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PHYSICS, , EXPERIMENT – 1, , Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current., Apparatus: A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire), a battery, one way key, a voltmeter and an ammeter of, appropriate range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper, a scale., Formulae Used: The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm’s Law, , V, R, I, , Where, V : Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance coil. (Conductor), I: Current flowing through it., If l is the length of resistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire =, , R, l, , Observation:, (i) Range:, Range of given voltmeter = 3 v, Range of given ammeter = 500 mA, , (ii) Least count:, Least count of voltmeter = 0.05v, Least count of ammeter = 10 mA, (iii) Zero error:, Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 0, Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0, , Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings:, Ammeter Reading I (A), Sr. No. Observed, Value, 1, 50, 500 mA, 2, 35, 350 mA, 3, 32, 320 mA, 4, 19, 190 mA, 5, 10, 100 mA, , Voltmeter Reading, V (v), Observed, Value, 16, 16x0.05=0.8, 11, 0.55, 10, 0.50, 6, 0.30, 3, 0.15, , V, R, I, 1.6 , 1.57 , 1.56 , 1.58 , 1.5 , , Mean R = 1.56, Length of resistance wire: 28 cm, Graph between potential difference & current:, Scale: X – axis : 1 cm = 0.1 V of potential difference, Y – axis: 1 cm = 0.1 A of current, The graph comes out to be a straight line., , Page 1 (PHYSICS)

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Result: It is found that the ratio V/I is constant, hence current voltage relationship is established i.e. V  I or Ohm’s, Law is verified., Unknown resistance per cm of given wire = 5.57 x 10-2  cm-1, , Precautions: Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.,  The connections should be neat, clean & tight., Source of Error: Rheostat may have high resistance., The instrument screws may be loose., , EXPERIMENT – 2, Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge) & hence determine the specific, resistance of the material., Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a oneway key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper., , Formulae Used:, (i) The unknown resistance X is given by:, X=, , (100  l ), R, l, , Where,, , R = known resistance placed in left gap., X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge., l=length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm), (ii) Specific resistance (  ) of the material of given wire is given  =, Where,, D: Diameter of given wire, , XD 2, 4L, , L: Length of given wire., Observation Table for length (l) & unknown resistance, X:, Unknown Resistance, Resistance from, Sr., Length, Length, (100  l), resistance box, X = R., , No., AB = l cm, BC = (100-l) cm, R (ohm), l, 1, 2, 41, 59, 2.87, 2, 4, 60, 40, 2.66, 3, 6, 69, 31, 2.69, 4, 8, 76, 24, 2.52, Table for diameter (D) of the wire:, Circular Scale Reading, Observed diameter, Sr., Linear Scale, No. of circular, D = N + n x L.C., Value, No., Reading (N) mm, scale divisions, mm, n x (L.C.) mm, coinciding (n), 1, 0, 34, 0.34, 0.34, 2, 0, 35, 0.35, 0.35, 3, 0, 36, 0.36, 0.36, 4, 0, 35, 0.35, 0.35, Observations:, Page 2 (PHYSICS)

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, , Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cm, Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm, Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100, Least Count =, , Pitch, No. of divisions on circular scale, ,  LC  0.001 cm, , , , Length of given wire, L = 25cm, Calculation:, For unknown resistance, X:, , X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4,  2.68, 4, D + D 2 + D3 + D 4, Mean diameter, D = 1,  0.035 cm, 4, Mean X =, , , , , Specific Resistance,   X ., , D 2, 4L, ,  1.03 10 4  cm, , Result: Value of unknown resistance = 2.68 , Specific resistance of material of given wire  1.03 10 4  cm, Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking, observations., Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean., Instrument screws maybe loose., , EXPERIMENT – 3, Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series & parallel) of resistances using meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, two resistances wires, set, square, sand paper and connecting wires., , Observations: Table for length (l) & unknown resistance (r):, Page 3 (PHYSICS)

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Resistant, Coil, , r1 only, , r2 only, r1 & r2 in, series, r1 & r2 in, parallel, , Obs. No., , 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, , Resistance, from, resistance, box,, R (ohm), 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 1.3, 2.2, 3.5, 2, 3, 4, , Length, AB = l (cm), 35, 43, 50, 30, 38, 46, 34, 45, 54, 75, 82, 86, , Length, BC = 100 – l, (cm), 65, 57, 50, 70, 62, 54, 66, 55, 46, 25, 18, 14, , Resistance, , 100  l, r=, .R, l, 0.92, 1.32, 1.5, 1.16, 1.63, 1.76, 2.52, 2.68, 2.97, 0.67, 0.66, 0.65, , Mean, Resistant, (ohm), , 1.24, , 1.51, , 2.72, , 0.66, , Calculations:, (i) In Series: Experimental value of RS = 2.72 , Theoretical value of RS = r1 + r2 = 2.75 , (ii) In parallel: Experimental value of RP = 0.66 , Theoretical value of RP =, , r1r2,  0.68, r1  r2, , Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RS are same. Hence the law of, resistance in series i.e. RS = r1 + r2 is verified. (1) Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical, values of RP are same. Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. RS =, , r1r2, is verified., r1  r2, , Precautions:, (i), The connections should be neat, clean & tight., (ii), Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it., (iii), All plugs in resistant box should be tight., Sources of Error:, (i), The plugs may not be clean., (ii), The instrument screws maybe loose., , EXPERIMENT – 4, Aim: To compare the E.M.F.’s of two given primary cells using a potentiometer., Apparatus: A potentiometer, a laclanche cell, a Daniel cell, an ammeter, a voltmeter (0-5v), a galvanometer, a, battery (or battery eliminator), a rheostat of law resistance, a resistance box, a one-way key, a two-way key, a jockey,, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper., , Observations:, Page 4 (PHYSICS)

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Range of voltmeter: 5V, Least count of voltmeter: 0.05V, E.M.F. of battery E: 3V, E.M.F. of Laclanche Cell, E1: 1.45V, E.M.F. of Daniel Cell, E2: 1.125V, , S. No., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Calculations: Mean, , Table for Lengths:, Balancing length when, Balancing length when, E1 (Leclanche Cell) is in, E2 (Daniel Cell) is in, the circuit (cm), circuit (cm), (l1), (l2), 558, 437, 789, 617, 848, 670, 893, 706, 662, 521, , Ratio, , E1 l1, , E2 l2, , 558/437 = 1.277, 1.278, 1.266, 1.265, 1.270, , E1,  1.271 (Unit less), E2, , Result: The ratio of E.M.F.’s, , E1,  1.27, E2, , Precautions:, (i), The connections should be neat, clean & tight., (ii), The positive poles of the battery E and cells E1 and E2 should all be connected to the terminals at the zero, of the wires., (iii), The jockey should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently., Sources of Error:, (i), The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged., (ii), The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section and material density throughout its length., (iii), Heating of potentiometer wire by current, may introduce some error., , EXPERIMENT – 5, Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer., Apparatus: A potentiometer, a battery, two one-way keys, a rheostat of law resistance, a galvanometer, a high, resistance box, a fractional resistance box (1-10  ), an ammeter, a voltmeter (0-5V), a cell, a jockey, a set square,, connecting wires & piece of sand paper., , Observations:, Page 5 (PHYSICS)

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(i), (ii), , EMF of battery = 2V, EMF of cell = 1.35V, Table for lengths:, Position of Null pt (cm), Sr. No., , Without shunt R,, l1 cm, , With shunt R1,, l2 cm, , Value of shunt, resistance, R ( ), , Internal resistance, , 1, 571, 67, 1, 2, 619, 91, 1.5, 3, 689, 129, 2, 4, 749, 196, 2.5, 5, 882, 221, 3, 6, 950, 289, 3.5, Result: The internal resistance of the given cell is 8.11 , Precautions:, (i) The EMF of the battery should be greater than that of cell., (ii) For one set of observations, the ammeter reading should remain constant., (iii) Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial will point lies on last wire of potentiometer., Sources of Error:, (i) The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged., (ii) End resistance may not be zero., (iii) Heating of potentiometer wire by current, may introduce some error., ,  l1  l2 ,  R ,  l2 , , r = , , 7.53, 8.10, 8.68, 7.05, 8.97, 7.9, , EXPERIMENT – 6, Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure of merit., Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, a rheostat, two resistance boxes (10,000  and 500,  ), two one-way keys, a screw gauge, a meter scale, connecting wires and a piece of sandpaper., , Formulae Used:, (i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:, G=, , R. S, RS, , Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer, S: shunt resistance, (ii) Figure of merit: k =, , E, ( R  G) , , Where E : emf of the cell, ,  : deflection produced with resistance R., , Page 6 (PHYSICS)

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Calculation: Mean G = 70.8 , (i) For G : Calculate G using formula., Take mean of all values of G recorded in table., (ii) For k: Calculate k using formula & record in table., Take mean of values of k., Result:, (i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method:, G = 70.8 , (ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A/div, Precautions:, (i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight., (ii) The emf of cell or battery should be constant., (iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small, resistance, an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them., Sources of error:, (i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean., (ii) The screws of the instruments maybe loose., (iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant., , EXPERIMENT – 7, Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance & figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range &, to verify the same., Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer whose resistance & figure of merit are given, a constantan or manganin, wire, a battery, one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter, connecting wires, sand paper etc., , Formulae Used:, To convert a galvanometer which gives full scale deflection for current IG into an ammeter of range O to IO amperes,, , , , IG,  Io  IG, , the value of required shunt is given by: S = , , ,  G, , , Required shunt resistant S is made using a uniform wire whose, specific resistance is  (known) & its length:, , l, , r 2 S, , , Observations: Given resistance of galvanometer, G = 70.8 , Given value of figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A div-1, Total no. of divisions on either side of zero, No = 30, Current for full scale deflection, IG = No x k = 6.57 x 10-4 A, Page 7 (PHYSICS)

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a) Calculation of value of shunt resistance:, * Required range of converted ammeter, Io = 3A, * Value of shunt resistance,, , , , IG,  Io  IG, , S = , , ,   G  0.0155 , , , * Computing the length of the wire to make resistance of 0.155 , b) Observations for diameter of the wire:, (i) Pitch of screw gauge, p = 1 mm, (ii) No. of division of circular scale = 100, (iii) Least count, a = 0.01 mm, (iv) Zero error, e = 0.0 mm, (v) Diameter of the wire = 0.98 mm, Radius = 0.049 cm, c) Specific resistance of material of wire,   1.92 10 6 cm, d) Required length of the wire,, , l S, , r 2, , , =, , 0.0155  3.14  (0.049) 2, cm = 60.8 cm, 1.72 10 6, , Verification: Checking the performance of the converted ammeter:, Current indicated by full scale deflection (No) of converted ammeter. Io = 3A, Least count of converted ammeter, k’ =, , Io,  0.1 A / div., No, , Result:, , , , , , , Current IG for full scale deflection = 6.57 x 10-4 A, Resistance of shunt required to convert the galvanometer into ammeter, S = 0.0155 , Required length of wire, l = 60.8 cm, As error l’ – l is very small, conversion is verified., Precautions & Sources of Error:, (i), All connections should be neat & tight., (ii), The diameter of the wire for making shunt resistance should be measured accurately for diameter is taken, in two mutually perpendicular directions., (iii), The terminal of the ammeter marked positive should be connected to positive pole of the battery. Also, ammeter should be in series with circuit., , EXPERIMENT – 8, Aim: To find the value of v for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal length., Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights. Concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles, a knitting, needle & a half – meter scale., , Formulae Used: The mirror formula is:, 1 1 1,  , f u v, , We have, f =, , uv, uv, , Where, f = focal length of concave mirror., u = distance of object needle from pole of mirror., v = distance of image needle from pole of mirror., Page 8 (PHYSICS)

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Observation:, Rough focal length of given concave mirror = 10.9 cm, Actual length of the knitting needle, x = 15 cm, Observed distance between the mirror & object needle when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm., Observed distance between the mirror & image needle when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15.8 cm., Index error for u, e1 = y – x = – 0.2 cm, Index error for v, e2 = z – x = – 0.8 cm, Position, Corrected Distance, Sr., 1/ u, 1/v, Concave, Object, Image, PO, PI, No., (cm-1), (cm-1), Mirror P (cm), Needle O, Needle I, u cm, v cm, 1, 0.0, 18, 26, 17.8, 25.2, 0.056, 0.037, 2, 0.0, 17, 30.3, 16.8, 29.5, 0.06, 0.034, 3, 0.0, 16, 33.4, 15.8, 32.6, 0.063, 0.031, 4, 0.0, 26, 18, 25.8, 17.2, 0.038, 0.058, 5, 0.0, 30.3, 17, 30.1, 16.2, 0.033, 0.061, 6, 0.0, 33.4, 16, 33.2, 15.2, 0.030, 0.065, Calculations:, (i) u – v graph:, Explanation: from mirror formula applied to point A:, 1 1 1,  , f u v, , As u = v, 1  2 or 2 and f  u or v, f u, v, 2, 2, Hence, f =, ,  OD  21, ,  10.5 cm, 2, 2, , Graph Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u, Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v, Also f =, ,  OB,  10.5cm, 2, , Mean value of f = -10.5 cm, , (ii), , 1, 1, and graph :, u, v, , The focal length, f =, , 1 1, ,  10.47cm, OA OB, , Graph Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of, , 1, u, , Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of, , 1, v, , Result: The focal length of the given concave mirror:, (i) From u – v graph is : f = –10.5 cm, (ii) From, , 1 1,  graph is: f = –10.47 cm, u v, , Precautions:, (i) The uprights should be vertical., (ii) Tip-to-tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of needle O., (iii) To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle., Sources of Error: * The uprights may not be vertical., * Parallax removal may not be perfect., Page 9 (PHYSICS)

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EXPERIMENT – 9, Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens., Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights (2 fixed upright in middle two outer uprights with lateral movement),, convex lens, convex mirror, a lens holder, a mirror holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle, a, half meter scale., , Formula Used:, Focal length of a convex mirror f , , R, 2, , Where R is radius of curvature of the mirror., Observation:, (i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm., (ii) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex mirror, y = 15 cm, (iii) Index error = y - x, = 15 – 15, = 0 cm, No index correction, Observation Table:, Position of:, S. N. Object needle, Lens, Mirror, Image needle, 0 (cm), L cm, M cm, I (cm), 1, 25, 50, 56, 70.5, 2, 28.5, 50, 60, 73.3, 3, 31.5, 50, 65, 78.4, 4, 30.5, 50, 60, 74, Mean R = 13.8, , Radius of, Curvature, MI (cm), 14.5, 13.3, 13.4, 14, , Calculation:, Mean corrected MI = R = 13.8 cm, , f=, , R,  6.9 cm, 2, , Result:, The focal length of the given convex mirror = 6.9 cm, Precautions:, (i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of lens should be at the same height., (ii) Convex lens should be of large focal length., (iii) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex lens alone, the position of the lens &, needle uprights should not be changed., , EXPERIMENT – 10, Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph:, (i) between u and v, , (ii) between, , 1, 1, and, u, v, Page 10 (PHYSICS)

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Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needles &, a half-metre scale., , Formula Used:, The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is:, , 1 1 1,  , f v u, Where f: focal length of convex lens, u: distance of object needle from lens’ optical centre., v: distance of image needle from lens’ optical centre., Observations:, (i) Rough focal length of the lens = 10 cm, (ii) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm., (iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15.2 cm., (iv) Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 14.1 cm., (v) Index correction for the object distance u, x – y = – 0.2 cm, (vi) Index correction for the image distance v, x – z = +0.9 cm, Observation Table:, , S. No., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, , Position of: (cm), Object, Image, Lens, needle, needle, 66, 50, 26, 67, 50, 27, 68, 50, 28, 70, 50, 30, 75, 50, 33, 80, 50, 34, , u (cm), , v (cm), , 1/v (cm-1), , 1/u (cm-1), , 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 24, , 24, 23, 22, 20, 17, 16, , 0.041, 0.043, 0.045, 0.05, 0.058, 0.062, , 0.062, 0.058, 0.055, 0.05, 0.043, 0.041, , Calculation of focal length by graphical method:, (i) u – v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola:, Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of u, Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v, AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f, , f =, , OB, OC, and also f , 2, 2, ,  Mean value of f = 10.1 cm., 1 1, (ii)  graph : The graph is a straight line., u v, Page 11 (PHYSICS)

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Scale; X’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of, Y’ axis: 1 cm = 0.01 cm-1 of, Focal length, f =, , 1, u, , 1, v, , 1, 1, ,  10.2cm., OP OQ, , Result:, (i) From u-v graph is, f = 10.1 cm, , (ii) From, , 1 1,  graph is, f = 10.2 cm, u v, , Precautions:, (i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the centre of the lens., (ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm. away from the needle., (iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations., , EXPERIMENT – 11, Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens., Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a concave lens (more focal length),, two lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle & a half – metre scale., , Formulae Used: From lens formula, we have:, , f , , uv, u v, , Observations:, Actual length of knitting needle, x= 15 cm., Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, y = 15 cm., Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed between them, z = 15 cm., Index correction for u = x – y = 0 cm, Index correction for v = x – z = 0 cm, Observation Table:, Position of (cm), uv, f=, S. No., u = IL2, v = I’L2, ’, 0 (cm) L1 at O1, I, L2, I, u v, 1, 29, 50, 75, 69, 78, 6.0, 9.0, –18.0, 2, 27, 50, 71.5, 65, 77.5, 6.5, 12.5, –13.54, 3, 25, 50, 70.5, 65, 72.8, 5.5, 7.8, –18.64, 4, 28, 50, 71.3, 63, 71.2, 8.3, 8.2, –17.45, Page 12 (PHYSICS)

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Calculations:, Mean f =, , f1  f 2  f 3  f 4, 4, , = – 16.9 cm  - 17cm., Result: The focal length of given concave lens = – 17 cm., Precautions:, (i) The lenses must be clean., (ii) A bright image should be formed by lens combination., (iii) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave lens, so that the combination is, convex., , EXPERIMENT – 12, Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence, & angle of deviation., (ii) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism., Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale, office pins, graph, paper & protector., , Formulae Used:, The refractive index,  of the material of the prism is given by:,  A  Dm , sin , , 2 ,  ,  A, sin  , 2, , Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism., , Calculations:, From graph between angle of incidence, i and angle of deviation, we get the value of Dm (angle of minimum, deviation): Dm = 37.8o, Thus,, ,  A  Dm , sin , , 2 ,  ,  A, sin  , 2, , , , sin 97.8, =, , o, , sin 30, , 2, , , , o, ,   1.5077, , Result:, (i) From i  D graph we see that as i increases, D first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) & then again, starts increasing for further increase in i ., (ii) Angle of minimum deviation = Dm = 37.8o, Page 13 (PHYSICS)

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(iii) Refraction index of material of prism,   1.5077, Precautions:, (i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o., (ii) The pins should be fixed vertical., (iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm., Sources of Error:, (i) Pin pricks may be thick., (ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong., , EXPERIMENT – 13, Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope., Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder., , Formulae Used:, Refractive index  , , r r, real depth,  3 1, apparent depth r2  r1, , Observations:, Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm, Mean values: r1 = 0 mm, r2 = 6.81 mm, r3 = 10.25 mm, Observations: Reading of Microscope focused on:, Mark without slab, Mark with slab on it, Powder on top of slab, S. No., r1 = M + n x LC min, r2 = M + n x LC min, R3 = M + n x LC min, 1, 0, 6.5 + 29 x 0.01 = 6.79mm 10 + 23 x 0.01 = 10.23mm, 2, 0, 6.5 + 31 x 0.01 = 6.81mm 10 + 25 x 0.01 = 10.25mm, 3, 0, 6.5 + 33 x 0.01 = 6.83mm 10 + 27 x 0.01 = 10.27mm, Calculations:, Real depth = dr = r3 – r1 = Mean dr = 10.25 mm, Apparent depth = da = r2 – r1, Mean da = 6.81 mm, ,  Refractive index,  , , d, real depth,  r, apparent depth d a, ,    1.52, , Result:, The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as 1.52 = , Precautions:, (i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only, rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward., (ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab., (iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen., , EXPERIMENT – 14, Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias., Page 14 (PHYSICS)

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Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (03v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key, connecting wires., , Observations:, Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error = –, Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error = –, Least count of micro-ammeter = 2  A/div Zero error = –, , S. No., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, , Forward Bias Voltage, (V), 10 x 0.02 = 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.80, 0.90, , Observation Table:, Forward Current, Reverse bias Voltage, (mA), (V), 2 x 0.2 = 0.4, 10 x 1 = 10, 4 x 0.2 = 0.8, 15, 6 x 0.2 = 1.6, 20, 11 x 0.2 = 2.2, 25, 18 x 0.2 = 3.6, 30, 23 x 0.2 = 4.6, 35, 31 x 0.2 = 6.2, 40, 39 x 0.2 = 7.8, 45, , Reverse Current, (  A), 5 x 2 = 10, 16, 22, 30, 38, 48, 60, 72, , Page 15 (PHYSICS)

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Calculations:, Graph is plotted between forward – bias voltage (VF) (on x-axis) and forward current, IF (on y – axis), Scale: X – axis: 1 cm = V of VF, Y – axis: 1 cm = mA of IF, Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, VR (along X’ axis) and reverse current, IR (along Y’ axis)., Scale: X’ axis = 1 cm = V of VR, Y’ axis = 1 cm = A of IF, Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode., Precautions:, (i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight. (ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not, being used. (iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied., Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty., , EXPERIMENT – 15, Aim: To draw the characteristics curves of a zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage., Apparatus: One p-n junction Zener diode, a power supply with potential divider (0-15V), a resistance of  , a micro, ammeter of range (0-100 A) , a voltmeter (0-15V), connecting wires., Theory:, Zener diode: It is a semi conductor diode; in which n-type &, p-type sections are heavily doped i.e. they have more, percentage of impurity atoms. It results into low value of, reverse breakdown votage (Vbr)., The reverse breakdown voltage of a zener diode is called, zener voltage (Vz)- The reverse current that results after the breakdown is called zener current (IZ)., Circuit Parameters:, VI = Input (reverse bias) voltage, Vo = Output voltage RI = Input resistance, RL = Load Resistance, Relation: IL = II – Iz, Vo = VI - RIII, Vo = RIII, S. No., , Input Voltage, Vr = n x LC, , Input Current, Ir = n x LC (mA), , 1, 5 x 0.25 = 1.0, 0, 2, 10 x 0.25 = 2.5, 0, 3, 15 x 0.25 = 3.75, 0, 4, 20 x 0.25 = 5, 0, 5, 25 x 0.25 = 6.25, 0, 6, 30 x 0.25 = 7.5, 0, 7, 35 x 0.25 = 8.75, 13 x 0.05 = 0.65, 8, 40 x 0.25 = 10, 1.8, 9, 41 x 0.25 = 10.25, 2.25, 10, 43 x 0.25 = 10.75, 3, Initially as VI increases, I increases a little., At breakdown, increase of VI increases I1 by large amount., So that Vo = VI - RIII = constant, This constant value of Vo is called zener voltage (Vz) or reverse breakdown voltage., Observations: Least count of voltmeter: 0.25 v/div, Least count of milli ammeter: 0.05mA/div, Result: From the graph of Ir vs Vr, the reverse breakdown voltage for the zener diode is 10.75V, Precautions: (i) The Zener diode p-n junction should be connected in reverse-bias i.e. p-terminal to –ve and to, positive terminal of battery. (ii) Zero error in the instruments should be adjusted in readings., (iii) Voltmeter & ammeter of appropriate least counts should be used., , Page 16 (PHYSICS)

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NOTE: Activity file with SIX Activities, (A-3, A-4, A-6 and B-8, B-11, B-12 ) Physics Practical File) and ONE Project Report has, to be made by each student from the Manual., , Page 17 (PHYSICS)

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