organization was the creation, of the International Phonetic Alphabet, proposed by the Danish, linguist Otto Jespersen and first published in 1888., , interpolation /Int3:p;}'leIJQ/ n. A putative process by which the, value of a phonetic feature is carried from one segment to another,, both marked for the feature, across an intervening segment which
Page 197 :
184, , intervocalic, , is unmarked for it, such as when [nasal] is carried across an English, vowel from one consonant to another. See Kenstowicz (1994:, 521-524). Keating (1988); Cohn (1990)., !Int~v~'krehkl adj. Located between two vowels, such, as the ItI in water or the Inl in winning., , intervocalic, , IInt~'neIJQ.I n. The use of pitch, and possibly of additional prosodic phenomena such as loudness, tempo and pauses,, over a stretch of utterance generally longer than a single word for, the purpose of conveying meaning. Intonation is used for a variety, of purposes: for marking grammatical boundaries (phrases and, clauses), for signalling sentence types (e.g., statements and questions), and for conveying the speaker's attitude (surprise, irony,, anger, etc.) Intonation is a complex topic, and a wide variety of, approaches has been adopted with varying degrees of success. The, study of intonation is intonology IInt~'nDI~d3i/. See Cruttenden, (1986) for an introduction, and see Laver (1994: 509-510) for a, long list of further references. Adj. intonational., , intonation, , intonational nucleus n. The most prominent syllable within an intonational phrase., , intonational phrase n. (also intonation group Igru:p/, rhythm, unit) The phonological unit of intonational structure, the longest, stretch of speech to which a single intonation pattern applies., In the Prosodic Hierarchy, this level is posited as the domain, of certain phonological processes, such as the Italian gorgia, toscana., , intonation language n. A language which is neither a tone language, nor a pitch language; a language in which the universally present, intonation constitutes the only linguistic use of pitch., , intra-oral pressure, , !Intr~'~:r~l/, , n. The pressure of the air within, the mouth, or within the supraglottal vocal tract., , intrinsic allophone IIn'trlnSlkl n. An allophone whose phonetic, character can be entirely explained by its phonetic environment,, such as a fronted allophone of Ikl before a front vowel. Cf. extrinsic, allophone. Wang and Fillmore (1961)., , intrinsic duration n. The minimal duration which a segment must, have in order to 'count' as a segment of its type. For example," a, plosive or a vowel must have a certain duration to avoid becoming, a tap or a glide, respectively.
Page 198 :
185, , invariance condition, , intrinsic ordering n. 1. Narrowly, the relation between two rules, A and B such that A creates all possible inputs to B. In this case,, A is intrinsically ordered before B, which otherwise has nothing to, do. 2. Broadly, any ordering relation between rules which is derived, from some universal principle(s), rather than merely being stipulated by the analyst. Ant. extrinsic ordering., , intrinsic pitch n. (also intrinsic FO) The seemingly universal, tendency for high vowels to have a higher fundamental frequency, than low vowels. Lehiste and Peterson (1961)., , intrinsic sonority n. The property by which segments are ranked, in the Sonority Hierarchy., , intrusion lIn 'tru:3QI n. Any process in which a segment is added to, a word without etymological justification. Word-initially, intrusion, is called prothesis; medially, epenthesis; finally, paragoge., , intrusive r IIn'trU:SIvl n. In some non-rhotic accents of English, an, I~:/, 13:1 or /::l/), or after a centring diphthong when one of these occurs before a, vowel, regardless of the facts of etymology or spelling, producing, such pronunciations as lawr and order, the Shahr of Persia, drawring, a picture, Indiar and Pakistan, visar application, Philadelphiar, Eagles and (my favourite) the pronunciation of the name of the, squash player Lisa Opie as Lisa Ropie. Intrusive r derives from, linking r by rule inversion., , Irl which is automatically inserted after any of 10:/,, , invariance condition lIn 'vc~ri~nsl n. (also, informally, 'once a, phoneme, always a phoneme') A proposed criterion for phonological analysis. Two versions of it have been advocated. Under, 'strong' or 'absolute' invariance (also called the non-intersection, condition), all occurrences of a single phone in a language must be, assigned to the same single phoneme - that is, two different, phonemes may not overlap at all in their phonetic realizations. This, version was adopted by some of the American Structuralists, (explicitly by Hockett 1942), but it is untenable; see Sommerstein, (1977: 25) for a demonstration. Under weak' or 'relative' invariance, all occurrences of a single phone in a given environment must, be assigned to a single phoneme, but identical phones in different, environments may be assigned to different phonemes. This version, thus permits partial overlapping of phonemes. Weak invariance was, adopted by Jakobson and by some other American Structuralists,, but all versions of invariance were rejected by Chomsky (1964);, 4
Page 199 :
inverse voice, , 186, , the proponents of generative phonology preferred to admit analyses, involving complete overlapping, ruled out even by weak invariance., , inverse voice IIInV3:s1 n. The phenomenon in which, during, glottalic egressive initiation, air flows downward through the glottis,, producing some degree of vibration of the vocal folds., laII~ot~sIztpl n. Any phonological process in which a, different vocalic nucleus develops into the high front vowel [i]. At, least eight nuclei which contrasted in Ancient Greek, for example,, have merged as [i] in Modern Greek., , iotacism, , IPA laI pi: leII n. 1. See International Phonetic Association. 2. See, International Phonetic Alphabet., , IPA transcription n. 1. Any phonetic or phonemic transcription, using the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet. 2., (among lexicographers) A synonym for EPD transcription., laIlsDkr~nil n. (also isochronism laIlsDkr~nlztpl) A type, of speech rhythm in which units of a certain type tend strongly to, be produced at regular intervals of time - that is, in which each, such unit takes the same length of time to pronounce. The two, most widely recognized types of isochrony are stress-timing and, syllable-timing, though in Japanese the mora is said to be the unit, of isochrony. Instrumental studies have confirmed that isochrony is, less a physical reality than a tendency or even a perception of the, hearer. Adj. isochronous laIlsDkr~n~s/., , isochrony, , isodynamic laIs~daIlnremlkl adj. Involving the same initiator power., Catford (1977: 87) suggests that feet in English speech are more, accurately described as isodynamic, rather than isochronous., , isogloss II aIs~glDsl n. In dialectology, a line drawn on a map to represent the boundary between two competing linguistic forms., , isolated opposition II als~leItldl adj. In Prague School phonology,, a unique contrast between two segments distinguished by a feature, which distinguishes no other pair of segments in the language. An, example is the English contrast between Irl and 11/, distinguished, by the feature of laterality, which plays no other part in English., Cf. proportional opposition., , isophone II als~f~unl n. An isogloss which separates two types of, pronunciation., , isosyUabicity, , lals~sI1~lbIsIti/, , n. See syllable-timing.
Page 200 :
187, , -ization, , /alt~m ~nd ~'relnd3m~nt/ adj. (IA), Denoting a rigidly distributional approach to phonological description which involves no machinery other than lists of phonological, elements and statements of the positions in which they may occur., IA prohibits any appeal to phonological processes deriving surface, forms from underlying forms. It was a major feature of most, American Structuralist phonology, but it has been generally, rejected in more recent work, on the ground that it prevents the, formulation of generalizations. Hockett (1954)., , Item-and-Arrangement, , Item-and-Process adj. (IP) Denoting any approach to phonological, description which involves deriving surface forms from underlying, representations by rules. The term was applied to early versions, of generative phonology in recognition of the most prominent, difference between it and earlier work by American Structuralists;, it is no longer current. Hockett (1954)., , iterative rule application, , /IIt~r~tIV/, , n. The phenomenon in which, a single rule applies repeatedly to a single phonological form, without the intervening application of any other rules. Iterative, application is most commonly invoked in treating assimilation, processes like vowel harmony, or voicing assimilation in clusters,, in cases in which the assimilation appears to propagate itself, through a word from left to right or from right to left. Cf. fell, swoop., , -ization /-al1zeIJt:l/, -ized /-alzd/ Affixes which are used in phonetics, and phonology in three quite different senses. 1. Statically, to, denote the presence of a secondary articulation. Thus, palatalization is the presence during an articulation of the raising of the front, of the tongue (as in [tj ]), and the segment produced is palatalized., 2. Dynamically, to denote the introduction of such a secondary, articulation into a segment which formerly lacked it. Thus, palatalization is the conversion of [t] to [tj ], and the former [t] has been, palatalized. 3. Dynamically, to denote a change in the location of, the primary constriction. Thus, palatalization is the conversion of, [t] to [c], and the former [t] has been palatalized. NOTE: These, multiple uses are unfortunate, but all are well established, and the context, is usually sufficient to determine which is meant.
Page 201 :
J, /jo:k~bs~n 'hreli/ n. A major, system of distinctive features, the first complete system to be, proposed. Derived from the earlier ideas of the Prague School,, the system was developed by Roman Jakobson and his colleagues, in the 19508, notably in Jakobson et ale (1952) and Jakobson and, Halle (1956); the 1956 version is here taken as canonical. Since, these scholars were working at the time with the sound spectrograph, the J-H features are explicitly acoustic, though all of them, are also given articulatory interpretations. In principle, the features, are exclusively binary, though the flat/plain and sharp/plain, contrasts really disguise a single ternary feature, and there is the, complication that features are sometimes allowed to take the value, zero, meaning 'irrelevant' or 'inapplicable'. The terminology is, unusual, in that both values of each feature are given independent, names, so that, for example, the specifications {grave] and [acute], are used instead of [+grave] and [-grave]. Only twelve features, are recognized, as follows: vocalic/non-vocalic; consonantal!, non-consonantal; compact/diffuse; tense/lax; voiced!voiceless;, nasal/oral; discontinuous/continuant;' strident/mellow; checked!, unchecked; grave/acute; flat/plain; sharp/plain. Though widely, used in the 19508 and 19608, the system suffers from two major, problems. First, it fails to capture certain obvious natural classes:, for example, palatal consonants differ from velars as [compact], vs. [diffuse], but palatalized consonants (including velars) are distinguished from non-palatalized counterparts as [sharp] vs. [plain], - leaving the analyst no way of treating palatal and palatalized, consonants uniformly. Second, it unites under a single feature, specification quite different articulatory phenomena which have, broadly similar acoustic effects. For example, the feature [flat], covers all of lip-rounding, retroflexion and pharyngealization, and, hence the system effectively claims that no language can distinctively use more than one of these devices, a claim quickly shown, to be false. Under increasing pressure from the proponents of articulatory features, the J-H system was eventually superseded in most, linguistic usage by the SPE feature system; nevertheless, certain, J-H features, notably [strident] and [grave], have continued in use., , Jakobson-HaUe feature system
Page 202 :
189, , juncture phoneme, , See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: 154-173) for a summary and critical, evaluation of the system., , jitter /'d3It~/ n. Irregular variation in the fundamental frequency of, the vocal folds, such as occurs in harsh voice. Cf. shimmer., , Jones transcription, , /d3~unz/, , n. See EPD transcription., , /'d3AIJkJ~n/ n. In Prosodic Analysis, any phonological element whose occurrence signals the presence of some kind, of boundary. Examples include the word-initial stress of Czech and, the occurrence in English of heterorganic plosive-nasal clusters, as, in catnap and topmost, which always fall across morpheme boundaries. In this framework, all such elements are treated as one kind, of prosody. Junction prosodies represent an elaboration of the, boundary signals of the Prague School., , junction prosody, , juncture /'d3AlJkJ~/ n. Any phonetic feature whose presence signals, the existence of a grammatical boundary. Similar in conception to, the Prague School's boundary signals, the notion was particularly, developed by the American Structuralists, who distinguished close, juncture (normal transitions within words), internal open iuncture, (boundaries within words) and external open juncture (at utterance boundaries). Thus nitrate has close juncture, while night-rate, differs in having internal open juncture, and white shoes and, why choose differ in the location of the internal open juncture. See, juncture phoneme. Trager and Bloch (1941)., , juncture displacement, , /dls'plelsm~nt/, , n. See metanalysis., , juncture phoneme n. In American Structuralist phonology, any of, several putative phonological constructs, having the status of, phonemes but lacking any intrinsic phonetic content, set up to, account for the observed phonetic differences between apparently, identical sequences of segmental phonemes, as in nitrate and nightrate, or as in why choose and white shoes. Trager and Bloch (1941), introduced the plus juncture to represent open internal juncture in, such cases, and Trager and Smith (1951) added three varieties of, external open juncture, distinguished by intonation: plus, single-bar,, double-bar and double-cross junctures. Juncture phonemes were, devised as a means of escaping the unpleasant consequences of the, separation of levels, by which no grammatical information was, available for phonological analysis. See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975:, 94-97).
Page 203 :
just noticeable difference, , 190, , just noticeable difference /d3Ast n~tIs~b~I'dlfr~ns/ n. (JND) The, minimum phonetic distinction required to render a phonological, contrast perceptible to native speakers - for example, the minimal, difference in duration which will allow a hearer to distinguish long, and short segments.
Page 204 :
K, /k~zo:n1 n. The name given to the work of the, two Polish linguists Jan Baudouin de Courtenay and Mikolaj, Kruszewski, who taught at Kazan in southern Russia in the late, nineteenth century, and sometimes also to the work of later scholars, who were influenced by them. The Kazan School linguists were the, first to use the term phoneme in roughly its modern sense (they, also coined the term morpheme); they stressed the importance of, alternations in illuminating phonological analyses; and they anticipated many of the ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure. Unfortunately,, much of their work did not become known in the west until after, it had been replicated by other scholars. See Anderson (1985:, ch. 3) for an account., , Kazan School, , Kensington, , accent, , /'kenZIIJt~n1, , n., , See, , under, , Received, , Pronunciation., /kenj~n ~nd 'not/ n. An analysis of, American English vowels proposed by John Kenyon and Thomas, Knott (1953). In contrast to the Trager-Smith system, Kenyon and, Knott analyse most nuclei as single elements. The system is, intended to handle all major types of American accent, and hence, it sets up 21 distinct nuclei, even though no single American accent, distinguishes that many nuclei. Of these, 17 are single elements and, only four are diphthongs (those occurring in buy, now, boy and, few). The system has been highly influential in the United States;, with various modifications in its symbols, it can be found in many, recent linguistic works. See Kreidler (1989: 298ft.) for a summary., , Kenyon and Knott system, , key /ki:/ n. In some analyses of intonation, that part of an individual's pitch range in which a particular utterance is made. For, example, a shrill, emotionally charged utterance may be said to be, in a high key. From music., /s~'septIb~l/ n. A particular segment, whose auditory characteristics are strongly affected by the presence, of some phonetic setting and which is therefore useful in identifying the presence of that setting. For example, [i] and [s] are key, segments for a lip-rounded setting. Laver (1994)., , key susceptible segment
Page 205 :
192, , Kiel convention, , Kiel convention /ki:lJ n. The set of recommendations made by the, 1989 meeting of the .IPA in Kiel, which made substantial changes, in the IPA's symbols and terminology., , kiloHertz, , /'kIl~h3:ts/ n., , (kHz) One thousand Hertz., , kinaesthetic IkIni:s'getIk/ adj. (also kinesthetic) Pertaining to the, sensations of one's own movements., , kinaesthetic feedback n. (also kinesthetic) The ability of a speaker, to perceive and monitor her/his own speech by means of sensory, stimuli reporting the positions of the organs of speech. Cf., auditory feedback., , kinesics /kaI'ni:Zlksl n. The use of gestures and expressions during, speech in order to add meaning or to modify the import of spoken, language., , kinetic tone IkI'netlk/ n. See contour tone., King's English IkIUZ IUghJI n. (also Queen's English) A name given, I, , in Britain to the perceived prestige standard form of English, often, particularly to Received Pronunciation., , kiss click /kIS/ n. A bilabial click. From its resemblance to a kiss., kymograph, , l'kaIm~grQ:fI n. Any of various mechanical, electrical, or electronic devices used to measure and record variations in any, of several physical quantities during speech, such as the rate of air, flow (the 'volume-velocity'). A modern version is usuall} called an, electrokymograph. Adj. kymographic /kalm~'grrefIk/; abstr. n., kymography IkaI'mDgr~fi/.
Page 206 :
L, /'lelbi~U adj. or n. 1. adj. Pertaining to the lips. 2. adj. (of a, segment) Articulated with the lips. 3. n. A segment so articulated,, such as [p], [m] or [fl. 4. (lab) A distinctive feature invoked to, distinguish labial segments ([+lab]) from all other segments ([-lab])., Anderson (1971). 5. A different distinctive feature invoked to separate labial consonants and rounded vowels ~nd glides (all [+lab]), from all other segments ([-lab]). See Hyman (1975: 53-55) for a, discussion of this feature with references. Reighard (1972).6. In some, versions of feature geometry, a superordinate feature taking round, as a dependent. Sagey (1986). 7. See labiality (sense 1). Ant. nonlabial., , labial, , labial-alveolar (also labio-alveolar, labio-coronal) 1. adj. (of a, segment) Articulated with simultaneous labial and alveolar, constrictions of roughly equal degree. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as Margi [pt]., , labiality /lelbi'rehti/ n. 1. (also labial) In the Ladefoged and, Williamson feature systems, a binary distinctive feature invoked to, distinguish contrasts involving approximation of the centres of, the lips. Thus, [kp] is [+lab], while [k] is [-lab]. 2. In Dependency, Phonology and other privative approaches, the vowel element luI,, or, in some versions, {wI., /lelbi~laI'zeIJQ./ n. 1. The presence in an articulation, of some degree of lip-rounding as a secondary articulation. In the, IPA, labialization is represented by a superscript w: hence [Sw], represents a labialized voiceless alveolar fricative, such as often, occurs in English soon or swim. See Laver (1994: 321-322). 2. Any, phonological process by which some segment acquires lip-rounding, which was (underlyingly or historically) absent. \I: labialize; adj., labialized., , labialization, , labial-palatal 1. adj. (of an articulation) Involving simultaneous, labial and palatal strictures of approximately equal degree; one type, of coarticulation. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as [q] in, French huit [qit] 'eight'.
Page 207 :
194, , labial protrusion, , /pr~'tru:3Q./ n. Prominent forward extension of, the lips during speech, such as occurs in inner rounding or as part, of the articulatory setting of particular speakers or languages., , labial protrusion, , labial-velar (also labiovelar, labio-dorsal) 1. adj. (of a segment), Articulated with simultaneous labial and velar constrictions of, approximately equal degree; one type of coarticulation. 2. n. A, segment so articulated, such as [w] or [kp]. A labial-velar articulation differs from a labialized velar articulation like [k W ] , in which, the primary articulation is velar and labialization is a secondary, articulation., , labio-coronal, , rlelbi~u/, , adj. or n. See labial-alveolar., , labio-coronal-dorsal 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with simultaneous labial, coronal and velar constrictions. 2. A segment so, articulated, such as Kinyarwanda [tkw]., , labiodental 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the primary stricture involving the lower lip and the upper teeth. 2. n. A segment, so articulated, such as [f], [v] or [IIJ]. 3. adj. In the Ladefoged and, Williamson feature systems, one of the eleven possible values of, the feature articulatory place., , labiodentalization n. The presence, during an articulation, of an, incompletely occluded labiodental articulation as a secondary articulation. Labiodentalized fricatives and affricates occur in a number, of African and Caucasian languages (Catford 1977; Ladefoged, 1964, 1971). Adj. labiodentalized., , labio-dorsal adj. or n. See labial-velar., labiovelar adj. or n. A traditional and widely used, but nonetheless, anomalously formed, term used to label either a labial-velar, articulation (like [w]) or a labialized velar articulation (like [k W ] ) ., , labiovelarization n. In Prosodic Analysis, the prosody [W], posited, to account for lip-rounding. Adj. labiovelarized., , Lachmann's Law rlrekm~nI n. The phenomenon in Latin by which, an underlyingly short vowel in a verb stem ending in a voiced, plosive is lengthened in the participle: Iigo 'read', participle Iectus., /'lredlf~ugld/ n. An experiment carried out, by Peter Ladefoged (1960) to test how consistently the vowels of, an unknown language (Irish) would be characterized by phoneticians in terms of the cardinal vowel system. Broadly, the result was, , Ladefoged experiment
Page 208 :
195, , laminal, , that phoneticians trained in the same tradition exhibited a high, degree of agreement with one another, while those trained in, different traditions agreed less well. This is not to say that consistency implies accuracy in any absolute sense; in any case, the use, of recordings deprived the subjects of a view of the speaker's lips,, which would have provided valuable information. John Laver, (1965) performed a similar experiment testing the consistency of, particular phoneticians over time., , Ladefoged feature system n. (also prime feature system, traditional feature system) A distinctive feature system proposed by, Peter Ladefoged in a series of publications (Ladefoged 1964, 1971,, 1975/1982); the 1975/1982 version is here taken as canonical. (Note, that the third (1993) edition of this book does not include the, feature system.) The system employs predominantly articulatory, features and allows them to be multivalued. There are twenty, features; where the number of possible values is not specified, the, feature is binary: g10ttalic (3 values), velaric, voice (5 values), aspiration (3 values), articulatory place (11 values), labial, stop, nasal,, lateral, trill, lap (or tap), sonorant, sibilant, grave, height (4 values),, back, round, wide, rhotacized, syllabic. Cf. Williamson feature, system., , lag /lreg/ n. A delay in the onset of voicing after the release of a, plosive. Cf. lead., , lah-di-dah accent /lo:di'do:/ n. [non-technical] See under Received, Pronunciation., , Lallans /'lrel~nz/ n. [non-technical] The popular label for the distinctive speech variety of the lowlands of Scotland, often more particularly for a literary representation of such speech. A representation, of the local pronunciation of 'lowlands'., , lambdacism, , /'lremd~sIzQ1/ n., , (also lateralization) Any phonological, process in which a non-lateral consonant is converted to a lateral,, as when French danger 'danger' and Spanish naranja 'orange' are, borrowed into Basque as Lanjer and Laranja., , lamina, , /'lremln~/ n., , The blade of the tongue., , laminal, , I'lremln~l/ 1. adj. Pertaining to the blade of the tongue., 2. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the blade of the tongue, , forming the primary stricture. 3. n. A segment so articulated,, such as English [t] and [n] for most speakers. In the IPA, a laminal
Page 209 :
laminal-dorsal vowel, , 196, , articulation may be explicitly represented by the use of the diacritic, L] below the symbol for a dentaUalveolar segment: [1], [1]]. 4. adj., In the Williamson feature system, one of the three possible values, of the feature apicality., , laminal-dorsal vowel n. (also blade vowel, coronal vowel) A vowel, whose articulation involves an approximation of the blade of the, tongue to the alveolar ridge. Cf. apical-dorsal vowel., /'lremln~ fl~u/ n. Flow, as of air, which is smooth, and not turbulent. In speech, laminar flow is typical of vowels and, voiced approximants., , laminar flow, , lamino-alveolar 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the blade, of the tongue and the alveolar ridge forming the primary occlusion. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as English [t d n 1] for, most speakers., , lamino-Iabial adj. or n. (A segment) articulated with the blade of, the tongue and the upper lip forming the primary constriction; one, type of linguolabial articulation., , language game /'lrelJgwld3 gelmI n. (also ludling) Any systematic, distortion of the phonological forms of words in speech for purposes, of play; a familiar example is Pig Latin. Cf. speech disguise., /sp~'sIflk/ adj. (also parochial) Occurring only, in some particular language or languages, but not in languages, generally., , language-specific, , lapse /lreps/ n. Any violation of the Obligatory Contour Principle, in which too many consecutive syllables lack a certain specification, such as stress. Cf. clash., /l~'rlnd3~U (in senses 1-3, also laryngal /1~'rIlJg~U) 1. adj., Pertaining to the larynx. 2. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the, primary occlusion located in the larynx. 3. n. A segment so articulated. Apart from segments which are more narrowly described, as glottal, laryngeal articulations are highly unusual, but see Catford, (1977: 163-164) for a survey. 4. adj. In some versions of feature, geometry, a superordinate class node dominating all other features, relating to glottal activity. Sagey (1986). 5. n. In Indo-European, studies, one of several hypothetical consonants which are reconstructed for Proto-Indo-European but which apparently disap-., peared in all daughter languages except Hittite, though not without, affecting the quality and/or quantity of adjacent vowels., , laryngeal
Page 210 :
197, , larynx movement, , laryngeal gesture n. In some analyses of articulation, that part of, the articulation of a segment which takes place in the larynx. Cf., oral gesture. Lass (1984: 115)., , laryngealization llarlnd3alaI'zeIIQ1 n. 1. Narrowly, and most usually,, the presence of creaky voice during an articulation. Analysts differ, as to whether this should be regarded strictly as a phonation type or, whether it should be considered to involve an articulatory component as well, making it a secondary articulation. See stoo. 2. Loosely,, and less commonly, the presence during an articulation of any of, several types of activity in the glottis or in the larynx, including at, least creaky voice, creak and a glottalic airstream mechanism. Adj., laryngealized. NOTE: Sense 2, though widespread, is not recommended., , laryngealized adj. 1. (of a segment) Characterized by the presence, of laryngealization (either sense). 2. In the Ladefoged and, Williamson feature systems, one of the five possible values of the, feature voice (sense 4) (Ladefoged) or glottal state (Williamson)., , laryngograph lla ' rIggagro:fl n. (also electrolaryngograph) An, instrument which records the fundamental frequency of the glottis, during speech. The graphical record produced is a laryngogram, Ila'rIggagrrem/. Adj. laryngographic IlarIgga'grreflk/., , laryngo-pharynx lla ' rIggal n. The lower part of the pharynx,, extending down to the glottis., , laryngoscope lla'rIggaskaupl n. Any of various devices which, permit the inspection or photography of the larynx from above, during speech. Older versions used a mirror in the mouth; modern, types involve an optical fibre inserted through the nasal cavity., Abstr. n. laryngoscopy IlrerIg'gnskapi/., , larynx l'lrerIgksl n. (also voice box) A --complex, mostly cartilaginous, structure connecting the trachea to the pharynx and acting, as a valve through which air must pass during breathing and speech., The upper thyroid cartilage is connected to the lower cricoid cartilage; in the middle are the arytenoid cartilages, which are connected, to the vocal folds and control their movement. The space between, the vocal folds is the glottis. Adj. laryngeal., , larynx-lowering n. The lowering of the larynx during an articulation, typical of voiced plosives., , larynx movement Ilmu:vmantl n. In the Williamson feature system,, a distinctive feature invoked to treat movement of the larynx during
Page 211 :
latent consonant, , 198, , articulation, with the possible values ejective, pulmonic and implosive. This is identical to Ladefoged's g1ottalic., , latent consonant l'leItgntl n. A consonant which is not phonetically, present in a word when that word is pronounced in isolation, but which appears in certain circumstances in derivatives or in, connected speech, such as the final Irl of far in non-rhotic accents, of English or the final ItI of French petit. Abstr. n. latency 1'leItgnsi/., Sapir (1925)., , latent tone n. In some analyses of some tone languages, a posited, tone which only gets phonetic realization in certain circumstances., See Kenstowicz (1994: 363-369)., , late onset of voicing IleItl n. The production of an obstruent,, especially a plosive, in such a way that voicing begins only some, considerable way through the articulation of a following voiced, segment: often taken as a synonym for aspiration., , lateral I'lretgrgl/ adj. or n. 1. (Pertaining to) a consonant whose articulation involves a complete closure somewhere along the median, line of the vocal tract while air is allowed to flow through an, opening on one side of the occlusion (a unilateral) or through, openings on both sides of the occlusion (a bilateral). Depending, on the nature of the opening(s), the resulting articulation may be, a lateral approximant, a lateral fricative or a lateral affricate., Dental, alveolar, retroflex and palatal laterals are common; velar, laterals occur in a few languages; Catford (1977: 251) reports a, remarkable bilabial lateral in a variety of Irish. Ant. median or, non-lateral. NOTE: Some analysts use central as the antonym, but this is, not recommended. 2. A loose but very common term for lateral, approximant. 3. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature, defined as 'involving a lowering of the side(s) of the mid-section, of the tongue'. SPE explicitly confines the value [+lat] to [+cor], segments, but this is an error: many Caucasian and Papuan, languages, and even some varieties of English, have velar laterals, with no blade activity. See, however, Levin (1988). 4. See laterality., , lateral affricate n. An affricate in which a complete closure is, followed by lateral release, such as the alveolar [til of Nahuatl., , lateral approximant n. (also lateral resonant and, loosely, but, commonly, lateral) A segment whose articulation involves a, complete median closure in the mouth with an opening on one or, both sides which is not radical enough to produce friction, such as
Page 212 :
199, , lead, , [1]. Analysts differ as to whether a lateral approximant should be, classified as an approximant or not. See Laver (1994: 306-311) for, an account., , lateral fricative n. A segment whose articulation involves a, complete median closure in the mouth with an opening on one or, both sides radical enough to produce friction noise, such as the [4-], of Welsh, as in Llanelli., Ilret~'rrehtiJ n. (also lateral) In the Ladefoged and, Williamson feature systems, a distinctive feature invoked to distinguish lateral segments ([+lat]) from all others ([-lat])., , laterality, , lateralization, , Ilret~r~laI'zeIJI}./ n., , See lambdacism., , lateral release n. (also lateral plosion) The phenomenon in which, a plosive articulation is released only by dropping one or both sides, of the tongue, while retaining a median closure, as often occurs, with English middle. Lateral release is transcribed in the IPA with, a superscript P], as in [til. Cf. median release., , lateral resonant n. See lateral approximant., lax /lreks/ adj. 1. The opposite of tense in most senses of that term;, see the discussion under tense. 2. In the Jakobson-Halle feature, system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting low energy, with, little spread across the spectrum, and limited duration' and interpreted as representing little deformation of the vocal tract from its, rest position. Ant. tense., , lax voice n. 1. Broadly, a label applied to any voice quality, characterized by an overall relaxation in muscular tension and, hence by some or all of breathy voice or whispery voice, minimal, movement of the tongue, lips and jaw, an unconstricted pharynx,, low-pressure air flow, low pitch-range, soft loudness-range and, centralization of vowels. The labels soft voice and slack voice are, also applied to some or all of these voice qualities. See Laver (1980:, 142-156). Cf. tense voice. 2. Narrowly, a distinctive phonation type, occurring in some languages, notably Javanese. Catford (1977: 106), identifies Javanese lax voice as a type of whispery voice involving, vibration of the full glottis., , LCPR See Lexical Category Prominence Rule., lead /li:d/ n. The time difference between the onset of voicing and, the following release of a plosive. Cf. lag.
Page 213 :
leader-timing, , 200, , /'li:d~/ n. The type of rhythm in which a stressed, syllable is perceived as beginning a foot. Cf. trailer-timing. Wenk, , leader-timing, , and Wioland (1982)., , learned form 1'13 : nIdl n. A word or form which has been borrowed, from a prestige language (sometimes an earlier form of the, borrowing language) and which therefore does not show all of the, regular phonological developments of the borrowing language:, French strict 'strict, narrow', borrowed from Latin strictus, which, does not show the same developments as etroit 'narrow', directly, descended from Latin strictus., , learnt rule /13:ntl n. In some frameworks, notably Natural, Phonology and Radical Underspecification, a language-specific, phonological process which can in no way be regarded as natural,, but which must be simply stipulated by the analyst and learned by, the child. Sommerstein (1977: 235-236) provides a list of ten properties which supposedly differentiate learnt rules from other, processes., 'ef~t/ n. A putative principle of, linguistic behaviour, by which speakers attempt to minimize the, amount of articulatory effort involved in speaking. Martinet (1960)., , Least Effort, Principle of Ili:st, , leaving element /'li:vII)/ n. In a chain shift, any segment which, moves out of the phonological space it formerly occupied, that, space being occupied in turn by another segment, the entering, element. Labov (1994: 119)., , leet Ilektl n. Any particular speech variety, considered per se, without, reference to any social, geographical or other significance which it, may possess. Back-formation from dialect., , left-capturing flleft, , kreptJ~rII)/, , n. The phenomenon in which an, intervocalic consonant which forms part of a following syllable, becomes ambisyllabic. Wells (1990b)., , left-headed foot Ileft 'hedIdl n. A metrical foot in which the most, prominent element (its head) precedes all other elements. English, is commonly described as having left-headed feet. Cf. right-headed, foot., , length Ilel)S/ n. 1. The duration of a syllable, or of the vowel or, diphthong it contains, regarded as a phonological characteristic; the, phonological correlate of duration. In the IPA, a greater value of, length is marked by a following :. 2. (also quantity) A phonological
Page 214 :
lento, , 201, , element, found in some languages, by which some segments are distinguished from other, similar segments by differences in the amount, of time involved in the articulation. Thus, Italian distinguishes Inonol, 'ninth' from Inon:ol 'grandfather'; Swedish distinguishes Ije:tl 'goat', from Ijet:1 'given'; Finnish distinguishes Ikisa/ 'a game' from /kis:a/, 'a cat'. Some languages, such as Scots Gaelic and Estonian, reportedly have three degrees of length, and the African language Kamba, has been reported as having four. See Laver (1994: 436-445). 3. In, the SPE feature system, an undefined and undiscussed distinctive, feature suggested for handling contrasts of length in sense 1, later, renamed long. 4. In the Williamson feature system, a similar, distinctive feature with the possible values short, normal, long and, extra long., , lengthening, , l'leIJ9~nIIJI, , n. Any process which, phonetically or, phonologically, increases the duration of a segment, most often a, vowel., , Leningrad School I'lenlngrred sku:lJ n. The name given to the, approach to phonology developed by a group of linguists based in, Leningrad (St Petersburg) throughout the twentieth century and, derived chiefly from the ideas of Baudouin de Courtenay. The, leading theorist of the school was L. V. Scerba. See FischerJ0rgensen (1975: 324-331)., , lenis l'li:nls/ adj. The antonym of fortis (all senses); see the discussion under that entry., , lenition Il~'nIJt:l1 n. 1. (also weakening) Any phonological process in, which a segment becomes either less strongly occluded or more, sonorous, such as [k] ~ [x], [x] ~ [h] or [k] ~ [g]. Often the term, is extended to various other processes, such as loss of aspiration,, shortening of long segments and monophthongization of diphthongs,, which represent 'weakening' in some intuitive sense. See Lass (1984:, 177-183). Ant. fortition. 2. (also aspiration) In Irish, the conventional name for the set of mutations, occurring in specified grammatical and lexical environments, in which, in word-initial position,, a plosive or ImI becomes a fricative, lsi becomes Ihl and Iff becomes, zero: cloch Iklox/ 'stone', an chloch I~n xlox/ 'the stone'; fear Irarl, 'man', genitive fhir lir/; mac Imak/ 'son', a mhac /~ vak/ 'his son'., I'lent~ul adj. (of speech) Slow and careful, and hence usually, not showing the phonological processes typical of rapid speech., Ant. aUegro. Italian: 'slow'., , lento
Page 215 :
level, , 202, , level /'lev~l/ 1. adj. (of atone) Having a constant pitch, with no rise, or fall. 2. n. [rarely also stratum] In Lexical Phonology, anyone of, the domains posited for certain types of process., /'lev~hlJ/ n. 1. A form of monophthongization in which a, diphthong is reduced to a pure vowel lying phonetically about, halfway between the start point and end point of the original, diphthong, as when [ai] is levelled to [e]. 2. See analogical, levelling., , levelling, , level one n. In Lexical Phonology, the level at which all processes, are carried out which are irregular or not fully productive; this, includes word formation (person/personal/personality) and irregular, inflections like took and children. Cf. level two., , level-ordering n. In Lexical Phonology, the principle that affixes, are grouped into classes called levels, such that all affixes in one, level must be added to a form before any affixes of the next level, can be added., , levels analysis n. Any analysis of intonation which posits a fixed, number of pitch levels (for English, typically four) and interprets, all intonational movement as involving jumps from one level to, another. See Cruttenden (1986: 3.3). Cf. contour analysis., , level stress n. A type of stress in which there is no perceptible variation in prominence during the articulation of the stressed syllable., Jones (1950: 149)., , level tone n. See register tone., level two n. In Lexical Phonology, the level at which regular and, productive morphological processes are carried out, such as the, formation of cats and loved. Cf. level one., , levis /'li:VIS/ adj. An occasional synonym for lenis, preferred in some, philological works. For example, Spanish /b d g/ are realized intervocalically as continuants [13 (\ y]; these are sometimes described, as 'levis'. Latin levis 'light'., , lexeme /'leksi:m1 n. See lexical item., lexical accent /'leksIk~l/ n. In some versions of Metrical Phonology,, a stress which is exceptionally assigned to a particular syllable in, the underlying form of a word in order to derive the correct result, for a word whose stress pattern is irregular.
Page 216 :
203, , lexical diffusion, , lexical blank Iblrel)kl n. The absence, in an underlying form, of a, feature specification whose value can be derived by rule. Kiparsky, (1982), though the idea is much older., , lexical category n. 1. (also word class, part of speech) Broadly, and, usually, anyone of the various classes of lexical items in a language,, such as noun, verb, pronoun, preposition. 2. Narrowly, a subset of, these, including only noun, verb, adjective, adverb, but excluding all, those categories whose members are primarily grammatical items., , Lexical Category Prominence Rule n. (LCPR) In some versions, of Metrical Phonology, a principle invoked in order to derive the, stress patterns of polysyllabic English lexical items, including, compounds. As a general rule, this principle assigns primary stress, to the second foot in such an item, so long as it branches, as in, mortadella. Liberman and Prince (1977: 270)., , lexical conditioning n. The use of exceptional allomorphs in the, presence of specific lexical stems, as in such English plurals as cacti,, men, sheep and children., , lexical diffusion IdI'fju:3QI n. The process by which a phonological, change begins by applying only to certain words and then spreads, gradually to other phonologically similar words. In some cases,, lexical diffusion stops at some point, leaving all remaining words, permanently unaffected; in other cases, the process eventually goes, to completion by affecting all remaining words. A famous example, is the raising and tensing of lrel in Philadelphia. Before final Id/., speakers consistently pronounce a tense vowel in mad, bad and, glad but a lax one in sad, had and dad, suggesting that the diffusion has stopped operating only part way through the relevant class, of words. In other contexts diffusion appears to be still occurring:, only a small minority of speakers have a tense vowel in manner, and flannel, whereas a large majority have one in planet. Implicitly, or explicitly defended by the nineteenth-century Romance dialectologists and by a number of twentieth-century structuralists, lexical, diffusion only became widely accepted after the publication of, overwhelming evidence in the 19708; it is now known to be a, major pathway of phonological change, and its existence constitutes a direct refutation of the Neogrammarian Hypothesis. See, Sommerstein (1977: 251-252) for a historical summary, Chen and, Wang (1975) for the classic presentation, and Labov (1994) for, extensive discussion. Wang (1969).
Page 217 :
lexical incidence, , 204, , lexical incidence I' InsId~ns/ n. (also lexical distribution) See selectional difference., , Lexicalist Morphology I'leksIk~hst/ n. An approach to morphology, which holds that morphology is distinct from both phonology and, syntax, which introduces much of the machinery of generative, grammar, and which stresses a search for morphological universals., See Bauer (1988: ch. 9) for a brief introduction, Scalise (1984) for, a more detailed one., /laIt~mI n. (also lexeme) 1. A word regarded as a, comparatively abstract object which has a more-or-Iess consistent, meaning or function but which can possibly vary in form for grammatical purposes. For example, the items dog and dogs are both, forms of the lexical item DOG, and take, takes, took, taking and, taken are all forms of the lexical item TAKE. 2. One of a subset of, such items, those which are nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs, but, excluding grammatical items like pronouns and prepositions., , lexical item, , lexicalization /leksIk~laIlzeIJQ/ n. 1. The process by which an underlying phonological representation is converted into a surface, phonetic form. 2. The conversion of a compound word or of a, phrase into a single unanalysable word, as has happened with, English lord (formerly hlaford 'loaf-ward'). \!: lexicalize., , lexically bound autosegment n. In some versions of Autosegmental Phonology, an autosegment which is represented in the, lexicon as permanently bound to its segment, rather than being, initially unassociated and then attached to its segment by the, Association Convention. Cf. free autosegment., , lexical matrix n. A representation of a lexical item in the lexicon, in which each segment is represented as a feature matrix., , lexical morphology n. That part of the morphology which deals, with all types of word formation., , lexical opposition n. For a particular phonological contrast, the, number of minimal pairs distinguished only by that contrast: one, way of expressing functional load. Cf. lexical predictability. Labov, (1994: 328)., , Lexical Phonology n. (LP) A major contemporary theory of, phonology developed in the early 19808, chiefly by K. ~ Mohanan,, Paul Kiparsky and Steven Strauss, drawing on earlier work by, David Pesetsky. With its emphasis on morphophonology, LP is, of
Page 218 :
205, , lexical split, , all current frameworks, arguably the one most similar to classical, generative phonology, and the only one which cannot be described, as non-linear. On the one hand, LP integrates morphology and, phonology into a unified framework; on the other, it divides the, process of deriving surface forms into a (possibly unlimited), number of distinct stages (called levels) in such a way that all, operations must be completed within any given level before any, operations can take place at the next level, and it draws a sharp, distinction between morphological processes and strictly phonological ones: the former are represented by (cyclic) lexical rules of, word formation located in the lexicon, while the latter consist, of postlexical rules with access to the phrasal environments of, words. Convenient introductions are Kaisse and Shaw (1985), Roca, (1994: 246-261) and especially Kenstowicz (1994: 213-243)., /prldlkt~'bd~ti/ n. For a particular phonological contrast, the extent to which that contrast depends on minimal, pairs: one way of expressing functional load. If there are few, minimal pairs (as, for example, with the /J/-/3/ contrast in English),, lexical predictability is high. Labov (1994: 328)., , lexical predictability, , lexical redundancy n. The phenomenon in which, in the underlying, form of a lexical item, certain feature specifications are predictable., For example, in any English word beginning with three consonants,, the first must be /s/, and hence, in this position, all other specifications are predictable from [-syllabic]., , lexical redundancy condition n. A generalization of the notion of, a morpheme structure rule to include statements which cannot be, formulated as ordinary phonological rules, such as 'A morpheme, may not contain both back and front vowels'. Stanley (1967)., , lexical redundancy rule n. See morpheme structure rule. Chomsky, and Halle (1968)., , lexical representation n. The form in which a lexical item is represented in the lexicon., , lexical rule n. A rule which derives lexical items from other lexical, items, such as the rule deriving English adjectives from nouns, by the addition of the suffix -al: topic/topical; transformation/, transformational., , lexical split n. A type of phonological change in which a single, phoneme undergoes a split into two phonemes under typically
Page 219 :
lexicon, , 206, , complex conditions which are partly predictable and partly arbitrary. An example is the split of earlier lrel into lrel and 10:1 in the, south of England: the low back vowel is now found in dance and, chance but not in fancy or romance, in plant but not in ant, in class, but not in bass (fish), in sample but not in ample, in demand and, slander but not in land or pander, the back vowel is variably present, in mass 'religious service' but never present in mass 'material', and, it is categorical in plaster but uncommon in plastic., l'leksIk~nI n. That part of the complete grammar of a, language which contains at least the lexical and grammatical, morphemes, including any peculiarities which these may exhibit,, and which in ·some frameworks may also contain additional, material, such as lexical rules., , lexicon, , liaison Ilicz51 n. In French, the phenomenon in which a word which, in isolation ends in a vowel acquires a final consonant in certain, circumstances when followed by a vowel-initial word: hence, petit, [pti] 'little' (masc. sing.) + ami [ami] 'friend' yields petit ami, [ptitami] 'little friend', and sans [so] 'without' + oeufs [0] 'eggs', yields sans oeufs [S0z0] 'without eggs'. Liaison is blocked by h, aspire., , licensing l'laIS~nSIIJI n. In various frameworks, the analytical procedure by which some phonological element (the licensee) is expressly, permitted to occur in some position by the presence of some other, element elsewhere (the licenser). The term is particularly used in, Government and Charm Phonology, in which it is the fundamental, requirement for well-formedness. ~ license., , Licensing Principle n. A central principle of Government and, Charm Phonology. It says: all phonological positions save one must, be licensed within a domain; the unlicensed position is the head of, this domain., , ligamental voice, , Ihg~'ment~lI, , n. See under anterior (sense 2)., , light diphthong llaIt/ n. A diphthong which patterns phonologically, like a short vowel, especially in connection with stress assignment., Such diphthongs are reported for Icelandic, among other languages., , light syUable n. A syllable which is not a heavy syllable, in any of, the senses of that term; see the remarks under that entry., , lilt /hltl n. [non-technical] An impressionistic label sometimes applied, to a speech pattern, especially an intonation pattern, perceived as
Page 220 :
Linear Ordering Hypothesis, , 207, , attractively rhythmic or musical: a Welsh lilt. Adj. lilting. Scots lilt, 'tune'., , Lindau feature system /'hndou/ n. A system of distinctive features, for vowels (only) proposed by Mona Lindau (1975, 1978). There, are ten features, as follows; the two numbers cited are first the, number of possible phonetic values distinguishable and second, the maximum number of contrastive values usable by anyone, language: high (4/4), back (3/3), compressed (2/2), round (3/2),, expanded (3/2), rhotacized (4/3), voice (5/2), long (3/2), nasal (2/2),, peripheral (2/2)., , line /laIn! n. In Government and Charm Phonology, the term applied, to what is elsewhere called a tier or a plane., , linear approach to speech segmentation, , /'hni~/, , n. See serial, , approach to speech segmentation., , linearity condition /hni'rerIti/ n. The principle that a linear, sequence of phonemes must be realized by a linear sequence of, non-null phones occurring in exactly the same order as the, phonemes they represent; phonemes and phones must match up, one to one, and a phonemic distinction must be represented by a, phonetic distinction at the same point. Widely accepted in classical, phonology, particularly by the American Structuralists, this, principle was strongly attacked by Chomsky (1964), and it has, been rejected by virtually all phonologists since. Hyman (1975:, 128) provides a good example of a well-motivated analysis which, violates linearity. In Sea Dayak, underlying /nal]a/ "straighten' is, phonetically [nOI]0] , while underlying /nal]ga/ 'set up a ladder', is phonetically [nol]a]. Thus the underlying contrast between 0 and, /g/ is realized on the surface only by the nasality or non-nasality, of the following vowel, in violation of the linearity condition., Similarly, in some North American accents, the /t/~/d/ contrast of, writer and rider is represented phonetically only by the quality of, the diphthong., , linearization, , /lIni~raI'zeIfQ./ n., , See unpacking., , v:, , linearize., , Linear Ordering Hypothesis n. In a theory of phonology, employing ordered rules, the theoretical stance that all the rules of, a language can be placed in a single unique linear order, and that, all rules which apply in a particular derivation must apply in that, order, at least within a single cycle. Generally accepted in early, generative phonology, the hypothesis ran into difficulties and was
Page 221 :
linear vowel system, , 208, , later replaced by more complex views such as local ordering and, partial ordering., , linear vowel system n. See vertical vowel system., line conOation n. In some versions of Metrical Phonology, a process, by which adjacent lines of the grid are collapsed by suppression of, material on the lower one. This is invoked to treat languages in, which a word of any number of syllables has only a single stress., Halle and Vergnaud (1987)., , linguagram, , /'hl)gw~grremJ n. A photograph of the tongue showing, which parts of it have been coloured by contact with the colouring, matter applied to the roof of the mouth during a traditional kind, of palatography., , /'hl)gw~U adj. 1. Pertaining to the tongue. 2. (of a segment), Articulated with the tongue. 3. (ling) A binary distinctive feature, proposed by Lass (1976: 187-188) and defined as 'articulated with, the blade or body of the tongue as primary active articulator'., Coronals, palatals, velars and high vowels are [+ling]; all other, segments are [-ling]., , lingual, , lingual airstream n. The transient effect in which a large and rapid, movement of the tongue briefly causes air flow in the opposite, direction to what is otherwise happening. For example, a sequence, like [kwa] may briefly induce ingressive air flow into the mouth., Such an airstream has no contrastive use in any language., , linguistic area /hl) gWIStlkI n. (also Sprachbund) A geographical, I, , region in which several unrelated languages share a number of, linguistic features which are not widespread among languages, generally or not shared with related languages elsewhere. See areal, feature., , linguistic phonetics n. The study of phonetics from the point of, view of the ways in which individual languages exploit phonetic, distinctions for linguistic purposes. Cf. general phonetics., , linguistic pitch range n. The range of pitch habitually exploited by, an individual speaker in ordinary conversation. Cf. paralinguistic, pitch range., , linguolabial, , /hlJgw~'lelbi~U 1. adj., , (of a segment) Articulated with., the tip or blade of the tongue forming a constriction with the upper, lip. In the IPA, such sounds are represented by placing the diacritic
Page 222 :
209, , liquid, , [",,] beneath the symbol for a dentaUalveolar segment. Where necessary, we may distinguish apico-Iabial and lamino-Iabial sounds, (tip vs. blade). 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as the [1] of, some Pacific languages., , linking PhIJkIIJ/ n. 1. See association. 2. In the markedness theory, of SPE, the convention by which, when a feature is changed by a, rule, all other features whose markedness values depend on the, changed feature take on their unmarked values at no cost. Thus,, in a language in which lui is the only rounded vowel, the appearance of the feature [+round] on a vowel automatically implies the, appearance of [+back, +high]., , linking convention n. A protocol by which marking conventions, apply persistently to the output of language-particular rules, in, order to correct violations of phonotactic or other combinatory, constraints each time they arise. This is an alternative to making, the corrections once and for all at the surface level with some, device such as a filter (sense 2). Chomsky and Halle (1968)., , linking r n. In non-rhotic accents of English, the Irl which surfaces, before a following vowel in words which have lost their historical, final Irl in isolation: hence far Ifo:1 but far away Ifo:r ;}weI/. Cf., intrusive T., , linking sound n. Any segment which is absent in words pronounced, in isolation but which is present in certain circumstances in, connected speech: French if a 'he has' but a-t-if? 'does he have?',, with linking It/., , lip IlIpl n. Either of the two fleshy, manoeuvrable organs at the, entrance to the mouth. Adj. labial; CF labio-., , lip compression Ik;}m'preJQ.I n. See outer rounding. Ladefoged (1971:, 62)., , lip-reading l'ri:dIIJI n. (also speech reading) A method of interpreting the speech of a speaker one cannot hear, by following the, movements of the mouth. Some deaf people are expert at this., , lip-rounding n. Horizontal or vertical compression of the lips., Where necessary, we distinguish outer rounding and inner, rounding. See labialization (sense 1)., , liquid 1'lIkwIdl n. 1. A conventional label for any non-nasal sonorant. The class of liquids includes lateral approximants and most
Page 223 :
210, , lisp, , rhoties, especially alveolar and post-alveolar taps, trills and approximants but occasionally certain others. Informally, this is the class, of 'I-sounds' and 'r-sounds', and membership in doubtful cases is, determined chiefly by phonological patterning. In the SPE feature, system, liquids are [+consonantal, +vocalic]. 2. In Lass (1984), any, member of a somewhat larger class including the traditional liquids, plus the glides., , lisp /lIsp/ n. 1. The use of the dental fricatives [9] and [0] in place, of [s] and [z] in speech, either from a speech defect or as an affectation. 2. [non-technical] An impressionistic label applied to the, speech of an individual when this is perceived as defective, affected, or childish. Adj. lisping; v. lisp., , loan translation, , /'l~un, , trrensleIfQ/ n. See calque., , loan word n. A word which has been copied into a language from, another language, as a result of contact, such as French weekend,, jogging and strip-tease, all loans from English., /l~uk~l dI't3:mIn~si/ n. A possible criterion for, phonological analysis by which it must be possible to assign a phone, to a phoneme unambiguously oy considering only its phonetic form, and its phonetic environment: one aspect of biuniqueness. Chomsky, , local determinacy, , (1964)., /l~u'krehti/ n. Any of various suggested constraints, restricting some phonological process to some specified linear, domain; the domain in question may be the immediately adjacent, segments, a syllable or something else., , locality, , local ordering n. An elaborate rule-ordering hypothesis developed, by Stephen Anderson in a series of works, notably Anderson, (1974). Abandoning the Linear Ordering Hypothesis, local ordering, holds that every pair of rules which can possibly interact must be, related by exactly one of three types of ordering constraint: (1) an, across-the-board constraint, (2) a constraint that two rules apply in, the 'unmarked order' (i.e., feeding order or counterbleeding order,, defined in terms of an individual derivation), or (3) a contingent, ordering constraint. Cf. partial ordering., /'l~uk~s/ n. In a sound spectrogram, the apparent point of, origin for a group of formants. All the formants of a particular, vowel will curve so as to point at the same frequency in an adjoining, consonant; this frequency is the locus., , locus
Page 224 :
211, , loudness, , Lombard effect I'lomba:dl n. The tendency of speakers in a noisy, environment to adjust the level of their speech to compensate for, reduced feedback., , long 1101)1 adj. 1. (of a segment) Having a duration which is greater, than that of another, similar, segment, especially when the difference is contrastive. See examples under length. Ant. short (sense, 1). 2. A binary distinctive feature sometimes invoked to represent, contrasts of length, a renaming of the length feature of SPE. 3. In, the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to treat, distinctions of vowel duration, with the possible values short, long, and overlong, no more than two of which are said to be used by, anyone language. 4. See tense (sense 4)., , long component n. In some American Stmcturalist phonology, a, phonological element which is realized on two or more consecutive segments. Developed chiefly by Zellig Harris (1944, 1951), the, long component represents the same idea as the prosody of, Prosodic Analysis, but is more severely constrained in applicability:, in particular, only contrastive elements may be so represented, and, not purely phonetic ones. See Sommerstein (1977: 56-57) or, Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: 99-102) for an account., , loop Ilu:pl n. In some versions of Lexical Phonology, an analytical, device by which a representation at some level of a derivation may, be fed back into an earlier level. Mohanan (1982)., , loss /losl n. A phonological change in which a segment disappears, from a word or from a whole class of words, such as the disappearance of initial [k] in English words like knot and know. See, also rule loss., , loss of the conditioning factor I'frektal n. Any phonological change, in which, as a result of the disappearance of a phonological, environment which had previously induced an allophonic variation, in some phoneme, the allophones involved become separate, phonemes: a common type of split. For example, in several older, Germanic languages, lui had a fronted allophone [y] when the, following syllable contained [i] or [j]; when some instances of, the conditioning [i] or [j] were lost, lui split into two phonemes lui, and Iy/., , loudness /'laudnasl n. The perceptual correlate of the acoustic intensity of a sound. See subglottal pressure.
Page 225 :
low, , 212, , low ll:Jul adj. 1. (of a vowel) Articulated with the highest point of, the tongue more or less maximally distant from the roof of the, mouth, such as [a]. 2. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'articulated with the body of the tongue below, the neutral position'. Low vowels and pharyngeal consonants are, [+low]; other segments are [-low]., , lowered-larynx voice II:Ju:Jd 'IrerIlJksl n. The voice quality in which, the larynx is held in an unusually low position throughout speech,, typically producing a noticeably low pitch of the voice. Cf. raisedlarynx voice., , Lower Exit Principle II:Ju:Jr 'eksItl n. A putative principle, governing the movement of low vowels during vowel shifts. It says:, in chain shifting, low non-peripheral vowels become peripheral., Labov (1994: 280)., , lower-high adj. In some descriptions, a label applied to a vowel, which is not quite maximally high, such as the vowel of pit., , lowering n. Any phonological process in which a vowel or diphthong comes to be articulated with the tongue body in a lower, position than is historically or underlyingly the case. Adj. lowered., Ant. raising., , low fall n. A contour tone whose pitch begins low and falls further., low key n. The use by an individual of a lower than normal part of, the pitch range in order to achieve some special effect. Ant. high, key., , low-level rule n. A rule affecting only the minor phonetic details, of the pronunciation of a form. The notion is not well defined., , low-mid adj. (also half-open, open-mid) The second-lowest of the, four vowel heights distinguished in the cardinal vowel system. The, vowels [e] and [:)], among others, are low-mid. NOTE: The IPA now, recommends the term 'open-mid'., , low tone n. A tone in a tone language which is normally realized, with a lower pitch than other tones. Ant. high tone., , low vowel n. In the Williamson feature system, one of the five, possible values of the feature stricture., , LPD lei pi: 'di:1 n. (in full, the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary), The most comprehensive and up-to-date pronouncing dictionary
Page 226 :
213, , Lyman's Law, , of both British and American English, edited by John Wells, (1990a)., , ludling /'IAdhlJ/ n. See language game., lungs IlAIJz/ n. pI. A pair of spongy, saclike organs located within, the chest and playing a vital role in respiration and in providing a, pulmonic airstream for speech., /'laIm~n/ n. A phonological process in Japanese by, which the voicing induced by rendaku is cancelled when the second, element contains a voiced obstruent: thus, kami 'god' + kaze 'wind', yields kamikaze 'divine wind', in place of *kamigaze, because of, the /z/ in kaze., , Lyman's Law
Page 227 :
M, m In Metrical Phonology, a symbol sometimes used in metrical trees, for labelling a phonological word, or mot., , Machine-Readable Phonemic Alphabet, , /m~Ji:n ri:d~bl f~netIk, , 'relf~betl n., , (MRPA). A phonemic transcription of English (RP) in, which every phoneme is represented by a symbol or combination, of symbols available on an ordinary keyboard, such as laal for 10:1, and I@I for I::J:/. The system, designed to be machine-readable, was, devised by the Centre for Speech Technology Research at the, University of Edinburgh. Terry et af. (1986)., , macron, , I'mrekr~nl n. The diacritic -, used for various purposes in, various orthographies and transcriptions. It was originally used in, classical scansion to mark a long syllable, and it is used in English, scansion to mark a stressed syllable. Many English dictionaries have, used the macron to mark a 'long' (tense) vowel; this device was, used in SPE but is not usual in linguistic work. The macron has, been used in the IPA to denote a high level tone; since 1989 it officially marks a mid level tone. Other linguistic uses are sporadic, and varied; see Pullum and Ladusaw (1986). Cf. breve. Greek makron,, , neuter of makros 'large'., , macrophoneme, , l'mrekr~f~uni:m1 n., , [obsolete] An old term for, , phoneme. Cf. microphoneme. Twaddell (1935)., 'laIs~nsIIJI n. An as yet unexplicated, device invoked in Government and Charm Phonology to account, for the existence of s + C onsets, apparently prohibited by the principles of the framework. Kaye (1991-1992)., , Magic Licensing Imred3Ik, , ImeIn laIn 'reks~ntl n. [non-technical] A name, sometimes given to a certain sort of American accent, associated, particularly with expensive and prestigious private preparatory, schools and characterized by marked anglicizing tendencies. From, , Main Line accent, , Main Line, a nickname given to the fashionable suburban area west of, Philadelphia, reflecting the presence there of a major railway line., , mainstream RP l'meInstri:m1 n. In the classification of Wells (1982,, 2: 279ff.), the most typical, most central, least distinctive varieties
Page 228 :
215, , malapropism, , of Received Pronunciation, associated chiefly with well-educated, middle-class speakers in England and distinguished from U-RP,, adoptive RP and near-RP. This is equivalent to Gimson's general, RP., , Main Stress Rule /melnJ n. (MSR) The rule proposed by Chomsky, and Halle (1968) as the principal rule determining stress in English, lexical items. A preliminary formulation (p. 35) is, V ~ [1 stress] / X_Co(W) / _({+affix, t})], where W is a weak cluster, Co is a string of zero or more consonants, t is a syllable of the form CoVCo (with [1 stress] on V), and, X does not contain a # boundary internally. After much elaboration, the final version on p. 240 is almost unspeakably complicated., The Primary Stress Rule and the English Stress Rule represent, later versions of the MSR., /meInteln~'bI1Iti/ n. (also prolongability) The, capacity of an articulation (sense 2) to be held for some considerable length of time. This property is associated with all segment, types except glides, taps and 8aps. Ant. non-maintainability., , maintainability, , maintenance of contrast, , /'melnt~n~ns/, , n. See semantic trans-, , parency., /'meld3~/ n. In the Articulator Model of feature, geometry, that articulator which, in a coarticulated segment, is, viewed as making the primary contribution to the articulation, such, as the back of the tongue in [k w ]. Cf. minor articulator., , major articulator, , /'meld3~ klo:s/ n. Any distinctive feature, invoked to divide segments into 'major classes', such as obstments,, sonorants, vowels, nasals, liquids and glides. The SPE feature, system uses three such features: sonorant, vocalic and consonantal., The later features syUabic and obstment are also of this type., , major-class feature, , major pause n. See phonological phrase boundary., malapropism /'mrel~pr~plztp/ n. (also catachresis) An error in which, an intended word is replaced by a quite different one of similar, sound, such as the use of facilities for faculties, prostrate for prostate, or epitaph for epithet, a famous literary example is Dogberry's, Comparisons are odorous. From Mrs Malaprop, a character in Sheridan's, The Rivals much given to such usages, from French mal, appropriate'., , a propos, , 'in-
Page 229 :
216, , mandible, mandible /'mrendlbl/ n. The lower jaw., , mandibular setting /mren'dlbj~l~/ n. Any of various postures which, may be assumed by the lower jaw during speech. English, for, example, is generally characterized by a close jaw position (so much, so that it has been described as 'a language designed for pipe, smokers'), while the languages of India are typified by a very open, jaw position. See Honikman (1964)., , manner of articulation, , /Imren~/, , n. In the conventional phonetic, system for classifying consonants (sense 1), the parameter which, treats differences in the activity of the vocal organs. The IPA recognizes the following manners: plosive, affricate, fricative, nasal, trill,, tap, ftap, lateral fricative, lateral approximant (commonly lateral),, approximant. Though highly convenient in practice, this system, suffers from a failure to distinguish the lateral/median contrast as, a separate parameter, and perhaps also from a failure to distinguish the nasal/oral contrast as well. NOTE: Some analysts treat airstream, mechanism and phonation type as aspects of manner, while others regard these, as independent parameters., , manner-or-articulation feature n. In the SPE feature system,, either of the features continuant and delayed release., , margin /'mo:d3In/ n. In syllable structure, a cover term for the onset, or the coda. Hockett (1955)., /sI'kju~rlti/ n. The degree to which phonemes, are phonetically separated within phonological space. Martinet (1952)., , margin of security, , mark /mo:k/ n. In a privative opposition, the feature whose presence or absence is responsible for the opposition: [nasal] for, /mI--/b/, [voice] for /b/-/p/, etc., , marked form /'mo:kt f:>:mI n. 1. In Prague School phonology, that, member of a privative opposition which bears the mark. 2. That one, of two (or rarely more) contrasting segments which, on any, of various grounds, may be regarded as less 'natural' than its, unmarked counterpart. Lass (1984: 132) lists the following criteria,, not all of which he regards as equally valid. A marked segment (1), is less common cross-linguistically; (2) tends not to appear in, positions of neutralization; (3) has lower text-frequency; (4) is later, in appearing in language acquisition; (5) tends in cases of phonemic, merger to be absorbed into its unmarked partner; (6) tends to be, less stable historically; (7) tends to imply the existence of its
Page 230 :
marking convention, , 217, , unmarked counterpart. 3. More generally, any linguistic form which, is distinguished from an unmarked counterpart on any of various, grounds, such as possessing additional morphological material, (hostess vs. host), more narrowly circumscribed use (brethren vs., brothers; exceptional vs. normal intonation pattern), or lower frequency in languages generally (ejective consonants, nasal vowels)., Abstr. n. markedness. Ant. unmarked form. The terms 'marked' and, 'unmarked' were introduced by Nikolai Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson in the, context of the Prague School, but the idea goes back into the nineteenth century., , markedness rule, , /'mo:kIdn~s/, , n. A rule which declares the, unmarked value of a feature or segment, such as the rule which, asserts that a non-high vowel has the same value for [round] that, it has for [back]., /'9I~ri/ n. Any of several approaches which, attempt to establish a systematic, principled and (usually) universal, distinction between marked and unmarked forms. The best-known, attempt is that in the last chapter of Chomsky and Halle (1968),, which argues that, for every feature in every possible environment,, one value will be unmarked. This SPE approach is not usually, regarded as satisfactory. See Lass and Anderson (1975: appendix), for a substantial critique., , markedness theory, , marked order of application n. In a framework employing ordered, rules, an ordering of two rules in a particular derivation which, prevents maximal use of the rules: bleeding order or counterfeeding, order. Kiparsky (1968)., , marked value n. In markedness theory, that value of a distinctive, feature which is less natural in a given context and hence not, provided by default by a marking convention. Ant. unmarked value., , marker, , /'mo:k~/ n. 1. Any piece of morphological material with an, identifiable function: for example, English -s is a marker of plurality., 2. (also index) Any characteristic of speech which conveys information about the personal characteristics of the speaker: sex, age,, social class, mood, etc. Laver and Trudgill (1979). 3. A variable which, lacks a high degree of social awareness but which nevertheless, shows consistent stylistic and social stratification. Cf. stereotype,, indicator. Labov (1994: 78)., , k~nvenJ~n/ n. A markedness rule,, often particularly one expressed in the framework of Chomsky and, Halle (1968), such as the following (u == 'unmarked'):, , marking convention /'mo:kIlJ
Page 231 :
218, , masculine rhyme, [u voice], , ~, , [+voice] / [ __ ], +son, , /'mreskj~hn/ n. A rhyme between two words, which are stressed on the final syllable: keen/mean; rain/remain;, interfere/appear. Cf. feminine rhyme., , masculine rhyme, , masking /'mo:skIIJ/ n. Interference from background noise which, reduces a listener's ability to discriminate speech sounds., , matched-guise technique /mretJt 'ga1z tekni:k/ n. An experimental, technique used to elicit unconscious social evaluations of speech., Subjects are asked to express opinions about strangers whose voices, are heard in recordings; these recordings involve certain individuals speaking the same text more than once using different accents, or languages., , matrix /'me1trIks/ n. 1. See feature matrix. 2. See classificatory, matrix., , maximally undifferentiated segment n. In some analyses, a, segment involving no oral gesture at all. Thus, [h] and [1] are the, maximally undifferentiated fricative and stop, respectively. Lass, (1984: 115)., , Maximal Onset Principle /'mrekSIm~l/ n. A putative universal principle of syllabification. It says: a consonant which may in principle, occupy either rhyme or onset position will occupy onset position., Selkirk (1982)., , Maximization of Association, Principle of /mrekslmaI'zeIJI)./, n. In some versions of Autosegmental Phonology, a principle, constraining association lines. It says: associate as many different, phonemic melody elements as possible. McCarthy and Prince (1986)., , maximum ease of articulation, , /mrekSlm~m, , 'i:z/ n. A somewhat, ill-defined principle sometimes invoked to account for phonological change. One version is: the speaker should articulate in a, manner which makes the fewest demands upon the activity of the, vocal tract. Carried to extremes, of course, this principle would, render speech incomprehensible, and it is counteracted by the next, entry., , maximum perceptual separation n. A somewhat ill-defined, principle sometimes invoked to account for phonological change.
Page 232 :
219, , mediated relation, , One version is: the speaker should articulate in such a manner that, contrasting segments are as perceptually distinct as possible., Im~'g3:k Ifektl n. The phenomenon in which, hearers who see a video of a head saying [gal, [gal, [gal, synchronized with a recording of [ba], [ba], [ba], actually perceive fda],, fda], fda]., , McGurk effect, , mean-mid Imi:n 'mIdl adj. (of a vowel) Exactly midway between, maximally high and maximally low., Im~'krenIk~l/ n. A putative principle, governing the course of phonological change. It says: the relative, progress of a sound change is determined by phonetic factors alone,, without regard to the preservation of meaning. In other words, the, principle holds that avoidance of merger is not, in general, a, primary force in dictating the course of sound change. This is one, aspect of the Neogrammarian Hypothesis; cf. the Regularity, Principle. Labov (1994: 603)., , Mechanical Principle, , media, , l'mi:di~1, , n. (pI. mediae l'mi:dii:/) [obsolete] The term used, for a voiced plosive, such as [b], [d] or [g], in nineteenth-century, philological works. Cf. tennis, aspirata. Latin media (littera) 'halfway, letter'~ the voiced plosives were regarded as lying halfway between the voiceless plosives and the fricatives., , medial phase, , /'mi:di~l/, , n. In the description of a segment in time,, the central part of the articulation, during which the target constriction is reached (and possibly held). Cf. onset phase, offset phase., , Laver (1994: 133)., , medial position n. The position of a segment which is neither at, the beginning nor at the end of a word., I'mi:di~n/ adj. 1. Lying along the lengthwise vertical (sagittal) plane through the middle of the oral cavity. 2. (also central) (of, an articulation) Involving either a complete obstruction of the oral, cavity or air flow along the median line; non-lateral. Ant. lateral., , median, , median release n. (also median plosion, central release) A type of, release for a plosive in which all contact is broken off between the, articUlators, as commonly occurs with both plosives in bookie. Cf., lateral release, nasal release., , mediated relation /'mi:dieItId/ n. An indirect relation. For example,, the various surface phonetic realizations of a single morpheme are
Page 233 :
Meeussen's rule, , 220, , not related directly; instead, their relation is mediated by their, common underlying form. Such mediated relations are of central, importance in all versions of generative phonology., Meeussen's rule /lmeys~n1 n. A process, found in many Bantu, languages, by which the second of two adjacent high tones becomes, low., mel/mel! n. The unit of perceived pitch. On a standard scale,, 1,000 meIs is defined as the pitch of a 1,000-Hertz tone. A pitch of, 500 meIs is then one which sounds exactly half as high as this, which, turns out to represent a tone of about 400 Hz, and a pitch of, 2,000 meIs is one which is twice as high, approximately 4,000 Hz., (The relation between frequency and pitch is far from linear.), Stevens et ale (1937)., , mellow /lmel~u/ adj. In the Jakobson-HaUe feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting little or no noise in the spectrum'. All segments are [mellow] except for the 'noisy' fricatives, like [f v s z]. Ant. strident (sense 3)., melodic overwriting /m~IO(hk l~uv~raltIIJ/ n. The replacement of, one segment by another, in the context of a particular template,, by a phonological rule. McCarthy and Prince (1986)., melodic tier n. See segmental tier., melodic tone n. See contour tone., melody /lmel~di/ n. 1. The sequence of pitch values in a speaker's, voice within a particular utterance. 2. In Autosegmental Phonology,, the material on the segmental ('phonemic') tier. 3. Any single, segment on this tier (or, in other frameworks, any single segment)., 4. Broadly, the material on any tier., member (of a phoneme) /lmemb~/ n. A synonym for allophone, in some versions of classical phonology, notably in the work of, Daniel Jones., merger /lm3:d3~/ n. (also dephonologization) Any phonological, change in which a previously existing contrast between two or more, phonemes is lost. A merger applying only in restricted contexts,, thus introducing a neutralization, is a conditioned merger; one, which applies in all contexts, thus reducing the number of, phonemes in the language, is an unconditioned merger. Labov, (1994: 321-323) recognizes three mechanisms by which mergers
Page 234 :
221, , metarule, , may occur: in merger by approximation, the phonemes gradually, become phonetically more similar until they are non-distinct; in, merger by transfer, lexical items are transferred from one phonemic, class to another until one class is empty; in merger by expansion,, the contrast is abruptly abandoned, and the phonological space, formerly occupied by the separate phonemes is reassigned to the, single new phoneme. See near-merger, reversal of merger. Adj., merged. Ant. split., , metacondition l'met~k~ndIft:l1 n. Any of various criteria for phonological analysis, but particularly a very general one such as, simplicity, economy or generality., Imet~'nrel~SIsl n. (also juncture displacement) A type, of morphological reanalysis in which segments are transferred from, the end of a word or morpheme to the beginning of a following, one or vice versa. Familiar English examples include the development of earlier a naddre, a napron, a noumpere, an ewt, an ekename, into modern an adder, an apron, an umpire, a newt, a nickname, and the non-standard change of another into a nother, as in a whole, nother story. Cf. pullet surprise, folk etymology. Jespersen (1914)., , metanalysis, , metaphone, , I'met~f~unl n. Either of two or more phonemes which, are in free variation in a particular word, such as li:1 and lail in, either or li:1 and lei in economics. Palmer (1930)., , metaphony, , Ime'tref~nil n. 1. A synonym for umlaut. 2. Any type, of assimilation between non-adjacent vowels in a word, including, vowel harmony and umlaut. The term is applied both to the historical change and to the resulting alternations. 3. A label applied in, a quite bewildering fashion to a wide range of historical changes, and synchronic alternations involving vowels, including at least, umlaut, vowel harmony, ablaut and such vowel alternations as those, in Spanish verbs like poder 'be able', puedo 'I can'. Adj. metaphonic Imet~'fDnIk/. NOTE: The term was originally coined in sense 1, but, , it is perhaps preferable to restrict it to sense 2, as recommended by Lass (1984:, 171-172)., , metarule, , Ilmet~ru:l/ n., , A high-level schema which collapses two or, more individual but related rules into a single statement, possibly, in a non-standard notation, in order to extract a generalization., For example, the metarule [V, +height"] ~ [+height"-l] uses nonstandard notation to express a general process of vowel lowering., Lass (1976: 70).
Page 235 :
222, , metathesis, , metathesis fme tre9aSlsf n. 1. Narrowly, an exchange in the positions, I, , of two segments in a word, either as a historical change or as a, synchronic rule. For example, Latin miraculum 'miracle' should, by, regular phonological change, have yielded Spanish *miraglo, but, the actual form is milagro, with metathesis of the liquids. The collective derivative of modem Hebrew seder 'order' is underlyingly, hit+sadr+ut, but the surface form is histadrut 'organization', with, metathesis of t and s. 2. Broadly, any change in the linear ordering, of segments in a word, including also cases like the development, of Latin crocodilus 'crocodile' into Spanish cocodrilo, with, metathesis of the r. 3. The form resulting from such a process. It:, metathesize fme 'tre9asalz/; adj. metathetical fmet~'getlk~l/., , metatony, , /m~'tret~ni/ n. Especially in Baltic and Slavic languages,, any of various processes in which a pitch accent or stress accent, undergoes a change in nature or position. Adj. metatoDic. Saussure, , (1894)., , metre /'mi:t~/ n. (also meter) 1. The rhythmical arrangement of syllables in verse, according to the number and types of feet used. For, example, iambic pentameter employs lines of five feet, each foot an, iamb. 2. The rhythm of ordinary speech, especially in a particular, analysis. Adj. metrical /'metrlk~l/., , metrical constituency /k~n IstItju~nsi/ n. The organization of speech, into rhythmic units larger than the syllable, particularly feet., , metrical grid n. In Metrical Phonology, a style of graphical representation which dispenses with metrical trees. Instead, a linguistic, form is represented as a series of ever-larger constituents, with main, stresses at each level being marked by asterisks, as in Figure Ml., , *, *, , *, , *, a, , c, , *, , *, , *, , a, , de, , mic, , Figure M1 A metrical grid
Page 236 :
mid-closure, , 223, , Metrical Phonology n. (MP) A major contemporary theory of, phonology, introduced by Liberman and Prince (1977) and much, developed since. MP is designed primarily to deal with rhythmic, (prosodic) phenomena, particularly stress, and it has often focused, on the foot as a phonological unit. Two major notations exist, the, metrical tree and the metrical grid. See Goldsmith (1990: ch. 4) for, a brief introduction, Hogg and McCully (1987) for a more detailed, one., , metrical tree /tri:/ n. (also arboreal framework) In Metrical, Phonology, a type of graphical representation in which the metrical, structure of a linguistic form is analysed into smaller and larger, constituents. Figure M2 shows an example using the s1w notation., , A, , w, , s, , ~~, wsw, , S, , I, , a, , c, , a de, , mic, , Figure M2 A metrical tree, /'maIkr~f~uni:m/ n. [obsolete] An individual occurrence of a phoneme in a particular word in a position in which it, contrasts with other phonemes. Cf. macrophoneme. Twaddell (1935):, , microphoneme, , mid /mId/ adj. 1. (of a vowel) Neither high nor low. Mid vowels are, conventionally divided into high-mid and low-mid. 2. A distinctive, feature introduced to permit four vowel heights to be defined with, only two binary features: [+high, -mid], [+high, +mid], [-high,, +mid], [-high, -mid]. This feature is a diacritic feature in sense 2,, and, though widely used, it has unpalatable consequences for, defining natural classes. Wang (1968)., /mId~t'lrentIk/ n. An accent of English which, appears to combine features of British and North American accents., , mid-Atlantic accent, , mid-closure n. A binary distinctive feature proposed by Fant (1971)., Plosives, affricates, nasals, laterals and trills are [+mid-closure] (that, is, all segments with a median closure of the vocal tract), while, other segments are [-mid-closure]. Fant argues that the use of this, feature would make the feature consonantal redundant. Cf. central, closure.
Page 237 :
middle ear, , 224, , middle ear I'mIdl I n. One of the three divisions of the ear, an airfilled cavity connected to the outer ear by the eardnun and to the, inner ear by the oval window and containing the auditory ossicles., , Mid Exit Principle IleksItl n. A putative principle governing the, raising of mid vowels. It says: in chain shifts, peripheral vowels, rising from mid to high position develop inglides (centring glides)., Cf. Lower Exit Principle, Upper Exit Principle. Labov (1994: 284)., , mid register n. (also mid voice) In a traditional conception, one of, the three speech registers, characterized by vocal fold tension, and pitch intermediate between those typical of chest register and, falsetto., , minimal distinctness ImInIm~1 dIlstIlJktn~sl n. The relation between, two segments which differ only in one feature specification. Adj., minimally distind., Ip£~1 n. Two words of distinct meaning which exhibit, different segments at one point but identical segments at all other, points. The existence of such a pair demonstrates conclusively that, the two segments which are different must belong to different, phonemes. For example, in English, fat [fret] and vat [vret] constitute a minimal pair for [f] and [v], as do also rifle eraifl] and rival, [Iraivl], and also leaf [li:f] and leave [li:v]. Anyone of these pairs, is sufficient to show that English [f] ,and [v] must be assigned to, different phonemes (conventionally, IfI and lvI, respectively); each, is said to be a minimal pair for IfI and Iv/. A group of three or, more words showing a contrast among three or more segments is, a minimal set - hence sum, sun and sung are a minimal set for Iml,, In!, IIJ/. Every such set illustrates a minimal contrast (a contrast in, one segment only)., , minimal pair, , minimal pair test Itest/ n. A simple technique for finding out, whether two phonetic types are contrastive: a native speaker is, asked whether two words constituting a potential minimal pair are, pronounced identically or differently. See Labov (1994: 353-356), for a detailed description., , minimal word n. In some languages, a lower limit upon the length, of a lexical item or an inflected form. Some languages permit no, words shorter than two moras, or two syllables, though grammatical words may sometimes be exceptional. See Kenstowicz (1994:, 640-M6).
Page 238 :
225, , molar r, , /maln~ 0: 'tIkj~lelt~/ n. In the Articulator Model, of feature geometry, that articulator which, in a coarticulated, segment, is viewed as making the secondary contribution to the, articulation, such as the lips in [k w]. Cf. major articulator., , minor articulator, , minor rule n. A rule which applies only to an arbitrary (and usually, small) subset of the forms in a language. An English example is, the rule that forms the past tenses of such verbs as sit/sat, sing/sang,, ring/rang, drink/drank and stink/stank. Lightner (1968), from earlier use, in syntax., /mIr~r Im1d3/ n. An abbreviatory, convention of the general form A ~ B II X _ Y. This abbreviates the rules A ~ B I X _ Y and A ~ B I Y _ X, which, have mirror-image environments. Cf. neighbourhood convention., , mirror-image convention, , I, , Langacker (1969)., I'm~ud~l/ n. (also modal register) The most familiar, type of voicing, in which the full glottis functions as a single unit,, the vocal folds vibrate regularly with complete closure on each, vibration, and there is no friction noise. Hollien (1974)., , modal voice, , modular depotentiation, , Imodj~l~ di:p~tentJi'eIJQI n., , A putative, type of phonological change in which a maximally strong segment, obliged to undergo fortition is converted to the weakest segment, in the system, as when Spanish [f] (regarded as maximally strong), > [h]. Foley (1977)., Imodj~'leIJQI n. Systematic variation in the intensity, and loudness of a segment (especially a voiced fricative) caused by, the opening and closing of the glottis., , modulation, , module, , I'modj~l/ n. In some theories of linguistic structure, anyone, of several more-or-Iess independent components of the whole, framework, such as the phonological component recognized in, classical generative phonology., , molar r, , l'm~ul~1, , n. (also bunched r) A distinctive articulation used, , by many (not all) American speakers as their realization of the, phoneme Ir/, in which the tongue body is strongly retracted and, bunched up, with the tip held low and well behind the lower teeth, while the sides press against the upper molars; the lips are usually, noticeably rounded. The resulting sound is perceptually almost, indistinguishable from a retroflex approximant, which is the other, principal American realization of Ir/. Laver (1994: 302) describes
Page 240 :
227, , morphological conditioning, , and Ancient Greek, but is possibly of no relevance in others. Latin:, 'pause'., , mora-timing n. The type of rhythm in which moras are produced, at approximately regular intervals. A language in which the mora, is the primary unit of rhythm, such as Japanese, is a mora language., /m~:f/ n. A piece of morphological material, consisting of a, sequence of zero or more phonemes, considered per se, without, any reference to its morphological status. A morph may represent, a single morpheme, a sequence of two or more morphemes, a part, of a morpheme, or no morpheme at all. For example, the Basque, word mendi 'mountain' forms a locative plural mendietan 'in the, mountains'; we can speak of the morph -etan occurring in this word, without committing ourselves to any particular analysis of it. Hockett, , morph, , (1947)., /Im~fi:m/ n. The minimal grammatical unit; the smallest, unit which plays any part in morphology and which cannot be further decomposed except in phonological terms. A morpheme is an, abstract unit which mayor may not be realized by a fairly consistent, stretch of phonological material. Morphemes may be classified as, free or bound. Adj. morphemic /m~:lfi:mlk/. Cf. morph, allomorph., , morpheme, , The term was introduced by Baudouin de Courtenay (1895); its use has varied, considerably, but the modem sense was largely established by Bloomfield (1933)., , morpheme altemant n. [obsolete] See allomorph., morpheme boundary n. The division between one morpheme and, a following morpheme, often represented by a plus sign (+), as, when sanity is represented san + -ity., , morpheme structure rule n. (also morpheme structure condition,, lexical redundancy rule, morphophonotactic rule) A phonotactic, constraint which is stated for single morphemes, rather than for, entire words. For example, English has the constraint C ~ [+cor], / au _ for morphemes, but not for words: endowment, cowboy., Halle (1959)., /m~:f~llekslk~l/ n. (also morphological rule) A, phonological rule whose conditioning cannot be stated in purely, phonological terms, but which must appeal to some kind of grammatical information. Cf. morphophonemic rule. Bloomfield (1933)., , morpholexical rule, , morphological conditioning, conditioning., , /m~:f~IIDd3Ik~l/, , n. See grammatical
Page 241 :
morphological rule, , 228, , morphological rule n. 1. A rule pertaining to the organization of, morphemes into words, with no phonological character. 2. See readjustment rule. Bierwisch (1967). 3. See morpholexical rule., , morphologization, , Im:l:fol~d3aI'zeIJQI, , n. (also compacting) The, fusion of independent elements into a single morphological form,, such as the fusion of Latin phrases like lenta mente 'with slow mind', into single adverbs like Spanish lentamente and French lentement, 'slowly'., Im:l:'fol~d3i/ n. The branch of grammar dealing with, the analysis of word structure, conventionally divided into word, formation and inflectional morphology. See Matthews (1991),, Bauer (1988), Spencer (1991) or Carstairs-McCarthy (1992) for, introductions of increasing elaboration. Adj. morphological., , morphology, , morphon I'm:l:fonl n. In Stratificational phonology, one of the, morphological elements serving as input to the phonological plane,, roughly equivalent to the allomorph., , morphophoneme ImJ:f~'f~uni:m/n. (also morphoneme l'm:l:f~ni:mI), In some analyses, an abstract phonological unit which is realized as, one of two or more different phonemes in varying conditions, often, especially in neutralization. For example, German Bund 'union', (with final [t]) has genitive Bundes (with [d]); if these segments, are assigned to separate phonemes ItI and Idl (which are elsewhere, contrastive in German), then the final segment of Bund may be taken, as a morphophoneme, notated T or Ilt/l. Morphophonemes were, widely invoked by the Prague School and by the American, Structuralists. Coined by H. Ulaszyn, but popularized by Trubetzkoy and by, Bloomfield (1939)., ImJ:f~f~'ni:mlkl n. An alternation, between phonemes in a particular position in a particular, morpheme in varying contexts. Examples: the Ipl -fbi alternation in, Turkish kitap 'book', dative kitaba; the Is/-/z/-/IZI alternation in the, English plural suffix (cats, dogs, foxes); the Ik/-/sl alternation in, English electric, electricity., , morphophonemic alternation, , morphophonemic rule n. (also MP rule, morphophonological rule), 1. Any rule which accounts for a morphophonemic alternation., 2. Especially in Natural Generative Phonology, any phonological, rule which appeals to morphological information, including, boundaries, other rules being termed phonological rules in a narrow, sense.
Page 242 :
multilateral opposition, , 229, , Im:J:f~f~'nDI~d3il n. (MP) (also morphophonemics Im:J:f~f~'ni:mlks/,morphonology Im:J:f~'nDI~d3i/)1. The, description of morphophonemic alternations. 2. This sense combined with the description of the phonological structure of morphemes (morpheme-structure rules). 3. [obsolete] The description, of morpheme-structure rules alone. 4. [obsolete] The description of, internal sandhi. 5. The description of morphophonemic alternations, by means of morphophonemes. NOTE: The term was introduced by, , morphophonology, , Trubetzkoy (1931) in sense 3, but was quickly extended to sense 2 by him. The, term 'morphophonemics' was introduced by Bloomfield (1939) and used in, sense 4. Some American Structuralists used this term in sense 5, such as Harris, (1951). Nowadays the term is most widely used in sense 1, less commonly, in sense 2., , morphophonotactic rule, , Im:J:f~f~un~'trektlkl, , n. See morpheme, , structure rule., l'mDsk~u sku:l/ n. The name given to the phonological work done by a group of linguists based in Moscow since, about 1920. See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: 331-335)., , Moscow School, , mot, , Im~ul, , n. (also prosodic word) A synonym for phonological, , word, preferred in Metrical Phonology. French: 'word'., , motor theory of speech perception /Im~ut~ eI~ri/ n. The proposal, that a hearer recognizes speech sounds by 'empathically' referring, them to the organic mechanism of their production. See Kenstowicz, (1994: 185-191) for an introduction, Liberman (1957) and Liberman, et ale (1963, 1967) for a defence of this interpretation, Liberman, and Mattingly (1985) for a revision and Lane (1965) for a critical, view. Liberman et ale (1963)., , MP 1. See morphophonology. 2. See Metric Phonology., MP rule lem 'pi:/ n. See morphophonemic rule., MRPA /em, , mu, , 0:, , pi: leII See Machine-Readable Phonemic Alphabet., , /mju:1 n. The symbol J.!, used for a mora in phonological repre-, , sentations., ImAltI'lret~r~11 n. In Prague School, phonology, the relation among three or more segments which, contrast along a single dimension, such as that among English, Ip t k/, which contrast solely in place of articulation. Cf. bilateral, opposition., , multilateral opposition
Page 243 :
multilinear phonology, , 230, , multilinear phonology /mAltI 'hni;l/ adj. A more accurate but littleused synonym for non-linear phonology. Roca (1994)., , multi-parametric concept /mAltIprer;l'metrI1d n. Any concept for a, full understanding of which we have to appeal to more than one type, of information. For example, vowel height involves not only the objective position of the tongue but also acoustic and perceptual properties., , multivalued feature /mAltI'vrelju:d/ n. (also multivalent feature, /mAltI'ved~nt/, multinary feature /mAl'tln~ri/, n-ary feature) A, distinctive feature which can assume anyone of three or more, values. For example, some analyses take vowel height to be a, feature with four values ranging from 1 (low) to 4 (high). Cf. binary, feature, unary feature., , murmur /'m3:m;l/ n. 1. See whispery voice., , Pandit (1957); popularized, , 2. See murmured (sense 2). 3. A binary distinctive feature proposed by Lass (1984: 90): whispery-voiced segments, are [+murmur]; all other segments are [-murmur]., , by Peter Ladefoged., , murmured adj. 1. (of a segment) Articulated with whispery voice., 2. (also murmur) In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems,, one of the five possible values of the feature voice (Ladefoged) or, glottal state (Williamson)., , mutation /mju:'teIft:l/ n. 1. Any phonological change in which a, segment changes its quality under the influence of nearby segments,, such as umlaut. 2. (also initial mutation) Any of various phenomena, occurring in certain languages, notably the Celtic languages like, Irish and Welsh, in which certain classes of consonants in certain, positions (in the Celtic languages, morpheme-initial position), undergo systematic phonological modification in specified grammatical or lexical environments. The two major mutations of Irish are, conventionally called lenition and eclipsis (sense 1); the three major, mutations of Welsh are called soft mutation, nasal mutation and, aspirate mutation, though Welsh also exhibits a quite distinct process, called hard mutation. Historically, the Celtic mutations were phonologically conditioned, but phonological loss of the conditioning, factors has converted them to grammatically or lexically conditioned, alternations. v: mutate., , mute e /mju:t 'i:/ n. See e muet., mutual assimilation /'mju:tfu;ll/ n. Any instance of assimilation in, which each of two (or more) segments is assimilated to the other.
Page 244 :
231, , myoelastic theory of voice production, , Examples: modern Greek tin 'the' (ace.) + porta 'door' > tim borta;, common Basque iduri 'seem' > Zuberoan Basque iidiirii., , mutual bleeding n. The relation between two rules such that, if, either one precedes the other in a particular rule ordering, it will, bleed the other (remove some phonological forms from its domain)., , myoelastic theory of voice production, , /maI~UI'lrestlk/, , aerodynamic myoelastic theory of phonation., , n. See
Page 245 :
N, N A cover symbol for nucleus in syllable structure., /nclri~l/ adj. (also, erroneously, nareal) 1. Pertaining to the, nostrils (nares). 2. (of an articulation) Articulated with the primary, constriction at the nostrils. Catford (1977, 1988) points out that the, voiceless nasals of Welsh and Burmese could plausibly be described, as 'narial approximants', but the term is not in use. Narial fricatives are also possible, but are not known to occur in any language., , narial, , narrow /Inrer';}u/ adj. 1. [obsolete] (of a vowel) Tense., , Sweet (1877)., , 2. (of a vowel) Articulated without the use of an advanced tongue, root. See under ATR. Ladefoged (1975). 3. (of a constriction or a, segment) Involving a comparatively small passageway for air flow., Ant. (all senses) wide., , narrow-band spectrogram n. A sound spectrogram recorded using, filters with narrow frequency bands and correspondingly slow, sampling times. Such a spectrogram shows the formants very clearly, but smears the effects of rapid changes in the articulatory configuration. Cf. wide-band spectrogram., , narrow diphthong n. A diphthong whose initial and final elements, differ little in tongue height, such as [el] or [uw]. Ant. wide diphthong., , narrowed adj. In the Williamson feature system, one of the possible, values of the feature expansion., , narrow focus, , /If~uk~sl, , n. In intonation, the case in which only some, part of the intonation-group is in focus. See Cruttenden (1986)., Ant. broad focus., , narrow transcription n. A transcription which includes more, phonetic detail than is necessary to distinguish phonemes: a, phonetic transcription., , n-ary feature II en~ril n. See multivalued feature., nasal, , /Inelz~ll 1. adj. Pertaining to the nasal cavity. 2. adj. (of a, segment or of a voice quality) Articulated with the velum lowered,
Page 246 :
233, , nasalization, , allowing air to pass out through the nasal cavity. 3. n. A segment so articulated, most usually a nasal stop such as [m] or [n],, in which there is a complete occlusion in the mouth. 4. adj. In, the Jakobson-HaUe feature system, a distinctive feature defined, as 'exhibiting additional formants and less intensity in existing, formants' and interpreted as representing the coupling of the nasal, cavity. Ant. oral (sense 3). 5. adj. (nas) In the SPE feature system,, a distinctive feature defined as 'involving a lowered velum'. Ant., non-nasal. 6. adj. In the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature, invoked to treat distinctions of nasality in vowels, with the possible, values nasalized and non-nasalized. 7. See nasality (sense 2). Abstr., n. (all senses) nasality., , nasal approximant n. 1. An approximant articulated with simultaneous air flow through the lowered velum; a nasalized approximant., 2. See narial., , nasal cavity n. The large cavity lying above the oral cavity and, connecting the nostrils to the pharynx. When the velum is raised,, the nasal cavity is closed off from the rest of the vocal tract., , nasal click n. A click which is articulated with a simultaneous, pulmonic egressive airstream flowing through the lowered velum., IIn'dDsk~pil n. A technique for inspecting the, upper surface of the velum during speech by means of an instrument inserted through the nose., , nasal endoscopy, , nasal fricative n. A fricative articulated with simultaneous air flow, through the lowered velum; a nasalized fricative., , nasal infix n. An infix of the form -n- which appears in verbal roots, in older Indo-European languages: Latin pingere 'paint', supine, pictum « PIE *peig-); tangere 'touch', tactum « PIE *teg-)., , nasality IneI'zrehtii n. 1. The perceptual effect in speech of a lowered, velum. 2. A distinctive and perceptually prominent resonance in, speech, resembling that of a lowered velum, but produced by any, of several quite distinct configurations of the oral cavity. See Laver, (1980: 2.3). 3. (also nasal) In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature, systems, a binary distinctive feature invoked to treat contrasts in, velie opening, with the values nasal and oral., /nelz~laI'zelfQ/ n. 1. The articulation of a segment,, particularly one not involving a complete oral closure, with an, accompanying lowering of the velum, allowing air to pass out, , nasalization
Page 247 :
nasal mutation, , 234, , through the nose, conveniently if somewhat inaccurately regarded, as a secondary articulation. The IPA represents nasalization with, a tilde: [a], [fi]. 2. Any phonological process in which a segment, which formerly lacked nasalization in sense 1 acquires it. 3. Any, phonological process in which some other segment is converted, into a nasal stop: Basque makila 'stick' < Latin bacilla 'sticks'., 4. See nasal mutation. ~ nasalize; adj. nasalized., , nasal mutation n. (also nasalization) The conventional name, for the Welsh mutation (sense 2) in which morpheme-initial, plosives are converted, in specified grammatical or lexical environments, into the corresponding nasals, voicing and aspiration, being preserved: tad [tha:d] 'father', fy nhad [v~ nha:d] 'my, father'; plas [pias] 'palace', ym mhlas [~m mhlas] 'in the palace';, blynedd [bl~neo] 'year', saith mlynedd [sai8 ml~neo] 'seven, years'., , nasal release n. (also nasal plosion) A type of release of a plosive, in which the oral closure is maintained but the velum is lowered,, allowing air to escape through the nose, as in the ItI of button for, many speakers., , nasal resonance n. The distinctive resonance produced by air flow, through the nasal cavity during speech, as in [n] or [a]., , nasal stop n. (commonly shortened to nasal) A segment produced, with a complete closure in the mouth but with the velum lowered,, so that air flows out through the nose: [m], [n]., , nasal subsystem, , l'sAbsISt~mI n. That part of the vowel system of a, language containing contrastively nasalized vowels. Labov (1994:, , 288-291)., , nasal vowel n. A vowel articulated with the velum lowered and, hence accompanied by nasal resonance; strictly, a nasalized vowel., See Laver (1994: 291-295) for a summary., , naso-pharynx, , Inelz~u'frerIlJksl n. That part of the pharynx, connecting the nasal cavity, via the velopharyngeal port, to the rest, of the vocal tract., , l'nretJ~r~l/ adj. (of a phonological process) Easily understood in terms of the physical characteristics of the vocal tract and, hence common in languages generally, such as the nasalization of, a vowel preceding a nasal consonant. Abstr. n. naturalness. Ant., unnatural., , natural
Page 248 :
235, , Natural Morphology, , natural class n. 1. Formally, any class which can be characterized, using less information than is required to characterize any part of, it. Thus, in English, the class of voiceless segments is a natural class,, since it is picked out by the single specification [-voice], whereas, any subclass of voiceless segments can only be specified by adding, further information. In the same way, [+syll, +high, -back] picks, out a natural class of segments in French, the high front vowels;, to further distinguish [i] from [y] would require additional specifications. 2. Informally, any class of linguistic objects which pattern, in the same way and which therefore need to be referred to in, a linguistic description as a single unitary class. One of the chief, functions of distinctive features is to allow us to represent natural, classes in the second sense as natural classes in the first sense., , natural frequency n. The frequency with which a physical system, vibrates when allowed to vibrate freely. The formants of speech, represent the natural frequencies of the air in the vocal tract in a, given configuration., , Natural Generative Phonology n. (NGP) A highly constrained, theory of phonology developed in the 19708 as a reaction against, the excessive abstractness of classical generative phonology, chiefly, by Joan Bybee Hooper and Theo Vennemann. Unlike Natural, Phonology, which stresses the naturalness of rules, NGP stresses the, naturalness of underlying representations, generally requiring these, to be very close to surface phonetic forms; some versions even deny, the existence of underlying forms, requiring all phonological statements to be merely well-formedness conditions on surface phonetic, forms. Among the distinctive characteristics of the framework are, the True Generalization Condition, the No-Ordering Condition, and, a distinction among strictly phonological rules (P rules), rules involving morphological factors (MP rules), and the novel conception of, via rules. The framework is developed in Vennemann (1972b, 1973,, 1974) and Hooper (1974a, 1974b); its definitive statement is Hooper, (1976); a critical summary is provided in Carr (1993: ch. 7)., , naturalization /nretJ~r~laI'zeIJt;l/ n. The process of modifying a loan, word to make it conform to the phonological patterns of the, borrowing language, as when English helicopter and thermostat are, borrowed as Japanese herikoputaa and saamosutatto. When this is, done in English, the process is anglicization. Firth (1948)., , Natural Morphology n. An approach to morphology, derived from, Natural Phonology, which sets out to provide a theory of what
Page 249 :
Naturalness Condition, , 236, , constitutes a natural morphological system. The seminal publications are Wurzel (1984) and Dressler (1985). See Spencer (1991:, 125-127) for a summary with references., , Naturalness Condition n. A central principle of phonology, which, asserts that 'the relation between phonological and phonetic, structures must be a natural one' - that is, a phonetic representation is identical to its underlying phonological representation, except as required otherwise by phonological rules. In the absence, of constraints on the action of those rules, this condition reduces, merely to the default statement that any phonological feature not, modified by any rules must reach the surface. Postal (1968)., , Natural Phonology n. (NP) A theory of phonology developed by, David Stampe and others in the 19708. NP makes rule naturalness, the prime theoretical consideration, distinguishing between natural, processes and (learned) rules. The central idea is that a child is, born with a set of universal natural processes (such as obstruent, devoicing) and that learning a language consists partly of unlearning these innate processes as required and partly of acquiring, the idiosyncratic and largely unnatural rules peculiar to the, language being learned (such as velar softening in English). NP is, presented in Stampe (1969, 1973), Bjarkman (1975) and Donegan, and Stampe (1979); a convenient summary is found in Sommerstein, (1977: 9.3.3); the framework is criticized by Ohala (1974) and, Householder (1979)., , natural process n. Any phonological process which is readily understandable in terms of such factors as the anatomy and physiology, of the organs of speech and the acoustic characteristics of speech, sounds and which is therefore to be expected in languages. While, clearly important, the notion has proved difficult to characterize, explicitly. See Sommerstein (1977: ch. 9) for a summary of the issues, and some attempts at resolving them., /'nI~ m3:d3~/ n. (also half-contrast) The phenomenon, in which the speakers of a particular language variety consistently, produce an objectively observable distinction between the phones, (usually-vowels) occurring in two sets of words while at the same, time they deny the existence of any difference between the phones, in question and are usually unable to hear the difference consistently in the speech of their neighbours or in recordings of their, own speech. Among the reported examples are source and sauce, in New York City, pool and pull in Albuquerque, too and toe, and, , near-merger
Page 250 :
237, , Neogrammarian Hypothesis, , also beer and bear in Norwich, line and loin in Essex, meat and, mate in Belfast, and ferry and furry in Philadelphia. Such observations suggest that there is a fundamental asymmetry between, production and perception. The phenomenon was discovered, and, has been chiefly investigated, by William Labov and his colleagues, (Labov et al. 1972,1991; Labov 1975, 1994: chs 12-14). Labov (1975), suggests that many problematic historically reported mergers may, in fact have been near-mergers of this kind., , near-minimal pair n. A pair of words which may be cited to demonstrate the presence of a contrast between two segments or, sequences of interest but which fall short of being a minimal pair, by virtue of the presence of an additional difference which is, presumed to be irrelevant. An example is pressure and pleasure for, the 1fl-/3/ contrast. A near-minimal pair constitutes the clearest, type of analogous environments., , near rhyme n. See half-rhyme., near-RP n. In the classification of Wells (1982, 2: 297ff.), a broad, and somewhat ill-defined range of accents associated with educated, middle-class speakers in England (and possibly elsewhere),. resembling Received Pronunciation in most respects but differing from, it in the presence of any of a large number of phonetic and phonological characteristics not normally regarded as part of R~, , negative condition, , Ilneg~tIvl, , n. See filter (sense 2)., , I'Dp~reIt~1 n. In some versions of Dependency, Phonology, a device used to pick out a natural class characterized, by the absence of a component, something not normally possible in privative frameworks using components (unary features)., , negative operator, , Anderson and Ewen (1987)., , neighbourhood convention l'neIb:lhud/ n. An abbreviatory, C and, convention in which two rules of the form A ~ B 1, A ~ B 1 C _ are conftated into the rule schema A ~ B 1 C,, interpreted as 'A changes to B either before or after C'. This is a, special case of the mirror-image convention. Bach (1968)., , Neogrammarian Hypothesis Ini:lugr:l'mc~ri:lnln. A major hypothesis about the way in which phonological change proceeds. There, are several formulations, of which one is this: sound change, proceeds according to laws that admit no exception. In other words,, sound change is held to proceed blindly and mechanically, affecting
Page 251 :
238, , network accent, , all relevant words simultaneously and without regard for any, possible consequences, such as increased homophony or the loss of, grammatical distinctions. Even the most extreme proponents of the, hypothesis, however, have always admitted certain exceptions, such, as nursery words and onomatopoeic words. Formulated in the, 1870s, in the teeth of opposition from dialectologists who maintained that 'every word has its own history', this hypothesis has, proved to be a powerful methodological principle, in that it forces, analysts to search for explanations of apparent exceptions, often, with illuminating results, and it has been the backbone of mainstream work in historical phonology ever since. Nevertheless, recent, work on sound changes in progress has uncovered such important, mechanisms of change as lexical diffusion, which are blatantly, incompatible with the hypothesis. Labov (1994) decomposes the, Neogrammarian Hypothesis into two principles which he calls, the Regularity Principle and the Mechanical Principle. Translation, of German lunggrammatiker 'young grammarians', originally a term of abuse., , network accent /' netw3:k/ n. [non-technical] The type of American, accent most commonly used by television newsreaders in the, United States, an educated variety of General American lacking, any regional features., /nju~r~ukrD'nreksdd n. A, theory of phonation which holds that vibration of the vocal folds, is induced by periodic nervous impulses in the muscles located, there. Proposed by the French scientist Raoul Husson in the 19508,, this view has been completely abandoned in favour of the aerodynamic myoelastic theory of phonation., , neuro-chronaxic theory of phonation, , neurolinguistic identification /nju~r~uhlJ 'gWIStlk/ n. The last of the, seven phases of speech, in which incoming nervous signals are identified as speech sounds., /'pr~ugrremIIJ/ n. The first of the, seven phases of speech, in which the language centres in the brain, organize and programme the upcoming nervous impulses., , neurolinguistic programming, , neuromuscular phase /nju~r~u'mAskj~I~/ n. The second of the seven, phases of speech, in which neural impulses induce the contraction, of individual muscles., , neuroreceptive phase, , /nju~r~urI'septlv/, , n. The sixth of the seven, phases of speech, in which sound waves are converted by the ear, into nervous impulses and transmitted to the brain.
Page 252 :
neutralization rule, , 239, , neutral, , /'nju:tr~l/ adj., , (of lip position) Neither spread nor rounded., , neutral affix n. 1. An affix which has no morphophonemic effect, upon a form to which it is attached, such as English -al (criticl, critical); cf. the non-neutral suffix -ize (criticlcriticize). See also levelordering. 2. See secondary affix. Chomsky and Halle (1968). NOTE: In, English, these two definitions pick out essentially the same set of affixes., Ik~nfIgj~'reIJQ.I n. A conventional reference, configuration of the vocal tract, defined by Laver (1994: 137) as, one in which the vocal tract has a nearly constant cross-section, along its length within the mouth, the tongue is in a regularly curved, convex shape, the velum is closed, and the lower jaw and the lips, are slightly open., , neutral configuration, , neutralizable opposition, , I'nju:tr~lalzlb~l/, , n. See suspendable, , opposition., , neutralization, , Inju:tr~laI'zeIJQ.I n., , The disappearance, in a particular position, of a contrast between two or more segments which, is maintained in other positions. The single segment which appears, in the position of neutralization may be phonetically similar to one, or other of the neutralized segments; it may be phonetically intermediate; or it may have a distinctive phonetic form. For example,, English Ipl and Ibl contrast in most positions, but are neutralized, after syllable-initial lsi; the contrast between the vowels of law and, low is neutralized for many (not all) speakers before Ir/, so that, there is no difference between horse and hoarse; Basque has three, contrasting nasals 1m n fiJ before vowels (ama "mother', Ana "Ann',, bana ~but'), but the three-way contrast is neutralized elsewhere in, favour of a nasal which is alveolar before pause and otherwise, homorganic with a following consonant. Most versions of classical, phonology attempt to identify the segment in the position of, neutralization with one of the segments contrasting elsewhere, but, the Prague School treats it as a distinct type of segment, the, archiphoneme. Trubetzkoy (1931)~ Trubetzkoy originally only recognized, neutralizations between two segments, but this pointless limitation was, neutralize; adj. neutralized., abandoned after Martinet (1936)., , v:, , ~ B I P _, Q such, that, at any stage of a derivation at which it becomes applicable,, there exist strings of the form PBQ not created by its application., Such rules are important in one formulation of derivational, constraints. Kiparsky (1973a)., , neutralization rule n. A rule of the form A
Page 253 :
neutral position, , 240, , Ip~lzIJQI n. A putative, more or less universal,, position supposedly adopted by the vocal organs when they are not, involved in an articulation. The notion is deeply controversial., , neutral position, , Chomsky and Halle (1968)., , neutral (reference) setting n. An arbitrarily defined reference, position of the supralaryngeal vocal tract with reference to, which any articulatory behaviour may be described. See Laver, (1979) for a detailed characterization, Laver (1994: 402-4(6) for a, briefer one., , neutral vowel n. 1. See schwa (sense 1).2. In a language with vowel, harmony, a vowel which fails to participate in the harmony. For, example, Hungarian Ii i: e e:1 are neutral, appearing in both backvowel and front-vowel words., , NGP See Natural Generative Phonology., , nil phonation InIlI n. Silent voiceless flow of air through the glottis, at volume-velocities below about 200-300 cm3/s. Sometimes the, term is extended to cover total closure of the glottis, with no air, flow at all. Cf. breath., In~ulkrDsllJl n. A fundamental principle, of Autosegmental Phonology. It says: association lines may not, cross. See Crossing Avoidance, Principle of., , No-Crossing Constraint, , node In:.udl n. In a standing wave, a point of zero amplitude., noise In:HzI n. Any undesired sound, particularly that which, competes with speech or with the transmission or reproduction of, sound signals. A signal-to-noise intensity ratio of 20 dB (i.e., 100:1), has no effect on intelligibility; a ratio of 0 dB (1:1) may reduce, intelligibility to 50 per cent, though our ears are very good at tuning, in on a directional signal., , non- For any term of the form non-X which has no entry of its own,, see under the entry for X. For example, for non-coronal see under, coronal., , non-automatic alternation n. An alternation (sense 1) which, affects only some morphemes of a particular phonological form,, such as the If/-/vl alternation occurring in leaf/leaves but not in, chieflchiefs. Ant. automatic alternation., , non-cohering affix n. An affix which is not fully integrated into the, phonological word of which it forms a part, which behaves in some
Page 254 :
241, , non-phonetic criteria, , respects like a separate phonological word. Ant. cohering affix., Dixon (1977)., , non-concatenative, , morphology n. (also root-and-pattern, morphology) A type of morphological structure in which a root, consists of a kind of skeleton and a word is formed by 'interleaving', the elements of other, discontinuous morphemes. This kind of, structure is typical of the Semitic languages. Cf. concatenative, morphology., , non-consonantal adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting high total energy' and, interpreted as representing the absence of an obstruction in the, vocal tract. Ant. consonantal., , non-distinctive adj. Not serving to express any contrast between, forms or meanings; redundant., /nDnlnt~'sekf~n/ n. Another name for, the 'strong' version of the invariance condition. Hockett (1942)., , non-intersection condition, , /nDn'hni~/ n. Any of several theories of, phonology in which a phonological representation is viewed, as consisting of something other than a single linear sequence, of segments. Non-linear approaches have become predominant in, phonology since about 1980; the most prominent versions are, Autosegmental Phonology and Metrical Phonology, but many, others exist, such as Particle Phonology, Dependency Phonology, and Government and Charm Phonology. In many of these, a, phonological representation consists of several parallel linear tiers, with various connections among them; as a result, Roca (1994), suggests that 'multilinear' might be a more accurate label., , non-linear phonology, , non-moraic vowel, , /nDnm~'reIIk/, , n. A glide. Hayes (1989)., , non-peripheral track n. Either of two elongated regions of the, vowel space located towards the centre of the mouth and posited, as significant in certain types of chain shifts. Cf. peripheral track., Labov (1994: 172)., , non-phonetic criteria (for phonological analysis) n. pl. In the, work of Daniel Jones, any of various criteria other than phonetic, facts which might be appealed to in assigning phones to phonemes, in doubtful cases. Jones (1950: ch. XIV) cites as examples the usage, of other speakers with different pronunciations and the pronunciation which a segment in a given morpheme may receive in a
Page 255 :
non-rhotic accent, , 242, , different environment (e.g., change of stress); he rejects all such, criteria as inadmissible., , non-rhotic accent adj. Any accent of English in which the historical Irl has been lost everywhere except before a vowel. In such an, accent, farther is homophonous with father, miner is homophonous, with mynah, star rhymes with Shah, and (usually) pore is homophonous with paw. Non-rhotic accents are typical of the larger part, of England, of Wales, of the east coast and south of the United, States, of parts of the West Indies, and of all Southern Hemisphere, varieties. See Wells (1982) for an account. Cf. rhotic accent, and, see linking r, intrusive r., , non-segmental adj. See suprasegmental., non-specification n. An extension of underspecification in which a, segment is represented underlyingly by a matrix containing no, information at all, all of its phonetic features being provided by, default provisions., , non-U adj. Uocular] Not typical of upper-class speech in England., Ant. U. Ross (1954)., InDnju'ni:kn~sl n. (also indeterminacy) The, phenomenon in which the phonological system of a language, admits of more than one possible analysis into phonemes. See, Sommerstein (1977: 24-35) for a discussion with examples. Chao, , non-uniqueness, , (1934)., , non-verbal adj. 1. Pertaining to aspects of communication not, involving the vocal tract, such as gestures, postures and expressions., 2. Pertaining to aspects of speech not involving the identification, of words, such as utterance accent, intonation and tone of voice., , nonvocalic adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'lacking a sharply defined formant structure' and, interpreted as the absence of at least one of voicing and of an, unobstructed vocal tract. Ant. vocalic., In~u'~:d~rIlJI n. In Natural Generative, Phonology, the principle that rules may not be extrinsically, ordered., , No-Ordering Condition, , normal, , Iln~:m~U, , adj. In the Williamson feature system, one of the, four possible values of the feature length or one of the three, possible values of the feature expansion.
Page 256 :
nucleus, , 243, , In~:()~n 'sItiz fIftl n. A major and vigorous, vowel shift currently affecting up to six vowels in varieties of, English spoken in urban areas in a part of the United States ranging, from New England to Chicago, in which peripheral vowels are, rotating clockwise and non-peripheral vowels are rotating anticlockwise: lrel is being raised towards [i], la:/ is being fronted, /0:1, is being fronted and centralized, Iii is being lowered towards [e],, leI is being lowered and backed, and IAI is being backed. See Labov, (1994: 177-201) for an account. Cf. Southern Shift., , Northern Cities Shift, , Northumbrian burr, notation, , In~:'eAmbri~n/ n., , See under burr., , In~u'teIfQI n., , Any conventional written symbol, or set of, such symbols, used in representing phonetic or phonological, elements or processes., , notational convention n. Any notational device which, in some, system, is understood as having some particular interpretation. For, example, the notation n ~ 0 I [+syll, -high] _ {C, ##} is almost, universally understood as meaning 'the consonant n, when, preceded by a non-high vowel, is lost either before another consonant or in word-final position'., , notational variant I'vc~ri~ntl n. Anyone of two or more notational, conventions which are interpreted in the same way., , NSR len es, , 1, , 0, , :1 n. See Nuclear Stress Rule., , nuclear projection government, , Inju:kli~ 'pr~d3ekf~n gAv~nm~ntl, , n. In Government and Charm Phonology, the type of government, posited as holding between the nuclei of contiguous units equivalent to feet., , nuclear stress n. (also sentence stress) The main stress appearing, within a single phrase, the stress that distinguishes a black bird from, a blackbird, and that occurs on the pronouns in John called Mary, a Conservative, and then she insulted him., , Nuclear Stress Rule n. (NSR) A putative rule of English which, assigns stress within phrases (other than compounds) longer than, a single word, such as Lisa s teddy bears. Chomsky and Halle (1968)., , nuclear tone n. Anyone of the available pitch-patterns which can, occur on an intonational nucleus in a particular speech variety., I'nju:kli~s/ n. 1. (also syllabic nucleus, peak) The most, prominent (sonorous) part of a syllable, most often a vowel or a, , nucleus
Page 257 :
null element, , 244, , diphthong. 2. [obsolete] See rhyme. Hockett (1955). 3. (also tonic), The most prominent pitch-accent within a single intonation group., Adj. (all senses) nuclear., ehm~ntf n. (also zero) An element which, in, some analysis, is posited as being present at a certain point in a, structure even though there is no overt phonetic material there to, represent it. An example is the plural marker in the word sheep., , null element finAl, , The Indian grammarian Panini was the first to use null elements, but their, modern use derives chiefly from Bloomfield (1933)., , null vowel n. See empty nucleus., , Burzio (1988)., , flnAmb~df n. A notational convention, employing braces in the usual sense of 'choose one item', but with, the additional requirement that the same item must be chosen from, all sets of braces bearing the same number. Sommerstein (1977:, 136) offers the following rule for English inserting a vowel in certain, circumstances between two segments which are either both [-eont], or both [-apic]:, , numbered brace notation, , o~, , I, , f, , -son, +cor, -eont}, {-apic, 1 1, , #, , -son, +cor, -eont}, {-apic, 1, , 1, , #
Page 258 :
o, o, , A symbol for onset in representations of syllable structure., , I~bhgatri 'knntu;} prlnslp~l! n., (OCP) In much recent phonological work, a proposed fundamental, principle governing phonological representations. Essentially, it, prohibits, or at least disfavours, the occurrence of identical feature, specifications on adjacent autosegments - that is, it disfavours, clash. It was originally proposed merely for tonal phenomena in, order to account for such widespread processes as the elimination, of HHL sequences, but it has since been extended to to a wide, variety of other phenomena, such as the non-existence in Cantonese, of such syllables as *tup, in which a rounded vowel is followed, by a labial consonant. It has even been extended to cases involving, non-adjacent segments, such as the Cantonese ban on having, two labial consonants in a single morpheme (*pim) and the, Arabic ban on having two labial consonants in a single root, (*btf). See Roca (1994: 269) or Goldsmith (1990: 6.4) for a survey, of the history of this principle, and Kenstowicz (1994: 322-338), for an account. Idea: Leben (1973); fonnulation and name: Goldsmith, , Obligatory Contour Principle, , (1976)., , oblique j;}'bli:k/ n. 1. See slashes. 2. See environment bar., oblique rhyme n. See half-rhyme., observational adequacy /obs;}'veIf;}n;}l! n. See under adequacy., obstacle fricative Ilobst;}k;}l/ n. Any fricative whose noise is chiefly, produced by a je~ of air striking an obstacle in front of the constriction~ an example is [s], in which the air strikes the teeth. In a, non-obstacle fricative like [9], the noise is produced at the constriction itself. This is essentially the same as the sibilant/non-sibilant, distinction. Shadle (1985)., , obstruent /'obstruantl n. or adj. 1. Any segment whose articulation, involves an obstruction in the vocal tract at least radical enough, to produce friction noise: a plosive, an affricate or a fricative. Note, that nasal stops are not classed as obstruents. Ant. sonorant or (less, usually) resonant. 2. (obstr) A distinctive feature sometimes used
Page 259 :
246, , occlusion, , to distinguish obstruents [+obstr] from all other segments [-obstr]., Sense 2: Lass (1984: 83). Abstr. n. obstruency., , occlusion /g'klu:3t:L' n. 1. A complete closure within the mouth, during an articulation, as occurs during a plosive. 2. Complete, closure of the jaws, bringing the teeth together., , occlusive /g'klu:SIV/ n. or adj. 1. An older term for plosive, or sometimes for stop. 2. (occl) A distinctive feature suggested by, Sommerstein (1977: 103) as representing a complete blockage of, the airstream within the mouth: the inverse of [continuant]., Plosives, affricates and nasals are thus [+occl], while all other, segments are [-occl]. The motivation is to clarify the ambiguity, over whether nasals, laterals, taps, flaps and trills should be, regarded as [+cont] or [-eont]. Cf. central closure., , OCP Igu si: 'pi:/ n. See Obligatory Contour Principle., , octave /'OktIV/ n. The interval between two pitches one of which is, exactly double the other., , OEP /gU i: 'pi:/ n. Daniel Jones's book An Outline of English, Phonetics, first published in 1918 and followed by numerous revised, editions, in which Jones presents most of his major ideas about, phonetics and phonology., , oesophagic, , airstream mechanism /i:sg'fred3Ik/ adj. (also, esophagic) A highly unusual airstream mechanism used involuntarily in belching and voluntarily, after training, by individuals, whose larynx has been surgically removed. A skilful practitioner,, such as the actor Jack Hawkins, can produce something virtually, indistinguishable from ordinary pulmonic speech., , oesophagus /I'sofgggs/ n. (also esophagus) The tube connecting the, stomach to the pharynx. Adj. oesophageal /i:sg'fred3gl/., , ott-glide loff n. A glide occurring at the end of a diphthong, such, as [j] in [aj]. Ant. on-glide., , ott rhyme n. See half-rhyme., otTset phase /'ofset/ n. The phase in the articulation of a segment, during which the articulating organs are moving away from the, medial phase., , o-grade /'gU greldl n. In the phonology of Proto-Indo-European, that, form of a root exhibiting the vowel, , 0,, , considered a modification of
Page 260 :
opacity, , 247, , the basic e. For example, the PIE root *nem- 'allot' yields Greek, nemein 'allot', but its o-grade *nom- yields Greek nomos 'portion,, law'., , 'once a phoneme, always a phoneme' An informal label applied, to various aspects of American Structuralist phonology, especially, to biuniqueness and the invariance condition., , one or two phonemes? (also un ou deux phonemes?) A label, applied to the problem of determining whether affricates (like [tJ]), and diphthongs (like [ail) should be interpreted as single segments, or as sequences. Martinet (1939)., , on-glide lonl n. A glide occurring at the beginning of a dipbtbong,, such as [j] in [ja]. Ant. off-glide., , onomatopoeia, , lon~mret~'pi:~1, , n. 1. Narrowly, and perhaps most, appropriately, the coining or use of a word which attempts to represent a non-linguistic sound by a combination of appropriate, segments selected from the ordinary phoneme inventory of the, language. Familiar English examples include buzz, cock-a-doodledo, rat-a-tat-tat, ding-dong, meow, clink, wham, kaboom and tinkle., 2. Broadly, any sort of sound symbolism. This second use is, probably objectionable. Adj. onomatopoeic. Cf. pbonaestbesia,, ideopbone, sound symbolism. Greek onomatopoiia 'name-making'., , onset I'onset/ n. (also initial) The first part of the syllable, that part, preceding the rbyme and typically consisting of all consonants, preceding the vowel. Hockett (1955)., , onset of voicing n. In the transition from a voiceless segment to a, following voiced one, the precise moment at which vibration of the, vocal folds begins., , onset phase n. The initial phase of the articulation of a segment,, during which the articulators are moving towards the maximal, constriction. Cf. medial phase, offset phase., , opacity, , I~u'pres~ti/ n. The property of a phonological rule whose, existence is difficult to ascertain from the inspection of surface, phonetic forms, for any of various reasons. For example, in an, analysis of Basque which posited the (historically accurate) rules, V and (ii) nn ~ n, rule (i) would be opaque, (i) n ~ 0 I V, because rule (ii) introduces new surface instances of intervocalic n., Ant. transparency. Adj. opaque. Kiparsky (1971, 1973a).
Page 261 :
opaque morpheme, , 248, , /~u'pedd n. A morpheme which exceptionally, prevents the spreading of some regular phonological process, such, as vowel harmony., , opaque morpheme, , opaque rule n. A proposed phonological rule which is not a true, generalization about surface forms. Cf. transparent rule., , opaque vowel n. In some vowel harmony languages, a vowel which, regularly prevents the spread of harmony through it. A root, containing such a vowel is a disharmonic root., , open /I~up~n/ adj. 1. A synonym for low in the description of vowels., Ant. close. NOTE: This term is now recommended by the IPA. 2. Denoting, a position in which the lips are rather far apart but not rounded,, as in the vowel of car. 3. A multivalued distinctive feature proposed, by Labov (1994: 258) for treating distinctions of vowel height., /~prDksI'melfl}./ n. The degree of constriction, in the mouth in which air flow is not turbulent, invoked by Laver, (1994: 135) as the stricture type for resonant segments. Cf. close, approximation., , open approximation, , opening, , /'~up~nIlJ/, , n. Any phonological change in which a vowel, becomes lower (more open) than formerly., , opening diphthong n. A diphthong whose second element is more, open than its first, such as [jal. Ant. closing diphthong., , open juncture n. 1. Originally, any distinctive phonetic characteristics of the beginning or the end of an isolated utterance., Introduced by Trager and Bloch (1941), this was later renamed, external open juncture and subdivided by Trager and Smith (1951), into single-bar, double-bar and double-cross juncture types. 2. An, internal open juncture; see plus-juncture. Ant. close juncture., , open-mid adj. See low-mid., , NOTE:, , This term is now recommended by, , the IPA., , openness n. See aperture (sense 3)., open rounding n. A variety of lip-rounding in which the space, between the lips is fairly large, as in the vowel [rel. Ant. close, rounding., , open syUable n. (also unchecked syUable) A syUable which ends in a, vowel, with no following consonant; i.e., a syllable which lacks a coda,, such as all of those in see, veto and Malaya. Ant. closed syUable.
Page 262 :
249, , oral, , open tone n. 1. A tone in a tone language which does not involve any, laryngeal activity such as creak; an ordinary tone. Ant. glottal tone., 2. Any non-falling intonation pattern. Ant. (sense 2) closed tone., , open transition n. A transition between two consecutive segments, which is characterized by a momentary break in articulatory continuity, so that there is no overlap or accommodation between the, segments. Ant. close transition., , operational definition, , /op~'reIJ~n~1, , defInIJ.Q./ n. (also procedural, definition) A definition of a linguistic object in terms of an analytical procedure to be applied to raw data, such as some American, Structuralist definitions of the phoneme., /Dp~'ZIJQ/ n. See contrast (sense 1), and refer to the, remarks at the end of that entry., , opposition, , Optimality Theory /nptI'mrehti/ n. An approach to phonological, description pioneered by Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky and, developed by them and others in a series of works, most of which, remain unpublished. The framework assigns pride of place to the, concept of constraints, and rests upon the following principles., (1) Universal Grammar largely consists of a set of constraints on, representational well-formedness, out of which individual grammars, are constructed. (2) In general, the constraints in a grammar are, not mutually consistent and are not exceptionlessly true at any level, of representation; they often make conflicting requirements. (3) A, grammar consists of the constraints together with a general means, of resolving conflicts in favour of analyses which best satisfy, or, least violate, the conflicting constraints. See Prince and Smolensky, (forthcoming) for a detailed account., /':l:r~l/ adj. 1. (also buccal) (of a segment) Articulated within, the oral cavity. 2. (of a segment) Articulated with the velum raised,, so that air flow is exclusively through the mouth; non-nasal. 3. In, the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature defined, as exhibiting no additional formants and no reduction in the, intensity of existing formants' and interpreted as representing, decoupling of the nasal cavity. Ant. nasal. 4. A very different, distinctive feature proposed to distinguish 'laryngeal' (sense 2), consonants: any segment made in the oral cavity or the pharynx, (including a nasal stop) is [+oral]; 'laryngeals' like [1 h 6] are, [-oral]. Lass (1976: ch. 6). 5. In the WtlIiamson feature system, one, of the two possible values of the feature nasality., , oral, , 4
Page 263 :
oral cavity, , 250, , oral cavity n. That part of the vocal tract lying between the pharynx, and the lips, containing the tongue and the teeth and bounded on, top by the alveolar ridge, the palate and the velum., , oral gesture n. In gesture theory, all aspects of an articulation taking, place above the glottis., , oral-glottal stop n. A coarticulated plosive in which there is simultaneous closure in the mouth and in the glottis: [?p], [?k], etc. In, many accents of Britain such stops are the usual realizations of, intervocalic /p t k/. The less systematic term 'glottalized plosives', is often applied to oral-glottal stops. Catford (1977: 190)., , oral-nasal stop n. Any stop during which the opening and closing, of the velum is not synchronized with the closure and release of, the oral occlusion. Laver (1994: 227-235) distinguishes pre-nasal, oral stops, post-nasal oral stops, pre-occluded nasal stops and postoccluded nasal stops., , oral release n. (also oral plosion) The release of a plosive by, lowering the velum without releasing the oral occlusion., , order, , /I~:d~/ n., , [obsolescent] A term commonly used in philological, works for a group of consonant phonemes in a language which, share more or less the same place of articulation but differ in, voicing and/or in manner of articulation. For example, English, /p b m f v/ would be said to belong to the 'labial order', while, /k 9 fJ/ would belong to the 'guttural (i.e., velar) order', and so on., Cf. series., , ordered rule n. One of a set of rules which must be applied to an, underlying representation in some particular sequence in order to, derive the correct surface form. Ordered rules were used by Bloomfield,, but were rejected by the American Structuralists; they were reinstated in early, generative phonology, and have been widely used since., , ordering n. See rule ordering., Ordering Hypothesis n. The proposal that affixes fall into classes, which can only be added to bases in a specified order: tox-ic-ityless-ness, but *tox-ic-less-ness-ity. Siegel (1974)., , ordering paradox, , /lprer~dDks/ n. In a framework employing, ordered rules, the problematic requirement that two particular rules, must apply in one order in some derivations but in the opposite, order in others. Some theories of rule ordering, such as local
Page 264 :
251, , outer ear, , ordering and partial ordering, are expressly designed to deal with, such paradoxes., , ordering relation /rI'leIft:l/ n. The particular sequence in which two, phonological rules apply in some particular analysis., , organic phase /~:'grenIk/ n. The third of the seven phases of speech,, in which the speech organs perform articulations., , organic pitch range n. The total range of pitch available to a, speaker, constrained only by anatomical and physiological limitations. Laver (1994)., /~:g~n ~v 'k~:taI/ n. A helical structure attached to, the basilar membrane of the cochlea and containing tiny hair cells, which convert the mechanical disturbances of the basilar membrane, into nervous impulses which are then transmitted along the, auditory nerve., , organ of Corti, , organs of speech n. pl. See vocal organs., oro-nasal process, , /~:r~u'neIz~l/ n. The articulatory parameter by, which the velum may be either raised, producing an oral sound, or, lowered, producing a nasal (or nasalized) sound., , oro-pharynx, , /~:r~u'frerIl)ks/ n. That part of the pharynx connecting, the back of the oral cavity to the rest of the vocal tract., , orphan, , /'~:f~nI n. A syllable or other metrical unit which, in some, analysis, is 'left over' after metrical structure is complete by the, normal rules and which must be handled by some additional, machinery., , orthoepy, , j'~:e~uepij n., , The study of correct pronunciation., , Oscillomink /g'sI1gmIl)k/ n. The trade name of a widely used type, of ink-writing oscillograph, an instrument which records on paper,, as a function of time, several types of information about the, acoustic characteristics of the speech wave., , ossicles j'oSIkglz/ n. pi. See auditory ossicles., outer ear /'outg/ n. The outermost of the three divisions of the ear,, consisting of the external ear, or pinna, and the ear canal leading, to the eardrum. This roughly funnel-shaped structure has a natural, resonance at around 3,000 Hz, and sounds near this frequency are, amplified by as much as ten times before reaching the eardrum.
Page 265 :
outer rounding, , 252, , outer rounding n. (also vertical tip-rounding, tip compression,, inrounding) A type of rounding in which the lips are vertically, compressed and the channel is made by the outer surfaces of the, lips (it is exolabial). Outer rounding is typical of front rounded, vowels like [y]. Cf. inner rounding, and see the remarks there. Sweet, (1890)., , OUtput Iioutputl n. With reference to a rule, the representation which, is produced in a particular case by the application of the rule. Cf., input., , output conditioning n. The property of a rule whose application, is constrained by the characteristics of the representation which is, its output, such as a rule which is obliged to produce an output, conforming to phonotactic constraints. Such rules have been little, used, except in Stratificational phonology, but are now important, in Optimality Theory. Cf. input conditioning., , outrounding /'outroundIIJI n. See inner rounding., /~uv;)l 'w1nd;)u/ n. The small membrane lying between, the middle ear and the inner ear. The oval window is connected, both to the auditory ossicles of the middle ear and to the cochlea, of the inner ear; vibration of the ossicles is transmitted across the, oval window to the basilar membrane of the cochlea., , oval window, , overall pattern analysis I;)uv;)r:->:l Ipret;)n, , ;)nrel~SIsI, , n. See, , diasystem. Trager and Smith (1951)., l~uv~'lrepIIJI n. 1. Either of partial overlapping or, complete overlapping. 2. See articulatory overlap., , overlapping, , overlapping distribution n. The relation between two or more, phonemes which occur in some, but not all, of the same positions, in words - as, for example, the three English nasals., , overlapping morph n. See portmanteau morpho, overlong 1'~uv;)IDIJI n. (also extra long) Having the greatest of three, contrasts of length, as in Estonian [jama] 'nonsense', [ja:ma] 'of, the station' and [ja::ma] 'to the station', [lina] 'flax', [lin:a] 'of the, town', [lin::a] 'to the town'. An overlong segment is marked by a, following [::]. Abstr. n. overlength., , overspreading /';)uv;)SpredIIJI n. In an analysis involving spreading, (sense 2), an incorrect result in which the spreading feature spreads, over too large a domain.
Page 266 :
oxytone, , 253, , overtone, , /I~uv~t~un/ n. A synonym for harmonic, except in, numbering: the fundamental is the first harmonic, so the first overtone is the second harmonic, and so on., , Oxford accent, , /'Dksf~d/, , n. [non-technical] A label occasionally, applied to the type of British accent more usually called Received, Pronunciation (RP), or sometimes more specifically to a particular, variety of RP perceived as typical of elderly academics at Oxford, University, allegedly characterized by remarkably great variations, in tempo., , oxytone, , /'Dkslt~un/ n. 1. An Ancient Greek word with an acute, accent on the last syllable. 2. In a stress-accented language like, English, a word which is stressed on the last syllable: kangaroo,, entertain, interfere. Cf. paroxytone, proparoxytone, perispomenon., Adj. oxytone. Greek oxys 'sharp' + lonos 'tone'.
Page 267 :
p, PI rule, P2 rule See under post-lexical rule., /'pc~ test! n. A procedure for testing for the presence of, a phonological contrast (sense 1) between two linguistic items. One, native speaker is asked to pronounce the two items repeatedly in, an arbitrary order selected by the investigator, while a second, native speaker tries to identify them. A success rate of around, 100 per cent indicates a contrast; a success rate around 50 per cent, indicates free variation. Cf. repetition test. Harris (1951: 32-33)., , pair test, , palatal, , I'prel~t~ll, , 1. adj. Pertaining to the palate. 2. adj. (of a, segment) Articulated with some part of the tongue (usually the, front) raised towards the palate. 3. n. A segment so articulated,, such as [c], L~], [.J1] or [A]. Sometimes this label is applied loosely, to other segments with a palatal element, such as palato-alveolars, and palatalized velars. 4. adj. In the Ladefoged and Williamson, feature systems, one of the eleven possible values of the feature, articulatory place., Iprel~'trehtil n. A label commonly applied to the phonological prime {i} or I in various privative theories of phonology,, especially Dependency Phonology. Cf. gravity, sonority., , palatality, , /prel~t~laI'zeIff,l/ n. 1. The phenomenon in which a, segment whose primary articulation is at some other location is articulated with a secondary articulation involving the raising of the front, of the tongue towards the palate or (with back consonants) the, moving of the constriction forward towards the palate. Palatalization, is transcribed in the IPA by a superscript p] (e.g., [pi], [kj ]), in, American transcription by a superscript [Y] (e.g., [pY], [kY]), and, in some specialist traditions by other devices, such as a prime (e.g.,, [p'], [k']). 2. Any phonological process in which a segment which, formerly lacked palatalization in sense 1 acquires it. 3. Any phonological process in which a non-palatal segment is converted to a, palatal or palato-alveolar segment. v: palatalize; adj. palatalized., , palatalization, , palatalized voice n. The voice quality of an individual who, constantly maintains the body of the tongue close to the palate.
Page 268 :
paradigmatic relation, , 255, , /'prel~t/ n. 1. (also hard palate) The hard bony structure at, the top of the roof of the mouth, just behind the alveolar ridge., 2. [now rare] A cover term for the palate (sense 1) and the velum, taken together. Adj. palatal; CF palato-., , palate, , palato-alveolar /'prel~t~u/ (also postalveolar, formerly also alveolopalatal) 1. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with the primary constriction occupying a (typically extended) region between the alveolar, ridge and the palate. 2. n. A segment so articulated, such as the, [J] of English fish or the [d3] of English judge. 3. In the Ladefoged, and Williamson feature systems, one of the eleven possible values, of the feature articulatory place, called post-/palato-alveolar by, Williamson. Cf. alveolo-palatal. NOTE that this term is anomalously, formed, and that the IPA now recommends the term 'postalveolar'., , palatogram, , /'prel~t~grreml n., , The picture of the roof of the mouth, , obtained by palatography., , palatography, , /prel~ltDgr~fi/ n. A technique for determining which, areas of the roof of the mouth are touched by the tongue during, an articulation. Either the roof of the mouth is coated with a, coloured material, or a false palate similarly coated is inserted into, the mouth; after the articulation of interest is performed, the mouth, or false palate is examined to see where the coating has been, removed. See also continuous palatography, electropalatography,, Iinguagram., , paracusis /prer~'kju:SIS/ n. Any pathological disturbance of the sense, of hearing., , paradigm, , /'prer~daImI, , n. The full set of inflected forms exhibited, by some class of lexical items, such as the declensional forms of a, class of nouns or the conjugated forms of a class of verbs, often as, represented by the forms of a single typical item. Adj. paradigmatic, /prer~dIg'mretIk/., , Greek paradeigma 'pattern'., , paradigmatic imbalance, , /Im'brel~ns/ n. A conspicuous asymmetry, in a phoneme system, such as the presence of a hole in the pattern., , paradigmatic relation n. (also relation in absentia; formerly also, associative relation) Any relation between two or more linguistic, elements which are in some sense competing possibilities, in that, exactly one of them may be selected to occupy some position in a, structure. Most familiarly, the consonant and vowel phonemes of a, language stand in a paradigmatic relation, since only one of them
Page 269 :
paradigm regularity, , 256, , may occupy a given slot in a syllable, a morpheme or a word. Cf., syntagmatic relation. Saussure (1916)., , paradigm regularity n. 1. The presence, in a single paradigm or in, a set of related paradigms, of a high degree of orderliness and, predictability, the extreme case being one in which each morpheme, has only a single surface form, with no aIIomorphy. 2. The putative principle that instances of mle reordering will normally, proceed so as to increase paradigm regularity in sense 1. Sense 2:, Kiparsky (1971)., I'prer~flks/ n. A notional affix realized as a reduplication of, some part of a stem. For example, the Tagalog verb stems sulat, 'write' and hanap 'seek' have future forms susulat 'will write' and, hahanap 'will seek', in which the future marker is a parafix, consisting of reduplication of the initial CV sequence., , parafix, , paragoge, , /prer~'g~ud3i/ n. (also epithesis) The addition of one or, more segments to the end of a word, as in the derivation of against, from earlier again + genitive -es. The addition of a word-final vowel, is proparalepsis. The addition of a word-final plosive is excrescence., , Greek parag6ge 'addition'., , paralalia, , /prer~lledi;)/ n., , Any pathological disturbance of speech., , /'prer~lreIJgwld3/ n. 1. Narrowly, non-segmental vocal, features in speech, such as tone of voice, tempo, tut-tutting, sighing,, grunts and exclamations like Whew! 2. Broadly, all of the above, plus non-vocal signals such as gestures, postures and expressions that is, all non-linguistic behaviour which is sufficiently coded to, contribute to the overall communicative effect. See Crystal and, Quirk (1964), Trager (1958), and the references in Laver (1994:, 24-25). Adj. paralinguistic Iprer~IIIJ'gwlstIk/. Trager (1958); Trager, , paralanguage, , credits A. A. Hill with the term., , paralinguistic pitch range n. The pitch range used by a speaker, for signalling attitudes, such as surprise or impatience., , parallel distribution l'prer~leU n. The relation between two or more, phones which occur in exactly the same environments, as occurs, with English [ph], [t h], [k h]. Some would extend this term to phones, which share only some of the same environments. Cf. complementary distribution., , parallel segmentation n. See parametric approach to speech, segmentation.
Page 270 :
parentheses, , 257, , parameter, , /p~lrrem~t~/ n. 1. In articulatory phonetics, any category, within which a significant degree of variation for linguistic purposes, is possible, such as voicing or vowel height. 2. In some approaches, to phonology, a theory-specific variable within which a given, language is permitted to choose one of a small number of possibilities, such as the choice between left-headed and right-headed, feet in stress languages. Adj. parametric., , parametric approach to speech segmentation /prerg'metrIk/ n., (also parallel segmentation) The analysis of speech in terms of parametric phonetics. Cf. serial approach to speech segmentation., , parametric phonetics n. (also dynamic phonetics) An approach to, phonetics which views speech as consisting, not of a linear sequence, of segments, but of a set of articulatory parameters, or variables,, such as tongue height, degree of velic opening, degree of liprounding and degree of glottal opening. Each of these variables, changes continuously over time in a more or less independent way;, their interaction produces a speech wave which is segmented by, the listener., /'prer~f~nDI~d3i/ n. The characteristics of the nonlinguistic sounds, such as filled pauses, produced during speech., Adj. paraphonological. Laver (1994: 540)., , paraphonology, , pararhyme, , /'prer~raIm/ n., , parasite vowel, , /'prer~salt/, , See half-rhyme., n. A vowel inserted in anaptyxis. Sweet, , (1888)., /prer~'sItIk/ n. (also parasitic spreading) A type, of vowel harmony in which two vowels are required to harmonize, for one feature if and only if they also harmonize for another, feature. For example, in Ngbaka, if the vowels in a two-syllable, word agree in height, then they must also agree in backness; if they, do not agree in height, there is no requirement for agreement in, backness. Van der Hulst (1989)., , parasitic harmony, , paratone, , /'prer~t~un/ n. The largest intonation pattern to which an, identifiable function can be assigned, often regarded as the spoken, equivalent of a paragraph. For example, a newsreader typically, introduces a new item by using a wide pitch range, and the pitch, range becomes steadily narrower towards the conclusion of the item., , parentheses, , /p~'renegsi:z/ n. pl. (also round brackets) 1. An abbreviatory convention in which two rules which differ only in that one
Page 271 :
258, , parochial, , of them contains an extra term absent from the other are collapsed, into a single rule schema. For example, in many Canadian accents, of English, the diphthong lail is raised to [~i] before a voiceless, consonant, as in write: ai ~ ~i I _ [-voi]. For some speakers, the, same happens before In! followed by a voiceless consonant, as in, pint: ai ~ ~i I _ n [-voi]. These can be collapsed as ai ~ ~i I _, (n) [-voi]. 2. In a phonological representation, a device used to, mark material which may be optionally or variably present or, absent, as when fasten is represented as Ifres(~)n!., , parochial, , Ip~'r~uki~U adj., , paronomasia, paronym, , See language-specific., , /p~ron~'meI3~/ n., , A pun or a play on words., , l'prer~nImI, , n. Any word derived from a second word or, from the same root; a derivative or a cognate., , paroxytone, , /p~'roksIt~unl n. or adj. In Ancient Greek, a word with, an acute accent on the penult. Cf. oxytone, proparoxytone., , parse /po:z/ vt. 1. To assign a valid phonological structure to (a string, of elements in a representation). 2. vi. To be assigned such structure. 3. n. The phonological structure assigned in such a way., /'po:J~I/ n. Assimilation in some features only,, as when ten pence becomes te[ m] pence. Cf. total assimilation., , partial assimilation, , partial devoicing n. The absence of vibration of the vocal folds, during some part of the duration of an underlyingly voiced segment., There are two types: initial devoicing and final devoicing. Adj., partially devoiced., , partial ordering n. A theory of rule ordering in which rules apply, freely whenever their structural description is met except as, prevented by precedence constraints and blockage constraints. Cf., local ordering. Sommerstein (1977: 176-180)., , partial overlapping n. The phenomenon in which two phonemes, have phonetically identical allophones occurring in different, environments, but not in the same environment., , partial tone language n. A language in which tones appear on, certain syllables only, such as Norwegian, Lithuanian or SerboCroatian., , Particle Phonology, , /'po:tlk~U, , n. A privative (holistic) theory of, phonology developed by Sanford Schane and presented in Schane
Page 272 :
259, , pentameter, , (1984a, 1984b). As in other such approaches, segments are built up, by recursion of primitive elements called particles, so that I = [i],, AI = [e], AAI = [c], AAAI = [re], and so on. The simplest of the, holistic theories, Particle Phonology addresses only vowels; it has, been eclipsed by more fully elaborated frameworks such as, Dependency Phonology and Government and Charm Phonology., , part of speech Ipo:tl n. See lexical category (sense 1)., passive articulator I'preslvl n. In the articulation of a consonant,, the upper of the two articulators involved in forming the constriction, conventionally regarded as standing still while the lower active, articulator moves towards it., , path Ipo:81 n. Any single valid route along the arcs in a metrical, tree., , patois I'pretwo:1 n. [non-technical] A regional speech variety of low, prestige; the term is dismissive and is never used in linguistic work., French., , pattern congruity, , Ipret~n k~n' gruatil, , n. Either of two criteria for, phonological analysis which may be invoked to choose among, competing analyses. In the first (paradigmatic) version, that analysis, is preferred which yields a more symmetric phonemic system. In, the second (syntagmatic) version, that analysis is preferred which, yields the simpler or more regular phonotactics. The notion is, particularly important in American Structuralism. Swadesh (1934);, derived from Sapir (1925)., , pause Ip':J:zI n. A short interruption during the production of an, utterance. A silent pause contains no vocal sound; a filled pause is, marked by a hesitation noise such as um or ere v: pause; adj. pausal., , peak Ipi:k/ n. 1. A less usual term for the nucleus of a syllable. Some, analysts distinguish the nucleus (the structural place filled by the, vowel) from the peak (the vowel which fills the nucleus). Hockett, (1955). 2. A point of high prominence in a stress or intonation, pattern. Ant. trough., , pen-initial /pen/ adj. or n. (Pertaining to or falling upon) the second, syllable of a word. By analogy with penult., , pentameter, , Ipen'tremlt~1 n., , A line of verse consisting of five feet,, the commonest line in English verse, as in The curfew tolls the knell, of parting day.
Page 273 :
penult, , 260, , /p~'nAlt/ n. (rarely also peoultima /p~'nAltlm~/) The next-tolast syllable in a word. Adj. penultimate. Latin paene 'almost' + ultima, , penult, 'last'., , perceived pitch, , /p~'si:vd/, , n. See pitch., , perception /p~lsepJ~nI n. The process by which an individual detects, and interprets information from the external world by means of, the organs of sense, the nervous system and the brain. In speech,, the term is particularly applied to the way in which acoustic characteristics like frequency and intensity are registered and interpreted. See speech perception. v: perceive; adj. perceptual., , perception test n. See recognition test., perceptual centre, , /p~lseptJu~l/ n., , (also P-centre) In the perception, of rhythm, the perceptually relevant instant during speech which, listeners use to establish a rhythm. This might be the beginning of, the first segment of a syllable, the beginning of the nuclear segment,, or something else. Morton et al. (1976)., , perceptual feature n. A distinctive feature formulated in terms of, perception. See Wickelgren feature system for examples., , perceptual saliency, , /'sedi~nsi/, , n. The degree to which a particular, segment can be readily distinguished by listeners from contrasting, segments in the same language. Stevens et al. (1987)., /p~'kASIV/ n. Any of various sounds made in the oral, cavity without the aid of an airstream mechanism by moving two, organs sharply together or apart. Such sounds do not appear to be, used for linguistic purposes. Pike (1943: 103-105)., , percussive, , period /'pI~ri~d/ n. In wave motion, the time taken to complete one, cycle of the wave., , periodic, , /pI~ri'Ddlk/ adj., , (of motion) Occurring at regular intervals., , /pI~ri~'dIsIti/ n. Particularly in grid versions of Metrical, Phonology, the more-or-Iess regular rhythm exhibited by stresses, at any level of analysis., , periodicity, , /p~'rIf~r~l/ adj. 1. (of a vowel) Articulated with the, tongue as far as possible from the centre of the mouth. The cardinal, vowels are peripheral by definition; few vowels in natural languages, are strictly peripheral, though the vowels of French come close., 2. In some analyses of English, a label applied to a set of tense, , peripheral
Page 274 :
perseverative assimilation, , 261, , non-central vowels and diphthongs which show similar behaviour, over time. Labov (1994). 3. In some descriptions, a label applied to, any vowel which is either front unrounded, back rounded, or low,, regardless of whether it is peripheral in sense 1 - that is, to any, vowel with a high degree of perceptual saliency. 4. In the Lindau, feature system, a distinctive feature defined as representing the, degree of centralization on an acoustic chart and having the, possible values peripheral and central. 5. (of a consonant), Articulated with the main constriction located either towards the, front of the oral cavity (bilabials, labiodentals) or towards the back, of the oral cavity (velars, uvulars, etc.). 6. In Prague School, phonology, denoting an element which is not fully integrated into, the phonological system of a language. A bstr. n. peripherality, /p~rlf~ rrehtil. Ant. non-peripheral., I, , Peripherality Condition n. The requirement that extrasyllabicity, should be confined to segments at one end of the domain. This is, an attempt to limit the power of a very powerful device., , peripheral track n. In some conceptions of phonological space,, either of two elongated areas (front and back) occupying the outer, region of that space, surrounding the central non-peripheral tracks., Labov (1994: ch. 6) argues for the importance of this concept in, interpreting a range of sound changes involving vowels., , perispomenon, , /perI'sp~um~nDni, , perissosyUabic, , /p~rls~sI'lreblk/, , n. In Ancient Greek, a word, bearing a circumflex accent on the last syllable., , adj. Of a metrical foot in a line of, verse, having one or more syllables beyond the number required, for scansion., , perseveration /p~sev~'relfQ./ n. The phenomenon in which a speaker, produces a segment or a feature later in an utterance than is necessary or appropriate. The term is applied both to instances of perseverative assimilation, in which it is usually normal, and to slips, of the tongue such as 'bread and brutter~ for bread and butter. ~, perseverate /p~'sev~reIt/. Cf. anticipation., , perseverative assimilation /p~lsev~r~tIv/ n. (also progressive assimi1ation) Any instance of assimilation in which a later segment, is assimilated to an earlier one. For example, Basque egin 'done ~, is in many varieties pronounced [eip], in which the palatal quality, of the [i] is retained during the following nasal; the phrase egin da, 'it's been done' in such accents is often [eipJa], in which the palatal
Page 275 :
persistent rule, , 262, , quality is carried further to the following plosive. Cf. anticipatory, assimilation., , persistent rule, , Ip~lsIst~ntl n., , See anywhere rule. Chafe (1967); Myers, , (1991)., , PF See phonological form., If~'rlnd3~l/ (in senses 1-3, also pharyngal If~'rIlJg~l/), 1. adj. Pertaining to the pharynx. 2. adj. (of a segment) Articulated, with the primary stricture occurring in the pharynx. 3. n. A segment, so articulated, such as Arabic [h] or [\']. 4. adj. In the Ladefoged, and Williamson feature systems, one of the eleven possible values, of the feature articulatory place., , pharyngeal, , pharyngeal expansion n. A distinctive feature defined as involving, 'advancement of the tongue root and lowering of the larynx', thus, subsuming two articulations which have otherwise generally been, handled with two separate features. Lindau (1975)., If~rlnd3~laI'zeIJQI n. 1. The phenomenon in, which a segment articulated at some other position is produced, with a simultaneous secondary articulation in which the root of the, tongue is retracted into the pharynx. Pharyngealization is transcribed in the IPA with a superscript [..-] (e.g., [d"-]) or with a superimposed tilde (e.g., [0]). The so-called emphatic consonants of, Arabic are so articulated. See Laver (1994: 326-330) for an account., 2. Any phonological process in which a segment which formerly, lacked pharyngealization in sense 1 acquires it. 3. Any phonological, process in which a non-pharyngeal segment is converted to a, pharyngeal segment. v: pharyngealize; adj. pharyngealized., , pharyngealization, , pharyngealized voice n. A voice quality characterized by persistent retraction of the tongue body into the pharynx., , pharynx l'frerIlJksl n. The space at the back of the mouth constituting the juncture of the oral cavity, the nasal cavity and the passageway above the larynx, sometimes divided into the oro-pharynx,, the naso-pharynx and the laryngo-pharynx. Adj. pharyngeal or, pharyngal., , phase Ifelzl n. 1. The timing relation between two simultaneous, waves of identical frequency. If they reach their maxima at the, same instant, they are in phase; if not, they are out of phase, and, there is a phase difference between them. 2. Any distinguishable, stage in the articulation of a single segment. A typical segment
Page 276 :
263, , phonation type, , may be analysed into an onset phase, a medial phase and an offset, phase., , phases of speech n. pl. The various distinguishable neurological, and physical events which occur in sequence during the production, and comprehension of speech. Catford (1977: 4-5) distinguishes, seven phases: (1) neurolinguistic programming; (2) the neuromuscular phase; (3) the organic phase; (4) the aerodynamic phase;, (5) the acoustic phase; (6) the neuroreceptive phase; (7) neurolinguistic identification., , phon Ifnnl n. A unit of loudness level, defined so that the loudness, in phons of any sound is numerically equal to the intensity in decibels of a pure I,OOO-Hz tone judged to be equally loud. Barkhausen, (1926)., , phonaestheme l'f~uni:s9i:mIn. A phoneme or cluster in a particular, language which recurs repeatedly in words of related meanings,, such as English lsi-I in slip, slick, slide, slop, slush, etc. Firth (1930)., , phonaesthenia, , If~uni:s'9i:ni~1 n., , An abnormally weak voice., , If~uni:s'9i:3~1 n. (also phonesthesia, syn(a)esthesia), Any direct correspondence between sound and meaning, including, onomatopoeia, the use of phonaesthemes, and such cases as Basque, tximeleta 'butterfly', whose delicate, fluttery sound appears to mimic, the appearance of the insect. Adj. phon(a)esthetic If;)uni:s'getIk/., , phonaesthesia, , phonaesthetics, , If~uni:s'getIksl n., , (also phonestheties) The study of, , sound symbolism., , phonation, , If~u'neIJQ/, , n. 1. [non-technical] The act of producing, speech sounds. 2. The use of the larynx, aided by an airstream,, to generate an audible source of acoustic energy which can be, modified by the rest of the vocal tract. 3. Sometimes more specifically a synonym for voicing (sense 1). v: phonate /'f~uneIt/; adj., phonatory rf~un~tri/., , phonation type n. (also phonatory stricture type) Any of the, various distinguishable types of activity in the glottis which can, produce a stream of air for the organs of articulation. There is some, disagreement as to which types should be recognized; here I follow, Laver (1994). Simple phonation types include nil phonation, breath,, whisper, creak, (modal) voice and falsetto, the last three of which, provide a pulsed airstream. A number of compound phonation, types are possible, including breathy voice, whispery voice, creaky
Page 277 :
phonatory setting, , 264, , voice, whispery creaky voice, and similar combinations with falsetto, in place of voice., , phonatory setting n. The tendency of an individual to maintain, some particular phonation type (such as creaky voice) throughout, speech. See Laver (1994: 414--427) for an account with proposals, for transcription., , phone, , /f~unJ, , n. A single phonetic segment, viewed in terms of its, phonetic character and without regard to its possible phonological, status. The term 'phone' is related to phoneme in the same way, morph is related to morpheme. Grote (1866); Lloyd (1899); the obsolete, terms sone and phthong were also formerly used in this sense, as was allophone for a few years., , phonem, , /'f~uni:mI n. An early form of the term phoneme, sometimes used also in other senses. See Abercrombie (1985) for an, account. Harrington (1912)., , phonemateme, , l'f~uni:m~ti:mI n. In Glossematic phonology, a, segment from the point of view of its phonetic characteristics, as, opposed to its place in the system: a phone., , phonematic, , /f~unI'mretlk/, , adj. [obsolete] Pertaining to phonemes;, , phonemic., /f~unI'mretlks/ n. 1. [obsolete] An old synonym for, phonemics (sense 2). 2. In Prosodic Analysis, the study of phonematic units. 3. In Glossematic phonology, a label applied first to, phonology in general and later to that part of phonology dealing, with content, rather than with expression; in the second sense, the, term contrasts with cenematics., , phonematics, , phonematic unit n. In Prosodic Analysis, anyone of the minimally, specified segments which can occur in some given position. A, phonematic unit represents a kind of skeleton which receives its, full phonetic realization only after the application of all relevant, prosodies. The phonematic units which occur in one position can, in no way be identified with those occurring in other positions., , phoneme, , /'f~uni:mI n. In many theories of phonology, a fundamental (often the fundamental) unit of phonological structure, an, abstract segment which is one of a set of such segments in the, phonological system of a particular language or speech variety,, often defined as 'the smallest unit which can make a difference in, meaning'. First recognized in the late nineteenth century, the
Page 278 :
265, , phoneme, , phoneme occupied a more or less central position in every theory, of phonology promulgated in the twentieth century, with the sole, exception of Prosodic Analysis, until the development of non-linear, approaches in the 1980s; often regarded as the most conspicuous, characteristic of classical phonology, the phoneme was also important in all earlier versions of generative phonology. Two points need, to be stressed: (1) the most important property of a phoneme is, that it contrasts with the other phonemes in the system, and hence, (2) we can only speak of the phonemes of some particular speech, variety (a particular accent of a particular language). Languages, differ in the number of phonemes they distinguish (see phoneme, system), but every valid word in every language necessarily consists, of some permissible sequence of that language's phonemes (see, phonotactics). Several views of the phoneme have been advanced,, chiefly differing first as to whether the phoneme is regarded as a, phonological prime not capable of further decomposition or as a, cluster of more primitive elements, second in the degree of abstractness imputed to it, and finally in whether the phoneme is regarded, as a mental reality, a physical unit or merely a convenient analytical fiction. Both the British school and the American Structuralists, regard the phoneme as indivisible and as minimally abstract, a, conception often labelled the autonomous (or classical) phoneme., In this view, the phoneme is essentially a structureless object which, none the less has identifiable phonetic characteristics; it may be, realized in speech by phonetically different phones in different, environments (its allophones), and the allophones of a phoneme, are united within it by their shared phonetic similarity and by their, complementary distribution. The view of the Prague School differs, somewhat in regarding the phonetic characteristics of a phoneme, as fundamental, and hence in stressing the way in which phonemes, tend to occur in phonetically identifiable patterns. A very different, conception, the systematic phoneme, was put forward by the early, generative phonologists. The systematic phoneme is explicitly, regarded, not as a primitive, but as a mere bundle of the real primitives, the distinctive features. More importantly, the systematic, phoneme is in general a highly abstract object, closely resembling, the morphophoneme of the American Structuralists; as a result of, the application of a long series of ordered rules, a single phoneme, may reach the surface in a form which is phonetically utterly, different from its canonical form; it may merge with another, phoneme into a single segment; it may even disappear altogether., The non-linear approaches which have dominated the field since
Page 279 :
phoneme principle, , 266, , the 1980s have dispensed with the phoneme altogether, though the, term 'phoneme' is still sometimes applied to an autosegment on, the segmental tier in those versions of Autosegmental Phonology, which recognize such a tier. See also diaphone, diaphoneme. Adj., phonemic, formerly also phonematic. The concept of the phoneme was, known to the Indian grammarian Patanjali in the second century Be and to, the Icelandic First Grammarian in the twelfth century; it was developed with, varying degrees of explicitness by a number of nineteenth-century authors,, including Odell (1806), Whitney (1843), Muller (in 1843, but published in 1875),, Ellis (1844), Pitman (1846), Winteler (1876) and Sweet (1877), but no fully, explicit formulation was produced, and no term was available at the time. The, term 'phoneme' was coined by the French phonetician A. Dutriche-Desgenettes, in a lecture in 1873, but in the sense of phone or segment - two terms not, coined until much later. The term was picked up by others, including Louis, Havet and Saussure, both of whom have sometimes been wrongly credited with, inventing it. Saussure's famous 1879 paper (actually published in 1878) gave, the term wide currency in the earlier sense, and this older sense did not finally, disappear until the 1940s, especially in France; it is the only sense attested for, 'phoneme' in the first edition of the OED. The first fully explicit exposition of, the phoneme principle was developed by the Kazan School, and the term, 'phoneme' was first used in its modern sense by them - though note that the, Kazan linguists sometimes also used 'phoneme' in the sense of morphophoneme. The Kazan conception was carried to the west by L. v. Sterba, who, introduced the phoneme concept to Daniel Jones in England in 1911. In the, United States the phoneme principle was slow to gain acceptance, even though, it was championed by Edward Sapir, notably in his classic 1925 paper, in which, he argued for the psychological reality of phonemes; Bloomfield accepted the, principle in his 1933 book, but as late as 1934 Morris Swadesh could write that, the phoneme concept had only recently been accepted. Note also that many, American Structuralists, following Bloomfield (1933), regard prosodemes, (suprasegmental phonemes) as phonemes, a position rejected by most others,, notably by Daniel Jones, who prefers to speak of tonemes, chronemes and, stronemes. For historical accounts, see Fischer-J~rgensen (1975, esp. ch. 6),, Anderson (1985, esp. chs 10-11), Abercrombie (1991a: ch. 3), or the appendix, to the third (1967) edition of Jones (1950)., , phoneme principle n. The principle that the sounds of a particular, speech variety can be exhaustively assigned to a (usually small) set, of phonemes., , phoneme system, , n. (also phoneme inventory) The complete set of, , phonemes set up for a particular language, especially when, presented in an orderly manner, with consonants arranged by place,
Page 280 :
267, , phonemic spelling, , manner, voicing, etc., and vowels by height, backness, nasality, etc., Beginning with the Prague School, phoneme systems have often, been regarded as of typological importance. Languages differ, widely in the number of phonemes they distinguish: the Brazilian, language Piraha% has only 10 (seven consonants and three vowels),, while the Khoisan language !XU has 119; the average seems to be, around 25. Useful surveys can be found in Trubetzkoy (1939),, Hockett (1955), Sedlak (1969), O'Connor (1973: ch. 7), Crothers, (1978), Nartey (1979), Maddieson (1980a, 1980b, 1984), Lass (1984:, ch. 7) and Lindblom (1986)., /f~'ni:mlk kl~:z/ n. A single stretch of speech, which is planned and executed as an organized piece of behaviour;, this mayor may not correspond to a syntactic clause. Trager and, , phonemic clause, , Smith (1951)., /IndI't3:mln~si/ n. A synonym for, neutralization used by some American Structuralists. Haugen (1969)., , phonemic indeterminacy, , /f~ni:mlsaI'zeIJQ./ n. 1. The procedure by which, an analyst interprets the sounds of a language as a specified set of, phonemes. 2. See phonemic split. v: phonemicize., , phonemicization, , phonemic long component n. A phonetic feature which extends, over more than one segment within a single phonological form; the, simplest and most obvious type of prosody. For example, all obstruents in a cluster in English must agree in voicing; the feature, [±voice] might therefore be treated as a phonemic long component, extending over the whole cluster, whose members are individually, unspecified for voicing., , phonemic overlapping n. Any state of affairs in which two or more, phonemes in a particular language have identical phonetic realizations in certain environments, not necessarily the same environments. See partial overlapping and complete overlapping for, discussion and illustration., /f~'ni:mlks/ n. [obsolescent] 1. Any procedure for, identifying the phonemes of a language from a corpus of data., 2. (formerly also phonematics) A former synonym for phonology,, often preferred by the American Structuralists and reflecting the, importance in structuralist work of phonemics in sense 1., , phonemics, , phonemic spelling n. (also, commonly but inaccurately, phonetic, speUing) An alphabetic orthography in which each phoneme is
Page 281 :
phonemic split, , 268, , consistently represented by a single letter and each letter consistently represents a single phoneme. This is supposedly the whole, basis of an alphabetic orthography, but perhaps no standard orthography achieves the ideal. Among European languages, Finnish and, Basque come very close., , phonemic split n. (also split, fission, phonemicization) Any historical process in which an original single phoneme gives rise to two, (or more) phonemes as descendants. For example, the short lui of, Middle English has, in most modem varieties, split into the two, phonemes lui and IAI: bush but mush, put but putt, pull but dull,, all of these originally having the same vowel. Split can occur in, various ways, of which loss of the conditioning factor and lexical, diffusion are particularly important. If one of the descendants of, the original phoneme undergoes merger with another pre-existing, phoneme, we have primary split; if not, we have secondary split., , phonemic tier n. See segmental tier., phonemic transcription n. Any transcription of words or connected, speech in a particular speech variety in terms of the phonemes, which have been set up by the analyst for that variety. Such a transcription provides the minimum information necessary to construct, a complete pronunciation by rule; it omits all predictable phonetic, detail. Cf. phonetic transcription., , phonetic If~'netIkl adj. 1. Pertaining to speech sounds or to speech., 2. Pertaining to phonetics. 3. (of a transcription or representation), Characterized by an abundance of detail beyond that required for, strictly linguistic purposes; not phonemic., , phonetic alphabet n. 1. Any recognized system for transcribing, speech sounds onto paper which is sufficiently detailed and, complete to provide an unambiguous symbol for every speech, sound which needs to be distinguished. The most comprehensive, and widely used such system is the International Phonetic, Alphabet; American transcription is still often used in the United, States. 2. Any of several recognized systems for spelling out words, and names during radio communication. The US Army uses its, famous Able, Baker, Charlie, Dog, Easy, Fox system, while shipping and air traffic control use the Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta,, Echo, Foxtrot system., , phonetic content n. The property of a phonological unit, such, as a distinctive feature or a phoneme, by which it expresses real
Page 282 :
269, , phonetic plausibility, , information about the phonetic character of associated speech, sounds., /'kDr~leItl n. Any phonetic property whose, presence is associated with the presence of a phonological characteristic. For example, the phonetic correlates of stress may be any, or all of greater loudness, higher pitch or greater duration., , phonetic correlate, , phonetic distance, , /'dIst~ns/, , n. The inverse of phonetic similarity., See Laver (1994: 392-395) for a proposal based on English., , phonetic drift n. An instance of generational change involving the, phonetic realization of a phoneme, such as the gradual lowering of, lrel in RP during the last several generations., , phonetic feature n. Any independently controllable component of, speech., , phonetic form n. (also phonetic representation) The phonetically, more-or-Iess fully specified representation of a word or a longer, sequence, often especially when this is contrasted with its phonological (underlying) form., , phonetic function n. One of the two fundamental functions of a, distinctive feature: the contribution of some significant phonetic, content to the realization of a segment containing it. Cf. classificatory function., , phonetician, , /f~un~'tlf~1 n., , A practitioner of phonetics., , phonetic illusion II'lu:3Q./ n. The phenomenon in which a native, speaker insists that two different words which, objectively, are phonetically identical nevertheless sound different, as a consequence of, their having different underlying forms. The classic case is the Sarcee, speaker who insisted that dini 'this one' (underlying dini) sounded, different from dini 'it makes a sound' (underlying dinit). Sapir (1933)., Im~utI'veIfQ.I n. The property of a phonological rule which is easy to understand in phonetic terms, such as, the nasalization of a vowel before a nasal consonant. Phonetically, motivated rules are commonly called natural rules., , phonetic motivation, , /pl~:ZI'bIhti/ n. 1. In American Structuralist, phonology, a criterion for phonological analysis by which different, phones may be assigned to a single phoneme only if the phonetic, variation of the resulting phoneme can be explained in terms of, natural phonetic processes. 2. The property of a phonological rule, , phonetic plausibility
Page 283 :
phonetic representation, , 270, , whose presence makes either production or perception of speech, easier in some identifiable respect. Sommerstein (1977: 14-15)., , phonetic representation n. See pbonetic form., phonetic rule n. (also detail rule) In any approach to phonology, employing rules, a particular type of rule whose function is, in some, sense, no more than producing the correct phonetic detail in, the pronunciation of a linguistic form: a low-level rule. Its precise, characterization is controversial; Anderson (1975), as interpreted, by Sommerstein (1977), suggests the following: a rule is a phonetic, rule iff (1) it makes no reference to any non-phonological feature;, (2) it makes no reference to any boundary weaker than a wordboundary; and (3) it does not change the specification of any feature, which is underlyingly distinctive for any segments affected by the, rule. See Sommerstein (1977: 9.1) for discussion, and see also, P-rule., /f~'netlksl n. (formerly also pbonology) The scientific, study of speech, conventionally divided into articulatory pbonetics, (the study of the organs of speech and their use in producing speech, sounds), acoustic pbonetics (the study of the physical properties of, the sounds produced in speaking) and auditory phonetics (the study, of the processing and interpretation of speech sounds by the ear,, the nervous system and the brain); instrumental pbonetics is the, study of any of these by means of instruments to measure, record, or analyse data. Anthropopbonics (or general pbonetics) considers, the total range of speech sounds producible by the human vocal, apparatus, independently of any real or possible linguistic use;, linguistic phonetics examines the speech sounds occurring in particular languages or in languages generally. Phonetics is commonly, regarded as a distinct discipline from linguistics, the two together, being labelled the linguistic sciences. For an introduction, see Laver, (1994), Ladefoged (1975 [1993]), or Clark and Yallop (1990). Adj., pbonetic. The ancient Indian grammarians were sophisticated phoneticians;, , phonetics, , their work was not equalled anywhere before the nineteenth century. The, Greeks and the Chinese made only very limited progress in phonetics; the, Icelandic First Grammarian and the medieval Arabs were very much better,, but still not up to Indian standards. The modern tradition of phonetics began, in England in the sixteenth century and led, through the work of such scholars, as Ellis, Bell, Sweet and Jones, to the establishment of the British school of, phonetics. See Robins (1990) for an account. NOTE: See the comments under, phonology.
Page 284 :
271, , phoniatrics, , phonetic setting n. The tendency on the part of a given speaker to, maintain a particular configuration or state of the vocal apparatus, throughout speech. See Laver (1994: 394427) for an account with, proposals for transcription., , phonetic similarity ISImI'lrerlti/ n. An important but elusive, criterion for phonological analysis. The idea is that two phones, which are in complementary distribution can be assigned to a single, phoneme if they are 'phonetically similar', but this notion is, difficult to make explicit. One approach is to demand that such, segments should share more phonetic features with each other than, either does with any other segment. In English, for example, unaspirated [p=] is in complementary distribution with each of [ph], [t h], and [k h] (which themselves contrast), but [p=] clearly shares more, features with [ph] than either does with any of the others, and so, [p=] and [ph] can be assigned to a single phoneme Ip/. On the other, hand, English [h] and [IJ] are in complementary distribution, but, they share no features at all beyond [-syllabic], which they also, share with all other English consonants, and hence they should not, be assigned to a single phoneme. See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975:, 25-26, 84-86) for discussion, and see Hyman (1975: 64-65) for a, problematic example., , phonetic specification n. The determination, in terms of some, system of description, of the phonetic characteristics of a speech, sound., , phonetic spelling n. See phonemic spelling., phonetic transcription n. Any transcription of words or connected, speech which represents speech sounds in some considerable, phonetic detail, often including some detail which is predictable by, rule from other information. Such a transcription can be provided, by any competent phonetician, even in the absence of any phonological analysis of the speech variety represented and even when, the phonetician has no idea what the utterance means. Cf. phonemic, transcription., , phonetic universal n. Any universal which pertains primarily to the, phonetic characteristics of segments. See, (1979)., , Fischer-J~rgensen, , et al., , phoniatrics /foni retrlks/ n. The diagnosis and treatment of pathoI, , logical disorders of speech. A practitioner is a phoniatrist, If';} naI';}trlst/., I
Page 285 :
phonic, , 272, , phonic /'fon,kJ adj. 1. Pertaining to speech sounds. 2. Using speech, sounds as a medium; oral., , phonics /'fonlks/ n. A method of teaching spelling and reading which, concentrates on breaking a word down into a sequence of graphic, elements and assigning pronunciations to these., , phonic substance n. (also phonetic substance) Speech regarded as, consisting of a set of physical properties, either articulatory or acoustic., /f~un~'IDd3Ik~l/ adj. 1. Pertaining to phonology. 2. (of, some linguistic phenomenon) Belonging properly to the domain of, phonology, rather than to some other domain, such as phonetics,, morphology or syntax., , phonological, , phonological change n. 1. Broadly, any historical change which has, perceptible consequences for the pronunciation of a language., 2. More narrowly, a historical change which has consequences for, the phonological structure of language, such as a change in the, number or distribution of phonemes, in the way the phonemes are, related, or in the number, nature or ordering of phonological rules., In this narrower sense, the term excludes purely phonetic changes, in which nothing happens beyond fairly small changes in the, phonetic realizations of certain segments. See Fischer-J~rgensen, (1975: 102-104) for a brief summary with references, and see, Moulton (1967) for a classification of types of phonological change., , phonological component n. 1. In some comprehensive theories of, grammar, notably in transformational grammar and its descendants,, that part of the framework which deals with relating phonological, representations and their corresponding phonetic realizations., 2. See component., , phonological conditioning n. The selection of an allomorph on the, basis of its phonetic environment, as when the English plural, marker appears as [s] after a voiceless segment but [z] after a voiced, one. Cf. grammatical conditioning, lexical conditioning., , phonological form (PF) n. In some theory or analysis, a representation of a linguistic object (a word, a phrase, etc.) in terms of the, phonological elements recognized in that framework. The term is, particularly associated with early versions of generative phonology,, where it is applied to a rather abstract level of representation which, has not yet been converted by rules to its corresponding phonetic, form.
Page 286 :
273, , phonological rule, , phonological phrase n. (also prosodic phrase) In some analyses, a, posited level of phonological structure which is larger than a phonological word but smaller than an intonational phrase. This construct, is particularly associated with the Prosodic Hierarchy model, in, which it is taken, for example, as the domain within which iambic, reversal applies in English., , phonological phrase boundary n. (also major pause) A boundary, separating units which form the maximal domain within which any, phonological processes can apply, generally identified as a single, intonation contour and often represented by the symboi II. No rule, can ever apply across such a boundary., , phonological position n. In some analyses, a position in a, morpheme which is underlyingly empty of phonological material, but which must be filled by some segment in any phonetic form, involving that morpheme. For example, the Hebrew definite article, is sometimes represented underlyingly as haX, in which X represents an empty position. This position is filled by gemination of a, following consonant, if possible; if the following consonant is one, that cannot be geminated in Hebrew, the position is filled instead, by gemination of the preceding vowel: hence me/ex' 'king',, hamme/ex 'the king', but 7iis 'man', haaniS 'the man' (/11 cannot, be geminated)., , phonological prime n. (also phonological primitive, atom) In a, given theory of phonology, anyone of the minimal phonological, elements in terms of which the theory operates and which can in, no way be decomposed into simpler elements. Most versions of, classical phonology took the phonemes as primes; the Prague, School (arguably) and classical generative phonology (certainly), took the distinctive features as primes. Many contemporary, theories of phonology take as their primes components or autosegments which are rather similar to unary features. See Fudge, (1967)., , phonological representation n. A representation of the sound, structure of a linguistic form which excludes phonetic information, predictable by rules, such as a phonemic transcription., , phonological rule n. (also P-rule) In the broadest sense, any rule, which, in some analysis, is posited as involved in deriving a pronunciation from an underlying phonological representation. In this, conception, both rules appealing to morphological and lexical
Page 287 :
phonological scaling, , 274, , information and purely phonetic rules are included. Very, frequently, however, this label has been restricted to some proper, subset of such rules. Some would exclude rules appealing to, morpholexical information like 'preterite' or 'ablauting verb' while, including rules appealing to major word classes like 'noun' or, 'Latinate vocabulary'; others would exclude all such rules; both, groups might, independently, include or exclude purely phonetic, (allophonic) rules. Some would exclude purely morphophonemic, rules, while others would apply the term 'phonological rules' only, to such rules, excluding all other types. In Natural Generative, Phonology, the term is applied only to phonetic (allophonic) rules,, all other types being excluded., , phonological scaling /'skedIIJ/ n. The setting up of phonological, hierarchies, such as that based on phonological strength, in the, hope of deriving universals of phonological behaviour., , phonological space /spels/ n. An abstract conception of the total, range of possibilities available for distinguishing one segment from, another. The familiar vowel quadrilateral represents a simple twodimensional section of that space (tongue height vs. backness), but, a full representation of phonological space would be a multidimensional space involving such additional factors as lip-rounding,, velic position and tongue configuration. Only a subset of these parameters is ever considered at one time, most often in connection, with vowels (the vowel space)., , phonological strength n. (also strength) An abstract dimension, or, rather one of several abstract dimensions, along which segments, can be hierarchically ordered with respect to their behaviour in the, phonological processes of lenition and fortition. A familiar example, is the dimension of openness, along which segments may be ranked, Stop > Fricative > Approximant > Zero, corresponding to a, common direction of change in intervocalic position. See Lass, (1984: 177-183)., , phonological universal n. Any universal of fundamentally phonological character, such as one constraining phoneme systems. See, Greenberg (1978). Cf. phonetic universal., , phonological use of diacritic features n. The use of diacritic, features to distinguish segments which undergo some phonological, process from otherwise identical segments which fail to undergo, the process. For example, some Spanish verbs with infinitives in
Page 288 :
275, , phonology, , -cer (/eer/) and -cir (/eir/) acquire a Ikl in the first-person singular, present indicative while others do not: conocer 'know', conozco, 'I know', but mecer 'stir', mezo 'I stir'; conducir 'drive', conduzco, 'I drive', but esparcir 'spread', esparzo 'I spread'. A suitable, diacritic feature might be added to one group or the other, and, the /k/-insertion rule could be formulated only to apply in the, presence (or absence) of that feature. This device has usually been, regarded as quite legitimate within generative phonology. Cf., diacritic use of phonological features. Kiparsky (1968)., , phonological utterance n. See prosodic utterance., phonological weight n. See syUable weight., phonological word n. A particular phonological unit which is the, domain of certain phonological processes in a given language. In, the unmarked case, the phonological word is identical to the, morphological word. But it may be larger: in many languages, a, group of clitics forms a single phonological word with the associated host, as in French je te Ie donnerai 'I'll give it to you'. Or it, may be smaller: in Turkish, compound words are not subject to the, usual word-based rules of vowel harmony and stress assignment,, and apparently consist of two phonological words. The concept has, been particularly developed within the Prosodic Hierarchy; a rather, similar notion within Metrical Phonology is called the mot or the, prosodic word., , phonologist, , If~'nDI~d3Istl n., , A practitioner of phonology., , If~nDI~d3aI'zeIJQI n. Any phonological change in, which an allophonic variation becomes phonemic (contrastive):, phonemic split. An example is the split of Old English If!, with, conditioned allophones [f] and [v], into the modern English, phonemes IfI and Iv/., , phonologization, , If~'nDI~d3il n. 1. The branch of linguistics dealing with, the relations among speech sounds in particular languages and in, languages generally, and contrasting with phonetics. Though the, creation of alphabetic writing necessarily required some intuitive, grasp of phonology, the subject only began to be distinguished from, phonetics in the late nineteenth century, and the distinction was, not firmly established until well into this century, particularly as a, result of the work done by the Prague School, which popularized, the term 'phonology'. Most approaches to phonology before the, 1960s were centred on the phoneme and attached great importance, , phonology
Page 289 :
phonology, , 276, , to distribution, to contrast and to representations, with little interest, in phonological processes; this classical phonology embraced the, work of the American Structuralists and of the British school of, phonetics, as well as that of Glossematic phonology and that of the, more divergent Prague School. The highly divergent Prosodic, Analysis of the 1950s, though not widely influential, adumbrated, many ideas of the 1980s. In the 1960s the classical version of generative phonology revolutionized phonological thinking. This, approach emphasized the role of phonological processes; abstract, underlying forms formulated in terms of systematic phonemes were, converted by elaborate sequences of phonological rules into surface, phonetic forms, and the phonemes themselves were decomposed, into bundles of distinctive features. The framework quickly proved, to be excessively unconstrained, and both Natural Phonology, and Natural Generative Phonology were developed to curb, these excesses, while an exuberant range of proposals such as, Stratificational phonology, Upside-down Phonology and Atomic, Phonology failed to attract wide support. Around 1980, several, linguists began independently to develop non-linear views, of phonology involving much more elaborate representations of, phonological structure. Autosegmental Phonology was developed, mainly to handle tonal phenomena but was rapidly expanded into, a comprehensive theory, while Metrical Phonology has largely, remained a method for dealing with word accent, particularly stress., Meanwhile, a range of increasingly elaborate privative (or holistic), frameworks was being developed, including Particle Phonology,, Dependency Phonology and Govemment and Charm Phonology., In contrast, Lexical Phonology retains much of the spirit of, classical generative phonology, in that it concentrates on the same, kinds of phenomena. See Householder (1979) for a critical overview, of some modern approaches to phonology, and see Goldsmith, (1995) for a comprehensive review of current work. 2. The entire, phonological system of a particular language: the phonology of, French. 3. [obsolete] In the work of many American Structuralists,, a label applied to the totality of phonetics and "phonemics', ('phonology' in the modern sense). 4. [obsolete] A label once, applied specifically to the phonological ideas of the Prague School., 5. [obsolete] In British usage, a frequent synonym for historical, phonology. 6. [obsolete] In the nineteenth century, a frequent term, for phonetics, sometimes extended or specialized to denote any of, speech physiology, the study of pronunciation in general, the, pronunciation of a particular language, or the sound system of a
Page 290 :
phonotactics, , 277, particular language. Adj. phonological., , NOTE: The modern distinction, between 'phonetics' and 'phonology' was not well established before the, 1950s; see Abercrombie (1991b: ch. 2) for a brief historical survey. The term, 'functional phonetics', coined by Andre Martinet, has often been used in preferenee to 'phonology', and is not quite dead even today in some quarters., , phonology-syntax interface 1'1ntgfelS!, , n. The putative boundary, between the domains of phonology and syntax. The nature and, location, and even the very existence, of this boundary have often, been vexed questions. The American Structuralists, with their, doctrine of the separation of levels, refused to admit any grammatical information, even morphological facts, into phonology, but, all other frameworks have accepted that phonological rules (in the, broad sense) must be sensitive at least to the presence of morphological and syntactic boundaries, and sometimes also to additional, grammatical information, such as the identity of a syntactic category. The issue of whether syntactic rules can have access to, phonological information has been deeply controversial. See, Pullum and Zwicky (1988) for a review with references., , phonometer, , If~'nnmItgl, , An instrument for measuring or, recording the intensity of sound. Adj. phonometric Jfnn~lmetrIkJ~, abstr. n. phonometry Jf~lnnm~triJ or phonometries Ifnng'metrIks/., n., , phonon J'fgunnnl n. In Stratificational phonology, anyone of the, unary features (components) which are the minimal phonological, units in that framework, such as vocalic, labial or voiceless., , phonostylistics, , Jf~un~stal'hstlksl, , n. The study of the aesthetic or, expressive functions of sound(s). Adj. phonostylistic., Jf~un~trektlkli 'm~utlveltId/ n. A, phonological rule which has the effect of bringing phonological, forms into line with the phonotacties of the language. A 'positively, motivated rule' removes or alleviates violations~ a "negatively, motivated rule' applies except when its application would produce, a violation. Sommerstein (1977: 197)., , phonotactically motivated rule, , Jf~un~trektlk 'relnd31 n. The total set of contexts, in which a particular segment can occur., , phonotactic range, , If~un~'trektlksl n. In a given language, the set of, constraints on the possible sequences of consonant and vowel, phonemes within a word, a morpheme or a syllable. For example,, an English word can have a maximum of three consonants before, , phonotactics
Page 291 :
Phrasal Stress Rule, , 278, , the first vowel; if three occur, the first must be lsI, the second must, be a voiceless plosive Ip t kl, and the third must be a liquid or glide, II r w j/. Adj. phonotactic., , Phrasal Stress Rule l'freIz~l/ n. (PSR) In some analyses, the distinctive stress rule which assigns stress in compounds like pregnancy, test and driving licence., , phthong IfOo1J1 n. [obsolete] An early synonym for phone or, segment. Carruthers (1900)., , physical phonetics, , l'fIZIk~l/ n., , The detailed description, usually by, means of instruments, of the phonetic characteristics of individual, utterances. Cf. systematic phonetics. Chomsky (1964)., , Pig Latin l'pIg lretIn/ n. An English language game in which each, word of an utterance is deformed by having its initial consonant(s), (if any) moved to the end and followed by the diphthong lei/, or, by Iwei/ if the word has no initial consonant: Yntactic-say Ucturesstray as-way itten-wray y-bay Oam-Nay Omsky-Chay in-way ineteennay ifty-fay even-say., her~si/ n. The view, advanced by Kenneth Pike, (1947b and elsewhere), that the phonology of a language cannot, be adequately analysed without reference to grammatical facts, and, more generally that no aspect of a language can be studied without, taking other aspects into account. This rejection of the separation, of levels was regarded as heretical by the American Structuralists, of the time., , Pike heresy /'paIk, , l'pIn~1 n. The fleshy part of the outer ear lying outside the, head; the 'ear' in everyday usage., , pinna, , pitch /pItf/ n. 1. (also perceived pitch) The perceptual correlate of, the frequency of a sound - in speech, of the fundamental frequency, of the vocal folds. The higher the frequency (that is, the more rapid, the vibration), the higher the pitch, but the correlation is far from, linear: at higher frequencies (though not at lower), the pitch is, roughly proportional to the logarithm of the frequency. (See Denes, and Pinson 1993: 104.) The unit of pitch is the mel. 2. In the SPE, feature system, a group of six distinctive features (high, low,, elevated, rising, falling, concave) provisionally suggested (p. 3(0), but not defined or elaborated., , pitch accent n. 1. A type of word accent occurring in some languages,, in which the syllables (or moras) of each word must exhibit one
Page 292 :
279, , pitch span, , of the permitted sequences of pitches. Standard Japanese, for, example, shows such contrasts as shiro (HL) 'white' and shiro (LH), 'castle', arne (HL) 'rain' and arne (LH) 'candy', sakura (LHH), 'cherry', zakuro (HLL) 'pomegranate' and kokoro (LHL) 'heart'., A pitch accent differs from a tone system in that the pitches of only, certain syllables need be specified, the rest being predictable by rule:, in Japanese, for example, only the position of the pitch fall need be, marked, all other pitches then being completely determined. In a, tone language, in contrast, the tone of every syllable usually has to, be independently specified. 2. [rare] See sentence stress., , pitch contour n. The shape of the pitch value within the duration, of the syllable bearing it., , pitch height n. The exact placement of the pitch of a syllable within, a given pitch span., , pitch language n. A language in which each word has a characteristic pitch contour, so that each syllable receives a particular, pitch level depending on its place in the word and on the contour, assigned to that word. In the canonical case, the pitch of every, syllable is predictable from just one specification. In the pitch, language Japanese, for example, the pitch of every syllable is, predictable from a specification of the location of the pitch fall in, the word. Cf. tone language., , pitch obtrusion /gb'tru:3Q./ n. A rapid and wide departure of pitch, from a smooth or undulating contour, often regarded as a major, means of making a syllable prominent in English. Bolinger (1958)., , pitch prominence n. The phenomenon in which an accented, syllable stands out within a word by having a noticeably higher or, lower pitch than neighbouring syllables., , pitch range /reInd3/ n. The limits within which an individual, produces or uses variations in pitch. Laver (1994: 155) distinguishes, among the organic pitch range (the limits imposed by the individual's physiology), the linguistic pitch range (the range of pitch, used in ordinary speech) and the paralinguistic pitch range (the, extended range used for paralinguistic purposes)., , pitch setting n. The use of pitch by a particular speaker: mean value,, overall range and degree of fluctuation., , pitch span /spren/ n. The difference in pitch height between a local, maximum and a local minimum in speech.
Page 293 :
Pitmatic, , 280, , Pitmatic /pIt'mretIk/ n. [non-technical] The local name for the, distinctive speech variety of County Durham in northern England., Presumably from pitman 'coal-miner'., , place /pleIs/ n. 1. See place of articulation. 2. See articulatory place., 3. In some versions of feature geometry, a superordinate class node, dominating all features pertaining to place of articulation., , place-neutral articulation n. Any articulation in which the active, articulator forms a constriction with the passive articulator which, is most directly opposite it, such as a bilabial, an apico-dental, a, lamino-alveolar or a dorso-velar. Cf. displaced articulation., , place of articulation n. (also place) In the description of consonants, the parameter along which differences in the location of the, constriction are recorded. A large number of such places can be, linguistically distinguished; these are denoted by such labels as, bilabial, (lamino- )alveolar and velar., , place theory of hearing n. A theory of hearing which holds that, sound waves of different frequencies stimulate nerve receptors at, different points along the basilar membrane, thus allowing complex, sounds to be analysed into their components; the greater the amplitude of the sound, the more intense the nervous response. This, theory is now universally accepted. Cf. the telephone and resonance, theories of hearing., , plain /pleIn/ adj. In the lakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature invoked somewhat anomalously as the opposite of both, flat and sharp. A [plain] consonant, therefore, is one which is not, [flat] (that is, not characterized by a downward shift of formants, in the spectrum, and hence not lip-rounded, not pharyngealized, and not retroflexed) and also not [sharp] (that is, not characterized, by an upward shift of the upper frequencies in the spectrum,, and hence not palatalized). Effectively, [flat], [plain] and [sharp], constitute the three values of a single ternary feature. Most of the, 'ordinary' consonants of English and other languages are [plain]., /'pleln~/ n. Any approach to phonology which, views phonological structure as consisting of a number of more-orless autonomous planes of representation all attached to a single, skeleton, rather like the pages of a book. See Roca (1994: 255-260)., , planar phonology, , plane /pleIn! n. 1. Anyone of the three aspects of phonology distinguished by Karl Buhler: representation, expression, appeal. BUhler
Page 294 :
281, , plummy, , (1934). 2. In planar phonology, anyone of the autonomous levels, posited. Each plane corresponds to a tier in the more familiar, representation., , plane conftation n. In some versions of planar phonology, a process, by which two independent planes are combined into a single level, of representation at some stage in a derivation. McCarthy (1986)., , plane copying II knpiIlJ1 n. In some versions of planar phonology, a, procedure by which the information present in one plane is copied, onto a second plane carrying different information so that phonological processes can apply to a representation containing both, types of information. Halle and Vergnaud (1987)., , plateau, , I'plret~ul n., , See topline. Vaissiere (1983)., , plateauing n. A tone assimilation phenomenon, occurring in some, tone languages, in which non-high tones are assimilated to adjacent high tones, as when the sequence HLH is assimilated to HHH., , Plato phenomenon, , I'plelt~ul n., , See veto phenomenon., , Ipld'9Izm~gro:f/ n. A device, consisting of a, tank enclosing the entire body below the neck, for measuring the, expansion and contraction of the chest during speech. Abstr. n., plethysmography /pl~9Iz'mngrdfi/., , plethysmograph, , plosion l' pldU3 Q/ n. The release stage of a plosive consonant, during, which the built-up air pressure is released. Several types are, possible: median oral release~ lateral release and nasal release., /'pl~USIVI n. or adj. A consonant segment, one type of oral, stop, whose articulation involves a complete closure of the vocal, tract held long enough for air pressure to build up, followed by a, sudden release of the trapped air; examples include [p d 9 q]. The, term is commonly restricted to segments made with a pulmonic, egressive airstream mechanism, the terms injective, ejective, implosive and click being used for comparable articulations made with, other airstream mechanisms. See plosive theory., , plosive, , plosive theory n. The analysis of the articulation of a plosive consonant into three phases: the approach, the hold and the release, (or plosion)., , plummy l'plAmil adj. [non-technical] A dismissive label occasionally, applied to the speech of an individual who uses Received, Pronunciation, especially U-RP~ by a hearer who finds such an
Page 295 :
plurisegmental, , 282, , accent unattractive. According to Wells (1982: 283), the distinctive, voice quality of this sort of accent is produced by lowering the, larynx and expanding the oro-pharynx. From the jocular suggestion that, such an individual appears to speak with 'a plum in the mouth', reflecting the, rather small degree of movement of the lips and tongue characteristic of such, an accent., , plurisegmental, , /plu~rIseg 'mentgll, , adj. See suprasegmental., , plus-juncture /pIAs/ n. In some American Structuralist work, a type, of juncture, represented by the symbol +, posited as occurring internally in words like night-rate (night+rate) to account for the, phonetic contrast with words like nitrate, not containing the juncture. The plus juncture is the source of the morpheme boundary, symbol later used by generative phonologists. Trager and Smith (1951)., , plus sign Isalnl n. The auxiliary symbol +, commonly used to represent a morpheme boundary, as when the underlying form of divinity, is represented as #divi:n + iti#., , pneumograph I'nju:mggro:fl n. A device for measuring expansion, of the chest during speech, consisting of a taut belt around the, chest whose expansion is recorded. Abstr. n. pneumography, /nju'mogrgfi/., , pneumotachograph Inju:mg'trekggro:fl n. An instrument which, measures airflow through the mouth and the nose simultaneously, and independently. Abstr. n. pneumotachography Inju:mgtg'kogrgfi/., , polar chart /'pgul g/ n. A distinctive graphical device for representing, the vowel space, differing from the usual vowel quadrilateral in, having the shape of a circular arc exceeding 90°. It has the advantage of allowing the description of vowels to be unified with the, description of consonants. See Figure Pl. Catford (1977)., , pole /pgul/ n. In Dependency Phonology, anyone of the positions, defined by the elements of the framework., , polysyllable l'polisI1gbgl/ n. A word consisting of two or more, syllables. Cf. monosyllable. Adj. polysyllabic IpolisI'lrebIk/., , polysystemicism /polisI'sti:mgSlzrp / n. The view that there is no, such thing as a single phonological system for an entire language,, but that different phonological systems must be recognized for, different purposes, such as for different strata of vocabulary,
Page 296 :
283, , portmanteau morph, palatal, , i retracted palatal, , i, , close, , ------~, , u fronted velar, , halfclose, , o velar, , half-oPen c, , ~, , oPen, open, (wide, resonant), , ""'-', , ---I, , a, , o, , half-open, (narrow, resonant), , half-close, (wide, approximant), , Q, , pharyngeal, , close, (narrow, approximant), , Figure PI A polar chart, , different pOSItIons within a word or morpheme, and even for, different parts of speech. Though both Prague School phonologists, and those American Structuralists who recognized coexistent, phonemic systems admitted some degree of polysystemicism, the, principle was most fully developed within Prosodic Analysis, whose, proponents adopted the extreme position that the phonological, units occurring in one position or context could absolutely not be, identified with those occurring in another. Adj. polysystemic, /polisI'sti:mIk/. Ant. monosystemicism., /p:):tlmrent~u/ n. (also overlapping morph) A, single morph which represents two or more morphemes. An, example is the morph -0 in the Latin verb form amo "I love': here, am- is the verb root, and -0 simultaneously expresses the categories, first person, singular, present, active, indicative, most of which are, in general overtly and separately marked on Latin verb forms., , portmanteau morph, , Hockett (1947).
Page 297 :
portmanteau word, , 284, , portmanteau word n. A less usual synonym for blend., positional variant Ip~lzIf~n~U n. An allophone which is conditioned, by its environment, as opposed to a free variant., , positive exception IIpOZ1tlvl n. A phonological form which undergoes a particular phonological rule even though it fails to meet the, structural description of that rule - hence, the very opposite of an, ordinary exception., , postalveolar, , Ip~strelvil~ul~1, , 1. adj. Pertaining to the region just, , behind the alveolar ridge. 2. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with, the primary constriction occurring just behind the alveolar ridge., 3. n. A segment so articulated, such as the post-alveolar approximant used for English Irl by most speakers in England. 4. adj. See, palato-a1veolar. NOTE: The IPA now recommends postalveolar in place of, the traditional term palato-alveolar., , postconsonantal Ip~ustkons~lnrent~Uadj. (of a segment) Occurring, immediately after a consonant., , postcycHc role n. In any theory of phonology employing the cycle,, a rule which is not included in the cycle but which applies only, after all cyclic rules have applied to all possible domains., , posterior IpolstI~ri~1 adj. (of a phonation type) Produced exclusively, with the back (arytenoidal) part of the glottis, the front (ligamental), part being tightly closed. Posterior phonation is possible, but, perhaps not used in any language. See Catford (1977: 103). Ant., anterior., , posterodorsom, , IpDstI~r;)ldJ:s;)m/ n. Another name for the back of, the tongue, preferred by Catford (1977, 1988). Adj. posterodorsal., , postlexical role, , Ip~ustllekslk~ll n. A phonological rule which, applies to sequences of words already embedded in a syntactic, structure, such as the rule of tapping in American English essentially, a phonological rule applying to phrases. The notion has, been particularly well developed within Lexical Phonology. Kaisse, (1985, 1987) distinguishes postlexical I rules (PI rules) from, postlexical 2 rules (P2 rules): PI rules require access to grammatical information, may apply cyclically, may be restricted to applying, at word boundaries, and may have lexical exceptions; P2 rules, (postlexical rules as earlier conceived) are totally automatic and, exceptionless and are typically below the threshold of consciousness. See also prosodic rule.
Page 298 :
285, , Prague School, , post-nucleus n. Any material following the intonational nucleus, within an intonational phrase., , post-tonic adj. (of a syllable or segment) Occurring after the, position of the stress, sometimes more specifically immediately after, the stress., , posture Ilpostf ~I n. In the Williamson feature system, a distinctive, feature with the possible values flapped, steady and trilled., , postvelar, , Ip~ustlvi:I~1, , postvocalic, , adj. or n. See uvular., , /p~ostv~'krehkl, , adj. (of a segment) Occurring immedi-, , ately after a vowel., /p~'tenf~l/ n. A notion formerly much invoked,, particularly by the American Structuralists, as a way of identifying, word boundaries: a word boundary is a point at which a speaker, might in principle pause during speech., , potential pause, , Prague School Il pro:g sku:l/ n. The name commonly given to the, work done by linguists associated with the Prague Linguistic Circle, in the 1920s and 1930s. The Prague School, whose leading theorists, were Nikolai Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson, is best known for, its work in phonology. Though in many respects Prague School, analyses were typical of classical phonology, and hence broadly, similar to those of the American Structuralists, the school also, introduced a number of strikingly original ideas, many of which, have proved to be of lasting influence. Among these ideas were, the archiphoneme, the concepts of neutralization and markedness,, an early version of distinctive features and an associated classification of oppositions, and an emphasis on typology and on phonological universals; lakobson also did pioneering work in the, acquisition of phonology. The major synthesis of Prague School, phonology was Trubetzkoy (1939); soon after its publication,, Trubetzkoy died at the hands of the Gestapo, while lakobson fled, to the United States. There he introduced Praguian ideas; with, Morris Halle, he championed the linguistic use of the sound spectrograph, developed the first full-blown distinctive feature system, (the Jakobson-Halle feature system), and exerted considerable, influence upon the development of generative phonology. Some, later European linguists were also notably influenced by Prague, School ideas, perhaps most notably the French linguist Andre, Martinet, who developed in Martinet (1955) a 'neo-Praguian' view, of phonological change. Accounts of Prague School phonology
Page 299 :
286, , preaflrication, , can be found in Vachek (1966), Krcimsky (1974: 32-76), FischerJ0rgensen (1975: ch. 3), Sommerstein (1977: 45-53), Sampson, (1980: ch. 5), Lepschy (1982: ch. 3), Lass (1984: ch. 3), and, Anderson (1985: chs 4-5). Adj. Praguian l'pro:gi~n1., , preaffrication Ipri:refrI'keIfQ.I n. The phenomenon in which a consonant (most usually a voiceless plosive) is preceded by a brief period, of friction noise, as in [aXk]. See Laver (1994: 373-374). Adj. preafmcated /pri:'refrIkeItId/., , preaspiration Ipri:respI'reIfQ./ n. The phenomenon in which a consonant (most usually a voiceless plosive) is preceded by a period of, voiceless breathing. This occurs with voiceless plosives in certain, circumstances in Icelandic, so that uppi 'up' is pronounced [uhpi], and batna 'improve' is pronounced [bahtna]. See Laver (1994:, 356-358). Adj. preaspirated Ipri:'respIreItId/., , precedence, , /'presId~ns/ n. The occurrence of one element before, another in left-to-right order. 11: precede IprI'si:d/., , precedence constraint n. Within the partial ordering hypothesis of, rule application, any constraint upon rule application of the, following form: Where the same form meets the structural description of both rule A and rule B, only rule A is applied, though this, does not in itself preclude rule B from applying later in the derivation. Here rule A is said to take precedence over rule B, or, in a, somewhat special sense, to precede rule B. For example, underlying, Menomini /oe:keoam/ meets the structural description of both, Glide Formation, which converts certain vowels to glides, and, Epenthesis, which inserts U] between adjacent vowels; since the, phonetic form is [we:kewam], clearly Glide Formation takes precedence over Epenthesis. Cf. blockage constraint. Sommerstein (1977:, 177)., , preconsonantal, , Ipri:kDns~'nrent~lI adj. (of a segment) Occurring, immediately before a consonant. Both the III and the III in milk, are preconsonantal., , predorsal, , /pri:'d:J:s~lI n., , or adj. A rare synonym for laminal., , /pref~'renf~lI n. A particular position in, which, universally or language-specifically, a particular phonological, process is most likely to occur. For example, intervocalic position, is almost universally a preferential environment for the lenition of, consonants. Lass (1984: 181)., , preferential environment
Page 300 :
287, , prevocalic, , prefix I'pri:flksl n. An affix which precedes the root, stem or base, to which it is bound, such as the English derivational prefixes, re- and un-, the Japanese honorific 0- or any of the large set of, inflectional affixes found in Swahili., , pre-head I'pri:hed/ n. In those treatments of intonation which recognize a head, any sequence of unstressed syllables preceding the head., l'prem~tf~1 n. (premrel) A distinctive feature, proposed for treating contrasts of aspiration: aspirated segments, are [+premrel], unaspirated ones are [-premrel]. Lass (1984: 91)., , premature release, , prenasalization Ipri:nelz~laI'zeIfQ.1 n. The articulation of a segment,, most often a plosive, with an initial brief period of air flow through, the nasal cavity, as in the segment [mb]. Adj. prenasalized., I'pri:nju:kli~s/ n. Any material preceding the intonational nucleus within an intonational phrase., , pre-nucleus, , /pri:~'klu:dId/ adj. (also preploded /pri:'pl~udld/) (of, a segment other than a plosive) Articulated with an initial brief, total blockage of the air flow, as in [bm]. Abstr. n. preocclusion, /pri:~'klu:3Q./ or preplosion /pri:'pl~u3Q./., , preoccluded, , prepalatal /pri:'prel~t~l/ adj. or n. A segment articulated at the front, part of the palate., , NOTE: This term is sometimes used more broadly to, denote alveolo-palatal or even palato-alveolar articulations, but Laver (1994:, 136) recommends the narrower use., , preruptive /prI'rAptIvl n. or adj. [rare] Any unaspirated voiceless, obstruent. Latin praeruptus "broken off abruptly'., , prespecification /pri:speslfI'kelfQ./, , n. In some analyses, especially, of reduplication involving fixed elements in the reduplicated forms,, the analytical procedure of inserting information into the template, before copying. Cf. melodic overwriting. Marantz (1982)., , pressure, , /'pref~1 n. In the SPE feature system, either of the two, features velaric pressure and ejection (glottal pressure)., , pretonic /pri: 'tonIkl adj. (of a syllable or a segment) Occurring, before the position of the stress., , prevelar Ipri: 'vi:I~1 n. or adj. A segment articulated at the front edge, of the velum; a palatalized velar., , prevocalic /pri:v~lkrehkl adj. (of a segment) Occurring immediately, before a vowel.
Page 301 :
prevoicing, , 288, , Ipri:'V~ISIlJI n. The occurrence of a brief period of, pulmonically initiated voicing before a voiceless segment produced, with another airstream mechanism, as in the !Xfi segment [dtJ']., Adj. prevoiced., , prevoicing, , I'pralm~sil n. The view that phonemes are, the fundamental phonological primes, accepted in most versions of, classical phonology but generally rejected since the introduction, of distinctive features in early generative phonology., , primacy of phonemes, , primary affix I'pralm~ri/ n. (also stress-shifting suffix, Class I suffix), An affix which is counted in determing the position of stress, such, as English -ic, -al or -ous: pyramid vs. pyramidal, homophone vs., homophonous. Such affixes have other properties, such as triggering, Trisyllabic Laxing (sanelsanity) and velar softening (electricl, electricity). Cf. secondary affix. Chomsky and Halle (1968)., , primary articulation n. (also primary stricture) In a segment which, is articulated with constrictions at two different locations, that, constriction which is more radical (that is, which involves the tighter, closure), the other being treated as a secondary articulation. It is, the primary articulation which determines the choice of symbol for, representing the segment, secondary articulations being indicated, by diacritics. Hence [tW ] is a labialized voiceless alveolar plosive,, while [mj] is a palatalized bilabial nasal., , primary cardinal vowel n. In the traditional version of the cardinal, vowel system, anyone of the eight peripheral vowel qualities set, up initially as arbitrary reference points: [i e {: a 0 :) 0 u]. From, these the secondary cardinal vowels are derived by reversing the, lip-rounding in each case., , primary phoneme n. In some versions of American Structuralism,, an ordinary segmental phoneme. NOTE: The contrasting term, secondary, phoneme, has been replaced by suprasegmental phoneme., , primary split n. A type of phonemic split in which one of the, descendants of the single original phoneme simultaneously undergoes merger with another pre-existing phoneme. For example, preLatin /s/ became [r] between vowels, thereby merging with existing, Irl, while other instances of lsI were unaffected. Cf. secondary split., Hoenigswald (1960)., , primary stress n. The position of the single most prominent stress, in a polysyllabic word. In the IPA, primary stress is indicated by a
Page 302 :
289, , privilege of occurrence, , raised vertical bar preceding the syllable with primary stress: hence, vaccination would be [.vreksI'nelfQ]. When ordinary orthography is, used, the primary stress is often marked with an acute accent:, vaccination. Cf. secondary stress., , Primary Stress Rule (PSR) A putative rule which assigns, primary stress to the majority of English nouns. Various formulations exist; the one below is taken from Hogg and McCully, (1987: 14):, V, , ~, , [lstress] I _, , Co(V(C))(VCO)]N, , The rule applies disjunctively, starting with the longest environment, matched by the string in question. Halle (1973)., , prime /pralml n. See phonological prime., prime feature system n. See Ladefoged feature system., primitive I'prlmltlvl 1. n. See phonological prime. 2. adj. (of a, segment or a phonological system) Very early; characteristic of, a language at the earliest stage of it which can be reconstructed., Sense 2: French prirnitiJ 'early, original'., , Prince language Iprlnsl n. A language in which the consonants in, a cluster must agree in place of articulation. After Prince (1984)., l'prlv~tIvl n. In Prague School phonology, a, contrast between two segments one of which (the marked member), is characterized by the presence of a property which is absent from, the other (the unmarked member). An example is the /p/-fbl, contrast in English, in which fbI is marked by the presence of voice,, absent from Ip/, there being no other differences between the two., Privative oppositions are fundamental in a number of current, theories of phonology, such as Particle Phonology, Dependency, Phonology and Government and Charm Phonology. Cf. gradual, opposition, equipollent opposition., , privative opposition, , privative theory n. ( also holistic theory) Any approach to, phonology which functions in terms of unary features (variously, called components or elements) which can only be present or, absent and which cannot take values. Examples include Particle, Phonology and Dependency Phonology. See Roca (1994: 114-132), for a comparative review of several such approaches., , privilege of occurrence l'prlvlhd31 n. See distribution.
Page 303 :
procedural definition, procedural definition, , 290, Ipr~'si:d3~r~1, , deflnIJQ.1 n. See operational, , definition., , process Ilpr~usesl n. Any phonological statement which is expressed, in the form of a rule which applies to one representation and, converts it into a different representation. Though rejected by, certain frameworks (most notably by the American Structuralists),, processes have been accepted as indispensable by most twentiethcentury theories of phonology; their use was developed to an, extreme degree by classical generative phonology., , process morphophonemics n. A label sometimes applied to the, particular version of morphophonology advocated by Leonard, Bloomfield, in which processes were recognized to treat morphophonological alternations. See Lass (1984: 59-62)., , process phonology n. Any theory of phonology in which phonological processes are recognized as playing a central part., Ipr~u'khtlkl n. A clitic which is phonologically bound to a, following host, such as French je 'I' in je vais 'I'm going'. Cf. enclitic., , proclitic, , Ipr~ukhtlsaI'zeIJQ.1 n. Any process by which some, element is converted into a proclitic. v: procliticize., , procliticization, production, , Ipr~'dAkJ~nI n., , See speech production., , Ipr~'dAktIvl adj. (of a phonological or morphological, process or alternation) Applying freely to new instances of words,, forms or utterances of the appropriate type. For example, the rule, that inserts an leI before a word-initial sibilant-plosive cluster in, Spanish is still productive, as evidenced by such recent loan words, as estereo 'stereo'. Ant. unproductive., , productive, , progressive assimilation, tion., , Ipr~'greslvl n., , See perseverative assimila-, , Some people apply this term instead to anticipatory assimilation;, this is not recommended., NOTE:, , Ipr~'d3ekJ~nI n. 1. In some versions of non-linear, phonology, most notably Government and Charm Phonology, a, level of representation obtained by extracting the elements of, a certain type from another level, often for the purpose of making, adjacency statements between elements which are not strictly, adjacent in the original level. For example, the vowels alone might, be projected from a CV representation in order to state rules of, vowel harmony. 2. In frameworks employing the X-bar structure,, , projection
Page 304 :
pronunciation, , 291, , the relationship which holds between a head and its mother (or its, mother's mother). For example, a syllable is regarded as the, maximal projection of its nucleus., , Projection Principle n. A central principle of Govemment and, Charm Phonology. It says: governing relations are defined at the, level of lexical representation and remain constant throughout a, phonological derivation., , prolongabllity, prolongation, , /pr~uIDIJ~'bdltil n., , /pr~UIDIJ'geIIt:l/ n., , See maintainability., , Unusual or abnormal lengthening, , of a sound during speech., , prominence, , /'prDmIn~ns/, , n. 1. The property of a syllable which, stands out from adjoining syllables by virtue of any of several, phonetic characteristics, such as greater loudness, greater duration,, higher or lower pitch, greater syllable weight, or greater excursion, of the vocal tract from its neutral position. The phonological use, of such prominence is accent (senses 3--4). 2. [rare] See sonority, (sense 2)., , prominence theory of syllable production n. The view that a, syllable is phonetically a peak in prominence resulting from a, combination of stress, length, pitch and intrinsic sonority. The difficulty is that such a notion of 'prominence' is impossible to define, objectively., , promotion, , /pr~lm~uIt:l/ n. The replacement of a primary place, feature by a secondary one, as when PIE *[k w ] becomes Greek [p], or pre-Basque *[tj ] becomes Basque [c]. v: promote /pr~lm~ut/., , Clements (1991)., , pronouncing dictionary /pr~nOunSIIJ 'dIkJ~nri/ n. A reference book, which gives the preferred pronunciations of a wide range of words, and proper names. Daniel Jones's EPD was long the standard for, British English; John Wells's LPD is now the definitive work, for both British and American pronunciation., , pronunciation, , /pr~nAnsi'elIt:l/, , n. [non-technical] The manner in, which speech sounds, especially connected sequences, are articulated by individual speakers or by speakers generally. This everyday, term is little used in phonetics and phonology, in which a particular style of speaking is called an accent (sense 1), and more specific, terms are applied to distinguishable aspects of pronunciation. v:, pronounce /pr~lnouns/.
Page 305 :
proparalepsis, , 292, , proparalepsis, , Ipr~uprer~'lepslsi n. The addition of a vowel to the, end of a word, a particular form of paragoge. Ant. apocope., , proparoxytone Ipr~up~'rDkslt~unln. In Ancient Greek, a word with, an acute accent on the antepenult. Cf. oxytone, paroxytone., , proper analysis, , l'prDp~1, , n. See structural description., , IprDp~ In 'klu:3Q.1 n. An important, principle governing the priority of application of phonological rules,, variously invoked to avoid statements of extrinsic rule ordering or, to assign precedence in cases of disjunctive ordering. Several, versions exist; the following is taken from Sommerstein (1977: 186):, if every logically possible form meeting the structural description, of rule A also meets the structural description of rule B, and the, converse is not the case, then rule A has precedence over rule B., (In other words, A applies before B, or, if they are disjunctively, ordered, instead of rule B.) In plain English, the special case takes, precedence over the more general one. Cf. Elsewhere Condition., , Proper Inclusion Precedence, , Koutsoudas et af. (1974)., Ipr~uperI'sp~um~nDnl n. In Ancient Greek, a, word with a circumflex accent on the penult. Ct. perispomenon., , properispomenon, , Ipr~'pJ:f~n~l/ adj. In Prague School, phonology, a contrast which applies identically to two or more pairs, of segments - for example, the voicing contrast distinguishing, English Ip/-/b/, It/-/d/, Ik/-/g/. Ct. isolated opposition., , proportional opposition, , proprioception, , /pr~upri~'sepf~n/ n. A speaker's own awareness, of her/his articulations by means of kinaesthetic feedback. Adj., proprioceptive /pr~upri~'septlv/., , prosodeme, , /'prDs~di:m/ n., , See suprasegmental phoneme., , prosodic, , Ipr~'sDdlk/ adj. 1. Narrowly, pertaining to distinctions, of prominence in speech, particularly as realized phonetically, by variation in pitch and loudness, or phonologically by the use, of tone, pitch accent or stress. 2. Broadly, pertaining to any, phonetic or phonological variable which can only be described, with reference to a domain larger than a single segment; suprasegmental. NOTE: Laver (1994: 450) recommends restricting this term to, , sense 1, reserving soprasegmental for the broader sense including also metrical., and temporal organization of utterances, but sense 2 is none the less widespread.
Page 306 :
293, , prosodic domain, , Prosodic Analysis n. A highly distinctive approach to phonology, developed in London by 1. R. Firth and his students, chiefly in the, 19508. Whereas other approaches had often emphasized the paradigmatic aspects of phonology, prosodic analysis concentrated on, the syntagmatic aspects. Not only phonemic long components, but, a wide range of other phonetic and phonological characteristics,, were extracted from phonological representations and regarded as, prosodic elements, or prosodies, overlying a skeleton of minimaliy, specified segments called phonematic units; even properties of, single segments were treated as prosodies if their presence could, be associated with an aspect of the syntagmatic structure., Moreover, the framework was characterized by an extreme version, of polysystemicism in which it was considered impossible to identify any of the phonological units occurring in one context or, position with those occurring in another. Prosodic Analysis never, received a clear and comprehensive presentation from Firth or, anyone else, and in practice the principles of the framework have, largely had to be reconstructed by examining the various specific, analyses that were published. Never influential outside of England,, the framework all but disappeared with the retirement of Firth's, students. Ironically, however, many aspects of the prosodic, approach championed by the Firthians have recently been reinvented by proponents of various contemporary frameworks, most, particularly Autosegmental Phonology. Accounts of Prosodic, Analysis are given in Langendoen (1968), Fischer-J~rgensen (1975:, ch. 5), Sommerstein (1977: ch. 3), Lass (1984: 10.2) and Anderson, (1985: ch. 7)., , prosodic circumscription /s3:k~m'skrIpJ~n/ n. An analytical device, by which a single phonological form is ~cut' into two pieces, so that, certain phonological or morphological processes can apply to just, one of the pieces before the two are put back together again. This, device is useful in treating such things as reduplication, infixation, and the Arabic broken plurals. See Kenstowicz (1994: 633-640)., McCarthy and Prince (1990)., , prosodic constituency, , n. The organization of speech into several, levels of prosodic domains of increasing size, as in the Prosodic, Hierarchy., , prosodic domain n. Any unit of phonological structure larger than, a single segment, such as a syllable, a word or a phonological phrase,, when such a unit is deemed to be phonologically significant for
Page 307 :
prosodic feature, , 294, , certain purposes. The Prosodic Hierarchy constitutes an attempt at, providing an integrated treatment of all such domains., , prosodic feature n. 1. See suprasegmental. 2. Any distinctive, feature invoked in some feature system to treat contrasts involving, units larger than a single segment. SPE, for example, uses a feature, called stress which, exceptionally in that system, can take any, number of values; SPE also cites, but does not discuss, a feature, length and six pitch features called high, low, elevated, rising,[alling,, concave. The various types of boundary or juncture recognized in, some systems are also sometimes treated by means of distinctive, features: SPE, for example, treats boundaries as [+unit, -segment]., , Prosodic Hierarchy n. An approach to phonological organization, which holds that phonological phenomena involving structures, larger than a single segment can be linearly ordered into types, applying to different prosodic domains such that each smaller, domain is properly included within the next larger one. The, domains commonly recognized, from smallest to largest, include, the mora, the syllable, the foot, the phonological word, the clitic, group, the phonological phrase, the intonational phrase and the, prosodic utterance. Some ver~ons omit certain of these domains., The Prosodic Hierarchy can be viewed as an attempt at providing, a principled account of the phonology-syntax interface, replacing, the earlier approach, typical of classical generative phonology, in, which the interface was treated as a direct mapping of syntactic, constituent boundaries onto phonological boundaries. For discussion, see the papers in Phonology Yearbook 4 (1987). Selkirk (1981)., , prosodic level n. In tree versions of Metrical Phonology, anyone, of several designated levels of organization, including the mot, the, foot and the syllable. These levels are sometimes represented, graphically by horizontal lines cutting across trees., , Prosodic Licensing, Principle of n. A universal condition on the, well-formedness of phonological representations. There are various, formulations; a simple one is: all phonological units must be part, of prosodic structure. This principle imposes a requirement of, prosodic constituency at some level of representation (most often, the phonetic level). See Kenstowicz (1994: 285-291). Ito (1986)., , Prosodic Morphology Hypothesis n. The hypothesis that morphological operations which are sensitive to the phonological form of, the base (reduplication, infixation, truncation, addition of the
Page 308 :
295, , prosody, , English comparative suffix -er,, appealing only to such prosodic, without invoking powerful new, developed by McCarthy and, Kenstowicz (1994: ch. 11)., , etc.) can be fully described by, units as the foot and the syllable,, types of rule. The idea has been, Prince (1986, 1990, 1991). See, , prosodic phonology n. That part of phonology which treats phonological phenomena whose domain is some unit larger than a single, segment. With the major exception of Prosodic Analysis, prosodic, phonology received much less attention than segmental phonology, before the 19808, since when it has been increasingly regarded as, central. Selkirk (1972) is the ground-breaking work., , prosodic phrase n. See phonological phrase., prosodic rule n. A proposed type of postlexical rule which is intermediate between PI and P2 roles: like P2 rules, such rules are, automatic and exceptionless; unlike P2 rules, they are sensitive to, certain aspects of syntactic structure. Selkirk (1986)., , prosodic utterance n. (also phonological utterance) In some, versions of the Prosodic Hierarchy, the largest domain of any, phonological significance, posited for example as the domain of, [r]-insertion in RP English: That's a nice ca[r]: is it yours? Nespor, and Vogel (1986)., , prosodic word n. See mot., prosody, , /'prDs~di/, , n. 1. The study of poetic metre and of versification. 2. The study of stress, pitch and intonation. 3. A phonological element which is realized phonetically on more than one, segment, including for example (in certain circumstances in certain, languages) lip-rounding, backness or nasalization. The extended, realization of height, backness, lip-rounding or ATR in vowel, harmony languages is an outstanding example. 4. (also long component) A phonological element which can only be described, with reference to a domain longer than a single segment, including, all those mentioned in sense 3 and also suprasegmental elements, like stress and tone. 5. In Prosodic Analysis, a similar but much, broader notion which includes everything in sense 4 but also, boundary signals, phonotacties and anything else which can, conceivably be described in terms of something larger than a single, segment. Such prosodies are superimposed upon a skeleton of, phonematic units.
Page 309 :
protected environment, , 296, , /pr~'tektId/ n. An environment in which a, segment is much less likely than elsewhere to undergo some phonological process, often especially lenition or loss., , protected environment, , prothesis /lprDe~sIs/ n. (also, less usually, prosthesis /'prDse~sIS/) The, addition of a segment to the beginning of a word, as in the development of Latin stannum ~tin' to Spanish estano, the borrowing of, Latin regem "king' into Basque as errege, or the development of, pre-Motu *au "me' to Motu lau. Some linguists restrict this term, to the addition of initial vowels. Adj. prothetic /pr~'eetIk/. Ant., aphaeresis. Greek prothesis 'a placing before'; the variant form is from Greek, prosthesis 'addition'., /'pr~ut~kDl/ n. A chart designed for the annotation of the, settings of articulation, phonation, overall muscular tension and, prosodic behaviour in the speech of an individual. The completed, protocol is the speaker's vocal profile. See Laver (1994: 154) for, an example., , protocol, , /pr~u'vekJ~nI n. 1. See hard mutation. 2. More generally, any phonological process in which voiced obstruents are, devoiced, particularly in Celtic languages. 3. The transfer of a, segment (usually a consonant) from the end of one word to the, beginning of a following word; one type of metanalysis: earlier for, then once to modern for the nonce; an other to a nother, leading, to such locutions as a whole nother story. Latin pr6vecti6 "advancement'., , provection, , P-rule /'pi: ru:l/ n. A synonym for phonological rule, used especially, in Natural Generative Phonology for the narrow class of rules, recognized as phonological in that framework., , pseudo-boundary, , /'sju:d~u bound~ri/ n. A hypothetical, etymologically invalid morpheme boundary which is occasionally posited in, the middle of a single morpheme in order to account for some kind, of exceptional behaviour, as for example in the veto phenomenon., , Lass (1984: 34-38); Lass credits A. 1. Aitken with the idea., , PSR /pi: es '0:/ n. 1. See Phrasal Stress Rule. 2. See Phrasal Stress, Rule., , public school pronunciation /'pAbhk sku:l/ n. [non-technical], Daniel Jones's original label for the type of British accent now, usually called Received Pronunciation, reflecting the importance of, the "public schools' (prestigious and expensive private boarding, schools) in the creation and maintenance of this accent. Jones (1917).
Page 310 :
297, , push chain, , s~'pralzf n. Uocular] A phrase, especially a, comical one, derived by mishearing an ordinary phrase, such as, four-stair system for forced-air system and the classic The cost of, this government project has been calculated with a sly drool (sc. slide, rule). Occasionally one of these achieves permanent status, as when, the earlier spit and image was converted to spitting image. Cf. folk, etymology, metanalysis. Self-referential, from Pulitzer Prize., , pullet surprise fpuht, , pulmonic fpul'monlkf adj. 1. Pertaining to the action of the lungs, in speech production. 2. (of a segment) Articulated with a pulmonic, airstream mechanism. 3. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature, systems, one of the three possible values of the feature glottalic, (Ladefoged) or larynx movement (Williamson)., , pulmonic airstream mechanism n. The airstream mechanism, which uses the respiratory system as the initiator of air movement, (loosely, which uses 'lung air'). The pulmonic egressive airstream, forces lung air up through the larynx; this is the principal airstream, mechanism in all languages and the only one used in most, languages. The pulmonic ingressive airstream, in which outside air, is sucked into the lungs, is virtually never used for linguistic, purposes, but may be used paralinguistically. See Laver (1994:, 162-171) for an account. Beach (1937); Catford (1939)., , pulsed input IpAlstl n. The delivery of energy to the vocal tract in, a rapid sequence of short bursts, such as occurs whenever the vocal, folds are vibrating in one way or another. See phonation type., , punctual tone, pure vowel, , f'pAIJkfu~l/ n., , A rare synonym for register tone., , Ipju~1, , n. (also monophthong) A vowel whose quality, does not change perceptibly during its articulation. Cf. diphthong., , push chain Ipufl n. A type of chain shift in which the shift is instigated by a segment which, in phonological space, begins to move into, the space occupied by another segment, forcing that segment to move, out of the way in order to maintain its distinctness, possibly forcing, further moves for the same reason. It is sometimes thought that the, First Germanic Consonant Shift was a push chain in which the loss, of aspiration by the PIE voiced aspirates threatened a merger with, the existing voiced stops, which devoiced in response, forcing the, existing voiceless plosives to become first aspirated and then fricatives. Labov (1994: ch. 6) presents evidence that some parts of the, Northern Cities Shift involve a push chain, notably the backing of leI, towards fAf and the (consequent) backing of fA/. Cf. drag chain.
Page 311 :
Q, Ikw~'drrelJgjul~1 n. A vowel system, consisting of pairs of front and back vowels of equal height., , quadrangular vowel system, quality, , I'kwol~til, , n. 1. Broadly, the sum of the perceptual characteristics of a single speech sound, derived from the acoustic spectrum of that sound; its characteristic resonance. 2. See vowel quality., , quantal theory of speech, , I'kwont~ll n., , A theory of speech, based, upon the observation that acoustic patterns and auditory responses, tend to change sharply from one state to another as the articulatory pattern is varied continuously. Such 'quantal' relations are held, to be a major factor in determining the articulatory and acoustic, attributes used to signal distinctions in language. See the special, issue of the Journal of Phonetics 17:1/2 (1989) for an extended, discussion. Stevens (1972)., , quantal vowel n. A vowel whose acoustic qualities are little affected, by variation in its articulation and whose perception is little affected, by variation in its acoustic quality: one of [i u a]. Stevens (1972)., , quantitative metre l'kwontIt~tIvln. (also quantitative verse IV3:s/) A, type of rhythm based on the phonological weight of syllables and not, upon stress, typical of verse in Ancient Greek and Classical Latin., , quantity l'kwontItil n. See length (sense 2)., quantity-sensitivity IsensI'tIvItil n. The phenomenon, occurring, in some languages, in which the position of the word accent is partly, determined by the quantity of some syllable(s). Adj. quantitysensitive l'sensItIv/., , quasi-RP l'kweIsaII n. A label applied by Wells (1982, 2: 285) to a, type of accent resulting from poor speech training and characterized by an RP-like distribution of phonemes but a strongly unnatural distribution of allophones, such as the use of median oral, release for ItI in all environments., , quaternary feature, , Ikw~'t3:n~ril n., , A distinctive feature which may, , assume one of exactly four values., , Queen's English, , Ikwi:nzl n. See King's English.
Page 312 :
R, R In some versions of Dependency Phonology, a component, invoked to characterize tongue-root retraction in pharyngealized, consonants. Cf. alpha (sense 2). Anderson and Ewen (1987)., , sintattico /radd~ppiamcnto sin1tattiko/ n., [Italian: 'syntactic doubling'] The phenomenon in Italian by which,, in certain grammatical circumstances, a word-initial consonant is, pronounced long: Maria epiu [k: ]alda che mai 'Maria is hotter than, ever'; Mario ha [f:]atto tutto 'Mario has done everything'., , raddoppiamento, , /'nedlk~l/ adj. 1. Pertaining to the root of the tongue. 2. (of, a constriction) Involving a complete or nearly complete obstruction, of the vocal tract, as in the articulation of an obstruent. 3. In some, analyses, a superordinate feature of which [ATR] is a dependent., , radical, , Radical Underspecification, , n. (RU) A version of Underspecification Theory which holds that, in every phonological, position, one value or the other of each feature is the unmarked, value, and that the unmarked value cannot be specified underlyingly; hence all underlying feature specifications are of (contextually) marked feature values. RU was proposed in Archangeli, (1984) and defended in Archangeli (1988) and Archangeli and, Pulleyblank (1989). See Roca (1994: 62-77) for a summary. Cf., Contrastive Underspecification., , radiography, , Ireldi'Dgr~fi/ n., , The use of X-rays to take photographs, of the vocal tract during the production of speech sounds. Cf., cineradiography. Adj. radiographic /reIdi~lgnefIk/., , radix /lrredIksl n. The root of the tongue. Adj. radical; CF radico-., raised IreIzdl adj. 1. (of a vowel) Having undergone earlier raising, within the time span under consideration, such as the raised lrel, found in many urban American accents. 2. A label formerly applied, to [+ATR] vowels in African languages showing ATR vowel, harmony., , raised-larynx voice n. A voice quality characterized by persistent, raising of the larynx during speech; such speech often sounds rather
Page 313 :
raising, , 300, , strained and is always characterized by an elevated pitch unless, steps are taken to compensate for this. Cf. lowered-larynx voice., , raising l'reIzIIJI, , n. Any phonological process in which the articulation of a vowel is moved to a higher point in the mouth. Several, of the developments in the English Great Vowel Shift involved, raising, such as the shift of [e:] to [i:]. Raising can also be a, synchronic process, as in the raising of mid vowels before low, vowels in Basque: etxe 'house' and asto 'donkey', when followed, by the article -a, are pronounced etx[i]a and ast[ u ]a. Ant. lowering., Irrend~m sI'kwenJ~11 n. A, rarely espoused theory of rule ordering, in which rules apply one, at a time but any rule whose structural description is met may apply, at any given /l'oint, and a rule may apply more than once., , random sequential rule application, , Sommerstein (1977: 184)., , rate IreItl n. 1. (also tempo) The pace of the delivery of speech., Laver (1994: 158) distinguishes between articulation rate and, speaking rate. See Laver (1994: 540-545) for a discussion with references. 2. A distinctive feature proposed in Ladefoged (1971) for, treating contrasts of length, with the four values [rapid], [normal],, [long] and [extra long], essentially identical to length in the, Williamson feature system. This feature was abandoned in, Ladefoged (1975)., , r-coloured, , l'o:kAI~dl, , adj. See rhotacized., , re-adjustment component Iri:d'd3Astmdntl n. That part of a, complete description including the re-adjustment rules., , re-adjustment rule n. In some views of phonology, particularly, those in which a fully elaborated syntactic structure is taken as the, input to the phonological rules, a somewhat ad hoc type of rule, which applies to the syntactic representation before any phonological rules proper apply, in order to provide a structure to which, the phonological rules can apply to produce the correct output., Most commonly, such rules weaken or remove syntactic boundaries, which would block certain necessary phonological processes - for, example, by reducing certain pronouns or particles to clitics. Readjustment rules are chiefly associated with classical generative, phonology; the development of more sophisticated theories of the, phonology-syntax interface, such as the Prosodic Hierarchy, has, largely rendered such ad hoc devices unnecessary. See Sommerstein, (1977: 115) for a brief account.
Page 314 :
301, , Received Pronunciation, , IrI~laI'zeIJQI n. 1. The phonetic form of a phonological, representation. Most familiarly, an allophone is a realization of a, phoneme in some particular context. 2. By extension, any representation of a linguistic form which is less abstract (closer to the, phonetics) than some other representation. For example, the, phoneme sequence Ikretl realizes the English morpheme {cat}., , realization, , Prague School., IrI~laI'zeIJ~n~1 dlfr~nsl n. A difference, between two or more accents (sense 1) consisting merely of, different phonetic realizations of a single phoneme. For example,, English III is realized as clear I in all positions by most Welsh and, (southern) Irish speakers, as dark I in all positions by most Scottish, and North American speakers, and as clear I prevocalically but, as dark I elsewhere by many speakers in England. Cf. systemic, difference, selectional difference, structural difference., , realizational difference, , Received Pronunciation /rI'si:vd/ n. (RP) A certain accent of, British English (or more precisely a group of closely related, accents). Though used by perhaps no more than 3 per cent of the, British population, RP is generally acknowledged as the prestige, standard in England and also by certain social groups in the rest, of the United Kingdom and in the British Commonwealth; it is the, type of pronunciation most frequently taught to foreign learners, of English in Britain. RP has long been associated with wealth,, privilege and power; it is (or was) used by the royal family, by the, landed aristocracy, by army officers, by Oxbridge academics, by, senior politicians, by BBC newsreaders, by successful actors, and, by anyone wishing to penetrate the upper echelons of British, society. RP is usually described as having no regional associations,, even though in most respects it exhibits the structural features of, the accents of the southeast of England, from which it differs, primarily in its phonetic details. Several varieties of RP may be, distinguished: Gimson (1989) recognizes conservative, general and, advanced varieties, while Wells (1982) distinguishes mainstream, RP, U-RP and adoptive RP. RP continues to be influential today;, speakers of regional varieties in England and Wales often adjust, their speech in the direction of R~ producing the kind of accent, called near-RP by Wells (1982), and upwardly mobile working-class, speakers in the southeast of England are increasingly exhibiting a, comparable shift, resulting in the spectrum of accents collectively, dubbed Estuary English. On the other hand, the use of RP has, become somewhat less frequent on the BBC and in the media
Page 315 :
recessive accent, , 302, , generally, and it is far less prominent than formerly in the universities, in the House of Commons and even among army officers., Moreover, RP itself is showing striking signs of evolution: even, some younger members of the royal family now show a degree of, glottalling not previously typical of RP but widespread in regional, accents. RP was originally called public school pronunciation by, Daniel Jones, and it has sometimes also been called a BBC accent, or an Oxford accent; those who dislike it may call it a plummy,, lah-di-dah, Kensington or cut-glass accent. See McArthur (1992), for a historical summary, Gimson (1989) for a detailed characterization and Wells (1982) for an account of variation in RP; Wells, (1990a) is an up-to-date RP pronouncing dictionary. Jones (1917), established the name in its modern sense; the term had earlier been used, without capitals to denote 'correct' pronunciation in general., , recessive accent /rI'sesIv/ n. Movement of the word accent (see, accent, sense 3) towards the beginning of the word, or the tendency, for this to occur. This is a powerful tendency in English nouns:, such words as research, detail, cigarette, magazine and ice cream,, all formerly with final stress, are now widely pronounced with, initial stress., , recessive rule n. In some theories of rule ordering, notably partial, ordering, a rule which fails to apply when its structural description, is met if there is another rule taking precedence over it whose SD, is met at the same time. Sommerstein (1977: 179)., , recessive vowel n. In a language with dominant/recessive vowel, harmony, anyone of the vowels which are automatically replaced, by their dominant partners in the appropriate circumstances., /rek~g'nIft;l test/ n. (also perception test, articulation test) A standard test of speech perception, in which a set of, spoken words is presented and a listener is asked to repeat, write, down or otherwise respond to the test items. The percentage of, words correctly perceived is the measure of intelligibility., , recognition test, , reconstruction, , /ri:k~n'strAkf~n/, , n. 1. (also reconstructed form, unattested form) A hypothetical form which is, nowhere attested but which is posited, on the basis of some, evidence, as having existed in some earlier or ancestral form of a, language. Such a form is conventionally marked with an asterisk., For example, Spanish aguijada 'goad' is derived from a reconstructed Latin *AQUILEATA, and English book is derived from a, , /ri:k~n'strAktId/,
Page 316 :
303, , redundancy rule, , reconstructed Proto-Germanic *b0k,6 'beech'. 2. The process of, constructing such forms., , recoverability condition /rlkA v~r~lbI1Iti/ n. In some versions of, Metrical Phonology, the requirement that the locations of the metrical constituent boundaries and the locations of the heads must be, unambiguously recoverable from each other. Halle and Vergnaud (1987)., recursion /rl 1k3:fQ./ n. The re-application of some process to its own, output. Recursion is explicitly invoked in some phonological frameworks, as for example in the association of particles in Particle, Phonology to yield successively the vowels I ([i]), AI ([e]), AAI, ([c]), AAAI ([re]). v: recurse /rI 'k3:s/; adj. recursive /n 1k3:SIV/., , recursive /rl 1k3:SIVI n. or adj. [rare] A segment produced with a, glottalic airstream mechanism; an ejective or voiced implosive. From, Latin recursio "a running back'., , Redefinition Principle /ri:defI'nIJQ./ n. A putative principle of, phonological change. It says: peripherality is defined relative to, the vowel system as a whole. In other words, the peripheral/nonperipheral contrast among vowels is not merely a matter of objective phonetics, but may be substantially determined by phonological, changes. Labov (1994: 285)., /rlldAkf~n/ n. Any process in which a segment or a, sequence of segments is, in some sense, ~weakened'. The term is, applied, for example, to the centralization or loss of unstressed, vowels (as in collect and medicine), to the lenition or loss of consonants (as in the lenition of [p] to [v] in the development of Latin, RIPA 'riverbank' to French rive) and to the simplification of a consonant cluster by the loss of a consonant (as in the loss of 101 from, clothes and of /k/ from knife. Some phonologists extend the term, to instances of neutralization in favour of the 'weaker' member of, a contrast. Adj. reduced /rl1dju:st/., , reduction, , /rlldAnd~nsil n. The central property of speech and, language by which more information is provided than is strictly, necessary for the message to be understood, so that, if some information is lost or misheard, the remaining information will still often, be sufficient for the message to be received correctly. Adj. redundant /rlldAnd~nt/., , redundancy, , redundancy rule n. Any rule which states that some feature or, behaviour is entirely predictable from the presence of something
Page 317 :
redundancy rule ordering constraint, , 304, , else. For example, the English rule [+voi] ~ [-asp] states that, voiced segments are predictably unaspirated, while the rule, [+Germanic] ~ [-Velar Softening] states that no native English, word or morpheme ever undergoes velar softening., , redundancy rule ordering constraint n. In some versions of, Underspecification Theory, the requirement that a redundancy rule, supplying a feature value aF must apply before any rule referring, to aF in its structural description. This constraint is designed to, prevent the misuse of blanks. Archangeli (1984)., , redundant feature n. (also concomitant feature) A feature which,, although phonetically present, is non-distinctive for a particular, segment, in a particular language, or universally by definition. The, feature [voice], though generally distinctive for Arabic obstruents,, is redundant for /hI, which has no voiceless counterpart; the feature, [nasal] is redundant for English vowels; the feature [low] is redundant for all [+high] segments by definition., , reduplication IrIdju:ph'keIfQI n. The morphological process in, which some phonological material is repeated within a single form, for lexical or grammatical purposes. Reduplication is a common, phenomenon in the languages of the world, taking a variety of, forms and serving a variety of purposes. Malay, for example, uses, reduplication for adverb formation (baik 'good', baik-baik 'well'),, for indefinite plurality (bunga 'flower', bunga-bunga 'flowers') and, for word formation (mala 'eye', mala-mala or memala 'policeman')., Certain Latin verbs form their perfect stems by reduplication:, curr- 'run', perfect stem cucurr-. Chukchi derives certain absolutive case forms by reduplication: nule- 'tundra' (stem), absolutive, nulenut. Tagalog uses reduplication in its verbal inflection: sulat, 'write', future susulat. Turkish uses it to express 'and so forth':, Ali-Mali 'Ali and the others'. Yiddish-influenced American English, uses it to express dismissal: Jaguar-Schmaguar! ~ reduplicate, IrI'dju:phkeIt/; adj. reduplicative IrI'dju:phk~tIV/., , reflex Ilri:fleksl n. In historical phonology, a form or segment in a, particular language which is historically derived from a form or, segment in an ancestral form of the language, its etymon. Thus,, English father is the reflex of Old English freder, and English IfI is, the reflex of Proto-Indo-European Ip/., , register l'red3Ist~1 n. 1. The natural pitch range available to a particular speaker or singer for anatomical reasons such as the size and
Page 318 :
305, , relic form, , thickness of the vocal folds; in singing, registers are denoted by, such labels as soprano, contralto, tenor. 2. Anyone of different, pitch ranges available to a single speaker or singer by modification, of the tension in the vocal folds. It is traditional to distinguish chest, voice (ordinary speech) from head voice (falsetto); professional, singers reportedly learn an intermediate middle voice to smooth, the abrupt transition between these two. If falsetto is regarded as, a phonation type (as is now common), the concept of register, becomes unnecessary in phonetics., , register tone n. (also punctual tone, level tone, static tone, stepping tone) A particular tone in a tone language which is realized, by an unvarying level pitch on its syllable, with no upward or, downward movement. A tone language which uses such tones, exclusively is a register tone language. Cf. contour tone., , regressive assimilation IrI gresIvI n. See anticipatory assimilation., I, , Some people apply this term instead to perseverative assimilation; this, is not recommended., , NOTE:, , Iregju'lrer~til n. 1. Any phonological or morphological, pattern which constitutes the normal state of affairs in a language, which is in no way exceptional within that language. 2. A, phonological change which applies to all instances of a given sound, in a given set of environments, without exception. Adj. regular, , regularity, , l'regjul~/., , Regularity Principle n. A putative principle governing the course, of phonological change. It says: sound change is a change in the, phonetic realization of a phoneme, without regard to lexical identity. A central component of the Neogrammarian Hypothesis, this, principle is falsified by the occurrence of lexical diffusion. Cf. the, Mechanical Principle. Labov (1994: 603)., , relaxation pressure Iri:lrek'seIJI;l1 n. The pressure in the lungs and, airways produced by non-muscular forces, the elastic and mechanical recoil factors in the lungs, chest, diaphragm and abdomen., , release IrI'li:sl n. (also plosion) The final stage in the articulation, of a plosive, in which the closure is released and the articulating, organs move apart. Cf. approach, hold., , relic form I'rehk/ n. A linguistic form which preserves an archaism, otherwise generally lost in the language, such as the pair was were, which uniquely preserves the ancient Iz/-/rl alternation.
Page 319 :
remiss, , 306, , remiss IrI'mIsI n. The second place in a foot. Cf. ictus (sense 2)., Abercrombie (1991b: ch. 10), after Joshua Steele., , rendaku Irendaku/ n. The phenomenon in Japanese compound, formation by which the initial consonant of a second element, undergoes voicing: ami 'net' + to 'door' ~ amido 'screen door';, ori- 'fold' + kami 'paper' ~ origami 'paper-folding'; omocha 'toy', + hako 'box' ~ omochabako 'toy box' (Jap. h < *p). Cf. Lyman's, Law., I'renis~nl n. A privative theory of phonology, developed by 1. R. Rennison (1987, 1991) which uses elements, but, not government, opting instead for 'visibility' relations between, stacked tiers., , Kennison framework, , reordering, , lri:'~:d~rIIJI n., , repair mechanism, , See rule reordering., , IrI'pc~ mek~nIzrpl, , n. Any of various devices, postulated as acting to correct violations of some principle, especially the Obligatory Contour Principle. See Paradis (1988-1989)., Irep~'tIJQ testl n. A procedure for checking for the, reality of a contrast between t}Vo putatively contrasting items. The, two items are recorded and then played back to a native speaker, a number of times in random order; the speaker is asked to repeat, each item. A success rate of 90 per cent or better in reproducing, the features in question indicates a genuine contrast. Cf. pair test., , repetition test, , Contreras and Saporta (1960)., Iri:f~nDI~d3aI'zeIJQI n. A type of phonological, change in which the relations among phonemes are changed but, not the number of phonemes or their distribution. For example,, some Slavic languages formerly had three velar phonemes Ik 9 X!,, in which Ikl but not Ix! had a voiced counterpart; the development, of Igl into I'll reversed this situation. The First Germanic Consonant, Shift provides a more elaborate example of rephonologization., , rephonologization, , lakobson (1931)., , replacive morph IrI'plelsIvl n. In some versions of American, Structuralism, an element posited as being substituted for another, element within a morpheme, as in plural geese, in which li:1 replaces, lu:/. Nida (1948); Bloomfield (1933) had earlier called this a 'substitutionalternant'., Ireprlz~n'teIJQI n. 1. Any conventional rendering, of a piece of speech with a set of symbols or linguistic objects, , representation
Page 320 :
307, , respiratory cycle, , appropriate to some particular level of analysis. For example, the, word cats might be represented morphemically as {cat} + {Plural},, phonemically as Ikrets/ or Ikretz/ (depending on one's view of, phonemes), or phonetically as [khrets]. 2. One of the planes (sense, 1) of phonology, that one handling the purely linguistic content of, expressions: phonology in the ordinary sense. 3. In some American, Stmcturalist work, the relation which holds between certain, linguistic elements: morphemes are represented by morphs and, morphophonemes are represented by phonemes. Cf. composition., Sense 3: Hockett (1961)., , rescue rule /'reskju:/ n. A rule which applies to the result of a false, step to produce a well-formed result, often especially such a rule, which has no other function. Zwicky (1973)., /rI'zldju~l/ n. The volume of air remaining in the, lungs after all possible air has been expelled by expiration., , residual volume, , resonance /'rez~n~ns/ n. 1. The physical phenomenon in which some, body which is capable of vibration prefers to vibrate at certain, frequencies rather than others, thereby favouring and enhancing, those frequencies while suppressing others. The formants of speech, represent the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract in a given, configuration; changing the shape of the vocal tract alters its, resonant frequencies and hence the positions of the formants. Cf., damping. Adj. resonant /'rez~n~nt/. 2. Any distinguishable elemen~, in speech which can be ascribed to some prominent modification, in the shape of the vocal tract, such as the nasal resonance heard, when the velum is lowered., , resonance theory of hearing n. A theory of hearing, proposed by, Hermann von Helmholtz, in which the cochlea is presumed to, contain a range of taut, tuned fibres resembling piano strings, with, each fibre resonating at a different particular frequency. This theory, is now known to be wrong. Cf. place theory of hearing., , resonant, , /'rez~n~nt/ n., , 1. See sonorant. 2. Any segment made with, , open approximation: a vowel, an approximant, a lateral approximant, [h] or [1]. This is the usage of Laver (1994). 3. In the usage, of Catford (1988), any non-high vowel. This usage is anomalous., 4. See sonant., /rI'splr~tri/ n. The pattern of breathing in (inspiration) and breathing out (expiration) characteristic of ordinary, breathing., , respiratory cycle
Page 321 :
respiratory tract, , 308, , respiratory tract Itrrektl n. (also respiratory system) The entire, passage, from the lungs up to the lips and nose, through which air, flows during breathing and speech., , Restrictive Underspecification IrI'strIktIvl n. See Contrastive, Underspecification., Iri:'strAktJ~rIIJI n. The putative process in which a, child learning a first language posits underlying forms which are, different from those of the earlier generation and much closer to, the surface phonetic forms of the items in question, supposedly, because the length and complexity of derivations from the older, underlying forms have become too great to allow the child to, recover the older forms., , restructuring, , resyUabification Iri:sI1rebIfI'keIJQ.I n. In some approaches, a process, which applies during a derivation to move segments from one, syllable to another. For example, when French bete 'beast' [bet;}], loses its schwa, the [t] must be moved from the second syllable to, the first., , retracted IrI'trrektIdl adj. 1. (of a segment) Articulated at a position slightly further back than another, similar segment taken as a, reference point. In the IPA, a retracted segment is marked by an, underbar: thus [g] represents a retracted variety of [a]. 2. (of the, tongue) Pulled back so as to narrow the pharynx. Abstr. n. retraction IrI'trrekJ~n/., , retracted articulation n. (retrart) A distinctive feature proposed, by McCawley (1966) to distinguish the contrasts bilabial/labiodental, interdental/dental, dental/alveolar, retroflex/palatal, and, velar/uvular, the second item in each case being [+retrart]. Early, drafts of SPE had posited an identical feature called proximal., , retracted tongue root The opposite of advanced tongue root., retroflex I'retr;}ufleks/ adj. or n. 1. A traditional but unsystematic, label conventionally applied to any of various consonant and vowel, articulations in which the tip of the tongue is bent back and up, to some extent; the articulations in question might in principle, be given more explicit labels, such as 'apico-post-alveolar' or, 'sublamino-prepalatal', but these systematic labels are rarely used, in practice. The IPA has a full set of symbols for retroflex consonants ([t], [et'], etc.). 2. In the Ladefoged feature system, one of the, eleven possible values of the feature articulatory place. 3. In
Page 322 :
309, , reverse click, , the Williamson feature system, one of the three possible values of, the feature apicality. 4. In Laver (1994), a label applied to any, conformation of the tongue in which the tip is bent up and back,, but not used to label a place of articulation. Latin retrOflexus 'bent, backward'., , retroflexed adj. (of a vowel) A common but not strictly accurate, synonym for rhotacized., , reversal, , IrI'v3:s~lJ, , n. See iambic reversal., , reversal of merger n. (also unmerger) The phenomenon in which, the speakers of a language in which an earlier distinction between, two segments has disappeared as a result of a merger re-introduce, the earlier distinction. By Garde's Principle, reversal of merger is, theoretically impossible, but a number of apparent cases of it have, been described in the literature, such as the reversal of the merger, of the vowels of mate and meat in English. Three types of explanation have been advanced for these cases. (1) The merger, genuinely occurred, but just one of the merged segments had a, distinctive phonological role in the language, and speakers were, later able to distinguish instances of the merged result which bore, this role from those which did not. This is the interpretation offered, by Michelena (1957; 1977: 194-195) for the merger of IfI (resulting, from the strengthening of Ij/) with pre-existing IfI in the Gipuzkoan, dialect of Basque, followed by a reversal in which Ifl derived from, earlier Ijl developed to IXI while original Ifl did not. All instances, of original IfI, like all palatal and palato-alveolar consonants in, Basque, had a clear ~expressive' function, serving only to form, diminutives and hypocorisms. Instances of IJI derived from Ijl, lacked this expressive function and hence could be separated out, from instances of original Ifl. (2) The merger took place in the, prestige variety but not in other varieties, and a change in the prestige of the competing varieties shows up in the record as an, apparent reversal, since only prestige varieties tend to be well, recorded. This is the view famously presented by Weinreich et al., (1968). (3) The merger never really occurred; instead, there was, only a near-merger resulting in the usual failure of speakers to, observe the objectively real contrast. This view is championed by, Labov (1975; 1994: ch. 13)., , reverse click Irl ' V3:s1 n. A consonant produced with a velaric egressive airstream mechanism. Such sounds are not known to be used, in any language.
Page 323 :
Revised Alternation Condition, , 310, , Revised Alternation Condition /rI'vaIzd/ n. A principle formulated to constrain abstract analyses and specifically to prohibit the, use of absolute neutralization. It says: an obligatory neutralization, rule may apply only in a derived environment. A reformulation of, the earlier Alternation Condition, this principle helped pave the, way for Lexical Phonology. See derived environment. Kiparsky, (1973b)., /'r~ut~sIZrp! n. 1. Any phonological process in which, another segment develops into a rhotic, such as the development, of early Latin intervocalic s, or of pre-Basque intervocalic l, into, r. 2. A synonym for defective r, used by clinicians., , rhotacism, , /'r~ut~saIzd/ adj. 1. (also r-coloured, retroflexed) (of a, vowel) Having a distinctive acoustic quality, the lowering of the, third formant, produced by articulating the vowel either with a, retroflex tongue position or with a 'bunched' tongue, as in a molar, T. Rhotacized vowels occur in American English (as in bird) and, in Mandarin Chinese. In the IPA, rhotacized vowel is transcribed, with a following hook, as in [a'-] for the vowel of bird. Abstr. n., rhotacization. 2. In the Ladefoged feature system, a distinctive, feature defined as 'exhibiting a lowered frequency for the third, formant'. 3. In the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature, defined as involving a retracted tongue root and invoked to treat, distinctions of r-colouring in vowels; it has the possible values, strongly rhotacized, rhotacized, weakly r-coloured and plain, no, more than three of which can be contrastively used by one, language., , rhotacized, , l'r~utIkl n. or adj. Any member of a particular group of, phonetically heterogeneous segments which for various phonological reasons are conveniently treated as a class - informally, the, class of 'r-sounds'. The most familiar rhotics are the alveolar and, post-alveolar taps, trills and approximants, but various retroflex and, uvular segments, as well as the American molar r, are also included., See Lindau (1985) for a (generally negative) survey of attempts to, identify the class of rhotics in acoustic terms., , rhotic, , rhotic accent n. Any accent of English in which the historical Irl is, overtly realized as a constriction in non-prevocalic position. For a, rhotic speaker, farther is not homophonous with father and far does, not rhyme with Shah. Rhotic accents are typical of most of Canada, and the United States (apart from the east coast and the south),, of much of the Caribbean, of Scotland, of Ireland and of the south-
Page 324 :
311, , rise, , west of England and parts of the north. Cf. non-rhotic accent, and, see Wells (1982) for details. According to Abercrombie (1975), coined by, John Wells., , rhyme /raun! n. 1. Either of two or more words which have identical nuclei in their stressed syllables and identical sequences of, segments after these nuclei: bear/care; plate/berate; utter/butter;, Vision/collision; heinous/Coriolanus. True rhymes are divided into, masculine and feminine rhymes. Rhymes with identical consonants, preceding the rhyming nuclei are said to exhibit rich rhyme: line/, malign; team/steam. Homophones are sometimes said to exhibit, identical rhyme: bare/bear. Cf. homeoteleuton. 2. (also rime, final,, core) That part of a syllable consisting of the nucleus and the coda, - in other words, the entire syllable except for the onset., , rhyming slang /'raImIIJ slrelJ/ n. A playful speech device typical of, the Cockney speech of the London area. A word is replaced by a, rhyming phrase, which in many cases is then reduced to its initial, (non-rhyming) element. For example, head is replaced by loaf of, bread, which is then reduced to loaf, as in the phrase Use your, loaf!, , rhythm /' rIoqV n. The perceptual pattern produced in speech or, poetry by the occurrence at regular intervals of prominent, elements; these el~ments may be stresses (as in English), syllables, (as in Spanish), heavy syllables (as in Ancient Greek) or moras (as, in Japanese). See Laver (1994: 533) for references. Adj. rhythmic, /'rlomIk/., , Rhythm Rule n. See iambic reversal., rhythm unit n. A synonym for intonational phrase, used by some, American Structuralists. Pike (1945)., , right-headed foot IraIt'hedId/ n. In Metrical Phonology, a foot, whose most prominent element (its head) comes last. Cf. leftheaded foot., , rim /rIm! n. The front part of the edge of the tongue., rime IraIm! n. See rhyme., r-insertion n. The use of intmsive, , T., , rise Iralz/ n. An increase in pitch. The term is chiefly used in labelling contour tones, as in fall-rise and rise-fall. Adj. rising. Ant., fall.
Page 325 :
312, , rising diphthong, rising diphthong n. See crescendo diphthong., , rising tone n. A contour tone characterized by a sustained increase, in pitch., , roll, , Ir~ull n., , A less usual synonym for trill. Adj. rolled., , root Iru:tl n. 1. (also radix) That part of the tongue which lies, furthest back and lowest, in front of the laryngo-pharynx and the, epiglottis. Adj. radical; CF radico-. 2. In morphology, the simplest, possible form of a lexical morpheme, with no affixes, such as Latin, am- 'love' or Arabic ktb 'write'. Cf. stem, base. 3. In some versions, of feature geometry, a superordinate class node which dominates, all other features and which typically marks a single segment. Sense, 3: Sagey (1986)., , root-and-pattern morphology Iru:t, , ~nd, , Ipret~nl, , n. See non-, , concatenative morphology., , root constraint n. A seemingly arbitrary restriction upon the cooccurrence within a single root of certain segments. Thus, a, Japanese root may not contain two voiced obstruents, while an, Arabic root may not contain two labials., , root-marker theory n. An analysis of vowel harmony in which each, root is lexically marked with an arbitrary feature specification which, is later converted by rules into phonological forms, much as roots, in gender languages are marked as having some gender. Lightner, (1965)., , rough breathing IrAf Ibri:oIIJI n. 1. In Ancient Greek, the presence, of an aspiration [h] at the beginning of a word. 2. The diacritic ", used to represent this aspiration. Cf. smooth breathing., , round(ed) Iround(Id)/ adj. 1. (of an articulation) Characterized by, the presence of rounding (sense 1). In the IPA, rounded and, unrounded vowels have their own distinct symbols; in American, transcription, only one vowel symbol is provided at each position,, and the less usual value of rounding at that position is indicated, by the diacritic .. : hence ii for IPA y. For rounding of consonants,, see under labialization. Ant. unrounded (of a segment), spread (of, a lip position); a segment is either rounded or unrounded, but lips, can be any of rounded, neutral or spread. 2. In the SPE feature, system, a distinctive feature defined as 'articulated with a narrowing, of the lip orifice'. Rounded vowels and labialized consonants are, [+round]; other segments are [-round]. This feature partly replaces
Page 326 :
313, , rule change, , the feature Oat in the Jakobson-HaUe feature system. 3. In the, Lindau feature system, a distindive feature invoked to treat distinctions of lip protrusion, with the possible values round, neutral and, spread, no more than two of which may be contrastive in anyone, language. 4. See rounding (sense 2)., , round brackets n. pl. See parentheses., rounding n. 1. The presence during an articulation of protrusion of, the lips (inner rounding) or of horizontal compression of the lips, (outer rounding). Adj. rounded. 2. (also round) In the Ladefoged, and Williamson feature systems, a binary distinctive feature, invoked to treat distinctions of lip-rounding., , RP /0: 'pi:/ n. See Received Pronunciation., , rule /ru:l/ n. Any statement which, in some analysis, is intended to express a generalization about the facts of the language being described., Rules can be expressed in words, but in phonology it is more usual to, express them with the aid of various abbreviatory conventions., , rule activation n. In some theories of rule ordering, the phenomenon in which, by some principle or circumstance, a rule is finally, permitted to apply to a form from which it had earlier been, prevented from applying even though its structural description, might have been met. ~ adivate /'rektIveIt/. Ant. rule deactivation., , rule addition n. A type of rule change in which a new rule is introduced into the grammar so that it applies after all previously, existing rules. Such a rule can have a dramatic effect upon the, output, as with the rule deleting all word-final consonants introduced into many Polynesian languages. Cf. rule insertion., , rule application /reph'keIJI)/ n. In any approach to phonology, involving derivations, the notional process by which a particular, rule acts upon some representation to produce a different representation in line with the requirements of the rule., , rule chain n. A sequence of simple and natural rules which achieves, the same effect as a single highly complex rule. Cf. fell swoop., Zwicky (1974)., , rule change n. Any of various types of phonological change in which, a rule is introduced, lost or modified, or in which the order of two, rules changes. See King (1969), Kiparsky (1971) or Sommerstein, (1977: ch. 10).
Page 327 :
rule complication, , 314, , rule complication /komph'keIJQI n. A type of rule change in which, a rule becomes more complex than previously. This is not usually, regarded as a primary form of change, but as an indirect effect of, other changes. See Bach and Harms (1972)., , rule deactivation Idi:rektI'veIJQ/ n. In some frameworks, the, phenomenon in which a rule which would otherwise apply is, prevented from applying ('turned off) in some specified domain,, most usually a grammatical one. Ant. rule activation., , rule feature n. A note on a lexical entry stipulating that that item, does not undergo a rule to which it would otherwise be subject, a, common way of treating items which are phonologically exceptional. For example, veto and Plato might be marked [-Tapping] in, American English, since they exceptionally fail to undergo tapping., , rule-governed /'ru:l gAvdnd/ adj. Denoting the presumed property, of human linguistic behaviour, or of some part of it, by which most, phenomena can be seen as instances of the interaction of a relatively small number of generalizations expressible by rules., , rule insertion n. A putative type of rule change in which a new, rule is added to the grammar, not at the end, but at an earlier, point, so that it has an effect upon the operation of later rules., There appear to be no certain cases of rule insertion, and many, linguists would deny its existence. Cf. rule addition., , rule inversion /In 'v3:JQ/ n. A type of rule change in which a rule, is replaced by one operating in the opposite direction - that is, the, original derived form is taken as underlying, and the original underlying form is derived by rule. For example, in pre-Basque, the, segment I uniformly became r in intervocalic position but remained, I elsewhere, producing such alternations as euskara 'Basque, language' « *euskala), euskaldun 'speaker of Basque'. But the, Latin word sagmarius ~beast of burden' was borrowed into Basque, as zamari 'horse'; this forms derivatives such as zamaldun, 'horseman', showing that the original rule converting I to r between, vowels has been inverted: r is now taken as underlying, and the, rule converts r to I before a consonant. The intrusive r of some, English accents results from another case of rule inversion., Vennemann (1972a)., , rule loss n. A type of rule change in which a rule which was formerly, present disappears from the language. For example, all southern, varieties of German historically acquired a rule devoicing final
Page 328 :
315, , rule simplification, , obstruents. Standard German still has this rule, which is responsible for such alternations as Bund [bunt] 'league', genitive Bundes, [bund~s] (cf. bunt [bunt] 'mottled', genitive buntes [bunt~s]). But, many Swiss German and Yiddish varieties have lost the devoicing, rule, producing [bund], [bund~s] 'league' but [bunt], [bunt~s], 'mottled'; the former presence of the rule is shown by the continued, devoicing in forms which do not alternate, such as weg [vek] 'away'., , rule ordering n. The property of a grammar in which phonological, rules act on underlying forms to derive surface forms, but in which, these rules do not apply simultaneously. Rule ordering may be, intrinsic or extrinsic; a number of theories of rule ordering have, been put forward, including linear ordering, partial ordering, local, ordering and unordered semisimultaneous ordering., , rule reordering Iri: '~:d~rIlJI n. A type of rule change in which the, order of two rules is reversed, thus changing the output. For, example, some Bizkaian dialects of Basque have one rule which, raises a mid vowel before a non-high vowel and a second rule, which raises lal to lei before la/. In varieties with the original, ordering, underlying leal becomes [ia], while underlying laal, becomes [ea]; some varieties, however, have reordered the two, rules, so that leal and laal are both realized as [ia]., , rule schema n. (also schema) Any statement which collapses two, or more rules by means of some abbreviatory convention; the, collapsed rules are subrules or expansions of the schema. See examples under braces, parentheses., , rule simplification ISImphfI'keIIQ.I, , n. A type of rule change in, which, by the removal of some conditions on its operation, a rule, comes to apply either to a wider range of cases or in a more uniform, manner than previously.
Page 329 :
s, s A symbol used to mark a strong foot or syllable., sekJ~n1 n. A planar section through the, body which separates the left side from the right side. The familiar, diagram of the vocal tract is a sagittal mid-section (that is, a sagittal, section midway through the body). Cf. coronal section, transverse, section., , sagittal section, , l'sred3It~1, , /'seI1i~nsl n. The property of being the first syllable in a, foot, the syllable on which the beat of stress-timing falls., , salience, , Abercrombie (1991b: ch. 10)., , Salience, Principle of n. A putative principle governing the effect, of phonological change on inflectional morphology. It says: the, more prominent an inflectional marking is (that is, the more, phonetic substance associated with it), the greater the tendency to, retain the inflection in the face of sound changes tending to reduce, it. Lemle and Naro (1977)., , Sammy f1sremil n. A jocular term for a sagittal section of the upper, part of the human vocal tract, the familiar diagram in every, phonetics textbook., , sandhi I'srendi/ n. Any of various phonological processes applying, to sequences of segments either across morpheme boundaries, (internal sandhi) or across word boundaries (external sandhi)., Examples of the first are the devoicing of English plural Iz/ in cats, and the velar softening of Ik/ to lsi in electriclelectricity; examples, of the second are Sanskrit sa: 'she' + u:vaca spoke' > sovaca 'she, spoke' and tat 'this' + mama of mine' > tan mama 'this of mine',, plus linking r and intrusive r in non-rhotic accents of English. See, Allen (1962) for an account. Sanskrit grammar: sam 'together' + dhi 'put'., lo, , lo, , satellite /'sret~laIt/ n. [obsolete] See onset. Hockett (1955)., scalar feature l'skeI1~/ n. A distinctive feature which can assume, three or more values., , scansion /'skrenf~n1 n. 1. The analysis of the metrical structure of., verse. 2. In Metrical Phonology, the analysis of metrical structure, (stress patterns).
Page 330 :
317, , secondary cardinal vowel, , schema /'ski:m;l/ n. See rule schema., schwa /fwu:/ n. (also shwa) 1. The unrounded mid central vowel, [~], the neutral vowel produced with the tongue and lips in their, rest positions. Schwa is the most frequent vowel in English, occurring for example in the first syllable of about and in the second, syllable of carrot. 2. The symbol [;l], used in the IPA to represent, this vowel. 3. See centrality. Hebrew grammar., , Scots /skots/ n. A name applied collectively to the distinctive, regional varieties of English spoken in the lowlands of Scotland., While sharing some characteristics with the English of northern, England, Scots is distinguished from all other varieties (except, the Scots-influenced English of Northern Ireland) by a number of, independent developments. Scots must be distinguished from, Scottish Standard English., , Scouse /skuus/ n. [non-technical] The traditional name for the, distinctive speech variety of the Merseyside area of northwestern, England, centred on the city of Liverpool. See Wells (1982) for a, summary, Knowles (1974) for a detailed description. Scouser: one, who speaks Scouse. From lobscouse, a kind of stew traditionally served in, Liverpool waterfront cafes., /'sek~ndri/ adj. (of a form or segment) In historical, phonology, derived by phonological change from an earlier form, or segment., , secondary, , secondary affix n. (also stress-neutral suffix, neutral affix, Class II, suffix) In English, a suffix whose addition has no effect upon the, location of the primary stress, such as -ness: meaningless, meaninglessness. Cf. primary affix., , secondary aperture n. A cover term for the nasal/non-nasal and, lateral/non-lateral distinctions. Chomsky and Halle (1968: 316)., , secondary articulation n. 1. Narrowly, any articulation which, accompanies another (primary) articulation and which involves a, less radical constriction than that primary articulation, such as labialization or velarization. 2. Broadly, and perhaps more usually, any, of various independent articulatory gestures which can be, performed simultaneously with another articulation, including the, two just mentioned as well as nasalization, palatalization, glottalization and others. See Laver (1994: 320-335)., , secondary cardinal vowel n. In the cardinal vowel system, anyone, of the eight reference vowels derived from the primary cardinal
Page 331 :
secondary phoneme, , 318, , vowels by reversing the lip-rounding. Secondary vowels numbers, 1-5 are thus rounded, while 6-8 are unrounded., , secondary phoneme n. [obsolete] See suprasegmental phoneme., Bloomfield (1933)., , secondary split n. An instance of phonemic split in which the total, number of phonemes is increased, as when Old English 191 split, into modern 191 and 10/. Cf. primary split. Hoenigswald (1960)., , secondary stress n. In English and some other languages, a degree, of stress which is less than primary stress but greater than that, found on unstressed syllables, as in the first syllable of kangaroo, or in the last syllable of formaldehyde., I'sek~ndl n. (also F2) The second-lowest of the, formants visible in a sound spectrogram, typically lying between, about 800 Hz and 2,400 Hz. The second formant of a vowel is, particularly sensitive to the place of articulation of a neighbouring, consonant, and its characteristic second-formant transitions are a, major acoustic cue in identifying place of articUlation, especially, for plosives., , second formant, , Second Germanic Consonant Shift Id33:'mrenIkl, , n. A related, series of sound changes affecting obstruents which applied to High, German but not to other Germanic languages. Briefly, Ipl ~ Ipfl, or IfI (English plum, German Pflaume; apple, Apfel; deep, tief); ItI, ~ Itsl or lsi (ten, zehn; water, Wasser; foot, Fuss); Ikl ~ Ix! (in some, circumstances) (make, machen); Idl ~ ItI (day, Tag; ride, rei/en;, good, gut); 191 ~ Idl (thick, dick; brother, Bruder; oath, Eid). Cf., First Germanic Consonant Shift., , segment I'segm;}ntl n. 1. A single speech sound; anyone of the, minimal units of which an utterance may be regarded as a linear, sequence, at either the phonetic or phonological level, such as [a],, [s], [k] or [m]. The segment is broadly conceived of as a period of, speech during which the organs of articulation are more or less, unmoving; however, since the speech organs are actually in constant, and largely independent motion during speech, phoneticians have, long stressed that the segment is (phonetically, at least) a fiction,, but it is none the less a very convenient fiction, and such varied, evidence as alphabetic writing and slips of the tongue show that, the segment is linguistically real. 2. A bundle of distinctive features, which is fully specified and hence capable of receiving a phonetic, interpretation in a particular language. 3. (seg) In the SPE feature
Page 332 :
semiconsonant, , 319, , system, a distinctive feature invoked to distinguish segments, ([+seg]) from boundaries ([-seg]). 4. In Autosegmental Phonology,, a frequent shorthand for autosegment. Adj. segmental. Scott (1941);, popularized by Pike (1943)., , segmentalization, , Isegment~lallzeIJQI n., , segmental phoneme, , See unpacking., , Iseglment~l/, , n. The label used by most, American Structuralists for a phoneme in the ordinary sense, as, opposed to a suprasegmental phoneme. Bloomfield (1933) had, called this a primary phoneme., Is~sept~lblhti/ n. The degree to which a, particular segment is affected by a particular phonetic setting., , segmental susceptibility, , segmental tier n. (also melodic tier, phonemic tier) In some versions, of Autosegmental Phonology, a tier on which individual segments, are located. Most recent versions of the framework decompose this, tier into several distinct tiers., , segmentation Isegmen1teIJQI n. The division of a piece of speech, into a linear sequence of identifiable elements. In phonetics and, phonology, these elements are most usually segments (either, phones or phonemes)., , segmentator, , IlsegmenteIt~1 n. An instrument which allows a very, short stretch of tape-recorded speech to be played back for analysis., , selectional difference /s~llekJ~n~l/ n. (also lexical incidence, lexical, distribution) A difference between two accents (sense 1) of a, language which share the same set of phonemes (in the relevant, domain) but which use different phonemes in particular words. For, example, some accents of English have pass, dance, bath with the, vowel lrel of cat, while others have them with the vowel 10:1 of, father., , semantic transparency ISI'mrentIkl n. (also avoidance of homonymy, maintenance of contrast) A putative principle which is, sometimes invoked to explain unusual or irregular phonological, developments in cases in which the usual or regular developments, would have led to increased homophony, thereby perhaps interfering with communication., , semiconsonant IlsemIkons~n~ntl n. [obsolete] A segment which can, function either as a syllabic margin or as an on-glide or off-glide, to the nucleus, but not as a nucleus. Cf. semivowel. Hockett (1955).
Page 333 :
semi-phoneme, , 320, , semi-phoneme /' semif;)(Jni:m1 n. [obsolete] A phonetically distinctive segment which arises only as a conditioned altemant of a, phoneme, such as Menomini [u:], which occurs only as a predictable, variant of /0:/. Bloomfield (1939); Max Wheeler (p.c.) has suggested that, this term might be usefully revived for cases like English schwa, representing, the neutralization of several phonemes in a form not close to the other allophones of any of them., /'semivou~lI n. A non-syllabic segment which has the, phonetic characteristics of a vowel but the phonological behaviour, of a consonant, most usually a glide., , semivowel, , sensorineural deafness, , /sens~rI'nju~r~lI, , n. A type of deafness, arising from a malfunction of the cochlea. Cf. conductive deafness., , sentence stress, , /'sent~ns/, , n. 1. (also tonic stress, accent, pitch, accent) Prominence attached to a single syllable in a single word, of a complete sentence in an unmarked style of pronunciation - in, English, normally to the last lexical item: Janet loves it vs. Janet, loves her food. 2. See emphatic stress. 3. See nuclear stress. NOTE:, , These usages conflict; sense 1 is recommended., , separation of levels /sep~'reIJQ./ n. A putative principle of linguistic, analysis by which no morphological analysis may be undertaken, until the phonological analysis is complete, and so on for other, levels of analysis. Acceptance of this principle denies the phonologist all access to grammatical or lexical information. Embraced, by most American Structuralists, this principle frequently, compelled exceedingly counterintuitive analyses and led to the, introduction of such devices as juncture phonemes; it was attacked, by Kenneth Pike in a famous article (Pike 1947b), and it has, probably not been seriously maintained by anyone since the, 1960s., , sequence, , /'si:kw~ns/ n., , The linear ordering of elements, most often, segments, within a phonological form. Constraints on permissible, sequences are the domain of phonotactics and have been treated, in various ways, such as by morpheme structure rules., , serial approach to speech segmentation /'sI~ri~1 ~pr~utJ t~ spi:tJ, segmenteIJQ./ n. (also linear approach to speech segmentation) The, most familiar method of segmenting speech into smaller units, in, which the continuum of speech is exhaustively divided into a single, linear sequence of consecutive adjoining units, the segments. Cf., parametric approach to speech segmentation.
Page 334 :
321, , short, , l'sI~ri:zl n. A label used in philological works, and still sometimes today, for a group of consonant phonemes in a language, which share both voicing (sense 2) and manner of articulation but, which differ in place of articulation. For example, English has, a series of voiceless plosives Ip t k/, a series of voiced plosives, /b d g/, a series of nasals 1m n 1)/, and so on. (Philological works, do not generally use these modern phonetic labels, preferring such, traditional names as tennes, aspiratae and mediae.) Cf. order., , series, , seseo Ise'seol n. In Spanish, the merger as a sibilant [s] of the two, fricatives which are distinguished in standard European'Spanish as, lsI and leI: hence I'kasal for both casa 'house' and caza 'hunting',, distinguished in standard European Spanish as I'kasa/ and I'kaea/,, respectively. Seseo is universal in American Spanish and widespread in southern Spain. In some areas of southern Spain, the, result of the merger is a strongly fronted dental variety of [s], perceptually resembling [e]; this type of pronunciation is called, ceceo., , setting l'setII)I n. See phonetic setting., sharp Ifo:p/ adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a, , di~tinctive, , feature defined as "exhibiting an upward shift of the upper frequencies in the spectrum' and interpreted as palatalization of the, segment in question. Only palatalized consonants are [sharp]. Ant., plain. Cf. flat., , sharpening, , l'fo:p~nII)I, , n. In some early Germanic languages, the, reinforcement of geminate glides with plosives, as in the Gothic, development of ww to ggw and of jj to ddj., , sharp voice n. A distinctive voice quality involving bright, ringing,, penetrating tones, approximately the voix blanche of singing, and, possibly sometimes identical to tense voice. There are different, views as to how this is achieved; see Laver (1980: 142-146). Chiba, and Kajiyama (1958)., rJlbI1~ntl n. or adj. [non-technical] A semi-jocular label, occasionally applied to a palato-alveolar fricative, especially to, voiceless [f]. By analogy with sibilant for [s]., , shibilant, , l'fIm~1 n. Irregular variation in the intensity (volume) of, an individual's voice, such as occurs during harsh voice. Cf. jitter., , shimmer, , short If':):tl adj. 1. (of a segment) Having less duration than some, other segments, especially than another segment which is otherwise
Page 335 :
shortening, , 322, , similar. Ant. long (sense 1). 2. In the Williamson feature system,, one of the four possible values of the feature length., , shortening Itf:):t~nIIJI n. Any phonological process in which a long, segment loses its distinctive length. For example, the long vowels, of Old English were at various times shortened before certain, consonant clusters and in antepenults: gOd-spell> god-spell 'gospel',, cepte > cepte 'kept', Hliif-mresse > Hlammresse 'Lammas', sujJerne, > sujJerne 'southern'., , shwa Ifwo:1 n. A less usual spelling of schwa., l'sIbI1~nsl n. 1. The distinctive acoustic property of a sibilant, essentially stridency (sense 2). Often treated phonologically, as a binary, either-or property, sibilance is more realistically, regarded as a continuum. 2. (also sibilant) In the Ladefoged and, Williamson feature systems, a binary distinctive feature invoked to, distinguish sibilant fricatives (like [s]) from non-sibilant fricatives, (like [8])., , sibilance, , sibilant l'sIbI1~ntl n. or adj. (sib) 1. A fricative or affricate produced, with a concentration of energy at high frequencies, usually by, means of a groove in the tongue, and having a characteristic hissing, sound. The term is most usually applied to [s], but is sometimes, extended to [z] and other segments. 2. A binary distinctive feature, sometimes invoked to distinguish obstacle fricatives ([+sib]) from, non-obstacle fricatives ([-sib]): essentially the same feature as, strident (senses 3-4). Ant. non-sibilant. Ladefoged and Maddieson, (1986). 3. See sibilance (sense 2)., l'sIgm~1 n. The symbol cr, used to label a syllable node in tree, representations of syllable structure., , sigma, , signal l'sIgn~l/ n. In the transmission or reproduction of information,, such as by sound waves or by electronic means, the information, which is intended to be transmitted or reproduced, as opposed to, any accompanying noise., IsaI1~nt tlet~1 n. A letter in the conventional spelling, of a word which has no overt phonetic realization, such as w in, write, k in knife, I in walk, gh in right, t in castle, b in lamb and e, in mile., , silent letter, , silent pause n. A hesitation in speech containing nothing but silence,, sometimes operationally defined as lasting at least 200 ms. Cf. filled, pause.
Page 336 :
323, , simultaneous iterative rule application, , silent stress n. In English, a pause which occupies a position which, needs to be occupied by a stress in order to maintain stress-timing., See Abercrombie (1971)., , simple sound I'slmp;ll! n. A segment during whose articulation the, organs of speech do not move appreciably, such as a pure vowel, or a fricative. NOTE: The antonym contour segment is now preferred to the, earlier compound sound. Jones (1950)., , simplex stop I'slmpleksl n. An ordinary plosive or nasal stop, throughout which the velum is maintained either open or closed., Cf. complex oral-nasal stop., , simplicity ISlm'phsltil n. A possible criterion for phonological, analysis. Simplicity has often been invoked in defending particular, analyses, but it is very difficult to attach any clear and consistent, content to the term, and in any case an analytical decision which, results in simplification in one area may produce greater complexity, elsewhere. Attempts to construct simplicity metrics for evaluating, analyses were highly unsuccessful and have now been largely, abandoned., , simplicity-generality criterion Id3eng'rrehti/ n. A cover term for, the criteria taken as paramount in evaluating analyses in classical, generative phonology, by which the most highly valued analysis, consisted of maximally general rules each containing a minimal, number of specifications. This criterion placed no constraints upon, the degree of abstraction of underlying representations, which, tended to become absurdly remote from their surface realizations, (in spite of the presence of the Naturalness Condition), a state of, affairs attacked by Kiparsky (1968) and addressed by Natural, Generative Phonology., , simultaneous context /sImgl'telnigs/ n. A notational device indicating that a phonological rule applies to a segment when some, feature is present on that same segment. For example, the following, rule lengthens a stressed vowel:, , v, , ~, , [+long] /, [ [+stress] ], , simultaneous iterative rule application /'It;lrdtIv/ n. A mode of, rule ordering in which, at each stage of the derivation, all rules, whose structural description is met apply simultaneously, and a
Page 337 :
simultaneous (once-only) rule application, , 324, , given rule can re-apply as many times as its SD is met. Sommerstein, (1977: 171)., IWAns '~unli/ n. A, mode of rule ordering in which, at each stage of the derivation, all, rules which have not previously applied but whose structural, descriptions are met apply simultaneously, but no rule can apply, more than once in a single derivation. Sommerstein (1977: 171)., , simultaneous (once-only) rule application, , simultaneous onset of voicing n. The circumstance in which vibration of the vocal folds begins within ±20 ms of the release of a, preceding voiceless consonant., , sine wave, , IsaInl n. The simplest possible type of wave, represented, , by an equation of the form y == sin x. A sound wave of this type, is a pure tone, such as that produced by a tuning fork., I'SIlJg~ll n. In some American Structuralist, work, a type of juncture posited as occurring at the end of an intonation contour ending in a level tone. Cf. double-bar juncture,, double-cross juncture. Trager and Smith (1951)., , single-bar juncture, , single word boundary n. A type of boundary which is stronger, than a morpheme boundary (+) but weaker than a full word, boundary, or double word boundary (##). Represented as #, the, single word boundary is often taken as the kind of boundary, separating a clitic from its host., , singulary feature, , I'SIlJgjul~ri/ n., , See unary feature., , skeletal tier Iskd'li:tdll n. (also skeleton, , I'skeldtdn/, timing tier), , In Autosegmental Phonology, the central tier, the one which is, minimally specified for information of its own and which provides, anchor points (slots) for the autosegments on all other tiers., This tier is also called the CV tier or the X-tier, especially when a, particular view is held as to what information (if any) is specified, there., , Skeleton Satisfaction Condition IsretIs 'frekJ~nl, , n. In some, versions of Autosegmental Phonology, a proposed constraint on, well-formedness. It says: all skeletal positions must be exhausted., This constraint prevents positions in the skeletal tier, of whatever, origin, from receiving no melodic content. McCarthy and Prince (1986)., , slack (vocal cords) Islrekl n. A distinctive feature proposed by Halle, (1972), interpreted as representing low tension in the vocal folds,
Page 338 :
325, , soft attack, , and intended to provide a unified characterization for both, low pitch and voicing: both low-pitched and voiced segments are, to be classified as [+slack], allowing the pitch-lowering effect of, voiced consonants to be interpreted as assimilation. Cf. stitT (vocal, cords)., , slack voice n. See under lax voice., , Halle and Stevens (1971)., , slant rhyme Islo:ntl n. See half-rhyme., slash IslreJI n. See environment bar., slashes n. pI. (also slant brackets Islo:ntl, obliques) The usual notational device for enclosing phonemes, either single phonemes, such, as English Ik/, lrel and Itl, or sequences of phonemes, such as Ikretl, 'cat'. Cf. brackets (sense 1)., , slender consonant, , l'slend~1, , adj. In Irish, a palatalized consonant., Such consonants contrast systematically with non-palatalized, counterparts; see the examples under broad consonant., , slip of the tongue IslIpl n. Any speech error in which a segment, or a feature occurs in an unintended position: 'bread and breakfasf for bed and breakfast, 'piss and stretch' for pitch and stress,, 'pig and vat' for big and fat., , slit fricative Ishtl n. (also flat fricative) Any fricative produced with, a more or less flat lower articulator and hence a wide, flat channel, for air flow. An example is [9]. Cf. grooved fricative., , smooth breathing Ismu:o 'bri:oIIJI n. 1. In Ancient Greek, the, absence of aspiration at the beginning of a vowel-initial word., 2. The diacritic " used to represent this., , smoothing l'smu:oIIJI n. A type of monophthongization in which an, off-glide is simply lost, as when Old English ea and ea were reduced, to e and e, respectively. Ant. breaking. Sweet (1888)., Is~ufl strretIfI'keIfI)/ n. The phenomenon in, which different speech varieties are used by different social classes, within a single speech community., , social stratification, , soft Isoftl adj. [non-technical] The opposite of hard; see the remarks, under that entry., I~'trekl n. (also smooth attack) In singing, the absence, of a glottal step at the beginning of a vowel-initial phrase. Cf. hard, attack., , soft attack
Page 339 :
soft consonant, , 326, , soft consonant n. In certain languages, notably Russian, in which, most consonants occur in pairs, one palatalized and the other not,, anyone of the palatalized consonants. The term slender consonant,, usual in Irish, has the same meaning. Ant. hard consonant., , soft mutation n. (also lenition) A mutation in Welsh by which, in, specified grammatical circumstances, voiceless plosives become, voiced, voiced plosives become fricatives (or zero in the case of, Ig/), 1m! becomes lvi, and (in some circumstances) voiceless liquids, become voiced: tref 'town', y dref'the town'; desg 'desk', y ddesg, 'the desk' (dd == [0]), mam 'mother', y fam 'the mother' (f == [v]),, pont yr afon 'the river bridge', dros bont yr afon 'over the river, bridge', Glyn Ebwy 'Ebbw Vale', i Lyn Ebwy 'to Ebbw Vale', llyfr, 'book' (ll == voiceless lateral), Dyma lyfr da 'Here's a good book'., , soft palate n. 1. See velum. 2. In some analyses, a superordinate, class node governing the feature [nasal]. Sense 2: Sagey (1986)., , soft universal n. See statistical universal., soft voice n. See under lax voice., Sonagraph I's~un~gro:fl n. The trade name of a widely used variety, of sound spectrograph., , sonant l'sDn~ntl n. or adj. (also resonant) Any voiced sound capable, of acting as a syllabic nucleus: a vowel, liquid or nasal. The term, is particularly used in Indo-European studies., , sone, , /s~un/ n. 1. The unit of perceived loudness. A 1,000-Hz tone, which is 40 dB above the listener's threshold frequency has a loudness of one sone. Stevens (1957). 2. An older synonym for phone or, segment. Harrington (1912). 3. An apparent phonetic unit in a dead, language recorded only in writing., , soneme I's~uni:m! n. An apparent phonemic unit in a dead language, recorded only in writing., , sonorant, , /'sDn~r~ntl n. or adj. (son) 1. (also resonant) A consonant, which is not an obstruent - that is, a liquid, a nasal or an approximant. 2. In the SPE feature system, a distinctive feature defined, as 'produced with a configuration of the vocal tract cavity in which, spontaneous vocal cord vibration is possible'. Obstruents are [-son];, all other segments are [+son], including [h] and [1] and all vowels., This definition in terms of 'spontaneous voicing' has been shown, to be unworkable. Many analysts have preferred to rename this
Page 340 :
327, , Sonority Hierarchy, , feature obstruent, with exactly the opposite specifications, though, many now prefer to regard [h] and [1] as [+obstr]. Ant. nonsonorant or obstruent. 3. In the Ladefoged feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'possessing a high amount of acoustic energy', and specifically designed to pick out segments which are capable, of being syllabic. Hence vowels, nasals and liquids are [+son], while, obstruents and glides are [-son]. NOTE that these definitions are not, equivalent., , sonorant obstruent n. A label suggested for an obstruent in some, language which patterns in some respects like a sonorant, such as, the voiced plosives which alternate with nasals in the Celtic, languages. Rice (1993)., , sonorant voice n. (also spontaneous voice) (SV) A distinctive, feature proposed by Rice and Avery (1989) and Rice (1993). The, proposal is that the traditional feature of voice (interpreted as, 'laryngeal voice') is found only in obstruents, while sonorant voice, (regarded as differing in some unspecified phonetic respect) is, found in sonorants (including vowels) but may also occur in sonorant obstruents. The idea is to capture certain generalizations, involving obstruents (especially plosives) and sonorants, such as the, voiced plosive/nasal alternations occurring in some languages., , sonority, , /s~'nor~til, , n. 1. [obsolete] A synonym for vowel height., , Trubetzkoy (1939).2. A particular sort of prominence associated with, , a segment by virtue of the way in which that segment is intrinsically, articulated. Sonority is an elusive notion. One approach holds that, it is a measure of the output of periodic acoustic energy associated, with the production of a particular segment, and hence of its intrinsic loudness: the greater such output, the greater the sonority of, the sound. Others would associate sonority chiefly with the degree, of aperture of the vocal tract. 3. In Dependency Phonology and, some other privative theories, the vowel element {a}., , Sonority Dispersion Principle /dl 'sp3:ft:l/ n. A putative principle, governing syllabification. It says: the sonority should slope maximally from onset to nucleus and minimally from nucleus to coda., This principle is held to integrate a number of observations about, syllable structure; see Kenstowicz (1994: 283). Clements (1990)., , Sonority Hierarchy n. A putative ranking of segment types in order, of their intrinsic sonority. Views differ, but a common ranking is, (from least to most sonorous) oral stops > fricatives > nasals >
Page 341 :
Sonority Sequencing Principle, , 328, , liquids > glides > vowels. Some would add further elaborations,, such as voiceless plosives > voiced plosives and high vowels> low, vowels. The idea goes back at least to Whitney, Sievers, Jespersen and, Saussure, but modern formulations date from a revival in the 1970s by Zwicky,, Hooper, Vennemann and others., /'si:kw~nSIIJ/ n. (also sonority, cycle) A widely accepted constraint on syllable structure. It says:, the sonority profile of the syllable must slope outwards from the, peak. In other words, the level of sonority must rise as we proceed, from the beginning of the syllable to the peak and fall as we, proceed from the peak to the end, in accordance with the Sonority, Hierarchy. This principle is designed to block such putatively, 'impossible' syllables as [ndu] and [spidz]. Note, however, that the, second actually occurs in English., , Sonority Sequencing Principle, , sound change /'sQund tJe1nd3/ n. (also sound law 11':):/, sound shift, /Jlft/) Any phonological change in which certain segments are, systematically converted into phonetically different segments., , Sound Pattern of English, The, , /'pret~n/, , n. See SPE., , sound spectrograph /'spektr~grQ:f/ n. Any of various devices which, accept a stretch of speech (or other sounds) as input and produce, as output a recording or display representing an analysis of, the input, usually a graph with frequency on the vertical axis and, time on the horizontal axis, with the darkness of the graph at any, point representing the intensity of the sound. Such a graph is a, sound spectrogram /'spektr~grreml; it exhibits clearly the fr~quen, cies and intensities of the components as a function of time, the, periods of voicing and voicelessness, the high-frequency noise of, certain fricatives, and the formant structure of each part of the, utterance., /'sImb~hzql! n. Any of various types of iconic, (non-arbitrary) relations between the sound of a word and its, meaning, such as onomatopoeia and phonaesthesia., , sound symbolism, , sound system n. 1. Narrowly, the phoneme system of a language., 2. Broadly, the entire phonology (sense 2) of a language., , sound wave n. (also acoustic wave) A wave that propagates sound., source /s':):s/ n. That part of a sound-generating system which., provides the required input of energy. In speech, the larynx is, commonly taken as the source.
Page 342 :
329, , spectrograph, , source feature n. In the SPE feature system, any of the several, features invoked to treat differences in the source of the acoustic, output: voiced, strident and heightened subglottal pressure. Apart, from the first, these features have been repeatedly modified and, replaced in various ways in the literature., , source/filter theory of speech production n. The universally, accepted theory of speech production, in which the vibrating larynx, serves as a source of energy and the supralaryngeal vocal tract acts, as an acoustic filtering system modifying that energy. See Fant, (1960), Flanagan (1965), Fry (1979), Lieberman and Blumstein, (1988) or Kent and Read (1992)., /lsAo~n fIft/ n. A general type of vowel shift which, has affected, or is currently affecting, most varieties of English, spoken in the southern United States, in southern England and in, all Southern Hemisphere countries. High and mid vowels are, fronted, while low vowels are raised and backed. See Labov (1994:, 201-218) for an account. Cf. Northern Cities Shift., , Southern Shift, , span /speeD! n. In speech, a period of measurable duration during, which the articulatory organs maintain a more or less steady state., Each span is separated from the next by some kind of transition., Catford (1977: 227)., , SPE /es pi: li:/ n. (in full, The Sound Pattern of English) The major, work published by Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle in 1968. In, the guise of a detailed description of the phonology of English,, SPE was the first substantial presentation of the classical version, of generative phonology. The work introduced the SPE feature, system and introduced or elaborated nearly all the principal ideas, of generative phonology; it is the most influential publication in, phonology in modern times. The title is a bow to Edward Sapir's, classic but long-neglected 1925 paper "Sound patterns in language';, the book ends with an in-joke: its final line, the strange-looking, rule a ~ a, is a duplicate of the final line of PaQini's great grammar, of Sanskrit., , speaking rate /lspi:kIIJ/ n. The overall tempo of a particular piece, of speech, including any filled pauses. Cf. articulation rate., , specification /spesIfI'kelfQ/ n. See feature specification., specified feature /'spesIfaId/ n. See feature specification., spectrograph n. See sound spectrograph.
Page 343 :
spectrum, , 330, , spectrum /'spektr;:)m! n. (pI. spectra /'spektr;:)/) See acoustic spectmm., , speech chain /'spi:tf tfeIn/ n. (also chain of speech) The entire, sequence of events linking the speaker's brain to the hearer's brain, during speech. For a possible analysis, see the phases of speech., , speech defect /dI'fekt/ n. (also speech impediment /Im'pedIm;:)nt/), A minor, involuntary, consistent departure from the pronunciation, norms of a language, such as a lisp or a defective T., , speech disguise /dIslgaIz/ n. A systematic phonological deformation of words resembling a language game but typically used to, hide speech from outsiders with a limited command of the language., See Kenstowicz (1994: 408-409) for a striking example from Hijaazi, Arabic., , speech error /I er;:)/ n. Any utterance which deviates in some way, from the intended utterance, such as a slip of the tongue. See, Fromkin (1973 or 1980)., , speech organs n. See vocal organs., speech perception n. The process by which a hearer extracts identifiable linguistic elements from the continuous acoustic signal of, speech., , speech production n. All those activities involved in the uttering, of speech, usually including the contributions of the brain and, nervous system., , speech reading /lri:dIIJ/ n. See lip reading., speech recognition /rek;:)g'nlfQ/ n. The task performed by a, computer program which can respond appropriately to human, speech., , speech science /'saI;:)ns/ n. The study of all the factors involved in, producing, transmitting, perceiving and comprehending speech,, including all relevant aspects of anatomy, physiology, neurology and, acoustics, as well as phonetics., , speech sound n. An individual phonetic segment; a particular, pronunciation (token) of a consonant or vowel., , speech stretcher /'stretf;:)/ n. An instrument which allows a stretch, of recorded speech to be played much more slowly than at normal, speed but without distortion, useful for certain analytical purposes.
Page 344 :
331, , spirant, , /'sAr~g~t/ n. A non-vocal system of sounds for, transmitting speech, such as whistled speech or talking drums. See, Stern (1957)., , speech surrogate, , /'SIne~SIS/ n. The process of producing, usually by, electronic means, artificial speech which can be understood by, humans. A device which does this is a speech synthesizer; the, speech produced is synthetic speech. Speech synthesis by rule is a, procedure for converting written texts into intelligible speech., , speech synthesis, , speech therapy /'eer~pi/ n. The diagnosis and treatment of disorders, of spoken language., , SPE feature system n. (also Chomsky-Halle feature system) A, system of distinctive features introduced in Chomsky and Halle, (1968). The features in this system are all binary and are nearly all, articulatory; they are grouped into several classes. The source, features are voiced, strident and heightened subglottal pressure., The major-class features are sonorant, consonantal and vocalic (the, last quickly replaced by syllabic). The manner features are continuant, delayed release, velaric suction, velaric pressure, implosion,, ejection and tense. The cavity features are coronal, anterior, high,, low, back, round, distributed, covered, glottal constriction, nasal, and lateral. A few prosodic features are mentioned but not, discussed: stress, length and several pitch features. The framework, rapidly replaced the earlier Jakobson-Halle feature system as the, standard feature system, and it proved highly successful in some, respects. None the less, it was criticized on several grounds: the, phonetic unreality of some of its definitions, the ad hoc nature of, certain features (notably anterior), and its cumbersome and inadequate treatment of obviously non-binary parameters like vowel, height. A large number of modifications were proposed, both redefinitions· of features and totally new features, but only a few of, these ever won general acceptance, and the SPE system is still, essentially the one used by phonologists who use binary features, at all (many phonologists now prefer unary features)., , spelling pronunciation /'spehI]/ n. A pronunciation of a word, which has not developed in a historically regular way but which, has been strongly affected by the conventional spelling of the word., Examples include the common British pronunciation of missile as, /'mlsaI1/ and the pronunciation of often with a [t] in it., , spirant, , /'spalr~nt/ n., , or adj. An older term for fricative.
Page 345 :
spirantization, , 332, , Ispalr~ntaI'zeIJQ.1 n. 1. (also fricativization) Any, phonological process in which a plosive is converted to a fricative:, one type of lenition. Examples include the development of ProtoIndo-European voiceless plosives into Proto-Germanic fricatives, (PIE *peisc- > English fish, *trei- 'three' > Eng. three) and the, development of Latin intervocalic voiced plosives into Romance, fricatives (Latin habere 'have' > French avoir, Italian avere, Latin, ripa 'riverbank' > French rive). 2. See aspirate mutation., , spirantization, , spirometer /spaI 'rnmlt~/ n. Any of various devices for measuring, the volume of air expelled during speech. Abstr. n. spirometry., , split /spht/ n. See phonemic split., spondee Ispnn' di:1 n. A metrical foot conSIstIng of two stressed, syllables, or, in quantitative metre, of two long syllables: feline,, spondee, good news. Adj. spondaic /spnn'denk/. Greek spondeios pous, "foot of libation', from its use in libation songs., , spontaneous speech /spnn 'telni~s/ n. Ordinary, unselfconscious, speech; the speech we produce when we are not thinking of the, effect of our speech upon hearers., , spontaneous voicing n. 1. In Chomsky and Halle (1968), a phonetically questionable notion invoked to distinguish sonorants from, obstruents; the idea is that vibration of the vocal folds occurs spontaneously when the vocal folds are suitably positioned and there is, no obstruction in the vocal tract to raise the air pressure there, (producing a sonorant); some different mechanism is assumed to, produce voicing in obstruents. 2. See sonorant voice., , spoonerism, , /'spu:n~rlzrpJ n. The transposition of segments between, the words of a phrase, as in slow and sneet, our queer old dean, a, blushing crow, The Lord is a shoving leopard, and the classic if, doubtless apocryphal You have hissed all my mystery lectures and, tasted the whole worm. After the Reverend W. A. Spooner of New College,, , Oxford, who was reportedly much given to this sort of error., , Sprachbund I'Jpraxbuntl n. [German: 'language union'] See, linguistic area., , spread /spred/ adj. Denoting a configuration of the lips in which the, comers are extended outward from the neutral position. Ant. rounded., , spread glottis n. A distinctive feature proposed to define the class, of 'breathy' segments: aspirated consonants, voiceless vowels and
Page 346 :
333, , steady, , [h] are [+spread]; all other segments are [-spread]. Cf. constricted, glottis. Halle and Stevens (1971)., , spreading /'spredII)/ n. 1. The use of a spread lip position. 2. The, phenomenon in which a phonetic feature occurring intrinsically on, one segment or in one morpheme, such as nasality or high tone, is, realized phonetically over a longer stretch of material., , square brackets /skwc';J/ n. See brackets., , sse /es es 'si:/ n., , See Stress Subordination Convention., , stability /st';J'bI1';Jti/ n. In Autosegmental Phonology, the principle, by which the deletion of an autosegment on one tier has no effect, upon associated autosegments on other tiers. For example, if a tone, is associated with a vowel, either may disappear while the other, remains., , stacking /'strekII)/ n. In some versions of Autosegmental Phonology,, an arrangement in which some tiers are directly dependent upon, other autosegmental tiers, rather than upon the skeletal tier., Rennison (1987)., , stammer(ing) /'strem';Jr(II))1 n. Abnormal hesitation in speech; difficulty in speaking continuously and smoothly. This may result from, a speech defect or from strong emotion. Cf. stutter(ing). V stammer., , standing wave /'strendII)I, , n. A type of wave, found in a vibrating, , body such as an air column or a drumhead, which results from the, superposition of two identical waves travelling in opposite directions. Certain points (the nodes) are not displaced at all, while, others (the antinodes) exhibit maximum displacement., , star Ista:/ n. See asterisk., starred form, , Ista:d/ n. A form marked with an asterisk to show, that it is a hypothetical reconstructed form or to show that it is illformed or impossible., , static tone /'stretlk/ n. See register tone., statistical universal, , Ist';J'tIStlk~l/ n. (also soft universal) A universal, which holds for the great majority of languages but not for all., Examples: voiced obstruents imply voiceless ones; if a language has, one front rounded vowel it will be Iy/., , steady /'stedi/ adj. In the Williamson feature system, one of the, three possible values of the feature posture.
Page 347 :
steady state, , 334, , steady state /stelt/ n. Any stage during the production of speech, during which the organs of articulation briefly remain more or less, motionless, as during the hold phase of a plosive., , stem /stem/ n. In morphology, a bound form of a lexical item, which typically consists of a root to which one or more affixes, have been added and which serves as the immediate base for the, formation of grammatical words. For example, the Latin verb, amare 'love' has the root am-, from which are derived the imperfect stem amab-, the perfect stem amav-, the supine stem amat-,, and so on., , stepping tone /'stepIIJ/ n. See register tone., stereotype, , /'steri~talpl n. A variable which is the overt topic of, social comment in a community and which typically shows, conscious correction and hypercorrection. Cf. marker (sense 3),, indicator. Labov (1994: 78)., , stiff (vocal cords) Istlfl n. A distinctive feature proposed to treat, distinctions of tension in the vocal folds: [+stiff] is associated with, voicelessness and high pitch; [-stiff] with voicing and low pitch. The, feature has the advantage of allowing the familiar tendency of a, voiced consonant to lower a following tone as an assimilation, but, it is not without problems: see Ladefoged (1973), Sommerstein, (1977: 106). Cf. slack (vocal cords). Halle and Stevens (1971)., , stitt voice n. See tense voice., , Halle and Stevens (1971), , Stifling l'stadhlJI n. A proposed unification of Proper Inclusion, Precedence and the Elsewhere Condition, as follows. Given two, rules of the form (i) A -7 B I P_Q and (ii) C -7 D I R_S, such, that the set of strings that fit P[+seg]Q is a proper subset of the, set that fit R[+seg]S, and the structural changes of the two rules, are either identical or incompatible, and (ii) is not a phonetic, rule, then a representation that meets the structural description of, both (i) and (ii) may not undergo (ii), either immediately or later., Hastings (1974)., , stod Ist0dl n. A highly distinctive suprasegmental occurring in, Danish, derived from an earlier tone related to the accent I of, Norwegian and Swedish. St0d is realized phonetically as creaky, voice on the stressed syllable; its presence is not wholly predictable,, and it is sometimes contrastive. For example, the following pairs, of words are homophonous apart from the presence of st0d in the
Page 348 :
335, , stray consonant, , first but not the second: hund ~dog'lhun 'she'; mand 'man'lman, 'one' (impersonal); b(Jnder 'peasants'lb(Jnner 'beans'; tanken, 'the tank'itanken 'the thought'; banken 'the bank'ibanken ~the, knocking'. See Fischer-J0rgensen (1985) or Laver (1994: 330-331)., , stop Istopl n. 1. [rare] An older synonym for plosive. 2. A general, label for any segment whose articulation involves a complete oral, closure. In this sense, the class of stops includes nasals ('nasal, stops') as well as plosives and affricates ('oral stops'). Laver (1994), extends the term to include flaps, taps and trills, all of which involve, momentary closures, but this wider use is not standard. 3. In the, Ladefoged feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to handle, distinctions in degree of occlusion, with the three possible values, stop, fricative and approximant. 4. In Ladefoged (1971), a quite, different binary distinctive feature with the possible values 0 (no, complete closure) and 1 (complete closure). 5. In the Williamson, feature system, one value of the feature stricture., , stop burst n. See burst., strangulated IlstnengjuleItIdl adj. [non-technical] (of speech), Produced with abnormal constriction of the throat, whether from, strong emotion, pathological causes or physical strangling., IstrretIfIlkeIf~n~l/ n. The type of, phonology practised within Stratificational Grammar. A series of, planes, or strata, relates the conceptual end of a linguistic form to, its phonetic realization; within each plane, the tactics of that plane, define the elements available on that plane and their possible, combinations. The morphotactics handles the combinations of, morphemes, which are realized as morphons (roughly, allomorphs);, morphons consist of phonemes (roughly, the morphophonemes of, earlier approaches), whose combinations are treated by the phonotactics; phonemes consist of phonons (unary features). See, Sommerstein (1977: ch. 4) for a brief introduction, Lockwood (1972,, especially ch. 6) for a more detailed one. Lamb (1966)., , Stratificational phonology, , stratum, , IlstreIt~m! n. (pl. strata l-t~/) 1. Anyone of the planes of, representation recognized in Stratificational phonology. 2. [rare], See level (sense 2)., , stray consonant IstreII n. A consonant occupying a marginal position in a syllable in which it cannot be straightforwardly parsed,, such as 1m! in rhythm and Inl in damn (cf. damnation).
Page 349 :
Stray Erasure Convention, , 336, , /I'reI3~/ n. An earlier version of the, principle of Prosodic Licensing. It says: erase segments and, skeleton slots unless attached to higher levels of structure. Steriade, , Stray Erasure Convention, (1982)., , strength /streI)B/ n. See phonological strength., strengthening, , /'streI)B~nII)/ n., , See fortition., , stress /stres/ n. 1. A certain type of prominence which, in some, languages, is present upon certain syllables. Native speakers and, phoneticians usually find it easy to determine which syllables bear, stress, and even to distinguish varying degrees of stress, but the, phonetic characterization of stress is exceedingly difficult: stress is, variously associated with greater loudness, higher pitch and greater, duration, any of which may be most important in a given case, and, sometimes also with vowel quality. Earlier attempts to identify, stress with greater intensity of sound are now discredited, and, current thinking holds that stress is primarily a matter of greater, muscular effort by the speaker, and that hearers take advantage of, several types of information to identify that effort. Jones (1950), distinguishes four phonetic types of stress: level, crescendo, diminuendo and crescend0-4iminuendo. See Laver (1994: 533) for references. See word stress, sentence stress, emphatic stress, nuclear, stress. 2. In the SPE feature system, an undefined and undiscussed, distinctive feature invoked to handle contrasts of stress in sense 1., Attempts at developing this feature quickly revealed that it was, fundamentally different from all other SPE features (see Roca, 1994: 208-209), and the search for a better alternative led to the, development of Metrical Phonology., , stress accent n. A type of word accent in which certain syllables, are made more prominent than others by the presence of stress., Cf. pitch accent., , stressed adj. (of a syllable or a word) Bearing a stress., Stress Erasure Convention !I'reI3~/ n. In some versions of Metrical, Phonology, a convention which prevents one application of the, cycle from having access to information derived from earlier cycles., One version is: all existing metrical structure is erased at the start, of each cycle. Halle and Vergnaud (1987)., , stress foot n. A foot in a stress language: a prosodic unit consisting, of one stressed syllable and some number of unstressed syllables.
Page 350 :
337, , Strict Layer Hypothesis, , stress language n. A language with a prominent accent (sense 3), realized as strong stress (sense 1), such as English, Spanish or, Russian. In some stress languages, such as English and Russian,, unstressed syllables undergo reduction; in others, such as Spanish,, they do not. Cf. pitch language., , stress-neutral suffix n. See secondary affix., stress retraction n. 1. (also stress reversal, stress shift) See iambic, reversal. 2. The phenomenon in English in which the primary stress, occurs earlier in a word than is usual, as in catamaran and mulligatawny. Several versions of a Stress Retraction Rule appear in the, literature to account for this, including the Long, Alternating, Weak, and Strong Stress Retraction rules. See Hogg and McCully (1987), for a survey., , stress-shifting suffix /'JlftIIJ/ n. See primary affix., /s~b~:dI'neIJ~n/ n. (SSC) In, many analyses of English stress, the convention by which the assignment of primary stress at some stage of an analysis automatically, reduces all existing stress levels by one within the current domain., For example, the primary stress assigned earlier to the first syllable, of player is reduced one level when primary stress is assigned to, the first element in baseball player., , Stress Subordination Convention, , stress-timing n. The type of speech rhythm in which stressed, syllables occur at approximately equal intervals, with any number, of unstressed syllables allowed to occur between the stresses., Stress-timing is often said to be characteristic of English, though, objective measurement shows that the occurrence of stresses at, equal intervals is more an ideal than a reality. Adj. stress-timed., Cf. syllable-timing. The term was coined by Pike (1947a), but the idea goes, back to Joshua Steele in the eighteenth century., , Strict Cyclicity Condition /saI'khslti/ n. Especially in Lexical, Phonology, a proposed constraint upon cyclic rules. It says: cyclic, rules may apply in derived environments only. In other words, a, cyclic rule can only effect a change in an input which has been, created within the current cycle. This condition does essentially the, same work as the Revised Alternation Condition and the Derived, Environment Constraint. Mascaro (1976); Kaisse and Shaw (1985)., /'leI~/ n. In the Prosodic Hierarchy, model, the requirement that all material on a given level must be, , Strict Layer Hypothesis
Page 351 :
stricture, , 338, , exhaustively dominated by the nodes of the next higher level., Among other things, this requirement rules out improper bracketings, such as ambisyllabic consonants., , stricture /'strIkf:J/ n. 1. See constriction. 2. In the Williamson feature, system, a distinctive feature with the possible values stop, fricative,, approximant, high vowel and low vowel. 3. A distinctive feature, proposed by Lass (1984: 110), with six values ranging from plosive, to low vowel., , stricture feature n. A rare synonym for major-class feature. Cf., content feature., , stricture type n. Anyone of the different ways of forming a constriction in order to produce a speech sound (especially a consonant)., Catford (1988) distinguishes stops, fricatives, approximants, resonants and trills (the maintainable types), plus taps, flaps and semivowels (the momentary types). The notion of sticture type is similar, to that of manner of articulation, but narrower in excluding such, .things as laterality, velie attitude (nasality) and fricative release., , strident /'straId:Jnt/ adj. (stri) 1. [non-technical] (of a sound) Loud, or harsh. 2. (also sibilant) (of a fricative) Characterized by a large, amount of energy at high frequencies; intense and high-pitched,, such as [s]. See Laver (1994: 260-263). 3. In the Jakobson-Halle, feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting highintensity noise' and interpreted as involving a 'rough-edged' effect, at the point of articulation. Ant. mellow. 4. In the SPE feature, system, a similar distinctive feature defined as 'marked acoustically, by greater noisiness [than a non-strident counterpart and associated with turbulent air flow over a surface, the turbulence being, caused by any or all of a rough surface, a high rate of flow or a, steep angle of incidence. Contrasts of stridency are possible only, for affricates, fricatives and 'non-vocalic liquids'; all other segments, are non-strident. The feature is variously invoked to distinguish [f], ([+stri]) from [~] ([-stri]), [s] ([+stri]) from [9] ([-stri]), [f] ([ +stri]), from [~] ([-stri]) and the Czech fricative trill [r] ([+stri]) from [r], ([-stri]). This acoustic (or perceptual?) feature is unusual in the, articulatorily based SPE feature system, and in most cases it could, be replaced by the SPE feature distributed. Cf. sibilant (sense 2)., Abstr. n. stridency /'straId:Jnsi/. Ant. non-strident., , r, , Strine /straIn/ n. [non-technical] A jocular label for the distinctive, speech variety of Australia, especially for its less well-educated
Page 352 :
339, , Structural Compensation, , varieties. Morrison (1965): a representation of the local pronunciation of, 'Australian'., , strone, , Istr~unl, , n. [rare] Any particular phonetic realization of a, , stroneme. Jones (1950)., , stroneme, , l'str~uni:m1 n. [rare] A unit of phonological stress,, regarded as a kind of phoneme. Jones (1950)., , strong IstrDlJ1 adj. (of a secondary articulation) Present to a high, degree: strong nasalization, strong palatalization., , strong consonant n. [informal] A consonant which is low in, sonority, such as a voiceless plosive, and which may therefore, undergo lenition or be the target of fortition. Ant. weak consonant., , Strong Domain Hypothesis n. In Lexical Phonology, a proposed, mode of rule application. It says: all rules are free to apply at the, earliest lexical level (unless barred by an independent constraint)., The idea is that each rule applies from the initial level onward,, until at some point stipulated by the analyst it ceases to apply (it, is deactivated), after which it may not be activated again. (Structure, Preservation, of course, bars many rules from lexical application,, so that they cannot apply before the postlexical level.) Kiparsky, (1985)., , strong form n. (also full form) One of two (or more) possible, pronunciations of a given word in connected speech, the one which, occurs when the word is stressed, such as can in I CAN do it (/kren/)., Ant. weak form., , strong syllable, , n. A less usual term for heavy syllable., , strong verb, , /V3: b/ n. In English and other Germanic languages, a, verb which forms its past tense and past participle by vowel change:, sing/sang/sung; write/wrote/written. Cf. weak verb., , structural change /'strAktJ ~r~l/ n. (SC) In a phonological rule, the, string of elements which is produced from a given input when the, rule succeeds in applying - in the traditional notation, the output, between the arrow and the environment bar plus the environment, on the right of the bar. Thus, the rule A ~ B / C_D (equivalently,, CAD ~ CBD) yields the SC CBD. Cf. structural description., /kDmp~n'seIJQ./ n. A, putative functional principle of language change. It says: when the, rate of deletion of a meaningful feature of a language increases,, , Structural Compensation, Principle of
Page 353 :
structural context, , 340, , the frequency of features that redundantly carry this meaning will, increase. Labov (1994: 604)., , structural context n. A possible position for the occurrence of a, segment, in terms of syllables, morphemes or words. For example,, English Ihl occurs only syllable-initially. Cf. environmental context., Idl'skrlpJ~nl n. (SD) (also proper analysis), In a phonological rule, the string of elements which must be, matched by a representation in order for the rule to apply to it in the traditional notation, the input on the left of the arrow plus, the environment on the right of the environment bar. Thus, the, rule A ~ B I C_D (equivalent to CAD ~ CBD) has the SD, CAD. Cf. structural change., , structural description, , structural difference, , I'dlfr~nsf n., , A difference between two accents, (sense 1) of a language which permit different sequences of, phonemes. For example, rhotic accents of English differ from nonrhotic ones in permitting Irl before a vowel or pause., l'strAkJ~r~hzrpl n. 1. Any approach to linguistic, description which views the structure of a language primarily as a, system of relations. Structuralism in this sense derives chiefly from, the work of the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Virtually all, twentieth-century approaches to phonology are structuralist in this, sense, as opposed to earlier atomistic approaches, which regarded, the phonology of a language as a collection of elements. 2. See, American Structuralism., , structuralism, , structural set, , fsetf n. Any subset of the phonemes of a language, which share a common distribution, such as English Ir I w jl (can, follow a plosive in a word-initial cluster) or II e re A 0 uf (can only, occur in a closed syllable). Bloomfield (1933)., , structure, , l'strAkJ~1 n. The relation between elements which are all, present simultaneously and which form part of some complex, object. Cf. system., , structure-determined neutralization, , IdI't3:mlndl n. A neutralization which occurs in some structural context, such as word-finally., Cf. context-determined neutralization. Prague School., , Structure Preservation, , Iprez~'veIJJ)1 n. In Lexical Phonology, a, constraint upon lexical rules. It says: lexical rules do not introduce., distinctions not present in lexical entries. See Strong Domain, Hypothesis. Kiparsky (1985).
Page 354 :
341, , substantive universal, , stutter(ing) /'stAt~r(IIJ)/ n. The unintentional repetition of segments, or syllables in speech, especially word-initial consonants, either, from a speech defect or from strong emotion: G-G-G-Good, morning. The cartoon character Porky Pig has a prominent stutter., Cf. stammer., , v:, , stutter., , subgesture /'sAbd3estf ~/ n. In a representation of segments in terms, of gestures, a gesture which is a subordinate part of another gesture., Thus, the oro-nasal subgesture is one aspect of the articulatory gesture., subglottal pressure /sAb'gIDt~l/ n. The air pressure in the pulmonic, airstream just below the vocal folds, the primary determinant of, perceived loudness., subjunction /s~b'd3Al)kf~n/ n. In Dependency Phonology, the, relation between two elements one of which directly dominates the, other. For example, the representations, i and a, , a, , might be used for [e] and [re], while i:a might be used for [c], the, first two showing subjunction. v: subjoin /s~b'd3~In/., , sublamina, , /sAb'lremln~/, , n. See underblade., , sublamino-prepalatal 1. adj. (of an articulation) Involving the, underblade of the tongue and the front part of the palate as the primary articulators; one type of retroflex articulation. 2. n. A segment, so articulated, such as the retroflex consonants of southern India., submatrix /'sAbmeltrlks/ n. A matrix which is part of a larger matrix., The term is used particularly in the gesture analysis of articulations., subphonemic, which are not, , /sAbf~'ni:mlk/, contrastive~, , adj. Pertaining to phonetic details, allophonic., , subrule /'sAbru:l/ n. See expansion (sense 1)., substance /'sAbst~ns/ n. The physical material - speech sounds - representing some linguistic object. Ct. form (sense 2). Saussure (1916)., substantive universal /s~b'strentlv/ n. Any formal object which is, universally present in languages., or at least universally available,, such as the feature [nasal]. ct. formal universal.
Page 355 :
342, , substrate, , /'sAbstreIt~mJ) An indigenous language upon whose speakers a second, more prestigious,, language is imposed. Cf. superstrate., , substrate /'sAbstreIt/ n. (also substratum, , suction, , /'sAkf~n/, , n. Another name for an ingressive airstream, , mechanism. Catford (1939)., , suffix /'sAfIks/ n. An affix which follows the root in the form, containing it, such as English plural -s in cats and both agent -er, and -s in writers. Adj. suffixal /'sAfIks~l/., /'sAlk~laIzd/ adj. Concave; hollow. The term is applied to, the upper surface of the tongue in a configuration in which the tip, and the back are both raised but the front is lowered, yielding a, concave outline, as in the articulation of a dark I or in internal, rounding. Abstr. n. sulcalization. Latin sulcus 'furrow'., , sulcalized, , superficial, , /sU:p~'fIfV, , n. Pertaining to the surface phonetic form of, , a linguistic item., /'su:p~fIks/ n. (also suprafix) A suprasegmental (stress or, tone) distinction which serves as the sole exponent of a grammatical distinction. See Trask (1993: 270) for examples., , superfix, , superfoot /'su:p~fut/ n. In Metrical Phonology, a unit posited in order, to combine two feet in a word which contains three or more feet., Selkirk (1980)., /'su:p~hevi/ n. In some languages, a syllable, type which contrasts with ordinary light and heavy syllables in being, heavier than both. In Cairene Arabic, for example, a syllable ending, in two consonants or a long vowel plus a consonant is superheavy, and is treated differently in stress assignment from a heavy syllable, (ending in one consonant or a long vowel) and from a light syllable, (ending in a short vowel)., , superheavy syllable, , /'su:p~d3Amp/ n. A hypothetical type of phonological, change in which the phonetic realization of a phoneme leaps discontinuously from one point to another in phonological space, passing, over in the process another phoneme with which it does not merge, - for example, a shift of /~/ from [J] to [u] in which an intervening, /0/ ([0]) is unaffected. There seems to be little hard evidence for, the reality of such shifts. Labov (1994: 147)., , superjump, , superstrate, , /'su:p~streIt/ n. A language which is imposed upon the, speakers of a different, less prestigious, language. Cf. substrate.
Page 356 :
343, , suprasegmental phoneme, , /s~'pli:JQ./ n. The use of two or more distinct stems for, forming the inflections of a single lexical item: go/went, person/, people, bad/worse. Adj. suppletive., , suppletion, , suppletive alternation, , /s~'pli:tIV/, , n. Alternation between phonologically unrelated forms, as in the English plural morphs found in, cats, oxen and radii. Bloomfield (1933)., , supported, , /s~'p:):tld/ adj. (of an element of linguistic structure), Accompanied in the stream of speech by other sources of the, information that it carries. Ant. unsupported. Labov (1994: 589)., , suprafix, , /su:pr~fIks/, , n. See superfix., , /su:pr~'gIDt~l/ adj. Pertaining to that part of the vocal, tract above the glottis, that is, to the pharynx, the oral cavity or, the nasal cavity., , supraglottal, , /su:pr~I~'rInd3~U adj. In some versions of feature, geometry, a class node dominating all phenomena within the oral, and nasal cavities., , supralaryngeal, , supralaryngeal gesture n. In some analyses of articulation, that, part of the articulation of a segment which takes place in the, supralaryngeal vocal tract. Cf. laryngeal gesture., , supralaryngeal vocal tract n. (also supraglottal vocal tract) That, part of the vocal apparatus lying above the larynx (or glottis): the, vocal tract in common parlance., , suprasegmental, , /su:pr~seg'ment~l/ adj. or n. (also non-segmental,, plurisegmental) (Pertaining to) a phonological element whose, domain is something larger than a single segment and whose phonetic realization can only be described by reference to adjoining, domains in the same utterance. The most familiar such elements are, stress and tone (or pitch), though others are sometimes recognized., Suprasegmental elements are essentially the same as prosodic, elements. The term was introduced by the American Structuralists but is still, , in widespread use., , suprasegmental phoneme n. (also prosodeme, secondary phoneme), In some analyses, notably those of the American Structuralists, a, suprasegmental element when this is regarded as a phoneme, more, or less on a par with ordinary segmental phonemes. Bloomfield (1933), had earlier called these secondary phonemes, using primary phonemes for, segmental phonemes.
Page 357 :
surd, , 344, , surd IS3:dl n. [obsolete] Any voiceless segment., , Latin surdus 'muffled'., , surface I' S3:fISI n. The level of phonetic representation of words or, utterances. Adj. superficial., , surface phonotactic constraint n. A constraint upon the permissible sequences of segments which applies to phonetic forms, but, not necessarily to underlying representations. Sommerstein (1977: 195)., , surface representation n. See phonetic form., Is~septI'bI1Itil n. The degree to which the articulation, of a particular segment is influenced by a speaker's use of a particular phonetic setting. For example, vowels are highly susceptible to, the use of palatalized voice, while plosives are little affected., , susceptibility, , suspendable opposition Is~'spend~b~l/ n. (also neutralizable opposition) In Prague School phonology, the relation between two, segments which contrast in some positions but which are neutralized in other positions. Ant. constant opposition., , svarabhakti IsvQ:r~'bQ:ktil n. See anaptyxis., , Sanskrit sviirabhakt 'vowel-, , separation'., 'dAb~lju:1 n. In Metrical Phonology, a notation for, feet in which each syllable is explicitly marked as s ('strong') or w, ('weak'). Cf. head-marked notation., , slw notation les, , syllabic ISI'lrebIkl adj. 1. Constituting a syllable, or (more usually) the, nucleus of a syllable. Abstr. n. syUabicity IsI1~'bISIti/. 2. Pertaining to, a syllable or to syllables. 3. (syU) A distinctive feature proposed by, Chomsky and Halle (1968: 354) (who credit the idea to an unidentified 'Milner and Bailey'), not as part of the canonical SPE feature, system, but as a suggested revision. Defined as 'constituting a syllabic, peak', this feature is intended as a replacement for the feature, vocalic: vowels and syllabic consonants are [+syll]; all other segments, are [-syll]. Though widely used, this feature suffers from the absence, of any phonetic correlate: syllables are undefined in Chomsky-Halle, framework and play no part in classical generative phonology. 4. A, similar binary distinctive feature in the Ladefoged feature system., , syllabic consonant n. A segment which has the phonetic characteristics of a consonant (sense 1) but which, in a particular case,, functions as a syllabic nucleus, such as the Inl in button or the /11, in bottle (in most accents) or Czech III in vlk 'wolf. See Laver, (1994: 239-241, 264-265) for a catalogue.
Page 358 :
345, , syllable-based tone, , syllabic margin n. Either edge of a syllable., syllabic nucleus n. See nucleus., syllabification IsdrebIfI'keIJQI n. Any analytical procedure for, dividing a phonological representation into a well-defined sequence, of syllables. v: syllabify ISI'lrebIfaI/., , syllable l'sI1~b~11 n. A fundamental but elusive phonological unit typically consisting of a short sequence of segments, most typically a, single vowel or diphthong possibly preceded and/or followed by one, or more consonants. Although native speakers usually find it easy, to decide how many syllables are present in a given word, or utterance, although syllable-based writing systems have been in, use for thousands of years and although speech errors provide abundant evidence for the mental reality of syllables, the syllable has, proved exceedingly difficult to define. There have been various, attempts to define the syllable phonetically: as a single respiratory, movement (the chest-pulse theory), as a single opening and closing, of the vocal tract, as a single peak of prominence in the soundstream, resulting from a combination of stress, pitch, length and intrinsic, sonority (the prominence theory). See Kloster Jensen (1963) for a, survey. None of these has proved adequate, and a few workers have, concluded that the syllable is no more than a convenient fiction., Such pessimism has proved unsustainable, since a large number of, phonological processes appear to operate in terms of syllables., Today two approaches dominate: (1) the syllable is a unit of neural, programming which can be reconstructed by the hearer from a variety of clues, in spite of the absence of any single phonetic correlate;, (2) the syllable is a purely phonological unit consisting of a single, peak of intrinsic sonority, though with qualifications for cases like, English spit, which has two peaks. It is now usual to subdivide the, syllable into an onset and a rhyme, with the rhyme further divided, into a nucleus (or peak) and a coda. In much contemporary work,, syllables are regarded as more fundamental than segments., , syllable adjunction n. A proposed analytical procedure for introducing into syllables segments whose presence violates the Sonority, Sequencing Principle, such as the sibilants of English stops. Levin, (1985)., , syllable-based tone n. The type of tone system in which each, syllable is assigned its own independent tone, as in Chinese or west, African languages. Cf. word-based tone (sense 2).
Page 359 :
syllable boundary, , 346, , syllable boundary n. The boundary between two adjacent syUables,, often represented as • or $., , Syllable Integrity Principle IIn'tegrlti/ n. In some versions of, Metrical Phonology, a proposed constraint upon prosodic structure., It says: prosodic constituent structure cannot violate syllable, structure. Prince (1980)., , syllable quantity n. See syUable weight., syllable structure n. In a particular language, or in languages generally, the requirements and constraints which determine the shapes, of possible syllables, usually formulated in terms of sequences of, consonants and vowels, but also in terms of onset plus rhyme, or, onset plus nucleus plus coda. See canonical form., , syllable template n. In Autosegmental Phonology, a template, invoked to account for syUable structure. The idea was introduced, by McCarthy (1979) for non-concatenative morphology and, extended by It6 (1986)., , syllable-timing /'talmu)/ n. (also isosyllabicity) A type of rhythm, in which each syllable in an utterance takes roughly the same, amount of time to produce. This sort of rhythm is reported for, many languages, such as Spanish and Vietnamese. Adj. syUabletimed. Cf. stress-timing. Pike (1947a)., , syllable weight n. (also weight, phonological weight, syUable quantity) A metrical property by which syllables are divided into two, (rarely three) classes differing in the number of moras they contain, and hence in their degree of metrical prominence. In terms of weight,, light syllables differ from heavy syllables (and rarely also from superheavy syllables); the difference is fundamental in many languages., , symbol /'slmb;)l/ n. 1. Any conventional character which is not a, letter of the alphabet, such as 5 or $. 2. Any character used in a, phonetic alphabet (sense 1) to represent some phone or phoneme,, such as [k] or /S/., , synaeresis /SI'nI;)r;)SIS/ n. (also syneresis) The combining of two, adjacent vowels within a single word into a single syllable, as in, the usual pronunciations of familiar and righteous. Greek synairesis, 'a taking together'., , synaesthesia /slni:s 'Si:zi~/ n. The subjective sensation of a sense, other than the one being stimulated, as in audition coloree.
Page 360 :
347, , synthetic speech, , ISIn~'li:f~1 n. The coalescence of two syllables into one, across a word boundary by reduction or loss of the first vowel, as, in Th'Almighty. Greek synaloiphe 'a coalescing'., , synaloepha, , synchronic ISII) 'kronIkl adj. Pertaining to the development of, language over time. Cf. diachronic. Abstr. n. synchrony, , /'sIl)kr~ni/., , Saussure (1916)., , syncope I'SIl)k;lpil n. (also syncopation, , /sIl)k~'peIJQ./) The loss of a, segment from the interior of a word. The term is most commonly, applied to vowel loss, as in the common British pronunciations of, medicine as /'medsInl and of library as l'laIbri/, but is sometimes, extended to consonant loss, as in ever> e'er and boatswain> bosun., Adj. syncopated. Ant. syncope. Greek synkope 'a cutting off., , syncretism I'SIl)kr;ltIzIp! n. 1. The morphological phenomenon in, which two or more morphosyntactically distinct forms of a lexical, item are formally identical. In Latin, for example, genitive and, dative case forms are usually distinct (amicus 'friend', genitive, amici, dative amico), but in -a-stem nouns they exhibit syncretism, (puella 'girl', genitive/dative puellae). 2. In Glossematic phonology,, the unit which appears in a position of neutralization. Adj. syncretic, /sII)'kretIk/. Greek synkretismos 'alliance of Cretans'., , synizesis /SInI'zi:SISI n. (also synecphonesis) The fusion of two syllables into one by the coalescence of two adjacent vowels without, the formation of a recognized diphthong. Greek synizesis 'a collapse'., , syntactic feature /SIn 'trektIkl n. An element which is primarily, syntactic in motivation, such as [noun] or [past +]; such features, must sometimes be invoked in phonological descriptions., , syntactic stress n. A rare type of stress used for making grammatical distinctions. The Brazilian language Terena does this: Kuti, otopiko 'Who chopped?' vs. Kuti ot6piko 'What did he chop?', , syntagmatic relation /sIntreg'mretIkl adj. (also relation in praesentia) Any relation holding between two elements which are, simultaneously present in a single structure. Cf. paradigmatic, relation., , synthesized speech, , /'SIn{}~saIzd/, , n. (also speech synthesis) See, , artificial speech., , synthetic speech /SIn {}etIk/ n. The artificial speech produced in, I, , speech synthesis.
Page 361 :
system, , 348, , system, , /'SISt~m1 n. A set of linguistic elements which stand in a, paradigmatic relation (that is, they represent choices), together with, the relations among them. We may speak, for example, of the, phoneme system or the tone system of a language. The items in a, system stand in a relation of systemic contrast to one another. The, conception of a language as a system, or rather as a system of, systems, is the fundamental insight of structuralism. Cf. structure., Adj. systemic. The idea was stressed by Saussure, but the term was partic-, , ularly promoted by Firth., , systematic correspondence /sIst~'mretdd n. In historical linguistics,, the pattern in which a segment X in language A is found to be, consistently matched by segment Y in language B in the same position in words of identical or similar meaning. For example, English, t corresponds systematically to German z (== [ts]) in word-initial, position: ten/zehn, to/zu, tooth/Zahn, tide/Zeit 'time', toe/Zehe,, tell/Ziihlen 'count', two/zwei. The existence of significant numbers, of such correspondences not attributable to borr,owing is commonly, taken as substantial evidence for a genetic relationship between the, languages in question., , systematic gap /grep/ n. The absence from a language of an entire, class of phonological forms as a consequence of some constraint,, most often a phonotactic one, such as the absence from English of, forms with initial /sr-/ or /zd-/. Cf. accidental gap., , systematic phoneme n. The name given to the highly abstract, conception of the phoneme favoured in classical generative phonology, as opposed to the comparatively non-abstract autonomous, phoneme favoured in most earlier work., , systematic phonemic representation n. A phonological representation in terms of systematic phonemes, in early generative, phonology the input to the phonological rules., , systematic phonetic representation n. In early generative phonology, the output of the phonological rules, commonly regarded as, a set of instructions issued by the central nervous system to the, articulatory apparatus., , systematic phonetics n. A somewhat abstract conception of, phonetics, defined by Ladefoged (1972: 277) as 'that level which, specifies all the targets necessary for the description of a particular, language as opposed to all other languages, but contains no information of the kind that is used simply to specify one speaker of
Page 362 :
349, , systole, , that language as opposed to other speakers'. Cf. physical phonetics., Chomsky (1964)., , systemic difference lSI 'sti:mIkl n. A difference between two accents, (sense 1) of a language in which one accent possesses one or more, phonemes absent from the other. For example, the RP phoneme, 101 is absent from American accents, and words which have 101 in, RP variously have 10:/, I:J:I or IAI in American English., , Systemic phonology n. The type of phonology practised by adherents of Systemic Grammar, an explicit continuation of some aspects, of Prosodic Analysis incorporating many of the tools of Systemic, Grammar. As expected, Systemic phonology emphasizes the study, of connected speech, and it makes heavy use of hierarchies of, phonological units. See Tench (1992) for an introduction., , systole, , I'SISt~li/, , n. [rare] The shortening of a long syllable. Ant., , diastole. Greek systole ·contraction'.
Page 363 :
T, tail Itedl n. In some analyses of intonation, any syllables that come, between the nuclear syllable and the end of the tone unit. In English,, the tail always continues the final pitch direction of the nucleus., , tailed n Itedd en! n. See eng., It~:kIIJ 'drAmz/ n. A system of transmitting speech, using drums whose pitch can be changed at will; linguistic pitch, and rhythm can be represented so effectively that messages can be, understood even in the absence of segmental information., , talking drums, , tamber, , /'tremb~/, , n. See timbre. According to Jones (1950), invented by, , the poet Robert Bridges., , tap Itrepl n. 1. A segment in whose articulation the moving articulator is moved rapidly from its rest position so as to lightly strike, a second, stationary articulator and is then returned to its starting, position. The most familiar tap is the alveolar tap [f], as in Spanish, pero 'but' and in a typical American pronunciation of Betty. A tap, is sometimes regarded as the limiting case of a triU, with only a, single vibration, but this is phonetically dubious, since the Bernoulli, effect plays no part in producing a tap. See Laver (1994: 224-227), for a survey. Cf. flap. NOTE: Those who, like Laver (1994), prefer to regard, taps as stops, use the term 'tapped stop' for what is more usually just called a, 'tap'. 2. In the Ladefoged feature system, a distinctive feature some-, , what hesitantly proposed to distinguish taps (and flaps?) ([+tap]), from all other segments ([-tap]) and partly replacing Ladefoged's, earlier feature of rate. In the Williamson feature system, the same, work is done by the feature posture., , tapped fricative Itreptl n. A segment articulated like a tap except, that the maximum constriction is not a complete closure, but only, a constriction sufficient to produce frication. The Nigerian language, Etsako has a phonemic voiceless tapped alveolar fricative, and, some American speakers use a similar sound as their realization, of intervocalic It/, as in city., , tapping l'trepIIJI n. 1. The articulation of a tap. 2. (also flapping), The phenomenon, occurring in many varieties of English, in which
Page 364 :
telescoping, , 351, , ItI or Idl in intervocalic position is realized as a tap [r], as in the, , familiar American pronunciation of butter or wedding., , NOTE: Though, widespread, the use of 'flapping' in this sense is inaccurate and should be, avoided., , target IltO:gltl n. 1. In phonetics, a slightly idealized configuration, of the speech organs at which the speaker 'aims' when producing, a speech sound. 2. In the study of speech errors, an utterance which, is intended by a speaker who makes an error., , tautomorphemic, , ItJ:t~mJ:'fi:mlkl, , adj. Belonging to the same, , morpheme. Cf. heteromorphemic., ItJ:t~sl'lreblkl adj. (of a segment) Belonging to the, same syllable (as another segment)., , tautosyllabic, , taxonomic phoneme, , Itreks~'nomIkl n., , A dismissive synonym for, , autonomous phoneme., , taxonomy, , Itrek'son~mil n. A classification; in particular, any, approach to linguistic description in which classification is considered to be a primary goal. Adj. taxonomic., , TBU See tone-bearing unit., tectal II tekt~ll 1. adj. Pertaining to the tectum. 2. n. In philological, works, an occasional term for any palatal or velar obstruent, , tectum, , l'tekt~mI n. The roof of the mouth, usually including but, sometimes excluding the upper teeth and the alveolar ridge. Adj., tectal. Malone (1923): Latin tectum 'roof., , teeth Iti:81 n. pl. (sg. tooth Itu:8/) The enamelled bony structures, set in two curving lines in the upper and lower gums. The upper, teeth (and rarely the lower teeth) may serve as passive articulators. Adj. dental; CF denti-., , telephone theory of hearing /'tehflunl n. A theory of hearing, which holds that neurons transmit electrical signals unchanged from, the cochlea to the brain, where all processing is performed. This, theory is now known to be wrong., , telephone voice n. A distinctive style of speaking used by some, people when using the telephone, often characterized by a reduction in rate (sense 1) and noticeably increased formality., Iltehsk~upIIJI n. A complex type of language change in, which some intermediate stages in a series of natural changes, , telescoping
Page 365 :
template, , 352, , get lost, leaving behind a phonetically bizarre set of alternations., For example, a certain Basque morpheme has the alternants, leI ~ Iii ~ IX/ as a result of the loss of several intermediate steps., , template l'templeItl n. In phonology or morphology, a general,, schematic, skeletal representation of some class of forms consisting, of a set of positions or 'slots' into which elements of specified types, may be inserted to produce valid forms. Templates are widely, used in contemporary phonology and also in describing nonconcatenative morphology. Adj. templatic Item'plretIk/., , templatic syllabification n. The analytical procedure of constructing syllables by templates, rather than by rules. Ito (1986, 1989)., , tempo, , I'temp~ul n., , See rate., , tense /tens/ adj. 1. A frequent but exceedingly ill-defined label, applied to certain segments in particular languages which contrast, with other, similar, lax segments in a complex manner. The general, idea is that tense segments are characterized by greater muscular, tension, more extreme movements of the vocal organs, greater, duration and greater subglottal air pressure than their lax correlates, but there is frequently little or no evidence for such phonetic, correlates, though a few languages, such as Korean, genuinely do, appear to possess contrasting consonants which can be realistically, described as tense and lax. Tense consonants are also called fortis;, tense vowels were formerly called narrow, and are now often, labelled [+ATR]. In recent years there has been a marked tendency, to try to interpret the tense/lax distinction in terms of glottal and, subglottal activity. See Lass (1976: ch. 1, Appendix) and especially, Catford (1977: 199-208) for a critical examination of the use of this, term, and Wood (1975b) for a defence. 2. In the Jakobson-Halle, feature system, a distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting high, energy with greater spread across the spectrum and longer duration', and interpreted as representing greater deformation of the, vocal tract from its rest position. 3. In the SPE feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'produced with a deliberate, accurate,, maximally distinct gesture that involves considerable muscular, effort'; tense segments are also said to be relatively long. Often, invoked in a seemingly arbitrary manner, especially for the purpose, of doubling the number of vowel heights available, this feature, suffers from the same problems cited in sense 1, and it has now., been replaced by the feature ATR, itself suspect for similar reasons,, in connection with vowels, while constricted glottis and spread
Page 366 :
353, , terraced-level, , glottis are often invoked for distinguishing tense and lax consonants. See Sommerstein (1977: 104-105) for a critical survey of this, feature. 4. (also long) In the phonology of English, a conventional, label for all vowels and diphthongs derived from the long vowels, of Middle English. Some treatments would also include lrel in the, tense vowels, even though it is descended from an original short, vowel. Abstr. n. tenseness. Ant. (all senses) lax., tense voice n. (also stitT voice) 1. Broadly, a label applied to any, of various voice qualities involving an overall increase in muscular, tension and hence some or all of anterior (sense 2) voice, harsh, voice, ventricular voice, vigorous and extensive movements of the, tongue, lips and jaw, constriction of the larynx and the pharynx,, heightened subglottal air pressure, and elevated pitch and volume., Cf. lax voice. 2. See anterior voice (under anterior, sense 2)., tensing n. Any phonological change in which a lax vowel becomes, tense, such as the change of lrel to Ire:1 in some American cities., tension II tenJ~n1 n. 1. A stretching or stiffening of an elastic organ,, such as the tongue or the vocal folds, as a result of muscular effort., 2. A ternary distinctive feature proposed by Ladefoged (1971),, resembling the expansion (sense 2) feature of the Williamson, feature system and designed to do roughly the same work as ATR., Tension was replaced in the Ladefoged feature system by the binary, feature wide., tennis I'tenjulsi n. (pI. tenues I'tenjui:z/) [obsolete] An older term, for a voiceless plosive, such as [p], [t] or [k], sometimes especially, (as in Ancient Greek) for an unaspirated one. This term was widely, used in the nineteenth-century philological literature. Cf. media,, aspirata. Latin tenuis 'thin', translation of Greek psilos 'plain'., terminal feature l't3:mln~U n. In feature geometry, a feature which, occurs at the bottom of a tree, so that no other features depend, upon it., terminal juncture n. In the analysis of Trager and Smith (1951),, any of several juncture phonemes posited to account for differences in phrase-final intonation. There are three types: single-bar,, double-bar and double-cross junctures., ternary feature l't3:n~ril adj. A distinctive feature which may, assume anyone of exactly three values., terraced-Ievel/'ter~stl adj., , (of an utterance) Showing tone terracing.
Page 367 :
tertiary stress, , 354, , tertiary stress l't3:f :JriJ n. In some analyses of English stress, a third, level of stress recognized as being less prominent than both primary, and secondary stress but still not completely unstressed. For, example, the word decontamination has primary stress on its fifth, syllable and secondary stress on its first syllable; tertiary stress is, sometimes posited for the third syllable., , tessitura, , ItesI'tu:Jr:JI n. The characteristic pitch range used by an, individual in ordinary speech, or sometimes by the speakers of a, particular language. Italian:.'texture'; borrowed from musical usage., , tetragraph, , /'tetr:Jgro:fl n. In an alphabetic writing system, a, , sequence of four letters which conventionally represents a single, phoneme. Tetragraphs are rare, but German (tsch) for Itfl, as in, deutsch 'German', is an example, if Itfl is a single segment. Cf., digraph, trigraph., , tetrameter, , Ite'tnemIt:JI n. A line of verse containing four metrical, , feet., , tetraphthong Ite'tnefeoIJI n. A single syllabic nucleus in which, four different vowel qualities can be sequentially distinguished., Tetraphthongs are vanishingly' rare, but Wells (1982, 3: 538-539), reports hearing [brreHeun] for brown from a woman in Mississippi., Cf. monophthong, diphthong, triphthong., , t-glottalling n. The phenomenon, occurring in many varieties of, English, in which the phoneme ItI is realized in certain positions, either as an oral-glottal plosive [l!] or simply as a glottal stop [7]., , thematic leI'mretIkl adj. (of a word or a class of words in some, language) Lacking a thematic vowel in its inflected forms. Ant. athematic., , thematic vowel n. In certain languages, such as Spanish and Latin,, a linking vowel which occurs between a root or stem and a, following affix. For example, Latin mon- 'advise' has thematic vowel, -e-: mon-e-6 'I advise', mon-e-t 'he advises', mon-e-nt 'they advise',, etc. Such languages usually have several classes of words with, different thematic vowels., , theme lei:m/ n. An older synonym for base (both senses), now little, used., , third formant le3:dl n. (also F3) The third of the formants visible, in a sound spectrogram, typically lying above 2,000 Hz.
Page 368 :
355, , tonal default, , Thirteen-Men Rule 193:ti:n 'men! n. See iambic reversal., 19~: 'rres1kl n. The chest cavity, containing the lungs, and bounded by the rib-cage and the diaphragm., , thoracic cavity, , three-tone approach 19ri:1 n. An approach to English intonation, which recognizes just three tonal distinctions: fall, rise, fall-rise. See, Cruttenden (1986: 117-119). Gussenhoven (1983)., , thyroid cartilage 1'9alr:Jld ko:t~hd31 n. The largest of the cartilages, making up the larynx. Suspended from the hyoid bone and pivoted, upon the lower cricoid cartilage, the thyroid has a snowploughshaped forward projection which is responsible for the Adam's, apple., l'taId~U n. The volume of air breathed in and out, during the respiratory cycle., , tidal volume, tier, , ItI~1 n. In Autosegmental Phonology, anyone of the several, linear sequences of elements of some specified kind whose combination constitutes a phonological representation. One of these, the, skeletal tier, is designated as the 'backbone' to which elements on, all other tiers are associated (see under association)., , tier conftation n. In some versions of Autosegmental Phonology,, an analytical procedure by which two tiers are combined into one, at some stage in a derivation. McCarthy (1986)., l'tI1d~1 n. The diacritic -, conventionally used in various, orthographies and transcriptions for various purposes. In Spanish, and Basque, the character ii represents the palatal nasal IJl/. In the, IPA, a tilde above a character represents nasalization: hence [a], represents a nasalized [a]., , tilde, , timbre, , l'tlmb~1 n., , (also tamber, tonality) The perceptual tonal qualities which distinguish one sound (especially a vowel) from another., , timing tier, , l'taImIgl n. See skeletal tier., , tip /tIp/ n. (also apex) The forwardmost extremity of the tongue,, often used as an active articulator. Adj., , token, , apical~, , CF apico-., , I't~uk~n/, , n. A single pronunciation of a linguistic form by a, particular individual on a particular occasion. Cf. type., , tonal default, , /'t~un~l/, , n. In some tone languages, a tone which is, automatically assigned to any syllable not assigned tone by any, other process.
Page 369 :
tonal displacement, , 356, , IdIslpleIsm~ntl n. An analytical procedure by, which a tone which is intrinsically attached to an affix is assigned, instead to a root. Pulleyblank (1986)., , tonal displacement, , tonal feature n. See tone feature., tonality, , It~lnrehtii, , n. 1. See timbre. 2. The use of tones. 3. In, the Hallidayan analysis of intonation, the system of options for, dividing an utterance into tone groups (intonational phrases). Cf., tonicity., , tonality feature n. In the Jakobsen-Halle feature system, any of, the features [grave]/[acute], [sharp]/[plain] or [flat]/[plain]., , tonal morpheme n. A morpheme which is realized exclusively as, a tone, and which contains no segments. For example, the Recent, Past suffix in Tiv consists only of a high tone: vende 'refuse' has, recent past vende, with a final high tone., IIPQ:tIk~l/ n. A grammatical morpheme realized, entirely as a tone, with no segments of its own., , tonal particle, , tonal sandhi n. Variation in the phonetic realization of tones due, to the contextual influence of neighbouring tones in connected, speech., , tonal stability, , Ist~lbdItil, , n. The phenomenon in tone languages in, which a tone remains undeleted when its associated vowel is, deleted. Goldsmith (1976)., , tonal tier n. In Autosegmental Phonology, the tier on which tones, are located., , tone, , It~unl n. 1. The phenomenon, occurring in many languages, in, which words of different meaning which consist of identical, sequences of consonants and vowels are distinguished merely by, contrasts of pitch. 2. Anyone of the lexically contrastive pitches, occurring in such a system. Mandarin Chinese, for example, has, four tones: level, rising, falling and falling-rising. Examples: shu, 'write', shu 'sorghum', shu 'technique', shii 'category'. See Laver, (1994: 462-483) for an introduction, Fromkin (1978) for a detailed, survey. 3. In some analyses of intonation, an individual pitch, regarded as one of the units from which intonation patterns are, built up. 4. In the Hallidayan analysis of intonation, the system of, choices of the type of pitch pattern on an intonational nucleus. Adj., tonal II t~un~l/.
Page 370 :
357, , toneme, , tone assimilation n. Any of various phenomena in tone languages, in which the realization of a tone is affected by a neighbouring, tone, such as High-Low ~ High-Falling., , tone-based adj. Denoting an approach to intonation in which, contours are analysed into sequences of discrete pitch-levels, as in, the tone sequence model. This approach has been widely used in, the United States, and is increasingly influential in Britain. Cf. tunebased., , tone-bearing unit n. (TBU) In Autosegmental Phonology, any, element on the segmental tier which is capable of bearing a tone, - most often a syllabic nucleus., , tone feature n. (also tonal feature) 1. A distinctive feature invoked, to treat distinctions of tone in tone languages. Among those widely, used (all binary) are (with conventional diacritics) [high] ('), [mid], (-), [low] (' ), [rising] C), [falling] ("), [fall-rise] (-). 2. A distinctive, feature invoked to treat distinctions of intonation. For example,, Vanderslice and Ladefoged (1972) propose the features [accent]., [intonation], [cadence], [endglide] and [emphasis]., , tone group n. The fundamental unit of intonation, the stretch of, utterance to which a single intonational contour applies., , tone language n. A language in which tones can be used to distinguish words consisting of identical segments, such as Chinese., Yoruba or Norwegian. Sometimes the term is restricted to, languages in which virtually every syllable receives a tone, such as, Chinese. while those in which only certain syllables receive tone, are partial tone languages. In the canonical case. the tone on each, syllable is independent of the tones on other syllables and hence, the tone of each syllable must be specified separately. Cf. pitch, language., , toneless adj. (of a syllable or an affix in a tone language) Lacking, any intrinsic tone., , tone letter, such as, , ~, , /'let~/ n. A graphical symbol for representing a tone,, for a mid level tone. See Laver (1994: 476). Chao (1930)., , toneme, , /'t~uni:m1 n. Anyone of two or more distinctive tones in, a particular language which can serve alone to distinguish words., , By analogy with pboneme~ according to Daniel Jones (1950 (1967]: 262), he, himself coined the term in 1921. and it was later re-invented by Kenneth Pike, and others.
Page 371 :
tonemics, , 358, , /t~'ni:mlks/ n. pl. A synonym for tonology, preferred by, the American Structuralists., , tonemics, , tone of voice n. The use of phonetic features with no linguistic, function by a speaker in order to express particular attitudes (confidentiality, anger, scepticism, etc.)., , tone polarity, , /p~'lrerlti/, , n. In a tone language with just two tones,, the presence of a morpheme (usually a bound morpheme or a clitic), which has no intrinsic tone of its own but which always assumes, the opposite tone to the neighbouring syllable. For example, Margi, /a/ 'present tense', takes a high tone before a verb with a low tone, and vice versa., , tone sandhi n. (also tonal sandhi) A change in the phonetic realization of a tone under the influence of a neighbouring tone;, sometimes more specifically the replacement of one toneme by, another in such circumstances. Pike (1947b)., , tone sequence, , /'si:kw~ns/ n. A tone-based approach to intonation, which incorporates all intonational phenomena into a single, sequence of pitch movements. Cf. contour interaction. Ladd (1984)., , /'ter~SIlJ/ n. Any of various phenomena in tone, languages in which the absolute pitches realizing particular tones, change in a systematic way during an utterance: downdrift, downstep, upstep., , tone terracing, , tonetics, , /t~'netlks/, , n. pl. The phonetic details of the realization of, tones in speech. Adj. tonetic. By analogy with phonetics., , tongue /tAlJ/ n. The flexible muscular organ occupying the lower, part of the oral cavity, the single most important organ of articulation. The tongue is a nearly globular mass of densely interlocking, muscles, and is described by Laver (1994: 121) as resembling, 'three quarters of a tennis ball, with a very highly extensible and, manoeuvrable tip'. Its upper surface is conventionally divided into, the tip, the blade, the front, the back (or dorsum) and the root;, some phoneticians, however, apply the term dorsum to the, combined front and back, which are then sometimes distinguished, as anterodorsum and posterodorsum. Adj. lingual; CF linguo-., , tongue-arching model /'tAlJO:tJIlJ/ n. (also Bell-Sweet model) The, conventional, but controversial, view of vowel quality, in which, the primary determinant of vowel quality is taken to be the location of the highest point of the tongue. See Catford (1981) for
Page 372 :
359, , total assimilation, , a history, Lindau (1975), Wood (1975a) or Lass (1984: 6.6) for, critical discussion., , tongue-body feature n. Any distinctive feature invoked to treat, differences of the position of the body of the tongue within the, oral cavity during an articulation. The most familiar such features, are high, low and back., , tongue-fronted voice n. A voice quality characterized by persistent fronting of the tongue during speech., , tongue-raised voice n. A voice quality characterized by persistent, raising of the tongue during speech., , tongue-retracted voice n. A voice quality characterized by persistent retraction of the tongue during speech., IltWISt~1 n. Any phrase, especially a deliberately, constructed one, containing a sequence of segments which makes, it very difficult to pronounce accurately at normal speed: The sixth, sheik's sixth sheep's sick., , tongue-twister, , tonic I'tonIkl 1. adj. (of a syllable or a vowel) Bearing the word, accent (pitch or stress). Ant. atonic l'eItonlk/. 2. See nucleus (sense, 3)., , tonicity It;}'nIsItil n. In the Hallidayan analysis of intonation, the, system of options for the location within the tone group (intonational phrase) of the intonational nucleus. Cf. tonality., , tonic stress n. See sentence stress., tonogenesis It;}un;} d3en;}SISI n. Any process of phonological change, I, , by which tones are acquired by a language which formerly lacked, them., , tonology, logical, , It;}'nol~d3il n., , The phonological study of tones. Adj. tono-, , It~un;}'lod3Ik~V., , topline I'toplalnl n. (also plateau) The pitch value forming the upper, limit of the current pitch span. Cf. baseline., , topographical aspect Itop~'grreflk~l/ n. Any aspect of an articulation, involving a departure of the tongue from its neutral configuration., , total assimilation I' t~ut;}V n. An instance of assimilation in which, one segment becomes identical to another, as when Latin, 'eclipse' developed into Italian eclisse., , ECLIPSE
Page 373 :
360, , total lung capacity, total lung capacity, , Ik~'preslti/, , n. The volume of air in the lungs, , after a maximal inspiration., , trachea, , l'trelki~1 n. (also windpipe) The cartilaginous channel, connecting the lungs to the larynx, through which air passes in, breathing and speaking. Adj. tracheal I'trelki~l/., , traditional feature system, , /tr~'dIJ~n~l/, , n. See Ladefoged feature, , system., Itrelg~ 'smle/ n. An analysis of the English, vowel system proposed by George Trager and Henry Smith (1951),, an elaborated version of the earlier Bloch and Trager system. The, system posits twelve units: nine simple vowels (with three degrees, each of height and backness) and three off-glides (high front y,, high back wand centring/lowering h); each of the off-glides is sometimes interpreted as length: /iy/ = [i:], luw/ = [u:], lah/ = [a:]. Four, types of vocalic nucleus are recognized: V, Vy, Vw, Vh. This gives, a total of 36 possible nuclei, and Trager and Smith claim that all, of these occur in some varieties of English. Of course, no single, accent of English exhibits anything like 36 distinct nuclei, and the, Trager-Smith system is therefore a diasystem, rather than a description of a single variety of English. Nevertheless, the system cannot, handle the contrast between [~~] and [~:] found in some non-rhotic, varieties of English, as in lore and law. Once almost universal in, the United States, the Trager-Smith system is now little used" but, its policy of analysing tense nuclei as sequences of elements is still, widespread in American analyses (though not in British analyses)., See Kreidler (1989: 3OOff.) for a summary of the system. Cf. Kenyon, and Knott system., , Trager-Smith system, , trailer-timing, , /'tred~/ n. A type of rhythm in which a foot is, perceived as beginning with an unstressed syllable. Cf. leadertiming. Wenk and Wioland (1982)., , /trren'skrlpJ~nl n. 1. Any conventional system for, representing speech or language in writing other than one which is, customarily employed for ordinary writing, most usually one which, attempts to render pronunciation in a consistent manner, and commonly excluding mere transliteration. Two types are linguistically, important: phonetic transcription and phonemic transcription. 2., Any particular example of such a representation. \t: transcribe, /trren'skralb/., , transcription, , /trrenzderI'veIJ~n~l/ n. A constraint, on the application of a rule in one derivation which depends upon, , transderivational constraint
Page 374 :
361, , transliteration, , the properties of an entirely different derivation. Wilkinson (1976), cites a neutralization rule in Terena which applies if and only if its, application does not result in homophony - that is, it fails to apply, only if, as a result, two different derivations would have the same, output., , transfer problem, , l'trrensf3:1 n. In the analysis of reduplication, the, , phenomenon by which prosodic information, such as vowel length,, must sometimes be copied from a base to a reduplicating affix., Clements (1985)., , transfix l'trrensfIksl n. A discontinuous affix which combines with a, discontinuous base. For example, the Arabic root ktb 'write', appears in such forms as katab 'he wrote', jiktib 'he will write',, kitaab 'book', kaatib 'clerk', maktuub 'written' and maktaba 'bookshop', each of which illustrates a different transfix., , transglottal airflow Itrrenz'glotgll n. The flow of air through the, glottis during speech., , transient I'trrenzigntl n. A very brief disturbance in the form of a, sound wave., , transition Itrren'zIJf).1 n. 1. Any movement of the vocal organs during, speech from one more-or-Iess steady position to another. 2. The, acoustic effect of such a movement, particularly as revealed in the, upward or downward movement of the formants in a sound, spectrogram., , transitional aspect n. Any aspect of an articulation involving something other than a steady state during the medial phase of the, segment in question. Taps, flaps and trills are intrinsically transitional., , Translation Theory Itrrenz'leIJQ.1 n. An approach to the physiological control of speech in which representations in terms of, linguistic units are considered to form the input to the speech mechanism. See Nolan (1982) or Laver (1989), and cf. Action Theory., Itrrenzht~'relft:ll n. Any conventional system for, representing in one orthography a language which is ordinarily, written in a different orthography, normally by merely replacing, each character of the ordinary orthography in a uniform manner, by some character or sequence of characters in the orthography, being used, with no attempt at providing a phonetic or phonemic, transcription. For example, the Russian word l.JeCTOJII06He, , transliteration
Page 375 :
transparency, , 362, , 'ambition' might be transliterated into the Roman alphabet as, chestoljubije. \I: transliterate., , transparency Itrrens'prer;}nsil n. 1. The property of a transparent, rule. Ant. opacity. Kiparsky (1971, 1973a). 2. The property of a segment, which does not prevent some phonological process, such as assimilation, from applying right across it without being itself affected., Adj. (both senses) transparent., , transparent rule n. A phonological rule whose existence can easily, be inferred from inspection of surface phonetic forms. Roughly, speaking, such a rule states a true generalization about surface, forms. An example is a rule devoicing final consonants in a language, in which all final consonants are voiceless. Cf. opaque rule., , transverse section Itrrenz ' v3:s1 n. A planar section through the, body which separates the top of the head from the soles of, the feet. Cf. coronal section, sagittal section. NOTE: Phoneticians, frequently but erroneously apply this term to what is properly called a coronal, section., , trema l'tri:m;)1 n. See diaeresis., triangular vowel system ItraI'relJgjul;}1 n. A vowel system in which, all vowels except the lowest occur in front-back pairs., , trigrapb /'traIgro:fl n. In an alphabetic orthography, a sequence of, three letters which conventionally represents a single segment,, such as German (sch) for IJI or French (eau) for 10/. English makes, no regular use of trigraphs, though the British spelling manoeuvre, exceptionally uses the trigraph (oeu) for lu:/. Cf. digraph, tetragraph., , trill /trdl n. 1. (also roll) A segment whose articulation involves the, repeated rapid striking of one flexible organ against another (flexible or rigid) organ, as a result of the Bemoulli effect. The most, familiar trill is the alveolar trill [r], as in Spanish perro 'dog'. See, Labov (1994: 218-221). Cf. tap, flap. Adj. trilled. 2. In the, Ladefoged feature system, a binary distinctive feature invoked to, distinguish trills ([+trill]) from all other segments ([-trill]), and, replacing Ladefoged's earlier vibration feature. In the Williamson, feature system, the same work is done by the feature posture., , trilled /trdd/ adj. 1. (of a segment) Having the nature of a trill., 2. In the Williamson feature system, one of the three possible values, of the feature posture.
Page 376 :
363, , tune, , trilled fricative n. See fricative triU., trimeter /'trlmlt~/ n. A line of verse consisting of three metrical feet., triphthong /'trlf8olJ/ n. A single vocalic nucleus which begins with, one vowel quality, moves to a second quality, then finishes with a, third quality. Examples include the [aI~] of fire and the [au~] of, flour in many varieties of R~ Cf. monophthong, diphthong, tetraphthong. Adj. triphthongal., , Trisyllabic Laxing /tralsdreblk 'IreksIIJ/ n. (also Trisyllabic, Shortening) 1. The historical process in English by which tense, (long) vowels underwent laxing (shortening) whenever followed by, two or more further syllables in the word. This process is responsible for such modern alternations as sane/sanity, divine/divinity, and profound/profundity. 2. In some descriptions of English, a, synchronic rule posited to account for these alternations., , trisyllable, , /'tralsd~b;}l/, , n. A word consisting of three syllables, such, as kangaroo or happily., , trochee, , /'tr~uki:/ n., , A metrical foot consisting of a stressed syllable, followed by an unstressed syllable, or, in quantitative metre, of a, long syllable followed by a short. English examples: better, money., Adj. trochaic /tr~u'kellk/. Cf. iamb., , trough /trof/ n. A point of low prominence in stress or intonation, during an utterance. Ant. peak., , true consonant /tru:/ n. In the SPE feature system, any segment, which is [+consonantal] and [-vocalic]: an obstruent or a nasal., , True Generalization Condition n. The principle, associated with, Natural Generative Phonology, that no statement is truly phonological unless it holds for all surface phonetic representations., Acceptance of this principle renders impossible that very large, number of analyses in classical generative phonology employing, abstract underlying representations and ordered rules., , truncation /trAIJ'keIft:l/ n. Any phonological process which removes, one or more segments from the end of a word., , v:, , truncate., , tune /tju:n/ n. In some analyses of intonation, a sequence of pitches, regarded as one of the units from which intonation patterns are, built up. The minimal tune, containing a single nucleus, is a nuclear, tone; the maximal tune, consisting of several nuclear tones, is a, whole tune. See Cruttenden (1986).
Page 377 :
tune-based, , 364, , tune-based adj. Denoting an approach to intonation which analyses, all patterns as variations upon a very small number of contrastive, tunes, as in the contour interaction model. This approach has, been particularly influential in England and France, especially in, language-teaching; it has also been adopted by some phonological, theorists. Cf. tone-based., , turbulence, , l't3:bjul~nsl n. Irregular air flow, usually caused by, obstruction of the flow and often perceived as some kind of hissing, noise. Turbulence is most conspicuously a property of fricatives like, [s]. Adj. turbulent., , twang, , ItwrefJI n. [non-technical] An impressionistic label applied to, , an accent of English which is characterized by an unusually high, degree of nasalization., , two-level phonology, , Itu: 'lev~l/ n. A theory of phonology developed by the Russian linguist S. K. Saumjan in the 1950s and 196Os,, drawing together a number of ideas from such western scholars as, Saussure, Trubetzkoy, Hjelmslev and Jakobson. The framework, recognizes a (more abstract) level of constructs and a (less abstract), level of observation; it resembles Glossematic phonology in setting, up a large number of abstract constructs couched in opaque terminology. See Fischer-J~rgensen (1975: 341-360)., , tympanum, , l'tImp~n~m/ n. (also tympanic membrane ItImprenIk, 'membreIn/) See eardrum., , type, , Italpl n. 1. A single abstract linguistic object, such as a, phoneme. Cf. token. 2. In typology, a constellation of structural, features which pattern together so frequently in languages that they, may all be regarded as aspects of a single linguistic pattern., , typology Ital 'pDl~d3il n. The classification of languages, or of subsystems in languages, according to structural characteristics, together, with the identification of principles determining the possible types., In phonology, a familiar example is the classification of vowel, systems into such types as triangular and quadrangular, together, with statements about the permitted types.
Page 378 :
u, U /ju:/ adj. Typical of upper-class British speech. Ant. non-V. Ross, (1954)., , ultima, , /'Altlm~/ n., , (rarely also nit) The final syllable of a word. Latin, , ultima, feminine of ultimus 'last'., , umlaut /'umlout/ n. (in senses 1 and 2, also metaphony) 1. A type, of phonological change in which a vowel assimilates in quality to, a following vowel, as when pre-Old-English *mu:siz (the plural of, mu:s 'mouse') developed into *my:siz (the ancestor of modern, mice). The term is particularly used with Germanic languages. See, also affection. 2. A synchronic alternation in vowels deriving from, such a change, as in English mouse/mice. 3. A diaeresis, especially, when this diacritic is used to indicate the presence of an umlauted, sound, as in German fUn! 'five'., , un- For any term of the form un-X which has no entry of its own,, see under the entry for X. For example, for unvelarized see under, velarized., , unarism, , /'ju:n~rlzqt/, , n. The use of unary features., , /'ju:n~ri/ n. (also monovalent feature, singulary, feature) A phonological element which resembles a distinctive, feature but which can take no values: that is, it can only be either, present or absent. If [nasal] is taken as a binary feature, then, [-nasal] defines a natural class just as effectively as [+nasal]; but,, if [nasal] is taken as unary, then there is no way of referring to the, absence of [nasal], and hence no equivalent of [-nasal]. Unary, features were invoked with varying degrees of explicitness in much, work preceding the introduction of binary features in the 1950s;, the phonons of Stratificational phonology were perhaps the first, explicit use of unary features, and the components or elements of, contemporary privative theories of phonology are unary features., , unary feature, , unaspirated /An'resplreItId/ adj. 1. Lacking aspiration, such as, English /p/ in spin or any voiceless plosive in Spanish or Italian., 2. In the Ladefoged feature system, one of the possible values of, the feature aspiration. Ant. aspirated.
Page 379 :
unattested form, unattested form, , 366, IAn~ltestldl n., , See reconstruction., , unbounded foot IAnlboundldl n. A foot containing an arbitrarily, large number of syllables. English is sometimes held to have such, feet, but the claim is controversial. Ant. bounded foot., , unchecked IAnltJektl adj. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting a lower rate of energy, discharge' and interpreted as representing an absence of glottalization. Ant. checked., , unchecked syllable n. See open syllable., unchecked vowel n. See free vowel., unconditioned merger IAnk~nldIJ~ndln. Any phonological change, in which the contrast between two phonemes disappears in all positions, thereby reducing the number of phonemes in the system. An, example is the merger of Old Spanish Iz/ with lsi. Cf. conditioned, merger., , underbar II And~bo:1 n. The diacritic [_], used in the IPA to mark a, retracted articulation., , underblade II And~bleldl n. (also sublamina) That part of the lower, surface of the tongue extending about one centimetre behind the, tip. Adj. sublaminal; CF sublamino-., IIAnd~dDtl n. The diacritic [.], placed under a character, in various transliterations for various purposes, such as for representing the emphatic consonants of Arabic and the retroflex, consonants of Sanskrit. It has no IPA use., , underdot, , underlyer I And~llaI~1 n. See underlying form., , Coates (1977)., , underlying form I And~ IlaulJl n. (also underlying representation,, underlyer) A more or less abstract phonological representation of, a segment, a morpheme, a word or a phrase which is posited by, an analyst and from which corresponding surface forms, including, any variant realizations, are derived by the application of rules., Underlying forms may be more or less abstract, depending upon, the theoretical preferences of the analyst. NOTE: Though the ancient, Indian grammarians made extensive use of underlying forms, both the concept, and the term were introduced into modern linguistics by Bloomfield (1933)., American Structuralists generally rejected the idea, though Swadesh, Pike, Nida, and Hockett all made use of it. With the rise of generative phonology, underlying forms became central to phonological analysis.
Page 380 :
367, , unit, , IAnd~spesIfI'keIJQ.I n. The analytical procedure, of omitting from underlying representations some information,, usually the values of distinctive features, which will have to be 'filled, in' later in order to obtain the surface form., , underspecification, , Underspecification Theory n. A group of related approaches to, phonological description based upon the idea that the values of, certain distinctive features need not be underlyingly specified, but, can be predicted by rule during derivations. Based upon earlier, work by Paul Kiparsky, the idea has been variously developed, by Diana Archangeli, Douglas Pulleyblank and others. Two main, versions are distinguished: Contrastive Underspecification and, Radical Underspecification. See Carr (1993: 181-187) or Kenstowicz, (1994: 506-521) for a brief introduction, and see the special issue, of Phonology, vol. 5, 1984., , underspreading II And;)spredII)I n. In Autosegmental Phonology, the, failure of a position on the skeletal tier to be properly associated, with an element on some other tier., , unexploded I AnIklspl;)udIdl adj. (of a plosive) Lacking any audible, release. The term is commonly used as a synonym for unreleased,, but is perhaps more appropriate for labelling a plosive which is, released inaudibly because of the previous formation of another, closure, as with [k] in tact., , Uniformity Condition Iju:nI 'f:):mItil n. In some versions of, Autosegmental Phonology, a proposed constraint upon rule application, often invoked especially to account for the resistance of, geminates to phonological processes. It says: in order to change the, feature content of a segment [A], every skeletal slot linked to [A], must satisfy the rule. Hayes (1986), Schein and Steriade (1986)., , unilateral, , Iju:nI'lret;)r~l/ n. or adj. A lateral segment in which air, passes along only one side of the median closure. Cf. bilateral., , Unique Underlyer Condition Iju:'ni:kl n. (UUC) The principle, that every non-suppletive alternation is to be accounted for by, assigning to each morpheme a single, phonologically specified, underlying representation, with the allomorphy derived by general, (preferably phonologically specified) rules. Name: Lass (1984), but the, principle was widely accepted in classical generative phonology., , unit l'ju:nIt/ n. In a phonological representation, any item which is, either a segment or a boundary - in other words, any item which
Page 381 :
universal, , 368, , represents some kind of phonological material. Chomsky and Halle, (1968)., , universal, , /ju:nl'v3:s~1I, , shared by all, language: an, in most, but, implicational, , n. or adj. 1. Narrowly, a property which is, languages, which is part of the definition of a human, absolute universal. 2. Broadly, any property found, not all, languages: a statistical universal. See also, universal., , universal syllable structure n. The syllable structure CV, the only, syllable type which seems to occur in all languages., /'tend~nsi/ n. A statement which is true for the, overwhelming majority of languages, but not for all. For example,, nasals and liquids universally tend to be voiced, yet a few languages,, such as Welsh and Burmese, have contrastive voiceless nasals, and/or liquids., , universal tendency, , unmarked form /An'mo:kt/ adj. The opposite of a marked form, (especially sense 2)., , unmarked order of application n. (also appropriate order) Within, the local ordering hypothesis, the order of application of two rules, which allows them to apply more freely than the opposite order., Kiparsky (1968)., , Unmarking Principle /An'mo:kII)/ n. A putative principle of phonological change. It says: In chain shifts, elements of the marked, system are unmarked. For example, in chain shifts, nasalized vowels, may become oral vowels, but not normally the other way round., Labov (1994: 288-291)., , unmerger, , /An'm3:d3~/ n., , See reversal of merger., , /An~:d~d semin. A mode of rule ordering in which all rules whose, structural description is met apply simultaneously to a representation, after which all rules whose SD is met apply simultaneously, again to the output, and so on, until no rule has its SD met. This, is the simplest and least constrained type of rule ordering possible., , unordered semisimultaneous rule application, slm~ltelni~s/, , Pullum (1975)., , un ou deux phonemes? [French: 'one or two phonemes?'] See one, or two phonemes? Martinet (1939)., , unpacking /An'prekII)/ n. (also segmentalization, linearization), The phonological process in which a single segment in a particular
Page 382 :
369, , upstep, , environment develops into a sequence of two segments, each of, the new segments typically retaining some of the features of the, original segment. For example, the historical palatal nasal I pi of, Basque has developed in some northern dialects into the sequence, lin/, so that, for example, earlier bano Ibajlol 'than' has become, baino /bainol in these dialects. Ant. coalescence. Cf. phonemic split., , unreleased I AnrI 'li:stl adj. (of a plosive) Lacking an audible release, of the closure., , unrounded IAn'roundId/ adj. (of an articulation) Unaccompanied, by rounding of the lips. Unrounded segments may have neutral or, spread lip positions., , unsupported zero, , IAns~lp~:tId/ n. The total absence of any overt, marking of a linguistic category, as in the plural sheep. Labov (1994: 589)., , unvoiced I An 'v~Istl adj. See voiceless., IAp~(r) 'eksItl n. A putative principle of, phonological change applying to high tense vowels in chain shifts., It says: in chain shifts, the first of two high moras may change, peripherality, and the second may become non-peripheral. This, principle is designed to account for changes like [i:] > [~I j in the, English Great Vowel Shift. Cf. Mid and Lower Exit Principles., , Upper Exit Principle, , Labov (1994: 281-284)., , UPSID l'ApSIdl n. (in full, the UCLA Phonological Segment, Inventory Database) A database listing the phoneme systems of 317, languages chosen for typological diversity; it is published as, Maddieson (1984)., , Upside-Down Phonology IApsaId 'dounl n. A highly distinctive, approach to phonology, proposed by W. R. Leben and O. W., Robinson (1977), in which words are represented in the lexicon in, their surface phonetic form and phonological rules 'run backward', in order to convert surface forms into underlying forms which can, then be directly related to other underlying forms. For example,, capricious has the surface form [k~'prIf~s]; this is converted by, successive rules to [k~'prIJj~s], [k~'prIsj~s], and finally [k~'pri:sj~s],, which can be directly related to the underlying form of caprice, ([k~pri:s]) by the morphological rule [NOUN-U) ~s]ADr, , upstep I' Apstep/ n. The phenomenon in certain tone languages, such, as Zulu, by which the pitch of high tones rises throughout an utterance. Cf. downstep.
Page 383 :
U-RP, , 370, , U-RP Iju:, , 0: 'pi:1 n. (also upper-cmst RP) In the classification of, Wells (1982), those varieties of Received Pronunciation associated, with upper-class speakers and typically distinguished from mainstream RP by such phenomena as the diphthongization of lre/, very, back realizations of lu:/, I:J:I and notably IA/, a very low off-glide, in words like near and where, a very low vowel in words like nurse,, a very low realization of the final vowel in city, tapping or even, loss of intervocalic Ir/, lengthening of post-tonic consonants like the, IfI in awfully, and a tendency to pronounce trochees like water with, a short first syllable and a long second syllable., , utterance, , l'At~r~nsl n. Any single piece of speech produced by a, particular individual on a particular occasion. v: utter I' At~/., , utterance accent n. A stress which occurs in some position in an, utterance for any reason at all: normal word or sentence stress,, contrast, emphasis, etc. The example They reported him? No, they, deported him shows an utterance accent in an unusual position for, purposes of contrast., , utterance-marginal lengthening n. The tendency, in English and, other languages, for the first and last syllables of an utterance to, be pronounced more slowly than other syllables., , uue Iju: ju: 'si:1 n., , See Unique Underlyer Condition., , l'ju:vjul~1 n. The small flap of muscular tissue dangling from, the back of the velum. Adj. uvular. Diminutive of Latin iiva 'grape'., , uvula, , l'ju:vjul~1 (also postvelar) 1. adj. Pertaining to the uvula., 2. adj. (of a segment) Articulated with a constriction between the, back of the tongue and the uvula. 3. n. A segment so articulated,, such as the uvular fricative [xl of Arabic, Dutch and southern, German. 4. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one, of the eleven values of the feature articulatory place., , uvular, , Iju:vjul~raI'zeIJQ.I n. 1. A secondary articulation in, which the back of the tongue is raised towards the uvula. 2. Any, phonological process in which a segment at another place of articulation is converted into a uvular. Adj. uvularized., , uvularization
Page 384 :
v, v /vi:/ n. A conventional symbol for a vowel, particularly in analyses, of syllable structure., , V /vi:/ n. In phonology, the conventional cover symbol for any vowel,, used in presenting canonical forms (as in the CV syllable structure), and in abbreviating phonological rules (as in V ~ 0 / _ #, which, states that a final vowel is lost)., /'vrekju~s/ n. The phenomenon in which a, phonological rule applies to a form which meets its structural description but produces no change as a result, the output being identical to, # makes a, the input. For example, the rule [+obstr] ~ [-voice] /, word-final obstruent voiceless; it necessarily applies vacuously to, a word-final obstruent which is voiceless to begin with. Vacuous application is universally admitted because it both simplifies rules and, permits generalizations to be stated - for example, the rule above, expresses the generalization 'A word-final obstruent is voiceless',, which would be impossible if vacuous application were prohibited., , vacuous application, , /'veIl~nsi/ n. The number of distinct values which can be, assumed by a distinctive feature. A two-valued feature is binary or, bivalent; a feature with three or more possible values is multivalued,, multivalent, or n-ary. Specifically three-valued or four-valued, features are ternary or quaternary. A feature which can take no, values, but which can only be present or absent, is unary or monovalent; the phonological components of many contemporary, frameworks are of this sort., , valency, , value /'vrelju:/ n. A specification which can (and must) be added to, any distinctive feature, except a unary one, in a particular instance, in order to represent the contribution which that feature is making, to the nature of the segment containing it: hence, [+coronal] or [3, height]. It is customary to write the value before the feature name,, though the reverse order may also be encountered: [coronal+]., , valued feature j'vrelju:d/ n. See feature specification., variable, , j'vc~ri~b~U n. 1. In a phonological rule, any element whose, value can be different in differing circumstances, such as a Greek
Page 385 :
variable constraint, , 372, , letter used in the alpha notation. 2. Any phonological element,, most often a segment, which can receive different phonetic realizations within a single speech community, and even from a single, speaker, possibly with social significance attached to each realization. An example is the [t]-[1] variation for ItI in certain positions, in many varieties of English., , variable constraint n. Any factor which favours or disfavours some, particular realization of a variable (sense 2)., , variable rule n. A statement couched in a format resembling that, of an ordinary phonological rule, expressing a process which is, possible but not obligatory in some speech variety, and often, including some mention of factors which favour or disfavour the, process. An example: [-cont] ~ (0) I [+cons] _ ## (-syll). This says, that a stop is deleted in word-final position after a consonant; the, first angle brackets mean that the process is optional (variable),, the second that the presence of a following non-syllabic segment, favours the process. Labov (1972)., , variable stress n. The property of a language in which stress is free, to appear on different syllables, as in Spanish: termino 'conclusion',, termino 'I finish', terminG 'he finished'. Cf. fixed accent., /'vc~ri~nt/ n. 1. Any phonetically distinguishable variety of, a phoneme; an allophone. 2. Any of two or more equivalent forms, or pronunciations in a language which either are in complementary distribution or are used by different speakers or even by the, same speaker on different occasions, particularly one which is not, regarded as the standard or canonical form., , variant, , variation I'vc~ri'eIJQI n. Any of various phenomena involving departure from a single type of pronunciation for a linguistic form., Individuals may exhibit free variation in particular forms and may, also show variable pronunciations correlated with rate (tempo) or, style; speech communities may exhibit variation correlating with, such factors as sex, age or social class (see social stratification)., , varichrone l'vc~rIkr~unl n. The set of phonetically different chrones, used by the speakers of a language to represent a single chroneme., Jones (1950)., , variphone l'vc~rIf~unl n. 1. One of two or more phonetically distinct, segments or segment sequences used interchangeably by a single, speaker in the same environment; the use of variphones constitutes
Page 386 :
373, , velaric suction, , the most familiar type of free variation. For example, some midland, speakers in England have [IJ] and [IJg] alternating freely in words, like sing and singer. 2. A single abstract unit of which a set of interchangeable variphones in sense 1 are the possible realizations. Jones, (1929); Jones appears to have meant the term in sense 2, but it has been more, commonly used in sense 1, a usage promoted by Haugen (1957)., , vdH theory of vocalic representations /vi: di: leltf/ n. A highly, distinctive version of Dependency Phonology presented by Harry, van der Hulst (1988, 1989); a summary is presented in Carr (1993:, 11.4)., /Ivi:l~/ 1. adj. Pertaining to the velum as an articulator. Cf., velic, velaric. 2. adj. (of an articulation) Articulated with the main, constriction involving the velum as the upper articulator; in this, sense, usually equivalent to the more explicit dorso-velar. 3. n. A, segment so articulated, such as [k], [g], [x] or [I)]. 4. adj. In the, Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, one of the eleven, possible values of the feature articulatory place., , velar, , velaric /vi: Ilrer I1d adj. 1. Pertaining to the velum in its role of, providing an airstream mechanism. 2. See velaric suction (sense 2)., 3. In the Ladefoged feature system, a binary distinctive feature, invoked to distinguish clicks from all other segments. 4. A similar, distinctive feature invoked by Lass (1984: 93) to distinguish, segments produced with a velaric airstream mechanism ([+velaricD, from all others ([-velaric])., , velaric airstream mechanism, , n. An airstream mechanism in which, air is trapped in the mouth between two closures, one made by the, back of the tongue against the velum, the other made further, forward. Backward movement of the velar closure lowers the pressure of the trapped air, producing a velaric ingressive segment, (a click) when the front closure is released; forward movement, compresses the trapped air, producing a velaric egressive segment., or reverse click. See Laver (1994: 173-179) for an account. Beach, , (1937); Catford (1939)., , velaric pressure n. In the SPE feature system, an undefined distinctive feature suggested to deal, if required, with the apparently, unattested use of velaric egressive segments ('reverse clIcks')., , velaric suction n. (velsuct) 1. In the SPE feature system, an undefined distinctive feature introduced to distinguish clicks ([+velsuct]), from all other segments ([-velsuct]). 2. (also velaric) In the
Page 387 :
velarization, , 374, , Ladefoged and Williamson feature systems, a similar distinctive, feature invoked to distinguish clicks ([+click]) from all other, segments ([-·~lick])., , velarization /vi:l;.lraI'zeIft:l/ n. 1. The presence during the articulation of a segment of the raising of the back of the tongue towards, the velum as a secondary articulation. Velarization is represented, in the IPA by a following superscript [y], as in [l¥]; it was formerly, represented by an overprinted tilde, as in [t]. See Laver (1994:, 325-326) for an account. 2. Any phonological process in which such, an articulation is introduced into a segment which formerly lacked, it. \!: velarize /'vi:l~raIz/; adj. velarized., , velarized voiee n. A voice quality characterized by persistent retraction and raising of the back of the tongue towards the velum during, speech, as in the speech of Liverpool, Birmingham or New York., , velar lateral n. A rare type of lateral resonant in which the back, of the tongue forms a lateral contact with the velum. This segment, is found in the Papuan language Kanite; the IPA symbol is [L]., Ladefoged et al. (1977)., , velar softening /'sDf~nIIJ/ n. The process in English by which a velar, plosive is converted in certain environments to a fricative or an, affricate: critic/criticize ([k ]~[s]); analogue/analogy ([g]~[d3])., , velie /Ivi:hk/ adj. Pertaining to the velum in its role of opening and, closing the passage between the nasal cavity and the rest of the, vocal tract., , velie attitude II retItju:dl n. In articulatory phonetics, the parameter, representing the various possible positions of the velum. In reality,, this parameter represents a continuum ranging from maximally, closed to maximally open, but for phonological purposes it is, commonly analysed as a binary distinction between 'closed', ('raised') and 'open' ('lowered'). Lass (1984: 174)., , velie opening n. The lowering of the velum, permitting air to flow, out through the nasal cavity., , velopharyngeal port, , /lvi:l;.lf~rInd3~1 Ip:l:tl n. The opening between, the pharynx and the nasal cavity, opened and closed by the velum., , velum I'vi:l;.lml n. (also soft palate) The flexible sheet of muscular, tissue which makes up the rear part of the roof of the mouth, just, behind the palate. It is connected to the palate by a hinge which
Page 388 :
veto phenomenon, , 375, , allows it to be raised and lowered; when raised, it closes off the, nasal cavity from the oral cavity; when lowered, it allows air from, the pharynx to flow into the nasal cavity. The velum also serves as, the upper articulator in the production of velar consonants and it, plays a crucial role in producing the velaric airstream mechanism., Adj. velar (in relation to articulations), velic (in relation to opening, and closing), velaric (in relation to an airstream). Latin: ·veil'., /ven'trlkjul~ f~uldz/ n. pl. (also false vocal cords), A pair of fleshy folds of tissue, somewhat resembling the vocal folds, and lying just above them. Their precise function is unknown, but, they appear to make no contribution to phonation in ordinary, circumstances. They can, however, be approximated to produce, ventricular whisper; they can be set in vibration to produce ventricular voice; and they can be completely closed to produce a, ventricular stop. Catford (1977: 104) reports that ventricular fricatives, trills and stops have phonemic status in several Caucasian, languages., , ventricular folds, , ventricular voice n. An unusual phonation type produced by vibration of the ventricular folds. With practice, it is possible to combine, ventricular voice with ordinary voicing to produce double voice., /ven'tju~ri tju:b/ n. A tube containing a constriction, through which a fluid flows. The constriction both constrains the, flow and increases its velocity. The larynx, when the vocal folds, are approximated (as in voicing), constitutes a Venturi tube. After, , Venturi tube, , G. B. Venturi (1746--1822), Italian physicist., , verbal apraxia, , l'v3:b~1 eI'prreksi~1 n., , See articulatory apraxia., , Verner's Law, , I'V3:n~1 n. An important sound change in ProtoGermanic by which voiceless obstruents were voiced in certain, positions, leading, for example, to Old English [adar 'father' (cf., Latin pater). Verner (1875)., , vertical lip rounding /'V3:tlk~l/ n. See outer rounding., , Heffner (1950)., , vertical vowel system n. (also linear vowel system) A vowel system, whose members are distinguished only by height, such as the, It ~a/ system of the Caucasian language Adyghe., , veto phenomenon, , I'vi:t~ul n. (also Plato phenomenon) The, phenomenon, occurring for many North American speakers of, English, by which the word veto (and, for some speakers, also, the word Plato) behaves as though it consisted of two stressed
Page 389 :
via rule, , 376, , phonological words: the first vowel has a duration typical of wordfinal vowels, and the ItI absolutely cannot undergo tapping, in, contrast to what happens with such apparently similar words as, meaty, motto and ditto. These words appear to constitute flagrant, exceptions to the ordinarily automatic phonetic rules of American, English and they have accordingly been much discussed., , via rule l'val;}1 n. A statement which directly expresses a relationship between surface forms which are not derived from a common, underlying form. For example, the via rule [al] H [I] expresses the, vowel altemation in pairs like divineldivinity and would be stored, in the lexicon next to each such pair. Via rules are particularly, associated with Natural Generative Phonology; their status is, controversial, since it is not clear that they are rules in the ordinary sense of the term. Hooper (1976)., , vibrant I'valbr;}ntl n. (rarely also vibrative) 1. A cover term for taps, and trills. 2. [rare] A less usual synonym for trill., , vibration Ival'breIJQ.I n. (vibr) A distinctive feature proposed by, Ladefoged (1971) to distinguish taps, flaps and trills ([+vibr]) from, all other segments ([-vibr]), further distinctions being handled by, the feature rate. In the Ladefoged feature system, this feature is, abandoned in favour of the features flap and trill., , vibrato IVI'bro:t;}ul n. Rapid slight variation in the pitch and volume, of the voice, characteristic of a professional singing voice. Italian., , visible speech I'VIZlb;}l/ n. Any graphical or manual system for, representing speech or speech sounds other than a standard writing, system. The term is most often applied to various systems devised, for teaching deaf or handicapped persons to speak, but has sometimes also been applied to sound spectrograms. Bell (1867)., reg'n;}uzi~1 n. A pathological, condition in which the sufferer is unable to recognize written words., Cf. auditory verbal agnosia., , visual verbal agnosia IVI3U;}1 v3:b;}1, , vital capacity I'valt;}l k;}presltil n. The maximum volume of air that, an individual can expel after a maximal inspiration, consisting of, the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume and the expiratory, reserve volume., '~:dItri/ n. The conventional name, for the ordinary medium of speech: the production of sounds in, the vocal tract, the transmission of those sounds through the air,, , vocal-auditory channel Iv;}uk;}l
Page 390 :
377, , vocalization, , and the reception and interpretation of those sounds by the ears, and the brain. Sign language and writing constitute two ways of, transferring speech out of the vocal-auditory channel into other, media., , vocal cords, , /'v~uk~l, , k:l:dz/ n. pI. See vocal folds., , NOTE:, , The spelling, , 'vocal chords' is an error., /f~u]dz/ n. pI. (also vocal cords) A symmetrical pair of, tissues located in the larynx, consisting of the vocal ligaments and, the vocalis muscle with a covering of mucous membrane. Triangular, in cross-section, the vocal folds are connected in front to the thyroid, cartilage and in back to the arytenoid cartilages. Rotation of the, arytenoids moves the edges of the vocal folds together or apart,, thus allowing the production of various phonation types. The, opening between the vocal folds, with its continuation between the, arytenoids, constitutes the glottis., , vocal folds, , vocal fry /fraI/ n. A synonym for creak or, less appropriately, for, creaky voice. From a supposed resemblance to the sound of frying food., /v~u'krehk/ adj. (voc) 1. Pertaining to vowels. 2. Having the, nature of a vowel. 3. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'exhibiting a sharply defined formant, structure' and interpreted as representing a voiced sound with air, flowing without obstruction through the vocal tract. Cf. consonantal, and see the remarks there. 4. In the SPE feature system,, a distinctive feature defined as 'involving a constriction in the oral, cavity which does not exceed that of a high vowel, with the vocal, folds in a position to allow spontaneous voicing'. Vowels and liquids, are [+voc]~ true consonants and glides are [-vocl Essentially only, a re-interpretation of the earlier J-H feature, [vocalic] has generally been dropped in practice in favour of the non-equivalent, feature syllabic. Cf. consonantal. Abstr. n. vocalicity /v~uk~'hslti/., Ant. (senses 2-4) non-vocalic., , vocalic, , vocalis muscle, , /v~u'kedls mAsl! n. Either of two bands of muscular, tissue running parallel to the vocal ligaments and constituting part, of the vocal folds, thought to be important in controlling the tension, of the vocal folds., , /v~uk~lal'zeIfr:t/ n. 1. The act of producing speech, sounds. 2. Any phonological process in which a consonant is, converted into a vowel, or sometimes into a glide, as when field is, pronounced as [fiwd]. v: vocalize. Ant. devocalization., , vocalization
Page 391 :
vocal ligaments, , 378, , vocal ligaments /'hg;lm;lnts/ n. pl. The upper edges of the conus, elasticus, constituting part of the vocal folds., , vocal nodule /'nodju:l/ n. (also vocal node /n;lud/) A small swelling, on the vocal folds, typically caused by excessive straining of the, voice and resulting in a hoarse voice quality., , vocal organs /1:J:g:Jnz/ n. pl. (also speech organs, organs of speech), All those parts of the body involved in producing speech sounds,, from the lungs to the lips and nose, but usually excluding the brain, and the nervous system., , vocal processes /'pr~uses~z/ n. pl. The anterior projections of the arytenoid cartilages, to which the rear ends of vocal folds are attached., , vocal profile /'pr;lufad/ n. A detailed description of an individual's, phonetic settings for articulation, phonation, overall muscular, tension and prosodic behaviour, typically constructed by filling in, a protocol. See Laver (1994: 154) for an example., , vocal tract /trrekt/ n. The entire length of the pathway through which, air flows or can flow during the production of speech, running from, the lungs through the trachea,. the larynx and the pharynx and out, through the oral and nasal cavities. That part of it lying above the, larynx is called the supralaryngeal (or supraglottal) vocal tract., Many analysts restrict the use of the term 'vocal tract' to the supralaryngeal vocal tract, and a few further exclude the nasal cavity from, the vocal tract proper, but these restrictions do not appear to be helpful., NOTE:, , /'v~uk~ud~/ n. Any of various devices which allow speech, to be transmitted over a limited bandwidth by extracting selected, frequencies from the total signal. From 'voice coder'., , vocoder, , vocoid I'v~uk:)ld/ n. 1. A synonym for vowel in the phonetic sense of, that term (sense 1), introduced in an effort to remove the ambiguity, between the phonetic and phonological senses of 'vowel'. While, possibly useful, the term has never become established. Pike (1943)., 2. More narrowly, a vocoid in sense 1 which is also syllabic: a true, vowel, as opposed to a glide or approximant. Sense 2: Laver (1994)., , vocoid chart n. See vowel chart., vocoid space n. See vowel space., voice, , n. 1. The natural and distinctive tone of the speech, sounds produced by a particular person. 2. Broadly, any phonation, type involving vibration of the vocal folds; voicing. The term is, /V:JIS/
Page 392 :
379, , voiced creak, , most commonly used in combination in such labels as creaky voice, and whispery voice. 3. Narrowly, the phonation type involving, vibration of the focal folds with no whisper or creak: essentially, modal voice, though such modified versions as anterior voice and, tense voice are recognized. 4. In the Ladefoged feature system, a, distinctive feature invoked to treat distinctions of glottal activity,, with the five possible values glottal stop, laryngealized, voice,, murmur and voiceless. Ladefoged had earlier called this feature, glottal stricture; the equivalent feature in the Williamson feature, system is glottal state. 5. In the Lindau feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to treat distinctions in the shape of the glottis,, with the possible values glottal stop, creaky voice, voice, murmur, and voiceless, no more than two of which are said to be used, contrastively in a given language., , voice box Ibnks/ n. See larynx., /'kAmp~s/ n. The range of pitch stretching one standard deviation on either side of a speaker's mean pitch. Eady (1982)., , voice compass, , voiced /V::Hst/ adj. 1. (of a segment, in phonetics) Accompanied by, voicing, that is, by vibration of the vocal folds. 2. (of a segment, in, phonology) Regarded as being in principle (underlyingly) accompanied by such vibration, whether or not it is phonetically present., For example, English /b d g/ often lack phonetic voicing in final, position, but are still regarded as phonologically voiced. 3. In tht?, Jakobson-Halle feature system, a distinctive feature defined as, ~exhibiting periodic low-frequency excitation', and associated, with vibration of the vocal folds. 4. In the SPE feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'involving sufficient narrowing of the, glottis to make vocal-fold vibration possible', whether or not, such vibration actually occurs. 5. (also voice) In the Ladefoged, and Williamson feature systems, one of the possible values of the, feature voice (Ladefoged) or glottal state (Williamson). 6. In the, Ladefoged feature system, one of the possible values of the feature, aspiration. Ant. (senses 1-3 and, informally, sense 4) voiceless., , voiced aspirate n. A segment, especially a plosive, articulated with, whispery voice (murmur). Abstr. n. voiced aspiration., , voiced click n. A click whose articulation is accompanied by simultaneous voicing - in effect, by a simultaneous [g]. A voiced, alveolar click is notated [g !], and similarly for other voiced clicks., , voiced creak n. See creaky voice.
Page 393 :
voiced h, , 380, , voiced h n. A somewhat informal label for the segment [6], the, whispery-voiced counterpart of [h]., , voiced implosive n. A stop consonant articulated with a glottalic, ingressive airstream with simultaneous voicing provided by a, pulmonic egressive airstream, such as [6] or [<f]. Since voiced implosives are far commoner than voiceless ones, voiced implosives are, often just called 'implosives'. See Greenberg (1970) or Laver (1994:, 179-181) for a survey., , voice dynamics /daIlnremIks/ n. A cover term for a range of vocal, effects in speech other than the phonological characteristics of the, language spoken, including such factors as rate (tempo), rhythm,, register and loudness but usually excluding voice quality., , voiceless, , /'v:->Isl~s/, , adj. (also unvoiced) 1. (of a segment) Articulated, , without vibration of the vocal folds. Three types of voiceless speech, are distinguished: whisper, breath and nil phonation. Abstr. n. voicelessness. Ant. voiced. 2. In the Jakobson-Halle feature system, a, distinctive feature defined as 'not exhibiting periodic low-frequency, excitation' and interpreted as representing an absence of vocal-fold, vibration. Ant. voiced. 3. In the Ladefoged and Williamson feature, systems, one of the five possible values of the feature voice, (Ladefoged) or glottal state (Williamson)., , voiceless vowel n. A vowel whose articulation is unaccompanied, by vibration of the vocal folds. See Laver (1994: 295-297)., , voice mutation n. (also breaking of the voice) The phenomenon,, usually occurring around the onset of puberty, in which, as a result, of rapid growth of the larynx, an individual's voice changes from, that of a child to that of an adult. The process takes several months, to complete, and is particularly noticeable in boys, in whom the, pitch of the voice typically drops by about an octave., , voice onset n. With respect to the closure and release of a stop, consonant, the point at which voicing (vibration of the vocal folds), begins., , voice-onset delay n. A less usual term for aspiration., voice onset time n. (VOT) The time which elapses between some, articulatory event, most often the release of a plosive, and the point, at which the vocal folds begin to vibrate. VOT is important in many, languages in determining whether a segment is perceived as voiced, or voiceless. For a voiced consonant, VOT may have a negative value.
Page 394 :
381, , VOT, , voiceprint /'v~IsprInt/ n. A sound spectrogram, or any similar visual, display of the acoustic features of an individual's voice, when such, a display is regarded as a reliable guide to identifying the individual whose voice is exhibited, as is sometimes claimed to be, possible in forensic phonetics. By analogy with 'fingerprint'., , voice quality n. The characteristic auditory colouring of an individual's voice, derived from a variety of laryngeal and supralaryngeal features and running continuously through the individual's, speech. Though a variety of impressionistic terms for particular, voice qualities have been used, voice quality can in fact be precisely, characterized in terms of phonetic settings. See Laver (1994: ch., 13) for a survey, Laver (1980) for a detailed account and Laver, (1991: Part II) for discussion of some particular points., , voice range /reInd3/ n. The range of frequency or pitch used by a, particular speaker or by speakers generally. The average fundamental frequency is about 120 Hz for men, 225 Hz for women and, 265 Hz for children. The total range of fundamental frequencies, encountered in speech runs from about 60 Hz to about 500 Hz., Each individual normally uses not more than one octave, always, in the lower part of her/his range. A professional soprano can reach, 1,024 Hz, or exceptionally 2,048 Hz, in singing., , voicing /'V:JISIlJ/ n. 1. (also voice) The presence during an articulation, of vibration of the vocal folds. Normal voicing is modal voice, but, creak, creaky voice and falsetto may also be regarded as distinctive, varieties of voicing. 2. The parameter along which voiced and voiceless segments (and possibly other phonation types) are distinguished., 3. Any phonological process in which a formerly or underlyingly, voiceless segment becomes voiced., , voicing lag n. Retardation of the onset of voicing, such as occurs, in the production of aspirated plosives., , voicing ripple, , /'rIp~l/ n. The vertical striations visible in a sound, spectrogram, particularly in a wide-band spectrogram reflecting the, rapid rise and fall in intensity produced by the opening and closing, of the glottis., , vo;x blanche /vwa bHiJ/ n. [French: 'white voice'] In singing, the, use of clear, bright, ringing tones, reportedly achieved by lifting, and tensing of the velum., , VOT /vi:, , ~u, , 'ti:/ n. See voice onset time.
Page 395 :
vowel, , 382, , /'vou~l/ n. 1. (also vocoid) In phonetics, a segment whose, articulation involves no significant obstruction of the airstream,, such as [a], [i] or [u]. Strictly speaking, a glide such as (j] or [w], may also be regarded as a (brief) vowel in this sense. 2. In, phonology, a segment which forms the nucleus of a syllable. 3. Any, letter of the alphabet which, generally or in a particular case, represents a vowel in sense 2. Adj. vocalic. Ant. (all senses) consonant., , vowel, , vowel chart n. (also formant chart, vocoid chart) A graphical device, for showing the locations of vowels within the vowel space, most, often in terms of the first and second formants. Figure VI shows, the vowel chart of Les Branson of Norwich., , vowel classification /klreslfI'keIJQ./ n. 1. The description of vowels, in terms of phonetic parameters, most often height, backness and, rounding, and sometimes also further parameters such as length or, nasalization. 2. The representation of vowels in terms of distinctive, features., , F1, F1, , 24, 0, 2400, , F2, 2200, , 20p0, , 18Q0, , 1600, choose*, , 1400, , 1200, , 1000, , 800, , 300", , (uw, , a, , ", , 41, , brew choose, road, choose^^, , I* too, 400", 400, , jy, , dew, , /•*£>/, boot, , school, "school, "ft school, school, J, , t::':\ •♦, oy), ~, , /, , 500boot, , ~ role, role, , ~f pole, , ffool, "fool, , /, , avO, ayO/, , 600-, , 600, , ___dl_-L------', 4T ' pole, i, W, b, M, ow boat t /, , 3OO-I-----JL..------L.----'---:---,..~--""'------J~_~, , foal, foal, , fohA, home, ~home, . oh, fe»9, , showV^A, row, , 700-, , ^ey, 800800, , 900900, , o, , iy, >y, ~ eye, eyC, vayV, ayV, ow, ow, uw, " uw, 'JW, ow, , 41, , ^oJa, gow*', [aw, , > £ X stow/, , O;Wrw, , 2, , home, , home, , 9r, , ~ eyF, ayO, VoahayO, ah, •, , ahr, , ahr, , rt, , innn., 1000, , half, , Figure Vl The vowel chart of Les Branson, 42, of Norwich (1971)
Page 396 :
383, , vowel quadrilateral, , vowel echo n. The phenomenon in which an underlyingly unspecified vowel automatically takes on the identity of the vowel in an, adjoining syllable. For example, Klamath has a causative prefix snVwhose vowel is always identical to the vowel in the next syllable:, sne-ge:jiga 'makes tired', sno-bostgi 'makes something turn black',, sni-nklilk'a 'makes dusty', and so on., , vowel gradation, , /gr~'deIJt:l/, , n. See ablaut., , vowel harmony n. (also harmony) 1. The phenomenon, occurring, in some languages, in which only certain combinations of the, language's vowel phonemes are permitted to occur within some, specified phonological domain, most usually a single phonological, word; the permitted combinations are usually those which agree, (harmonize) in respect of one or more phonetic features, such as, [back], [round] or [ATR]. Turkish is a famous example: in Turkish,, a word must consist entirely of front vowels or entirely of back, vowels, and an unrounded vowel cannot be followed by a rounded, vowel. Some vowel-harmony systems contain neutral vowels which, do not participate in the harmony, and some systems exhibit an, unusual type of dominant/recessive vowel harmony. 2. (also, metaphony) Any phonological process in which the quality of a, vowel is altered in such a way as to make it more similar to another, vowel in the same phonological word: assimilation of non-adjacent, vowels. Some analysts restrict the term 'vowel harmony' to, instances of left-to-right assimilation, preferring other terms, such, as umlaut or affection, for cases of right-to-Ieft assimilation. Cf., consonant harmony., , vowel height n. (also height, degree of aperture) The parameter, which represents the vertical dimension within the vowel space and, which corresponds, at least in principle, to the physical height of, the highest point of the tongue in the mouth during the articulation of a vowel. Cf. backness (sense 1)., /kwDdrI'lret;)r~l/ n. A stylized four-sided figure, conventionally used for representing the vowel space and for, marking the positions in the vowel space of both cardinal vowels, and real vowels produced by real speakers of a language. By, convention, high vowels are at the top and low vowels at the, bottom; back vowels are on the right and front vowels on the left., A contrast between rounded and unrounded vowels in the same, position cannot be easily represented. See the Appendix for an, illustration., , vowel quadrilateral
Page 397 :
vowel quality, , 384, , vowel quality n. The totality of those distinguishing characteristics, of a particular vowel which result from the positions of the tongue, and the lips during its articulation, but excluding such features as, pitch, loudness, duration and usually also phonation type. Analysts, differ as to whether they regard nasalization and its absence as part, of the vowel quality or as an independent characteristic; the IPA, transcription of vowels effectively adopts the second position, while, acoustic analysis in terms of formants favours the first., , vowel reduction n. Any phonological process in connected speech, which makes a vowel shorter, less loud, lower in pitch or more, central in quality, or which neutralizes some vowel contrasts in, unstressed syllables., , vowel shift /flft/ n. 1. Any phonological development in a language, in which a whole class of vowels undergoes a systematic change in, quality, such as the Great Vowel Shift of English. 2. See Great, Vowel Shift (sense 2)., , Vowel Shift Principle n. A putative principle governing the course, of vowel shifts. It says: in chain shifts, peripheral vowels become, more open and non-peripheral vowels become less open. Labov, (1994: 601)., , vowel space /spels/ n. (also vocoid space) The space available within, the oral cavity for the production of vowels (sense 1), variously, conceived as a physiological reality, as a somewhat stylized abstraction (as in the vowel quadrilateral), or as a highly abstract set of, axes (as in some privative theories of phonology)., , vowel system n. The total inventory of the vowel phonemes of a, particular language or language variety, especially when presented, in an orderly manner more or less corresponding to the positions, of those vowels within the vowel quadrilateral. Symmetrical vowel, systems are often classified according to the approximate shape of, the figure produced when the vowels are so displayed: hence, vertical, triangular, quadrangular, etc., vowel systems. See under, phoneme system for references.
Page 398 :
w, w In some approaches to phonology, notably Metrical Phonology, a, conventional label for a weak (unstressed) foot., , wave /weIv/ n. An oscillation propagated through a medium in such, a way that energy is periodically interchanged between two kinds, of disturbance. In the case of a sound wave travelling through air,, the disturbance takes the form of alternating compressions and, rarefactions of the air along the line of transmission., , wave equation /I'kweI3Q./ n. The fundamental equation describing, the behaviour of all waves: v = f A. Here v is the velocity of the, wave, f is the frequency and A is the wavelength., , waveform /'weIvfJ:m/ n. The shape of a wave as shown by plotting, the value of some oscillating quantity against time., , wavelength /'weIvleIJ8/ n. The distance, measured in the direction, of propagation, between two points in the same phase in consecutive cycles of a wave. Symbol: A., , wazn /' wDzn/ n. See binyan., , Arabic grammar., , weak consonant /wi:k/ n. A consonant which is high in sonority,, such as an approximant, and which may serve as the target of, lenition. Ant. strong consonant., , weakening, , /'wi:k~nilJ/, , n. See lenition (sense 1)., , weak form n. A pronunciation of a word, typically occurring in, unstressed position, in which one or more segments are reduced to, central vowels or to zero: [~n] or [Q.] for and, [o~n] for than, [o~m], or [~m] for them, [~v] or [V] for have, [k~n] or [kQ.] for can. Ant., strong form., , weak syllable n. A less usual term for light syllable., weak verb /v3:b/ n. In English and other Germanic languages, a, verb which forms its past tense and past participle by suffixation:, live/loved/loved. Cf. strong verb., , wedge /wed3/ n. See hachek.
Page 399 :
weight, , 386, , weight /welt/ n. See syllable weight., weight-by-position n. In some analyses, an analytical procedure by, which a segment which would not ordinarily constitute a mora is, assigned a mora in certain specified positions - for example, a, consonant in syllable-final position. Hayes (1989)., , weight unit n. A less usual term for mora., well-formed /wel'fJ:md/ adj. (of a phonological form or representation) In accordance with all the requirements of the phonology, of the language in question; violating no requirements. Abstr. n., well-formedness. Ant. ill-formed., , well-formedness conditions n. pl. (WFC) Any of various conditions which must be met by a phonological representation, usually, as formulated within the confines of a particular theory of, phonology, in order for that representation to be admissible within, the phonology of the language in question. Most theories of, phonology impose various such conditions as part of their content., , whisky voice /'w1ski/ n. Any of several complex and distinctive, phonation types exhibited by individuals who are heavily under the, influence of alcohol, perhaps most commonly whispery creaky voice., /'WISp~/ n. A simple phonation type characterized by, complete closure of the anterior (ligamental) part of the glottis, combined with a broad triangular opening in the posterior, (arytenoidal) part. Air flowing through the opening produces friction noise and hence the distinctive 'whisper' sound quality., Whisper differs from breath in that, in whisper, the larynx is tense,, the glottis is partly closed, the volume-velocity of the air flow is, greater, and the sound produced is louder., , whisper, , /'WISp~ri/ n. A complex phonation type in which, the ligamental portion of the vocal folds produces creak while the, arytenoid cartilages are simultaneously spread, producing whisper, as the air flows through the opening., , whispery creak, , whispery creaky falsetto n. A highly complex phonation type in, which all of whisper, creak and falsetto are produced simultaneously. This is physiologically possible, but it is not known to be, used linguistically or paralinguistically anywhere., , whispery creaky voice n. (also whispery voiced creak) A complex, phonation type in which all of whisper, voicing and creak are
Page 400 :
387, , white noise, , simultaneously produced by the glottis: a common variety of whisky, voice., , whispery falsetto n. A complex phonation type in which the anterior part of the glottis produces falseUo while the arytenoidal part, produces whisper., , whispery voice n. (also murmur and, erroneously, breathy voice), A complex phonation type in which voicing (sense 1) and whisper, are produced simultaneously by the glottis. Most commonly,, perhaps, this is done by having the posterior (arytenoidal) part of, the glottis wide open as in whisper while the anterior (ligamental), part vibrates as is usual in voicing, but it is also possible to have, the entire glottis vibrating in such a way that the vocal folds do, not meet completely, so that noisy air flow occurs continuously, through the glottis. Whispery voice ('murmur') is linguistically, contrastive in many languages, such as those of north India., Officially, the IPA represents it with a double dot placed below the, phonetic character, as in (1?], but various other devices are also in, use. NOTE: Both Catford (1977) and Laver (1979) reject the term "breathy, voice' in this sense as a misuse of terminology, but it is nevertheless widely, used., , whistle /'wIsl/ n. A shrill, high-pitched noise produced by passing, breath through a narrow constriction. The two most familiar types, of whistle involve pursing the lips and approximating the tip of the, tongue to the alveolar ridge, but whistle may also be produced, inadvertently during certain articUlations, notably during the, production of retroflex fricatives., , whistled speech n. A transferred type of 'speech' used by certain, communities, in which the speech melody, including intonation and, possibly tones, is whistled. See Laver (1994: 481-482) for references., , whistling fricative /'wIshlJ/ n. A fricative whose articulation is, consistently accompanied by a perceptible whistle. The famous, whistling fricatives of Shona are described by Ladefoged (1971: 60), as labial-Iamino-alveolar fricatives., , white noise /waIt/ n. A sound which consists of a mixture of all, audible frequencies, either in equal proportion or rising by six, decibels every octave~ the second type sounds more uniform to the, ear. White noise is heard as a featureless hiss. By analogy with white, light, which is a mixture of all visible colours.
Page 401 :
whole-segment process, , 388, , /h~uU n. Any of various phonological, processes in which one or more complete segments are inserted,, deleted or moved to different positions, such as epenthesis or, metathesis. Lass (1984: 183)., , whole-segment process, , Wickelgren feature system, , Ilwlk~lgr~nl, , n. A system of distinctive, features proposed by Wickelgren (1966). The system is defined only, for English consonants and is unusual in being justified on perceptual grounds. The features, facetiously known as 'Wickelphones',, are four in number. The features voicing and nasality are binary, and have the values 0 and 1, assigned in an obvious way. The feature, openness has the value 0 for plosives, affricates and nasals, 1 for, fricatives, and 2 for liquids, glides and Ih/. The feature place has, the value 0 for labials (including Iw/), 1 for interdentals, It/, Idl and, In/, 2 for lsi, Izi and Ill, 3 for palato-alveolars and Ij/, and 4 for, velars and Ih/., , wide Iwaldl adj. 1. [obsolete] (of a vowel) A former term for lax., Ant. narrow. Sweet (1877). 2. (also width IWld8/) In the Ladefoged, feature system, a distinctive feature invoked to treat differing, degrees of expansion of the pharynx, roughly equivalent to the, ATR feature of other systems., , wide-band spectrogram IIwa1dbrendi n. A sound spectrogram, produced using filters with a large frequency bandwidth but rapid, sampling. The result shows the formants smeared out vertically, but, is very sensitive to changes over time; voicing ripple is prominent., Cf. narrow-band spectrogram., , wide diphthong n. A diphthong involving a large movement between, its initial and final elements, such as [ai]. Ant. narrow diphthong., Ilwdj~ms~nI n. A distinctive feature, system proposed by Kay Williamson (1977). Like the rather similar, Ladefoged feature system, it consists mostly of articulatory features, and allows them to be multivalued; it also permits sequential, feature specifications for single segments to handle such phenomena as aspiration and prenasalization (see complex segment (sense, 1) for an example of this approach). There are fifteen features:, larynx movement (3 values), velaric suction (2), glottal state (5),, articulatory place (11), labiality (2), apicality (3), stricture (5),, nasality (2), laterality (2), posture (3), length (4), sibilance (2),, gravity (2), rounding (2) and expansion (3)., , Williamson feature system, , windpipe IIw1ndpalpi n. See trachea.
Page 402 :
word-formation rule, , 389, , word IW3:dl n. A label applied in linguistics to any of several rather, different conceptions of a unit which is typically larger than a, morpheme but smaller than a phrase and which shows a high degree, of internal coherence. In phonology, the phonological word is the, most important conception., , word accent n. See accent (sense 3)., word-based tone /' w3:dbeIstl n. 1. A less usual term for pitch, accent. 2. The type of tone system in which only one syllable in a, word can bear a tone, as in Swedish. Cf. syUable-based tone., , word boundary n. Either end of a word in any sense of that term., Word boundaries are of considerable importance in phonology,, where they are conventionally represented by hash marks., , word class n. 1. See lexical category. 2. Any group of words in a, language united by lexical or grammatical properties, such as the, class of nouns, the class of transitive verbs, or the class of -a-stem, verbs in Spanish. 3. In historical phonology, all the words which, contained some particular segment of interest at an earlier stage, of a language, such as the class of words which contained /0:/ in, Middle English, which includes the ancestors of modern moon,, good, blood and floor., , word formation /fJ:'melfQ./ n. The entire set of processes by which, lexical items are derived from or related to other lexical items. In, English, the principal such processes are compounding and derivation (sense 3), though others exist., , word-formation bracket n. In Lexical Phonology. one of a pair of, brackets placed around the domain to which the current level is, applying and erased at the end of this level. Thus personality would, be bracketed [[[p3:s~n]rel]Iti]. These brackets replace the various, boundaries of earlier generative phonology., , word-formation rule, , n. In some approaches to word formation, a, rule which is posited within that component of the grammar dealing, with word formation and which serves to identify a (typically, partially productive) process involved in the formation of certain, words. The following rule states the use of the English agent suffix, -er, as in writer, singer, rider:, , [[Xly#er]]N 0ne who Xs habitually, professionally ... ', 4, , Halle, , (1973)~, , developed by Aronoff (1976) and Scalise (1984).
Page 403 :
word stress, , 390, , word stress n. The presence within a single word, especially in isolation but usually also in connected speech, of stress on some particular syllable or syllables. Word stress is characteristic of stress, languages like English and Spanish., , word terminus, , l't3:mln~sl, , n. (pI. termini l't3:mlnaI/) A boundary, between syntactic constituents. A phonological word is a sequence, bounded by word termini and containing no internal word termini., Chomsky and Halle (1968).
Page 404 :
x, X-bar structure leks tbo:1 n. In some analyses, a view of syllable, structure closely parallelling the X-bar structure of syntactic theory., In this view, a syllable is interpreted as N", the maximal projection, of the nucleus N; a syllable has the form N" -7 onset + N', and N', has the structure N (nucleus) + coda. Levin (1985)., , X-tier Ileks, , tI~1 n. In Autosegmental Phonology, a synonym for, skeletal tier, preferred for versions in which the positions on this, tier are specified for no information at all. Cf. CV tier.
Page 405 :
y, Y In some versions of Dependency Phonology, a superordinate, component governing Iii and lui and relating to tongue-body, constriction. Ewen and van der Hulst (1988)., , yeismo /je'izmo/ n. In Spanish, the merger as some kind of nonlateral palatal segment of the two consonants which in standard, European Spanish are distinguished as IAI and Ij/, and hence the, merger of such pairs as maUo 'mallet' and mayo 'May', which in, standard European Spanish are distinguished as l'maAol and, I'majo/, respectively. Yeismo is typical of almost all of American, Spanish and of the southern half of Spain, including Madrid, and, it appears to be gaining ground in northern Spain. The phonetic, realization of the merged sound varies widely; both voiced and, voiceless affricates and fricatives can be heard., , yer Ijc;)1 n. (also jer) Any of certain unusual vowels occurring in, Slavic languages. Historically, they were apparently extra-short or, weak vowels which were phonetically lost in most cases, but, since, their effect is still often visible in alternations in the modern, languages, they are often posited as abstract underlying vowels in, these.
Page 406 :
z, zero /'ZI;}r;}o/ n. 1. See antiformant. 2. See null element., zero-alternant n. See zero morpho, , Bloomfield (1933)., , zero-derivation n. See conversion., zero grade /greId/, , n. In an ablaut system such as that of ProtoIndo-European, that form of a morpheme in which the vowel is, absent. For example, the PIE root *men- 'think' shows its zero, grade *mIJ- in Greek mnasthai "remember'., , zero morph n. An element containing no phonetic material but, recognized, in some analysis, as representing some morpheme. For, example, sheep has a plural sheep which is commonly regarded as, consisting of {sheep} + {Plural}, with a zero morph representing the, morpheme {Plural}. Concept: Bloomfield (1933): term: Hockett (1947)., , zero notation, , n. The notation Zo (where Z is any valid phonological object), used in phonological rules, especially in classical generative phonology, in which it can be matched by any of the following:, zero (the absence of anything), Z, or an uninterrupted sequence, of any number of items of the form Z., , zero phoneme n. A putative phoneme posited, in some analysis,, which has no intrinsic phonetic content, such as a juncture, phoneme. Harris (1951: 81)., , zero syllable n. In some versions of Metrical Phonology, a second, syllable posited as existing within a monosyllabic word for the, purpose of maintaining binary branching and avoiding degenerate, feet. Giegerich (1985).
Page 407 : Appendix: the International, Phonetic Alphabet, (revised to 1993), CONSONANTS, CONSONANTS (PULMONIC), (PULMONIC;, Bilabial, Bilabial, , Labiodental, Labiodental, , Dental, Dental, , Alveolar Postalveolar, Postalveolar I Retroflex, Retroflex I Palatal, Palatal, Alveolar, , pP b, b, , Plosive, P10sive, , rrj, IlJ, , I Uvular, , 4 cc 1-j - k g g, tt q, , t dd, , m, , Nasal, Nasal, , Velar, , nn, , rn, It, , ji, Jl, , Pharyngeall Glottal, , | I? j, , G, , rj, , N, , [, , # R H ' fflE, , Trill, Trill, , r, , B, , Tap or Flap, TaporAap, , f, , Fricative, Fricative, , <I>, <>, j (3p, , Lateral, Lateral, fricative, fricative, , ■■■[, , Approximant, Approximant, , [, , ff Vv e, ~ jj l x y % B h «M h fi, 8 5 ss zz J 33 U~ ~, zjg, i 5, <b, {}, , J, , Lateral, Lateral, approximant, approximant, , -l, , j, , l, , A, , -\-+-\, , Where symbols, symbols appear, appear in, in pairs., pairs, the, the one, o n e to, to the, the right, right represents, represents aa voiced, voiced consonant., consonant. Shaded, Shaded areas, areas denote, denote articulations, articulations judged impossible., impossible., Where, CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC), (NON-PULMON1C), CONSONANTS, I Clicks, Clicks, Voiced implosives, impiosives, Ejectives, Voiced, Ejectives, , 00, , 6U, d, cf, , Bilabial, Bilabial, , 1I, , Dental, Dental, , !•, , <Posi)alveolar, (Posl)alveolar, , *, , T Palatoalveolar, Palatoalveoiar, , J, 9, , SUPRASEGMENTALS, SUPRASEGMENTALS, j, , ,, , Bilabial, Bilabial, , as in:, in:, as, , Dental/alveolar, Dental/alveolar, , f, , Palatal, Palatal, , y, , Velar, , Velar, , P Bilabial, Bilabial, p', t Dental/alveolar, Dental/alveolar, t', , Pnmary stress, stress, Primary, , (, , II, , Secondary, Secondary slress, stress, , {, , I, , Long, Long, , w, , k'Velar, ^ v e'ar, , cf, , S, S', , 11II Alveolar, Alveolar lateral, lateral G Uvular, Uvular, , . f O t W t lIf~n, /sn, Ifoon~lt, , ', , Alveolar fricative, fricative j, Alveolar, , 0, , Ex,ra-shor,, , Extrd-short, , Syllable, Syllable break, break, , !, , Minor, M i n (foot), o r s *group, ™*, , II Major, Major (intonation), (intonation) group, group, , VOWELS, Front, Front, , Central, Central, , Linking (absence of a break), , Back, Back, , close ii «y, u, uiju, Y-1-y-ii #, \U--U-W, , _, , 1 ~~~a, , e, , -I Low, Low, , g, , EJltrd, J low, ^, , e, e, e i, ee, H 1M . d ee, e, e ~, e, e" J, A, C, ^, , 11, Falling, \JZ\ Falling, 1l HHigh. ^rising, , C, , jJ, , £ or, or A Rising, Rising, , Mid, , Ji.rekt, Jl.aekt, , ., , e,, , g or, o r "| h J £, ', -i, C, I High, High, , d, e:, ,, C, e', e, e, , Half-long, Half-long, , & WORD, WORD ACCENTS, ACCENTS, TONES &, TONES, LEVEL, CONTOUR, LEVEL, CONTOUR, , Linking (absence of a break), , ~|, , 1 Rising-failing, , g, , t/f, , Downstep, , ■ir Downstep, j Upstep, ^ ^, , t, , Mg, , Low, Low rising, rising, , 1, , Risingfa|linp, , etc, etc, , Global rise, , \,^, , Global rise, Glob'dlfall, ^ ^, ^, , Close, , \, , i Y, , \, , o, , DIACRITICS, DIACRITICS, 0, , ciose-mid e V 0-0, a\ e, x io, 3\e--¥, 0, , Voiceless, Voicele"s, , n, J}, , O, Q, , §S, , !I, , Close-mid, , g, \, £ « * <re-3\V-A, £ — 3 # 0, A, C, , Voiced, Voiced, , ;), , Open-mid, Open-mid, , re, , open, , Open, , 90, :l, , e, , SYMBOLS, OTHER SYMBOLS, A\, M, , Voiceless. . labial·velar, labial-velar fricative, Voicele:\., Voiced labial-velar approximant, Voiced, , JJ, , Voiced labial-palatal, labial-palatal approximant, approximant, Voiced, , Simultaneous J, J and, and X, X, fji j Simultaneou~, , H, H, , Voicelesss epiglonal, epiglottal fricative, fricative, VOicele...., , fl, , 'l, x, , Voiced, Voiced epiglonal, epiglottal fricative, fricative, , .. . i , plosive, ., Epiglottal, Epiglottal plosive, , Creaky VOIced, voiced, Creaky, , Alveolar, Alveolar lateral, lateral nap, flap, , More rounded, , C, ~, , |, , w, , Ubiaiized, Labialized, , t, , Less rounded, rounded, Le."s, , ~, , j J, , Palatalized, Palatah/.ed, , t J dj, QJ, V, , t, , i, Advanced, Advanced, +, L±, , 0, , ...., , yU, , ^_^, , kp ts, , Linguolabial, , t, , tw, w, , Apical, APIcal, , G, , Laminal, Lam mal, , -, , d, , w, Gw, , Q, 1t g, , !I, !t, , Nasalized, Nasali7.ed, , I nn Nasal, Na:-.al release, , t\', d\', t, Q^, CJ, Pharyngeali....ed t, d CJ, y, , V Velari..., Velari/ed, .ed, , ±_J, , Dental, Dental, , g, 9, e, Q, , Q, , C, , dQ n j, n, , dQ l', No audible release d', , ' Lateral, Lateral release, release, , ,, , Q-', I -Noaudible, Q tI, t-.-.-Retracted, - - - - - ;1-J-' -Pharyngeali/ed, - - - - -t - - -release, --Cenlrdlized, e....., Velari/.ed or pharyngeall ....ed t, j, Centralized, e, "" Velari/ed or pharyngeali/ed T, j, Mid-cenlrali/.ed, , j, , Affricates and, and double, double aniculaarticulaAffricates, tions, lions can, can be, be represented, represented by, by two, two, I, symbols, symbols joined, joined by, by aa tie, tie bar, bar ifif, |_l, neces.'iary., '"', necessary., ^_^, , ! 9, , j, , m, , Retnlcted, , w, W, , C, T, X, , |, , t dG"h, , Aspirated t h, ", Aspirdled, , y> ~, £> Alveolo-palatal, Atveolo-palaial fricatives, fricatives I, ~, , qL|, , 0 ^a 1, R, !?D 93 I, , Breathy voiced, voiced, Breathy, , \", , —i— a AD, a V E ~o, 0, , symbols appear in, in pair..., pairs, the, the one, one to, to the, the right, right, Where symbols, represents aa munded, rounded vowel., vowel., represenl~, , i), , Diacritics may, may be, be placed, plated above, above aa symtx)1, symbol with, with aa des<:ender., descender, e.g., e.g. »J, Diacritics, , j^, 1, , 1",, , Mid-cenlrali/ed, Syllabic, , Syllabic, Non-syllabic, , e, e, , Raised, , yG, , (~ = vuiced alveolar fricative), ( J = voiced alveolar fricative), , Lowered, , ~, , (~= VOICed bilabial approximant), , Raised, , [, , j, , ,J, , I, , Lowered, , I, , I T, , T Root»T ~, Advanced Tongue, , I, , Advanced Tongue Root, , y, , |, , Retracted Tongue, Tongue Root, Root, RetrdCled, , C, ~, , j, , J, , Non-syllabic, , W j, , Rhoticity, Rhoticity, , 9^, , e, , (13 = voiced bilabial approximant)]
Page 408 :
References, Abbreviations, CLS n, IJAL, JASA, JL, JP, Lg, LI, NLLT, TCLP, , Papers from the nth Regional Meeting of the Chicago, Linguistic Society. Chicago: University of Chicago., International Journal of American Linguistics, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Journal of Linguistics, Journal of Phonetics, Language, Linguistic Inquiry, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, Travaux du cercle linguistique de Prague, , Note: The periodical Phonology is a continuation of Phonology, Yearbook after volume 3., Note: Dutch surnames of the form van der Hulst are listed under, van., Abercrombie, David. 1967. Elements of General Phonetics., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press., - - 1971. 'Some functions of silent stress'. In A. 1. Aitken, A., McIntosh and H. Palsson (eds), Edinburgh Studies in English and, Scots. London: Longman. Reprinted in Abercrombie (1991b),, pp.71-80., - - 1975. 'The accents of standard English in Scotland'., Unpublished paper. Reprinted in A. 1. Aitken and T. McArthur, (eds) (1979), The Languages of Scotland. Edinburgh: Chambers., Reprinted in D. Abercrombie (1991), Fifty Years in Phonetics:, Selected Papers, pp. 54-70. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University, Press., --1985. 'Daniel Jones's teaching'. In V. A. Fromkin (ed.), Phonetic, Linguistics: Essays in Honor of Peter Ladefoged, pp. 15-24., Orlando: Academic Press. Reprinted in D. Abercrombie (1991),, Fifty Years in Phonetics: Selected Papers, pp. 37-53. Edinburgh:, Edinburgh University Press.
Page 409 :
References, , 396, , - - 1991a. 'Phoneme, the concept and the word'. In D., Abercrombie, Fifty Years in Phonetics: Selected Papers, pp. 22-26., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press., - - 1991b. Fifty Years in Phonetics: Selected Papers. Edinburgh:, Edinburgh University Press., Aitken, A. 1. 1962. 'Vowel length in modern Scots'. Unpublished, paper, Department of English Language, University of Edinburgh., Allen, W. S. 1962. Sandhi. The Hague: Mouton., Anderson, John and Colin 1. Ewen. 1987. Principles of Dependency, Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Anderson, John and Charles Jones. 1974. 'Three theses concerning, phonological representations'. J L 10: 1-26., Anderson, Stephen R. 1969. West Scandinavian Vowel Systems and, the Ordering of Phonological Rules. Bloomington: Indiana, University Linguistics Club., - - 1971. 'On the description of "apicalized" consonants'. LI 2:, 103-107., - - 1974. The Organization of Phonology. New York: Seminar, Press., --1975. 'On the interaction of phonological rules of various types'., JL 11: 39-62., - - 1978. 'Tone features'. In Victoria A. Fromkin (ed.) Tone: a, Linguistic Survey, pp. 133-176. New York: Academic Press., - - 1985. Phonology in the Twentieth Century: Theories of Rules, and Theories of Representations. Chicago: University of Chicago, Press., Archangeli, Diana. 1984. 'Underspecification in Yawelmani, phonology and morphology'. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,, MIT., - - 1988. 'Aspects of underspecification theory'. Phonology 5:, 183-207., Archangeli, Diana and Douglas Pulleyblank. 1989. 'Yoruba vowel, harmony'. LI20: 173-217., Aronoff, Mark. 1976. Word Formation in Generative Grammar., Cambridge, MA: MIT Press., Asher, R. E. and Eugenie 1. A. Henderson (eds) 1981. Towards a, History of Phonetics: Papers Contributed in Honour of David, Abercrombie. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press., Bach, Emmon. 1968. 'Two proposals concerning the simplicity metric, in phonology'. Glossa 2: 128-149., Bach, Emmon and Robert T. Harms. 1972. 'How do languages get, crazy rules?' In R. ~ Stockwell and R. K. S. Macaulay (eds),
Page 410 :
397, , References, , Linguistic Change and Generative Theory, pp. 1-21. Bloomington:, Indiana University Press., Barkhausen, H. 1926. ZeitschriJt fUr technische Physik VII: 601., Baudouin de Courtenay, Jan. 1881. Podrobnaja Programma Lekcij, ['A detailed programme of lectures']: Kazan-Warsaw., - - 1895. Versuch einer Theorie der phonetischen Alternationen., Strasburg., Bauer, Laurie. 1983. English Word-formation. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., 1988. Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh:, University of Edinburgh Press., Beach, D. M. 1937. Phonetics of the Hottentot Language. Cambridge:, Heffer., Bell, Alexander Melville. 1867. Visible Speech or Self-interpreting, Physiological Letters for the Writing of All Languages in One, Alphabet. London: Simpkin & Marshall., Bickerton, Derek. 1971. 'Inherent variability and variable rules.', Foundations of Language 7: 457-492., Bierwisch, Manfred. 1967. 'Syntactic features in morphology: general, problems of the so-called pronominal inflection in German'. In, To Honor Roman Jakobson, vol. 1, pp. 239-270. The Hague:, Mouton., Bjarkman, ~ C. 1975. 'Toward a proper conception of processes in, natural phonology'. CLS 11: 60-72., Bloch, Bernard. 1941. 'Phonemic overlapping'. American Speech 16:, 278-284. Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings in, Linguistics I, pp. 93-96. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Also, reprinted in V. B. Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological Theory:, Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 66-70. New York: Holt,, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1948. 'A set of postulates for phonemic analysis'. Lg 24: 3-46., Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological, Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 167-199. New York:, Holt, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1953. 'Contrast'. Lg 29: 59-61. Reprinted in Valerie Becker, Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological Theory: Evolution and, Current Practice, pp. 224-225. New York: Holt, Rinehart &, Winston., Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston., - - 1939. 'Menomini morphophonemics'. TCLP 8: 105-115., Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological
Page 411 :
References, , 398, , Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 58-64. New York:, Holt, Rinehart & Winston., Blumstein, Sheila E. and Kenneth N. Stevens. 1981. 'Phonetic, features and acoustic invariance in speech'. Cognition 10: 25-32., Bolinger, Dwight L. 1951. 'Intonation: levels versus configuration'., Word 7: 199-210., - - 1958. 'A theory of pitch accent in English'. Word 14: 105-149., Borden, G. 1. and K. S. Harris. 1980. Speech Science Primer:, Physiology, Acoustics and Perception of Speech. Baltimore:, Williams & Wilkins., Browman, C. ~ and L. M. Goldstein. 1986. 'Towards an articulatory, phonology'. Phonology Yearbook 3: 219-252., - - 1990. 'Tiers in articulatory phonology, with some implications, for casual speech'. In 1. Kingston and M. Beckman (eds),, Papers in Laboratory Phonology: Between the Grammar and the, Physics of Speech, pp. 341-376. Cambridge: Cambridge University, Press., Bruck, A., R. A. Fox and M. W. La Galy (eds) 1974. Papers from, the Parasession on Natural Phonology. Chicago: Chicago, Linguistic Society., BUhler, Karl. 1934. Sprachtheorie: die Darstellung-funktion der, Sprache. Jena. 2nd edn. (1992), Stuttgart: Fischer. English translation by D. F. Goodwin (1990), Theory of Language: the, Representational Function of Language, Amsterdam: Benjamins., Burzio, Luigi. 1988. 'English stress'. In ~ M. Bertinetto and M., Loporcaro (eds), Certamen phonologiculn: Papers from the 1987, Cortona Phonology Meeting, pp. 63-76. Turin: Rosenberg &, SeHier., Carr, Philip. 1993. Phonology. Basingstoke: Macmillan., Carruthers, S. W. 1900. 'Contribution to the mechanism of articulate, speech'. Edinburgh Medical Journal, September-OctoberNovember., Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. 1992. Current Morphology. London:, Routledge., Catford, 1. C. 1939. 'On the classification of stop consonants'. Le, Maitre Phonetique, 3rd series 65: 2-5. Reprinted in W. E. Jones, and 1. Laver (eds) (1973), Phonetics in Linguistics: a Book of, Readings, pp. 43-46. London: Longman., - - 1977. Fundamental Problems in Phonetics. Edinburgh:, Edinburgh University Press., - - 1981. 'Observations on the recent history of vowel classification'. In R. E. Asher and E. 1. A. Henderson (eds), Towards a
Page 412 :
399, , References, , History of Phonetics: Papers Contributed in Honour of David, Abercrombie, pp. 19-32. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press., - - 1988. A Practical Introduction to Phonetics. Oxford: Clarendon, Press., Chafe, Wallace. 1967. 'The ordering of phonological rules'. Project, on Linguistic Analysis 2. Reports. Phonological Laboratory,, Department of Linguistics, University of California at Berkeley,, pp. 1-42. Reprinted (1968) in I1AL 34: 115-136., Chao, Yuen-ren. 1930. 'A system of tone letters'. Le Maitre, Phonetique 30: 24-27., - - 1934. 'The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic, systems'. Bulletin of the Institute for History and Philology, (Academia Sinica) 4: 363-397. Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.), (1957), Readings in Linguistics I, pp. 38-54. Chicago: Chicago, University Press., Charette, Monik. 1991. Conditions on Phonological Government., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Chen, Matthew Y. and William S.-Y. Wang. 1975. 'Sound change:, actuation and implementation'. Lg 51: 255-281., Chiba, T. and M. Kajiyama. 1958. The Vowel: its Nature and Structure., Tokyo: Phonetic Society of Japan., Chomsky, Noam. 1957. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1964. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. The Hague: Mouton., Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. 1968. The Sound Pattern of, English. New York: Harper & Row., Chomsky, Noam, Morris Halle and Fred Lukoff. 1956. -On accent, and juncture in English'. In M. Halle, H. G. Lunt, H. McLean and, C. H. van Schooneveld (eds), For Roman lakobson: Essays on the, Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday, pp. 65-80. The Hague: Mouton., Clark, John and Colin Yallop. 1990. An Introduction to Phonetics, and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell., Clements, George N. 1985. 'The problem of transfer in nonlinear, generative phonology'. Working Papers in Linguistics 5: 38-73., Ithaca, NY: Cornell University., - - 1990. 'The role of the sonority cycle in core syllabification'. In, 1. Kingston and M. Beckman (eds), Papers in Laboratory, Phonology: Between the Grammar and the Physics of Speech,, pp. 283-333. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., - - 1991. -Vowel height assimilation in Bantu languages'. Working, Papers of the Cornell Phonetics Laboratory 5: 37-76., - - 1992. 'Phonological primes: features or gestures?' Phonetica 49:, 181-193.
Page 413 :
References, , 400, , Clements, George N. and Jay Keyser. 1983. CV Phonology: a, Generative Theory of the Syllable. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press., Coates, Richard A. 1977. 'The status of rules in historical phonology'., Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge., - - 1994. 'Morphophonemics'. In R. E. Asher (ed.), The, Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, vol. 5, pp. 2602-2612., Edinburgh: Pergamon Press., Cohn, Abigail. 1990. 'Phonetic and phonological rules of nasalization'. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 76., Collier, R. and J. 't Hart. 1981. Cursus Nederlandse Intonatie., Louvain: Acco., Contreras, H. and Sol Saporta. 1960. 'The validation of a phonological grammar'. Lingua 9: 1-5., Coseriu, E. 1954. Forma y sustancia en los sonidos del lenguaje., Montevideo: Universidad de la Republica., Crothers, John. 1978. 'Typology: universals of vowel systems'. In, Joseph H. Greenberg (ed.), Universals of Human Language,, vol. 2: Phonology, pp. 93-152. Stanford: Stanford University Press., Cruttenden, Alan. 1986. Intonation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., - - 1994. Gimson's Pronunciation of English, 5th edn. London:, Edward Arnold., Crystal, David. 1987. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Crystal, David and Randolph Quirk. 1964. Systems of Prosodic and, Paralinguistic Features in English. The Hague: Mouton., Dell, Fran~ois. 1980. Generative Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge, University Press., Denes, Peter B. and Elliot N. Pinson. 1993. The Speech Chain: the, Physics and Biology of Spoken Language, 2nd edn (1st edn 1973)., New York: W. H. Freeman., Dinnsen, Daniel. 1978. 'Some formal and empirical issues in Atomic, Phonology'. Communication and Cognition 11: 427-440. Reprinted, in D. L. Goyvaerts (ed.) (1979), Recent Advances in Phonological, Theory, pp. 143-156. Ghent: Story-Scientia. Also reprinted in, D. L. Goyvaerts (ed.) (1981), Phonology in the 1980s, pp. 143-156., Ghent: Story-Scientia., - - (ed.) 1979a. Current Approaches to Phonological Theory., Bloomington: Indiana University Press., - - 1979b. 'Atomic Phonology'. In Daniel Dinnsen (ed.), Current, Approaches to Phonological Theory, pp. 31-49. Bloomington, IN:, Indiana University Press.
Page 414 :
401, , References, , Dixon, Robert M. W. 1977. 'Some phonological rules in Yidin Y• LI, 8: 1-34., - - 1980. The Languages of Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge, University Press., Donegan, Patricia 1. and David Stampe. 1979. 'The study of natural, phonology'. In Daniel Dinnsen (ed.), Current Approaches to, Phonological Theory, pp. 126-173. Bloomington: Indiana, University Press., Dressler, Wolfgang U. 1985. Morphonology: the Dynamics of, Derivation, ed. Kenneth C. Hill. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma., Dunn, H. K. 1950. 'The calculation of vowel resonances and an, electrical vocal tract'. lASA 22: 740-753., Durand, Jacques. 1990. Generative and Non-Linear Phonology., London: Longman., Eady, S. 1. 1982. 'Differences in the F0 patterns of speech: tone, language versus stress language'. Language and Speech 25:, 29-42., Ellis, A. 1. 1844. The Alphabet of Nature, Part 1. Bath., Ewen, C. and H. van der Hulst. 1988. '[high], [low] and [back] or, [I], [A] and [U]?' In ~ Coopmans and A. Hulk (eds), Linguistics, in the Netherlands 1988, pp. 49-57. Dordrecht: Foris., Fant, Gunnar M. 1960. Acoustic Theory of Speech Production. The, Hague: Mouton., - - 1971. 'Distinctive features and phonetic dimensions'. In G. E., Perren and 1. L. M. Trim (eds), Applications of Linguistics,, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reprinted in G. M. Fant, (1973), Speech Sounds and Features, pp. 171-191. Cambridge, MA:, MIT Press, Firth, 1. R. 1930. Speech. London: Ernest Benn. Reprinted in, 1. R. Firth (1964), The Tongues of Men and Speech, ed. ~ Strevens., London: Oxford University Press., - - 1948. 'Sounds and prosodies'. Transactions of the Philological, Society, pp. 127-152. Reprinted in V. B. Makkai (ed.) (1972),, Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 252-263., New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., Fischer-J~rgensen, Eli. 1956. 'The commutation test and its application to phonemic analysis'. In M. Halle, H. G. Lunt, H. McLean, and C. H. van Schooneveld (eds), For Roman lakobson: Essays, on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday, pp. 140-151. The Hague:, Mouton. Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972),, Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 582-592., New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Page 415 :
References, , 402, , - - 1967. 'Perceptual dimensions of vowels'. In To Honor Roman, lakobson, vol. 1, pp. 667-671. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1975. Trends in Phonological Theory: a Historical Introduction., Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag., Fischer-J~rgensen, E., 1. Rischel and N. Thorsen (eds) 1979., Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Phonetic, Sciences, 2 vols. Copenhagen: Institute of Phonetics, University of, Copenhagen., Flanagan, 1. L. 1965. Speech Analysis, Synthesis and Perception., Berlin: Springer., - - 1972. Speech Analysis, Synthesis and Perception, 2nd edn. New, York: Springer., Foley, 1. 1977. Foundations of Theoretical Phonology. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., Fowler, C. A. 1980. 'Coarticulation and theories of extrinsic timing, control'. lP 8: 113-133., Fowler, C. A., P Rubin, R. E. Remez and M. T. Turvey. 1980., 'Implications for speech production of a general theory of action'., In B. Butterworth (ed.), Language Production, vol. I: Speech and, Talk, pp. 373-420. London: Academic Press., Frauenfelder, U. H. and L. K. Tyler (eds) 1987. Spoken Word, Recognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press., Fries, Charles C. and Kenneth L. Pike. 1949. 'Coexisting phonemic, systems'. Lg 25: 29-50., Fromkin, Victoria A. (ed.) 1973. Speech Errors as Linguistic, Evidence. The Hague: Mouton., - - (ed.) 1978. Tone: a Linguistic Survey. New York: Academic Press., - - (ed.) 1980. Errors in Linguistic Performance: Slips of the, Tongue, Ear, Pen, and Hand. New York: Academic Press., - - (ed.) 1985. Phonetic Linguistics: Essays in Honor of Peter, Ladefoged. Orlando, FL: Academic Press., Fromkin, Victoria A. and Peter Ladefoged. 1981. 'Early views of, distinctive features'. In R. E. Asher and E. 1. A. Henderson (eds),, Towards a History of Phonetics: Papers Contributed in Honour of, David Abercrombie, pp. 3-8. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University, Press., Fry, D. B. 1979. The Physics of Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge, University Press., Fudge, Erik C. 1967. 'The nature of phonological primes'. JL 3: 1-36., Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological, Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 500-521. New York:, Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Page 417 :
References, , 404, , Halle, Morris. 1959. The Sound Pattern ofRussian. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1962. 'Phonology in generative grammar'. Word 18: 54-72., - - 1972. 'Theoretical issues in phonology in the 1970s'. In, Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic, Sciences. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1973. 'Prolegomena to a theory of word-formation'. LI4: 3-16., - - 1983. 'On distinctive features and their articulatory implementation'. NLLT 1: 91-105., Halle, Morris and Kenneth N. Stevens. 1959. 'Analysis by synthesis'., In W. Wathen-Dunn and L. E. Woods (eds), Proceedings of the, Seminar on Speech Compression and Processing. AFCRC-TR-59198, December 1959, vol. II, paper D7., - - 1969. 'On the feature "advanced tongue root"'. Quarterly, Progress Report 94, Cambridge, MA: Research Laboratory of, Electronics, MIT, pp. 209-215., - - 1971. 'A note on laryngeal features'. MIT Quarterly Progress, Report 101: 198-213., - - 1972. 'Theoretical issues in phonology in the 1970s'. Proceedings, of the Seventh International Congress of the Phonetic Sciences. The, Hague: Mouton., Halle, Morris and Jean-Roger Vergnaud. 1987. 'Stress and the cycle'., L/18: 45-84., Halliday, Michael A. K. 1963. 'The tones of English'. Archivum, Linguisticum 15: 1-28., - - 1967. Intonation and Grammar in British English. The Hague:, Mouton., - - 1970. A Course in Spoken English: Intonation. London: Oxford, University Press., Harrington, John ~ 1912. 'Notes on certain usages relating to, linguistic work'. American Anthropologist 14., Harris, John. 1990. 'Derived phonological contrasts'. In S. Ramsaran, (ed.) (1990), Studies in the Pronunciation of English: a, Commemorative Volume in Honour of A. C. Gimson, pp. 87-105., London: Routledge., Harris, Zellig S. 1944. 'Simultaneous components in phonology'. Lg, 20: 181-205. Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings in, Linguistics I, pp. 124-138. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., Also reprinted in V. B. Makkai (ed.), Phonological Theory:, Evolution and Current Practice (1972), pp. 115-133. New York:, Holt, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1951. Methods in Structural Linguistics. Chicago: University of, Chicago Press.
Page 418 :
405, , References, , Hastings, A. 1. 1974. Stifling. Bloomington: Indiana University, Linguistics Club., Haugen, Einar. 1954. Review of Hjelmslev's Prolegomena. Lg 39:, 69-96., - - 1957. 'The phoneme in bilingual description'. Unpublished, paper., --1969. 'Phonemic indeterminacy and Scandinavian umlaut'. Folia, Linguistica III: 107-119., Hayes, Bruce. 1984. 'The phonology of rhythm in English'. LI 15:, 33-74., - - 1986. 'Inalterability in CV phonology'. Lg 62: 321-351., - - 1989. 'The prosodic hierarchy in meter'. In ~ Kiparsky and, G. Youmans (eds), Rhythm and Meter, pp. 201-260. Orlando:, Academic Press., - - 1990. 'Precompiled phrasal phonology'. In S. Inkelas and, D. Zec (eds), The Phonology-Syntax Connection, pp. 85-108., Chicago: University of Chicago Press., Hayes, Bruce and Aditi Lahiri. 1991. 'Bengali intonational, phonology'. NLLT 9: 47-96., Heffner, R. M. S. 1950. General Phonetics. Madison: University of, Wisconsin Press., Herbert, R. K. 1986. Language Universals, Markedness Theory, and, Natural Phonetic Processes. New York and Amsterdam: Mouton, de Gruyter., Herzog, Marvin I. 1965. The Yiddish Language in Northern Poland., Bloomington: Indiana University Press., Hjelmslev, Louis. 1936. 'On the principles of phonematics'., Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Phonetic, Sciences, pp. 49-54. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Reprinted in L. Hjelmslev (1973), Essais linguistiques II, TCLC, XIV. Copenhagen., Hoard, James E. 1971. 'The new phonological paradigm'. Glossa 5:, 222-268. Reprinted in D. L. Goyvaerts and G. K. Pullum (eds), (1975), Essays on the Sound Pattern of English, pp. 25-61. Ghent:, Story-Scientia., Hockett, Charles F. 1942. 'A system of descriptive phonology'. Lg, 18: 3-21. Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings in, Linguistics I, pp. 97-108. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., Also reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 99-112. New, York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1947. 'Problems of morphemic analysis'. Lg 23: 321-343.
Page 419 :
References, , 406, , Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings in Linguistics I,, pp. 229-242. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., - - 1954. 'Two models of grammatical description'. Word 10:, 210-233., - - 1955. A Manual of Phonology. Baltimore: Indiana University, Publications in Anthropology and Linguistics, Memoir II., - - 1958. A Course in Modern Linguistics. New York: Macmillan., - - 1961. 'Linguistic elements and their relations'. Lg 37: 29-53., - - 1967. 'Where the tongue slips, there slip 1'. In To Honor Roman, lakobson, vol. 2, pp. 910-936. The Hague: Mouton., Hoenigswald, Henry. 1960. Language Change and Linguistic, Reconstruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., Hogg, Richard and C. B. McCully. 1987. Metrical Phonology: a, Coursebook. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Hollien, H. 1972. 'Three major vocal registers: a proposal'. In, Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic, Sciences (Montreal), pp. 320-331. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1974. 'On vocal registers'. lP 2: 125-143., Honikman, B. 1964. 'Articulatory settings'. In D. Abercrombie,, D. B. Fry, ~ A. D. MacCarthy, N. C. Scott and 1. L. Trim (eds),, In Honour of Daniel lones, pp. 73-84. London: Longmans Green., Hooper, Joan Bybee. 1974a. Aspects of Natural Generative, Phonology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press., 1974b. 'Rule morphologization in natural generative, phonology'. In A. Bruck, R. A. Fox and M. W. La Galy (eds),, Papers from the Parasession on Natural Phonology, pp. 160-170., Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society., - - 1976. An Introduction to Natural Generative Phonology. New, York: Academic Press., Hopper, Paul 1. 1973. 'Glottalized and murmured occlusives in IE'., Glossa 7: 141-166., Houlihan, Kathleen and Gregory K. Iverson. 1979. 'Functionallyconstrained phonology'. In Daniel Dinnsen (ed.), Current, Approaches to Phonological Theory, pp. 50-73. Bloomington:, Indiana University Press., Householder, Fred W. 1979. 'How different are they?' In D. Dinnsen, (ed.), Current Approaches to Phonological Theory, pp. 252-265., Bloomington: Indiana University Press., Huddleston, Rodney. 1972. 'The development of a non-process, model in American structural linguistics', Lingua 30: 333-384., Hyman, Larry M. 1973. 'The role of consonant types in natural tonal, assimilations'. In L. M. Hyman (ed.), Consonant Types and Tone,
Page 420 :
407, , References, , Southern California Occasional Papers In Linguistics 1,, Department of Linguistics, UCLA., - - 1975. Phonology: Theory and Analysis. New York: Holt,, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1982. 'The representation of nasality in Gokhana'. In H. van, der Hulst and N. Smith (eds), The Structure of Phonological, Representations, vol. 1, pp. 111-130. Dordrecht: Foris., Hyman, Larry and Russell G. Schuh. 1974. 'Universals of tone rules:, evidence from West Africa'. LI 5: 81-115., Ingram, David. 1989. Phonological Disability in Children, 2nd edn, (1st edn 1976). London: Edward Arnold., Ito, Junko. 1986. 'Syllable theory in prosodic phonology'. Ph.D., thesis, University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Published 1988:, New York: Garland., - - 1989. 'A prosodic theory of epenthesis'. NLLT 7: 217-259., Jakobson, Roman. 1929. ~Remarques sur l'evolution phonologique, du russe comparee a celIe des autres langues slaves'. TCLP II., Reprinted in Roman Jakobson (1962), Selected Writings, vol. 1,, pp. 7-116. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1931. ~Prinzipien der historischen Phonologie'. TCLP IV:, 247-267. Reprinted in Roman Jakobson (1962), Selected Writings,, vol. 1, pp. 202-220. The Hague: Mouton. French translation, appended to N. S. Trubetzkoy (1949), Principes de phonologie., Paris: C. Klincksieck., - - 1941. 'Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze'., Reprinted in Roman Jakobson (1962), vol. 1, pp. 328-401., - - 1962. Selected Writings. Five vols. The Hague: Mouton., Jakobson, Roman, Gunnar Fant and Morris Halle. 1952. Preliminaries, to Speech Analysis. Cambridge: MIT Press., Jakobson, Roman and Morris Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of Language., The Hague: Mouton., Jeffers, Robert 1. and Arnold M. Zwicky. 1980. ~The evolution of, clitics'. In E. C. Traugott, R. Le Brum and S. Shepherd (eds),, Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Historical, Linguistics, pp. 221-231. Amsterdam: Benjamins., Jespersen, Otto. 1914. A Modern English Grammar on Historical, Principles. New York: Barnes & Noble., Jones, Daniel. 1917. An English Pronouncing Dictionary. London:, Dent. [This book has since appeared in many revised editions.], - - 1918. An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge: W. Heffer., [This book has since appeared in many revised editions.], --1929. ~Definition of a phoneme'. Le Maitre Phonetique 28: 43-44.
Page 421 :
References, , 408, , - - 1939. Proceedings of the Third International Congress of the, Phonetic Sciences 6. Ghent., - - 1950. The Phoneme: its Nature and Use. Cambridge: W. Heffer., 3rd edn, revised and expanded, 1967., - - 1957. 'The history and meaning of the term "phoneme"'., Supplement to Le Maftre Phonetique. Reprinted as Appendix to, the third (1967) edition of Daniel Jones (1950), The Phoneme: its, Nature and Use, pp. 253-269. Cambridge: W. Heffer. Also, reprinted in E. C. Fudge (ed.) (1973), Phonology: Selected, Readings, pp. 17-34. Harmondsworth: Penguin., Joos, Martin (ed.) 1957. Readings in Linguistics I. Chicago:, University of Chicago Press., Kahn, Daniel. 1980. Syllable-based Generalizations in English, Phonology. New York: Garland., Kaisse, Ellen 1985. Connected Speech: the Interaction of Syntax and, Phonology. New York: Academic Press., 1987. 'Rhythm and the cycle'. CLS 23 (2): 199-209., Kaisse, Ellen and Patricia Shaw. 1985. 'On the theory of lexical, phonology'. Phonology Yearbook 2: 1-30., Katamba, Francis. 1989. An Introduction to Phonology. London:, Longman., Kaye, Jonathan D. 1990. "'Coda" licensing'. Phonology 7: 301-330., - - 1991-1992. 'Do you believe in magic? The story of s + C, sequences'. In A. Gorkel and E. Parker (eds), SOAS Working, Papers in Linguistics and Phonetics, pp. 293-313. London: School, of Oriental and African Studies., Kaye, Jonathan D., 1. Lowenstamm and 1.-R. Vergnaud. 1985. 'The, internal structure of phonological elements: a theory of Charm, and Government'. Phonology Yearbook 2: 305-328., - - 1990. 'Constituent structure and government in phonology'., Phonology 7: 193-231., Keating, Patricia. 1988. 'Underspecification in phonetics'. Phonology, 5: 275-292., Kenstowicz, Michael. 1994. Phonology in Generative Grammar., Oxford: Blackwell., Kent, R. D. and C. Read. 1992. The Acoustic Analysis of Speech., San Diego: Singular., Kenyon, John S. and Thomas A. Knott. 1953. A Pronouncing, Dictionary of American English. Springfield, MA: Merriam., King, Robert D. 1969. Historical Linguistics and Generative, Grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall., Kingston, 1. and M. Beckman (eds) 1990. Papers in Laboratory
Page 422 :
409, , References, , Phonology: Between the Grammar and the Physics of Speech., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Kiparsky, Paul. 1965. 'Phonological change'. Ph.D. dissertation,, Cambridge, MA, MIT., - - 1968a. 'Linguistic universals and linguistic change'. In E. Bach, and R. T. Harms (eds), Universals in Linguistic Theory,, pp. 171-202. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1968b. How Abstract is Phonology? Bloomington: Indiana, University Linguistics Club. Reprinted in O. Fujimura (ed.), (1974), Three Dimensions of Linguistic Theory, Tokyo: TEC., - - 1971. 'Historical linguistics'. In W. O. Dingwall (ed.), A Survey, of Linguistic Science, College Park: University of Maryland., - - 1973a. Abstractness, Opacity and Global Rules. Bloomington:, Indiana University Linguistics Club. Reprinted in O. Fujimura, (ed.) (1974), Three Dimensions of Linguistic Theory, pp. 57-86., Tokyo: TEC., - - 1973b. '''Elsewhere'' in phonology'. In S. Anderson and, ~ Kiparsky (eds), A Festschrift for Morris Halle, pp. 93-106. New, York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., - - 1982. 'Lexical phonology and morphology'. In I. S. Yang (ed.),, Linguistics in the Morning Calm, pp. 3-91. Seoul: Hanshin., Abridged version published as 'From cyclic to lexical phonology',, in H. van der Hulst and N. Smith (eds) (1982), The Structure of, Phonological Representations, vol. 1, pp. 131-175. Dordrecht: Foris., - - 1985. 'Some consequences of Lexical Phonology'. Phonology, Yearbook 2: 83-138., Kisseberth, Charles. 1970. 'On the functional unity of phonological, rules'. LI 1: 291-306. Reprinted in Erik C. Fudge (ed.) (1973),, Phonology: Selected Readings, pp. 257-274. Harmondsworth:, Penguin., - - 1973. 'On the alternation of vowel length in Klamath: a global, rule'. In M. Kenstowicz and C. Kisseberth (eds), Issues in, Phonological Theory, pp. 9-26. The Hague: Mouton., - - 1976. 'The interaction of phonological rules and the polarity of, language'. In A. Koutsoudas (ed.), The Application and Ordering, of Grammatical Rules, pp. 41-54. The Hague: Mouton., Klavans, Judith L. 1985. 'The independence of syntax and phonology, in cliticization'. Lg 61: 95-120., Kloster Jensen, M. 1963. 'Die Silbe in der Phonetik und Phonemik'., Phonetica 41: 150-174., Knowles, Gerald O. 1974. 'Scouse: the urban dialect of Liverpool'., Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds.
Page 423 :
References, , 410, , Koutsoudas, Andreas, Gerald Sanders and Craig Noll. 1974. 'On the, application of phonological rules'. Lg 50: 1-28., KnimskY,1. 1974. The Phoneme. Munich: Wilhelm Funk., Krapp, G. ~ 1925. The English Language in America, 2 vols. New, York: Century., Kreidler, Charles W. 1989. The Pronunciation of English: a Course, Book in Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell., Labov, William. 1966. The Social Stratification of English in New, York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics., - - 1972. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of, Pennsylvania Press., - - 1975. 'On the use of the present to explain the past'. In, L. Heilmann (ed.), Proceedings of the Eleventh International, Congress of Linguists, pp. 825-851. Bologna: II Mulino., - - 1994. Principles of Linguistic Change, vol. 1: Internal Factors., Oxford: Blackwell., Labov, William, Mark Karen and Corey Miller. 1991. 'Near-mergers, and the suspension of phonemic contrast'. Language Variation and, Change 3: 33-74., Labov, William, Malcah Yeager and Richard Steiner. 1972. A, Quantitative Study of Sound Change in Progress. Philadelphia: US, Regional Survey., Ladd, D. R. 1984. 'Declination: a review and some hypotheses'., Phonology Yearbook 1: 53-74., Ladefoged, Peter. 1960. 'The value of phonetic statements'. Lg 36:, 387-396., - - 1962. Elements of Acoustic Phonetics. Chicago: University of, Chicago Press., - - 1964. A Phonetic Study of West African Languages. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., - - 1965. 'The nature of general phonetic theories'. Georgetown, University Monograph Series on Language and Linguistics 18:, 27-42., - - 1968. 'Linguistic aspects of respiratory phenomena'. In, A. Bouhuys (ed.), Sound Production in Man, Annals of the New, York Academy of Sciences, vol. 155, art. 1, pp. 141-151., - - 1971. Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics. Chicago: University, of Chicago Press., - - 1972. 'Phonetic prerequisites for a distinctive feature theory'., In A. Valdman (ed.), Papers in Linguistics and Phonetics to the, Memory of Pierre Delattre, pp. 273-285. The Hague: Mouton., --1973. 'The features of the larynx'. Journal of Phonetics 1: 73-83.
Page 424 :
411, , References, , 1975. A Course in Phonetics. New York: Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich. 2nd edn 1982; 3rd edn 1993., - - 1979. 'Phonetic specification of the languages of the world'., Revue de Phonetique Appliquee 49/50: 21-40., - - 1990. 'On dividing phonetics and phonology: comments on the, papers by Clements and by Browman and Goldstein'. In, 1. Kingston and M. Beckman (eds), Papers in Laboratory, Phonology: Between the Grammar and the Physics of Speech,, pp. 398-405. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Ladefoged, Peter, A. Cochran and S. Disner. 1977. 'Laterals and, trills'. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 7: 46-54., Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. 1986. 'Some of the sounds of, the world's languages: preliminary version'. UCLA Department of, Linguistics Working Papers in Phonetics 64., Ladefoged, Peter and A. Traill. 1994. 'Clicks and their accompaniments'. JP 22: 33-64., Lamb, Sidney. 1966. Outline of Stratificational Grammar., Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press., Lane, H. H. 1965. 'The motor theory of speech perception: a critical review'. Psychological Review 72 (4): 275-309., Langacker, Ronald W. 1969. 'Mirror-image rules II: lexicon and, phonology'. Lg 45: 844-862., Langendoen, D. Terence. 1968. The London School of Linguistics., Research Monograph no. 46. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press., Lass, Roger. 1974. 'Linguistic orthogenesis? Scots vowel quantity and, the English length conspiracy'. In 1. M. Anderson and C. Jones, (eds), Historical Linguistics: Proceedings of the First International, Conference on Historical Linguistics, vol. 2, pp. 311-352., Amsterdam: North-Holland., - - 1976. English Phonology and Phonological Theory: Synchronic, and Diachronic Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., --1984. Phonology: an Introduction to Basic Concepts. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., Lass, Roger and John M. Anderson. 1975. Old English Phonology., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Laver, John. 1965. 'Variability in vowel perception'. Language and, Speech 8: 95-121., - - 1979. 'The description of voice quality in general phonetic, theory'. Edinburgh University Department of Linguistics Work in, Progress 12: 30-52. Reprinted in John Laver (1991), The Gift of, Speech: Papers in the Analysis of Speech and Voice, pp. 184-208., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Page 425 :
References, , 412, , - - 1980. The Phonetic Description of Voice Quality. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., - - 1989. 'Cognitive science and speech: a framework for research'., In H. Schnelle and N.-O. Bernsen (eds), Logic and Linguistics,, vol. 3: 37-69. Reprinted in John Laver (1991), The Gift of Speech:, Papers in the Analysis of Speech and Voice, pp. 92-128. Edinburgh:, Edinburgh University Press., - - 1991. The Gift of Speech: Papers in the Analysis of Speech and, Voice. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press., --1994. Principles of Phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University, Press., Laver, 1. and ~ Trudgill. 1979. 'Phonetic and linguistic markers in, speech'. In K. R. Scherer and H. Giles (eds), Social Markers in, Speech, pp. 1-32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reprinted in John Laver (1991), The Gift of Speech: Papers in the, Analysis of Speech and Voice, pp. 235-264. Edinburgh: Edinburgh, University Press., Leben, William R. 1973. 'Suprasegmental phonology'. Unpublished, Ph.D. dissertation, MIT., Leben, William R. and Orrin W. Robinson. 1977. "'Upside-down", phonology'. Lg 53: 1-20., Lehiste, Ilse and G. E. Peterson. 1961. 'Some basic considerations, in the analysis of intonation'. JASA 33: 419-425., Lemle, Miriam and Anthony Naro. 1977. Competencias basicas do, portugues. Rio de Janeiro: MOBRAL., Lepschy, Giulio. 1982. A Survey of Structural Linguistics, 2nd edn, (1st edn 1970). London: Andre Deutsch., Levin, Juliette. 1985. loA metrical theory of syllabicity'. Unpublished, Ph.D. thesis, MIT., - - 1988. loA place for lateral in the feature geometry'. Unpublished, paper, Austin: University of Texas., Liberman, A. M. 1957 'Some results of research on speech perception'. JASA 29: 117-123., Liberman, A. M., F. S. Cooper, K. Harris and ~ E. McNeilage. 1963., 'A motor theory of speech perception'. In G. Fant (ed.),, Proceedings of the Speech Communications Seminar, vol. 2., Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology., Liberman, A. M., F. S. Cooper, D. ~ Shankweiler and M. StuddertKennedy. 1967. 'Perception of the speech code'. Psychological, Review 74: 431-461., Liberman, A. M. and I. G. Mattingly. 1985. 'The motor theory of, speech revised'. Cognition 21: 1-36.
Page 426 :
413, , References, , Liberman, Mark and Alan Prince. 1977. 'On stress and linguistic, rhythm'. LI8: 249-336., Lieberman, Philip and Sheila E. Blumstein. 1988. Speech Physiology,, Speech Perception, and Acoustic Phonetics. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., Lightner, Theodore M. 1965. 'On the description of vowel and consonant harmony'. Word 21: 224-250., - - 1968. 'On the use of minor rules in Russian phonology'. JL 4:, 69-72., - - 1975. 'The role of derivational morphology in generative, grammar'. Lg 51: 617-638., Lindau, Mona. 1975. 'Features for vowels'. UCLA Working Papers, in Phonetics 30., - - 1978. 'Vowel features'. Lg 54: 541-563., - - 1985. 'The story of Ir/'. In Victoria A. Fromkin (ed.), Phonetic, Linguistics: Essays in Honour of Peter Ladefoged, pp. 157-168., Orlando, FL: Academic Press., Lindblom, Bjorn. 1986. 'Phonetic universals in vowel systems'. In, John 1. Ohala and Jeri 1. Jaeger (eds), Experimental Phonology,, pp. 13-44. Orlando, FL: Academic Press., Lindblom, Bjorn and Ian Maddieson. 1988. 'Phonetic universals in, consonant systems'. In L. M. Hyman and C. N. Li (eds), Language,, Speech and Mind: Studies in Honor of Victoria Fromkin, pp. 62-80., New York: Routledge., Lloyd, R. 1. 1899. Northern English. Leipzig., Locke, John L. 1983. Phonological Acquisition and Change. New, York: Academic Press., Lockwood, David G. 1972. Introduction to Stratificational Linguistics., New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich., Lyons, John. 1968. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Maddieson, Ian. 1980a. 'A survey of liquids'. UCLA Working Papers, in Phonetics 50: 93-112., - - 1980b. 'Vocoid approximants in the world's languages'. UCLA, Working Papers in Phonetics 50: 113-119., --1984. Patterns ofSounds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., - - 1987. 'Linguo-Iabials'. UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics 68:, 87-99., Makkai, Valerie Becker (ed.) 1972. Phonological Theory: Evolution, and Current Practice. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., Malone, Kemp. 1923. The Phonology of Modern Icelandic. Menasha,, WI: Collegiate Press.
Page 428 :
415, , References, , McCawley, James D. 1966. 'Further reVISIons in Finnish rules'., Unpublished paper, University of Chicago., - - 1968. The Phonological Component of a Grammar of Japanese., The Hague: Mouton., McMahon, April M. S. 1991. 'Lexical phonology and sound change:, the case of the Scottish vowel length rule'. JL 27: 29-53., Michelena, Luis. 1957. 'Las antiguas consonantes vascas'., In Misceltinea homenaje a Andre Martinet, vol. 1, pp. 113-157., La Laguna. Reprinted in L. Michelena (1988), Sobre historia de, la lengua vasca, vol. 1, pp. 166-189, San Sebastian. English translation by R. L. Trask, 'The ancient Basque consonants', in, 1. I. Hualde, 1. A. Lakarra and R. L. Trask (eds) (1995), On the, History of the Basque Language: Studies in Basque Historical, Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins (CILT)., - - 1977. Fonetica hist6rica vasca. 2nd edn (1st edn 1961). San, Sebastian: Publicaciones del Seminario Julio de Urquijo de la, Excma. Diputaci6n de Guip11zcoa., Miller, G. A. and ~ E. Nicely. 1955. 'An analysis of perceptual confusions among some English consonants'. JASA 27: 338-352., Mohanan, K. ~ 1982. Lexical Phonology. Bloomington: University, of Indiana Linguistics Club., Morrison, Alistair [writing as Afferbeck Lauder]. 1965. Let Stalk, Strine. Sydney., Morton, 1., S. Marcus and C. Frankish. 1976. 'Perceptual centres, (P-centres)'. Psychological Review 83: 405~08., Moulton, William G. 1947. 'Juncture in modern standard German'., Lg 23: 212-226. Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings, in Linguistics I, pp. 208-215. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., - - 1967. 'Types of phonemic change'. In To Honor Roman, Jakobson, vol. 2, pp. 1393-1407. The Hague: Mouton., MUller, Max. 1855. The Languages of the Seat of War in the East,, 2nd edn. London: Williams & Norgate., - - 1875 [written 1843]. Lectures on the Science of Languages 2., London: Longman., Myers, S. 1987. 'Tone and the structure of words in Shona'. Ph.D., dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Published by, Garland Press, New York, 1990., - - 1991. 'Persistent rules'. LI22: 315-344., Nartey, 1. N. A. 1979. 'A study in phonemic universals - especially, concerning fricatives and stops'. UCLA Working Papers in, Phonetics 46., Nellis, D. G. and B. E. Hollenbach. 1980. 'Fortis versus lenis In
Page 429 :
References, , 416, , Cajonos Zapotec phonology'. IJAL 46: 92-105., Nespor, Marina and Irene Vogel. 1982. 'Prosodic domains of, external sandhi rules'. In H. van der Hulst and N. Smith (1982),, pp. 225-255., - - 1986. Prosodic Phonology. Dordrecht: Foris., Newton, B. E. 1971. 'Ordering paradoxes in phonology'. JL 7: 31-53., Newmeyer, Frederick 1. 1986. Linguistic Theory in America, 2nd edn, (1st edn 1980). New York: Academic Press., Nida, Eugene A. 1948. 'A system for the identification of morphemes'. Lg 24: 414-441., Nolan, Francis. 1982. 'The role of Action Theory in the description, of speech production'. Linguistics 20: 287-308., O'Connor, 1. D. 1973. Phonetics. Harmondsworth: Penguin., Odell, 1. 1806. An Essay on the Elements, Accents and Prosody of, the English Language. London., Ohala, John 1. 1974. 'Phonetic explanation in phonology'. In A., Bruck, R. A. Fox and M. W. La .Galy (eds), Papers from the, Parasession on Natural Language, pp. 251-274. Chicago: Chicago, Linguistic Society., - - 1985. 'Around flat'. In Victoria A. Fromkin (ed.), Phonetic, Linguistics: Essays in Honour of Peter Ladefoged, pp. 223-241., Orlando, FL: Academic Press., - - 1986. 'Consumer's guide to evidence in phonology'. Phonology, Yearbook 3: 3-26., Ohala, John 1. and Jeri 1. Jaeger (eds) 1986. Experimental Phonology., Orlando, FL: Academic Press., Palmer, H. E. 1930. Principles of Romanization, II. Tokyo: Maruzen, Company., Pandit, ~ B. 1957. 'Nasalisation, aspiration and murmur in Gujarati'., Indian Linguistics 17: 165-172., Paradis, Carole. 1988-1989. 'On constraints and repair strategies'., The Linguistic Review 6: 71-97., Paradis, Carole and Jean-Fran~ois Prunet. 1989. 'On coronal transparency'. Phonology 6: 317-348., - - (eds) 1991. Phonetics and Phonology, vol. 2: The Special Status, of Coronals. San Diego: Academic Press., Paul, Hermann. 1886. Principien der Sprachgeschichte, 2nd edn., Halle: Max Niemeyr., Pickett, 1. M. 1980. The Sounds of Speech Communication., Baltimore: University Park Press., Pike, Kenneth L. 1943. Phonetics: a Critical Analysis of Phonetic, Theory and a Technic for the Practical Description of Sounds. Ann
Page 430 :
417, , References, , Arbor: University of Michigan Press., - - 1945. The Intonation of American English. Ann Arbor:, University of Michigan Press., - - 1947a. Phonemics: a Technique for Reducing Languages to, Writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press., - - 1947b. 'Grammatical prerequisites to phonemic analysis'. Word, 3: 155-172. Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972),, Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 153-165., New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Also reprinted in Erik C., Fudge (ed.) (1973), Phonology: Selected Readings, pp. 115-135., Harmondsworth: Penguin., Pitman, Isaac. 1846. The Phonotypic Journal 5., Postal, Paul M. 1968. Aspects of Phonological Theory. New York:, Harper & Row., Prince, Alan. 1980. 'A metrical theory for Estonian quantity'. LI11:, 511-562., - - 1984. 'Phonology with tiers'. In M. Aronoff and R. T. Oehrle, (eds), Language Sound Structure, pp. 234-244. Cambridge, MA:, MIT Press., Prince, Alan and Paul Smolensky. Forthcoming. Optimality Theory:, Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, MA:, MIT Press., Pulleyblank, Douglas. 1986. Tone in Lexical Phonology. Dordrecht:, Reidel., Pullum, Geoffrey K. 1975. ~Rule interaction and the organization of, a grammar'. Ph.D. thesis. Published 1979: New York: Garland., - - 1976. ~The Duke of York gambit'. JL 12: 83-102., Pullum, Geoffrey K. and William A. Ladusaw. 1986. Phonetic Symbol, Guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., Pullum, Geoffrey K. and Arnold M. Zwicky. 1988. 'The syntaxphonology interface'. In F. 1. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the, Cambridge Survey, vol. 1: Linguistic Theory: Foundations,, pp. 255-280. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Rakers, B., W. Sennett and C. A. Fowler. 1987. 'Domain-final lengthening and foot-level shortening in spoken English'. Phonetica 44:, 147-155., Ramsaran, Susan (ed.) 1990. Studies in the Pronunciation of English:, a Commemorative Volume in Honour of A. c. Gimson. London:, Routledge., Reighard, 1. 1972. 'Labiality and velarity in consonants and vowels'., CLS 8: 533-543., Rennison, 1. R. 1987. 'Vowel harmony and tridirectional features'.
Page 431 :
References, , 418, , Folia Linguistica XXI/2-4: 337-354., - - 1991. 'On the elements of phonological representations: the, evidence from vowel systems and vowel processes'. Folia, Linguistica XXIV: 175-224., Rice, Keren D. 1993. 'A reexamination of the feature [sonorant]: the, status of sonorant obstruents'. Lg 69: 308-344., Rice, Keren D. and Peter Avery. 1989. 'On the interaction between, sonorancy and voicing'. Toronto Working Papers in Linguistics 10:, 65-82., Robins, R. H. 1990. A Short History of Linguistics, 3rd edn (1st edn, 1967). London: Longman., Roca, Iggy. 1992. 'Constraining extrametricality'. In W. Dressler, H., Ltischutzky, O. Pfeiffer and 1. Rennison (eds), Phonologica 1988,, pp. 239-248. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., - - 1994. Generative Phonology. London: Routledge., Ross, Alan S. C. 1954. Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 55., Sagey, E. 1986. 'The representation of features and relations in nonlinear phonology'. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation: MIT., Sampson, Geoffrey. 1980. Schools of Linguistics: Competition and, Evolution. London: Hutchinson., Sanders, Gerald A. 1979. 'Equational rules and rule functions in, phonology'. In Daniel Dinnsen (ed.), Current Approaches to, Phonological Theory, pp. 74-105. Bloomington: Indiana, University Press., Sapir, Edward. 1921. Language. New York: Harcourt Brace., - - 1925. 'Sound patterns in language'. Lg 1: 37-51. Reprinted in, D. Mandelbaum (ed.) (1949), Selected Writings of Edward Sapir, in Language, Culture and Personality, pp. 33-45. Berkeley:, University of California Press. Also reprinted in Martin 100s (ed.), (1957), Readings in Linguistics I, pp. 19-25. Chicago: University, of Chicago Press. Also reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.), (1972), Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current Practice,, pp. 13-21. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Also reprinted, in Erik C. Fudge (ed.) (1973), Phonology: Selected Readings,, pp. 101-114. Harmondsworth: Penguin., - - 1933. 'The psychological reality of phonemes'. Reprinted in, D. Mandelbaum (ed.), (1949), Selected Writings of Edward Sapir, in Language, Culture, and Personality, pp. 46-60. Berkeley:, University of California Press. Also reprinted in Valerie Becker, Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current, Practice, pp. 23-31. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1879. Memoire sur le systeme primitif des
Page 432 :
419, , References, , voyelles dans les langues indo-europeennes. Leipzig., - - 1894. Memoires de la Societe Linguistique de Paris VIII: 429., - - 1916. Cours de linguistique generale. Paris: Payot., Scalise, Sergio. 1984. Generative Morphology. Dordrecht: Foris., Schane, Sanford A. 1984a. 'Two English vowel movements: a particle, analysis'. In M. Aronoff and R. T. Oehrle (eds), Language Sound, Structure, pp. 32-51. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press., - - 1984b. 'The fundamentals of Particle Phonology', Phonology, Yearbook 1: 129-155., Schein, Barry and Donca Steriade. 1986. 'On geminates'. LI 17:, 691-744., Scott, N. C. 1941. 'Broad transcription'. Le MaItre Phonetique 76:, 48-51., Sedlak, ~ 1969. 'Typological considerations of vowel quality systems'., Stanford Working Papers on Language Universals 1., Selkirk, Elisabeth O. 1972. 'The phrase phonology of English and, French'. Ph.D. thesis, MIT. Published 1980: New York: Garland., - - 1980. 'The role of prosodic categories in English word stress'., L/ 11: 563-{)05., - - 1981. 'On prosodic structure and its relation to syntactic structure'. In T. Fretheim (ed.), Nordic Prosody II, pp. 111-140., Trondheim: TAPIR., - - 1982. 'The syllable'. In H. van der Hulst and N. Smith (eds),, The Structure of Phonological Representations, 2 vols, part II, pp., 337-383. Dordrecht: Foris., - - 1984. Phonology and Syntax: the Relation Between Sound and, Structure. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press., - - 1986. 'On derived domains in sentence phonology'. Phonology, Yearbook 3: 371-405., Shadle, C. H. 1985. 'The acoustics of fricative consonants'. Ph.D., dissertation, Cambridge, MA, MIT., Shaw, Patricia D. 1991. 'Consonant harmony systems: the special, status of coronal harmony'. In Carole Paradis and Jean-Fran~ois, Prunet (eds) (1991), Phonetics and Phonology, vol. 2: The Special, Status of Coronals, pp. 125-157. San Diego: Academic Press., Siegel, D. 1974. Topics in English Morphology. New York: Garland., Singh, Sadanand. 1976. Distinctive Features: Theory and Validation., Baltimore: University Park Press., Smith, Neil V. 1973. The Acquisition of Phonology: a Case Study., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Sommerstein, Alan H. 1974. 'On phonotactically motivated rules'., JL 10: 71-94.
Page 433 :
References, , 420, , - - 1977. Modern Phonology. London: Edward Arnold., Spencer, Andrew. 1991. Morphological Theory. Oxford: Blackwell., Stampe, David. 1969. 'The acquisition of phonetic representation'., CLS 5: 443-454., --1973. 'A dissertation on natural phonology'. Unpublished Ph.D., dissertation, University of Chicago., Stanley, Richard. 1967. 'Redundancy rules in phonology'. Lg 43:, 393-435., Stark, Bruce R. 1972. 'The Bloomfieldian model'. Lingua 30:, 385-421., Steriade, Donca. 1982. 'Greek prosodies and the nature of syllabification'. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, MIT., --1990. 'Gestures and autosegments: comments on Browman and, Goldstein's paper'. In 1. Kingston and M. Beckman (eds), Papers, in Laboratory Phonology: Between the Grammar and the Physics, of Speech, pp. 382-397. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., Stern, T. 1957. 'Drum and whistle languages: an analysis of speech, surrogates'. American Anthropologist 59: 487-506., Stetson, R. H. 1945. Bases of Phonology. Oberlin, OH: Oberlin, College., - - 1951. Motor Phonetics, 2nd edn (1st edn 1928). Amsterdam:, North-Holland., Stevens, Kenneth N. 1972. 'The quantal nature of speech: evidence, from articulatory-acoustic data'. In E. E. David and ~ B. Denes, (eds), Human Communication: a Unified View, pp. 51-56. New, York: McGraw-Hill., Stevens, Kenneth N. and Sheila E. Blumstein. 1981. 'The search for, invariant acoustic correlates of phonetic features'. In ~ D. Eimas, and 1. L. Miller (eds), Perspectives on the Study of Speech. pp., 1-38. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum., Stevens, Kenneth N. and Samuel Jay Keyser. 1989. 'Primary features, and their enhancement in consonants'. Lg. 65: 81-106., Stevens, Kenneth N., Samuel Jay Keyser and H. Kawasaki. 1987., 'Toward a phonetic and phonological theory of redundant, features'. In 1. S. Perkell and D. H. Klatt (eds), Symposium on, Invariance and Variability, pp. 426-449. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence, Erlbaum., Stevens, S. S., 1. Volkmann and E. B. Newman. 1937. 'A scale for, the measurement of the psychological magnitude pitch'. JASA 8:, 185-190., - - 1957. 'On the psychophysical law'. Psychological Review 64:, 153-181.
Page 434 :
421, , References, , Stewart, 1. M. 1967. 'Tongue root position in Akan vowel harmony'., Phonetica 16: 185-204., Swadesh, Morris. 1934. 'The phonemic principle'. Lg 10: 117-129., Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings in Linguistics 1,, pp. 32-37. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Also reprinted in, Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological Theory:, Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 32-39. New York: Holt,, Rinehart & Winston. Also reprinted in Erik C. Fudge (ed.) (1973),, Phonology: Selected Readings, pp. 35-46. Harmondsworth: Penguin., - - 1935. 'Twaddell on defining the phoneme'. Lg 11: 244-250., Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai (ed.) (1972), Phonological, Theory: Evolution and Current Practice, pp. 41-44. New York:, Holt, Rinehart & Winston., Sweet, Henry. 1877. Handbook of Phonetics. Oxford. Reprinted, 1970. College Park, MD: McGrath., - - 1888. A History of English Sounds, 2nd edn. Oxford: Clarendon, Press., - - 1890. A Primer of Phonetics. Oxford: Clarendon Press., Szemerenyi, Oswald 1. L. 1985. 'Recent developments in IndoEuropean linguistics'. Transactions ofthe Philological Society: 1-71., Tench, Paul. 1992. Studies in Systemic Phonology. London: Pinter., Terry, M., S. Hiller, 1. Laver and G. Duncan. 1986. 'The AUDLAB, interactive speech analysis system'. Proceedings of the lEE, Conference on Speech Input/Output, 258: 263-265. London: lEE, Publications., Trager, George L. 1958. 'Paralanguage: a first approximation'. Studies, in Linguistics 13: 1-12., Trager, George L. and Bernard Bloch. 1941. 'The syllabic phonemes, of English'. Lg 17: 223-246. Reprinted in Valerie Becker Makkai, (ed.) (1972), Phonological Theory: Evolution and Current Practice,, pp. 72-89. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston., Trager, George L. and Henry L. Smith. 1951. ~An outline of English, structure'. Studies in Linguistics: Occasional Papers 3., Trask, R. L. 1993. A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics., London: Routledge., Trubetzkoy, Nikolai. 1931. 'Die phonologischen Systeme'. TCLP IV:, 96-116., - - 1936. 'Essai d'une theorie des oppositions phonologiques'., Journal de Psychologie 33: 6-18., - - 1939. Grundzuge der Phonologie. Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague VII. English translation (1969), Principles of, Phonology, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Page 435 :
References, , 422, , Twaddell, W. Freeman. 1935. 'On defining the phoneme'. Language, Monograph 16. Reprinted in Martin Joos (ed.) (1957), Readings, in Linguistics I, pp. 55-80. Chicago: University of Chicago Press., Uldall, E. 1958. 'American "molar" r and "flapped" t'. Revista do, Laborat6rio de Fonetica Experimental da Faculdada de Letras da, Universidade de Coimbra 4: 3-6., Vachek, Josef. 1966. The Linguistic School of Prague. Bloomington:, Indiana University Press., Vago, Robert. 1973. 'Abstract vowel harmony systems in Uralic and, Altaic languages'. Lg 49: 579-605., Vaissiere, I 1983. 'Language independent prosodic features'. In A., Cutler and D. R. Ladd (eds), Prosody: Models and Measurements,, pp. 53-66. Berlin: Springer., van den Berg, I 1958. 'Myoelastic-aerodynamic theory of voice, production'. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 1: 227-244., - - 1968. 'Mechanism of the larynx and the laryngeal vibrations'., In B. Malmberg (ed.), Manual of Phonetics, pp. 278-308., Amsterdam: North-Holland., van der Hulst, Harry. 1988. 'The geometry of vocalic features'. In, H. van der Hulst and N. Smith (eds), Features, Segmental Structure, and Harmony Processes, pp. 77-125. Dordrecht: Foris., - - 1989. 'Atoms of segmental structure: components, gestures and, dependency'. Phonology 6: 253-284., van der Hulst, Harry and Norval Smith (eds) 1982. The Structure of, Phonological Representations, 2 vols. Dordrecht: Foris., Vanderslice, R. and Peter Ladefoged. 1972. 'Binary suprasegmental, features and transformational word-accentuation rules'. Lg 48:, 819-838., Vennemann, Theo. 1972a. 'Rule inversion'. Lingua 29: 209-242., - - 1972b. 'Phonological uniqueness in natural generative, grammar'. Glossa 6: 105-116., - - 1973. 'Phonological concreteness in natural generative, grammar'. In R. Shuy and C.-I N. Bailey (eds), Toward, Tomorrow's Linguistics, pp. 202-219. Washington: Georgetown, University Press., - - 1974. 'Words and syllables in natural generative grammar'. In, A. Bruck, R. A. Fox and M. W. La Galy (eds), Papers from the, Parasession on Natural Phonology, pp. 346-374. Chicago: Chicago, Linguistic Society., Verner, Karl. 1875. 'Eine Ausnahme der ersten Lautverschiebung'., Zeitschrift fUr vergleichende Sprachforschung 23: 97-130. English, translation 'An exception to Grimm's Law' in W. ~ Lehmann (ed.)
Page 436 :
423, , References, , (1967), A Reader in Nineteenth-century Historical Indo-European, Linguistics, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Translation, also in ~ Baldi and R. N. Werth (eds) (1978), Readings in, Historical Phonology: Chapters in the Theory of Sound Change,, pp. 32-63. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press., Wang, William S.-Y. 1968. 'Vowel features, paired variables, and the, English vowel shift'. Lg 44: 695-708., - - 1969. 'Competing sound changes as a cause of residue'. Lg 45:, 9-25., Wang, W. S.-Y. and C. 1. Fillmore. 1961. Journal of Speech and, Hearing Research 4., Ward, Ida C. 1929. The Phonetics of English. Cambridge: W. Heffer., 3rd (revised) edn 1939., Weinreich, Uriel. 1954. 'Is a structural dialectology possible?' Word, 10: 388-400., Weinreich, Uriel, William Labov and Marvin 1. Herzog. 1968., 'Empirical foundations for a theory of language change'. In, W. ~ Lehmann and Y. Malkiel (eds), Directions for Historical, Linguistics, pp. 95-188. Austin: University of Texas Press., Wells, John C. 1982. Accents of English, 3 vols. Cambridge:, Cambridge University Press., - - 1990a. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. London: Longman., - - 1990b. 'Syllabification and allophony'. In S. Ramsaran (ed.),, Studies in the Pronunciation of English: a Commemorative Volume, in Honour of A. c. Gimson, pp. 76-86. London: Routledge., Wells, Rulon. 1949. 'Automatic alternation'. Lg 25: 99-116., Welmers, William. 1959. 'Tonemics, morphotonemics, and tonal, morphemes'. General Linguistics 4: 1-9., Wenk, B. 1. and F. Wioland. 1982. ~Is French really syllable-timed?', JP 10: 193-216., Wheeler, Max. 1985. ~On some claims of Atomic Phonology'. JL 21:, 139-148., Whitney, William Dwight. 1843. 'On Lepsius's standard alphabet'., The Journal of the American Oriental Society 7: 229-232., Reprinted in M. Silverstein (ed.) (1971), Whitney on Language:, Selected Writings of William Dwight Whitney. Cambridge, MA:, MIT Press, pp. 215-248., Whorf, Benjamin Lee. 1938. 'Language: plan and conception of, arrangement'. Unpublished ms., Yale University. Reprinted in, 1. B. Carroll (ed.) (1956), Language, Thought and Reality: Selected, Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, pp. 125-133. Cambridge, MA:, MIT Press.
Page 437 :
References, , 424, , Wickelgren, Wayne A. 1966. 'Distinctive features and errors in shortterm memory for English consonants'. JASA 39: 388-398., Wilkinson, R. W. 1976. 'A homonymy-avoiding transderivational, constraint in Terena'. IJAL 42: 158-162., Williamson, Kay. 1977. 'Multivalued features for consonants'. Lg 53:, 843-871., Winteler, 1. 1876. Die Kerenzer Mundart des Kanton Glarus. Leipzig., Wood, S. 1975a. 'The weakness of the tongue-arching model of vowel, articulation'. Working Papers in Linguistics 11: 55-108. Lund:, Phonetics Laboratory, Lund University., - - 1975b. 'Tense and lax vowels: degree of constriction or pharyngeal volume?' Working Papers in Linguistics, Lund University,, pp. 109-134., Wurzel, W. 1984. Flexionsmorphologie und Natiirlichkeit. Berlin:, Akademie Verlag. English translation Inflectional Morphology, and Naturalness, 1989, Dordrecht: Reidel., Yeni-Komshian, Grace H., James F. Kavanagh and Charles A., Ferguson (eds) 1980. Child Phonology, 2 vols. New York:, Academic Press., Zwicky, Arnold. 1970. 'The free-ride principle and two rules of, complete assimilation in English'. CLS 6: 579-588., --1973. 'Taking a false step'. Ohio State University Working Papers, in Linguistics 14: 100-112., - - 1974. 'Homing in: arguing for remote representations'. JL 10:, 55-70., - - 1985. 'Clitics and particles'. Lg 61: 283-305.
