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FOREWARD, Dear Friends,, , ot, .c, om, , The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 and State Curriculum Frame (SCF), 2010, recommend that children's life at school must be linked to their daily life. That is why a, new educational system linking school, society and family is forming instead of bookish, education. While the boundaries of different subjects are becoming gray, it has become very, much necessary to develop skills of respective subjects, to reach the fundamental concepts,, and content and to inreach the test for the concerned subject., , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , Biology is a subject that must be learnt through practical, activities and observations., Laboratory is a place where students have opportunities for clarification of concepts, they are, introduced in the theory course. While performing experiments regarding mountings, slide, preparations and specimen identification the students must estimate the errors in their, observations and skills, thereby realizing the accuracy and precision of their results. Various, parts have been covered in the notebook, thereby facilitating teachers in the proper evaluation, of the student in the laboratory. Few projects have been included in the syllabus to make the, student familler with natural resources and their management, simmilary this projects will in, inculcate scientific temper among students. An opportunity to verify the theoretical part in the, textbook is obtained through the practical work. All these points are taken into account in this, notebook. It will be possible to evaluate the students, with respect to basic of experimental, skills, observational methods and skills., , lo, , gy, , ch, , A detailed procedure is given for the practicals included as per the syllabus in the textbook., In addition, thought provoking questions based on the practicals are given. All these should be, used not only for the practical examination, but it is expected to be used also for science, education through experimental skill. This handbook could be used as a good supplimentary, material for learning biology. QR code is given on first page; by using QR code you can get, additional audio-visual information regarding the practicals and activities., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , We are sure, you all will welcome this biology practical notebook prepared with due, concern and care. Also taking this note, we wish you all the best for your educational career., , (Dr. Sunil Magar), Director, , Pune, Date : 20 June 2019, , Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook, Production and Curriculum Research,, Pune 411 004., , Bharatiya Saur: 30 Jyeshtha 1941, , C

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Biology Laboratory Apparatus, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , 1. Collect the information about different instruments, apparatus and other material in your laboratories., 2. Read the books on Scientists and their discoveries., , D

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e o the e pe i ent, , e o, , e, 3-8, 9 - 11, 12 - 15, 16 - 21, , 1., 2., 3., 4., , 22 - 28, , sp, , 29 - 38, 39 - 40, 41 - 45, 46 - 47, 48 - 50, , bl, , og, , Study the part of microscopes., To observe mitochondria in onion peel cells., Biochemical tests., Preparation of stained temporary mount of onion root tip to, study mitosis., 5. To Prepare a Temporary stained slides of Dicot and onocot, specimens., 6. Study of plant family egetative and Floral charactristics ., 7. To prepare a temporary stained slide of s uamous, epithelium., 8. To study the e ect of Light on the rate of Photosynthesis., 9. To study Human dentition., 10. To study the e ect of en ymes on starch egg albumin and, fats., 11. To test rine sample for Normal and Abnormal Constituents., , p., , e onst ti e e pe i ents, , am, , ch, , gy, , lo, , io, , .b, , w, , w, , w, , C, , ist o, 1, , o ects, , 51 - 54, , pottin, , 1. Study of specimens and identification with reasons., 2. Study of specimens and their identification, 3. Study of permanent slide s of T.S. root s of sun ower and, mai e., 4. Study of modifications of root stem and leaf., 5. Study and identification of In orescence, 6. Study of animal tissues like blood smear cartilage, mammalian bone and muscles striated non-striated and, cardiac, 7. Demonstration of Aerobic respiration using anong s, respirometer., 8. To Demonstrate Anaerobic respiration., 9. To study, xternal morphology Digestive system of, Cockroach with the help of ICT photographs models and, chart., 10. To study outh part i ard and Trachea of Cockroach, with the help of ICT photographs models and chart., 11. Study of histology of digestive organs of mammals vi, T.S. of Pancreas small intestine and Liver, 12. Study of Human skeleton- Axial and Appendicular, skeleton., , i n tu e, , ot, .c, om, , ist o e pe i ents to e pe o, , te, , 55 - 64, 65 - 80, 81 - 83, 84 - 89, 90 - 91, 92 - 97, , 98 - 100, 101 - 102, 103 - 107, , 108 - 111, 112 - 114, 115 - 122

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che e o p ctic l e, p ctic l e, , in tion, , eleton uestion p pe, i e, , Q. 2, , ot l, , s, , ake temporary stained prepatation of T.S of sun ower stem., or, Prepare a temporary stained s uash of onion root tip to show various stages of, mitosis. Sketch and label any one stage of mitosis., ake a temporary slide of peeling of given onion to show mitochondria., , sp, , Q. 1, , ou s, , ot, .c, om, , iolo, , in tion, , 4, , 3, , bl, , og, , or, Study the vegetative and oral character of given plant material family Solanaceae, or Fabaceace ., or, Perform the biochemical test for Starch grain mounting Sugar Proteins Fats ., 4, , Q. 4 Perform the physiological experiment to demonstrate the e ect of salivary amylase, on starch pepsin on egg albumin bile on fats., or, ake a temporary stained slide of s uamous epithelium and draw a labelled diagram., , 3, , 6, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , Q. 3 Test the given sample of urin for ................ and ................. and make note on its, clinical significance., , Q. 6 Project report may be submitted in the form of collection of pants animals slides, of biological data collection report on relevant topic, , 5, , Q. 7 iva voce based on first four uestion., , 2, , Q. 8 Duly certified practical ecord book., , 3, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , Q. 5 Comment upon the spots as per insturciton, A Identification of plant specimen slide., B oot Stem Leaf specimen., C Study of Aerobic and Anaerobic espiration., D Identification of animal specimen of slide., Animal tissues T.S of small intestine or liver or pancreas., F Specimen from Human Skeleton ., , 2

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A. EXPERIMENTS TO BE PERFORMED, tu, , the p ts o, , ic oscopes, te, , o stu, , the p ts o co poun, , e ui e ents Compound, , ic oscope n thei, , icroscope Simple, , unctions, , ot, .c, om, , i, , icroscope, , inciple A compound microscope is an indispensable instrument in any biological laboratory., It is used for passive observation of structural details of a cell tissue or organ in sections. A, monocular compound microscope and simple microscope is normally used in biology laboratory., A modern compound microscope has following structural components as non-optical and optical., ptic l Co ponents, se oot It is or horseshoe-shaped metallic structure that supports the whole microscope., i, It is a curved metallic handle that connects with the base by inclination joint. It, supports stage and body tube., nclin tion oint It is used for tilting the microscope if re uired for observation in sitting, position., t e It is a metallic platform with a central hole fitted to the lower part of the arm. icroscopic, slides are held on the stage by either simple side clips or by a mechanical stage clip., o tu e It holds ocular and objective lenses at its two ends. The end holding ocular lens, is called head while the end containing 3-4 objective lenses is called nose piece. The body, tube has an internal pathway for the passage of light rays which form the enlarged image of, microscopic objects., tu e It is a small tube that remains fixed at the upper end of the body tube. It holds, eyepiece or ocular lens., ust ent sc e s There are two pairs of screws for moving the body tube in relation to, stage larger for coarse adjustment and smaller for fine adjustment., a. In coars adjustment body tube moves up down., b. In fine adjustment body tube moves up down but in extremely short distances., The coarse adjustment is meant for movement of objective lens to a proper distance from, the object so as to form image of the same at the ocular end. Fine adjustment is re uired to obtain, sharp image., ptic l Co ponents, cul, ens o, epiece It is lens through which image of the microscopic object is observed., It also takes part in magnification. Depending upon magnification and as per re uirements the, eye piece can be used normally 5x to 20x., ecti e enses They are fitted under the nose piece. bjective lenses are of three types, i low power commonly 10 or 5, ii high power commonly 45 iii oil immersion, commonly 100 or more . An objective lens is not a single lens but compound lens. It forms, real inverted image of the object inside the body tube., i ph, It is itted just below the stage for regulating the amount of light reaches on the, object. Diaphragm is of two types disc and iris., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , on, , 3

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Con ense It is attached below the diaphragm. Condenser can be moved up and down., Mi o It is attached just above the base. Both its surface bear mirrors plane on one side and, concave on other side. Plane mirror is used in strong natural light and concave mirror in weak, artificial light. irror directs the light on the object through the condenser and diaphragm, system., , sp, , ot, .c, om, , t in o, tion, sse l, Assembly is made up of lens diaphragm and filter holder. Lowering of condenser gives, di use light whereas raising of condenser given bright light. Iris diaphragm controls the uantity, of light. The filter holder can be used to get light of desired colour by using suitable filter. In, addition to this a phase contrast ring also can be used to get a cone of light on the object phase, contrast arrangement is helpful to study living organism and structures like agella cilia etc., Plane and concave mirrors are used to focus light on the object., , ni c tion th ou h, ic oscope, To get the total magnification take the power of the objective 5, by the power of the eyepiece usually 10 ., , w, , w, , w, , M, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , pes o Mic oscopes arious types of microscopes are available. The microscopes have varied, applications and modifications that contribute to their usefulness., i ple ic oscope, issectin, ic oscope, he uo escent ic oscope, lect on ic oscope, ns ission elect on ic oscope, M, he sc nnin elect on ic oscope, M, icroscope as the name indicates is an instrument designed to magnify objects which are, not visible to human eye. icroscope was invented by Anton von Leeuwenhoek in 1675 A. D., Dissecting microscope is a simple microscope with single lens. It is used to dissect the, small organisms or their parts. Dissection of house y Cockroach Drosophila parts of ower etc., are generally studied under dissecting microscope.The organism to be studied is kept on the stage, and the lens is adjusted with the help of adjustment screw to get a sharp image. In this microscope, lenses of 5 10 or 45 are used., Compound microscope has much higher resolving power than a simple microscope. nder, this small organisms tissues and cells can be easily studied., enerally the microscopes which we use in biology laboratory are dissecting and compound, microscopes with monocular setting. esearch and pathology laboratories use binocular and, electron microscopes., 10, , 45x and multiply, , esolution o ic oscope The resolution of an optical microscope is defined as the smallest, distance between two points on a specimen that can still be distinguished as two separate entities., esolution is the power of an optical instrument to capture and produce more details of, an image while magnification is the power of an instrument to create and produce a much larger, image of an object. Although both are dependent upon each other a high magnification does not, always guarantee a high resolution., 4

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bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , i ections o use o Mic oscope, 1. Clean the stage and with soft cloth or filter paper., 2. Set low power objective in its correct position first., 3. eep the condenser up and the diaphragm in open position. Focus light with the help of, concave mirror. Avoid direct light form the sun and intense light bulb., 4. Clean the lower surface of the slide before placing it on the stage., 5. iew through eyepiece and rotate coarse adjustment knob till you see the image of object ., 6. Adjust condenser and diaphragm for better resolution., 7. For the clear image rotate fine adjustment knob., 8. Adjust slide to view desired portion., 9. Clean the microscope before you leave the place., ec utions, 1. Always pick up a microscope using both hands one hand holding the arm of the microscope, and the other supporting its base., 2. Although it may seem tempting never grab or carry a microscope by its eyepiece., 3. When you put the microscope down again be sure to do so on a at surface such as a tabletop., 4., irror of the microscope must be facing light source., 5. Lenses should be clean before and after using microscope., , am, , p., , cti it, pl in the i e ence et een t o inst u ents n, , ch, , Lens, , i el, , els to the i, , s, , gy, , Folded arm, , lo, , Stage, , io, , Adjustment screw, , .b, , Mirror, , w, , Stand, , w, , w, , Base, , Simple Microscope, 5

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ot, .c, om, , to a higher power if the object is in focus on a lower power.The field of view is widest on the lowest, power objective. When you switch to a higher power the fi eld of view is closes in. ou will see more, of an object on low power.The depth of focus is greatest on the lowest power objective. ach, time you switch to a higher power the depth of focus is reduced. Therefore a smaller part of the, specimen is in focus at higher power.The amount of light transmitted to your eye is greater, at the low power. When you switch to a higher power light and therefore resolving power or the, ability to distinguish two nearby objects as separate is reduced. Compensate with the light control, sometimes called the iris diaphragm ., Q. 3 How will the wavelength of light e ect the magnification of microscope., , bl, , og, , sp, , Wavelength of light is defined as the distance between the trough and crests of a wave., Wavelength and frequency are proportional., The range of visible light in nanometers is that from 380nm to 750nm. The wavelength, can be effected in another method is by changing the objective lens and the specimen. The wavelength, of light is inversely proportional to the magnification of microscope. If the wavelength increases the, magnification of microscope decreases and vice versa., , p., , Q. 4 Which are the part of compound microscope that controls the intensity of light entering the, viewing area? How ?, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , Iris Diaphragm controls the amount of light reaching the specimen. It is located, above the condenser and below the stage. Most high quality microscopes include an Abbe condenser, with an iris diaphragm., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , Q. 5 Which precautions you have taken in porating of microscope?, 1.Always grab a microscope with both hands, carrying the microscope's arm on one hand and, continuing to support its outpost on the other., 2.Although it may seem tempting, its eyepiece never captures or carries a microscope. Be sure to do, this on a flat surface, such as a tabletop, once you keep the microscope away immediately again., 3.Although microscopes may seem durable, they are in fact quite fragile, particularly their glass lenses, and delicate mechanisms of focusing., , 7

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Multiple Choice Questions, 1. Which of the following is not component of compound microscope, a. Stage, b. Base, c. lectron gun, d. yepiece, , ot, .c, om, , 2. ___________ collect the light passing through object., a. bjective lens, b. Condenser lens, c. yepiece, d. irror, , sp, , 3. Which of the following regulates the amount of light passing through the slide specimen on the, microscope stage?, a. Diaphragm, b. yepiece, c. bjective lens, d. Body tube, , ovement of slide on stage towards right side make the image go _______ side., a. ight, b. Top, c. Left, d. Bottom, , am, , p., , 5., , bl, , og, , 4. A student wants to view cells under the compound microscope at a total magnification of 400 ., If the eyepiece is 10 which of the following objective lenses should be used?, a. 10, b. 15, c. 40, d. 20, , 7., , ch, , 6. Which of the following light is suitable for maximum resolution., a. ed, b. Blue, c. reen, d. range, atch the microscope parts listed with the correct function., oup, , gy, , oup, , v, , i. High power objective, , b. Brings objects into rapid but coarse focus, , iv, , ii. Diaphragm, , c. Attached to the revolving nosepiece and, contains a lens capable of 45 magnification, , i, , d. Directs light into the scope adjustment, , iii, , e. egulates the amount of light entering the, scope, , ii, , iii., , irror lamp, , iv. Coarse adjustment knob, v. evolving nosepiece, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , a. Turn to change from one power to another, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 8

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o, , se e Mitochon, , i in, , nion eel Cells, te, , ot, .c, om, , nt o uction, ou are aware that itochondria provide energy in the packaged form i e ATP., ach cell contains large number mitochondria and they can be observed under a light, microscope if stained with Janus green B. This stain is bluish green in colour when oxidi ed. It, appears colourless when reduced. When a dilute solution of the stain is applied to the cells it, enters the cytoplasm as well as mitochondria. itochondrial inner membrane contains cytochrome, oxidase en yme. It can keep the stain in oxidi ed state. Thus mitochondria appear stained while the, rest of the cytoplasm appears colourless., , oce u e, , og, , 1. Tear a eshy leaf of onion and collect a piece of the peel., , sp, , i, o o se e itochon i in onion peel cells, e ui e ents Slide cover slip 0.01 Janus green B stain fresh onion bulbs etc., , 2. Spread the peel carefully on a slide., , bl, , 3. Put a few drops of Janus green B stain on the peel. Allow it to stain for 5-10 min., , ount the cells in a drop of distilled water., , am, , 5., , p., , 4. Wash the extra stain with the help of distilled water. Be careful so that entire stain doesn t get, washed o ., 6. se coverslip to cover the peel. bserve the slide under high power of a compound, microscope., , el the i, , io, , lo, , gy, , cti it, , ch, , The cells can alternatively be mounted in the stain itself. A few air bubbles remaining, inside the cover glass give a background stain that makes the viewing easy., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , Mitochondria, , Onion peeling showing mitochondria, se, , tion, 1., itochondria appear like bluish coloured spherical or rod shaped structures present in, the cytoplasm., 9

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2., , itochondrion can be easily distinguished from a bacterium as Bacterial cells become more, prominently stained and appear sharper than mitochondria., 3. Also as bacteria are on the surface of cells they will be focused at a slightly di erent level, than mitochondria and can be distinguished., 4. Note your own observation of the slide., , ot, .c, om, , 1.Large, rectangular interlocking cells,, 2.Clearly visible distinct cell walls surrounding the cells,, 3.Dark stained nucleus,, 4.Large vacuoles at the center,, 4.Small granules may be observed inside the cells (within thecytoplasm), 5.mitochondria appears like bluish coloured spherical or rod shaped structure present in the cytoplasm., Questions, itochondria., , sp, , Q. 1 Describe the ltrastructure of, , Mitochondria diagram, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , 1.Mitochondria have two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane., 2.These membranes are made of phospholipid layers, just like the cell’s outer membrane., 3.The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion, while the inner membrane is, located within and has many folds called cristae., 4.The folds increase surface area of the membrane, which is important because the inner, membrane holds the proteins involved in the electron transport chain., 5.It is also where many other chemical reactions take place to carry out the mitochondria’s, many functions. An increased surface area creates more space for more reactions to occur,, and increases the mitochondria’s output., 6.The space between the outer and inner membranes is called the intermembrane space, and, the space inside the inner membrane is called the matrix., , 10

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Q. 2 Why thin peel of onion is placed in a watch glass containing water?, , Q. 3 What is the role of Janus green B stain in this slide preparation., , ot, .c, om, , 1.The thin peel of onion is placed in a watch glass containing water because: It prevents the peel, from folding., 2.It prevents the peel from drying., , og, , sp, , 1.The Janus Green B is a mitochondrial stain which acts as a indicator. It changes it's color due to the, presence of oxygen. It oxidizes the blue color otherwise in absence the color becomes pink., 2.he indicator is used to stain the mitochondria in the living cell. It can also reveal the changes, occurring in the electron transfer chain occurring the cell mitochondria., , bl, , Multiple Choice Questions., , am, , p., , 1. Which of the following cells will show maximum number of mitochondria?, a. Skeletal muscle fibres, b. onocyte, c. Hepatocytes, d. Adipocytes, , gy, , ch, , 2. In order to prevent formation of lactic acid pyruvic acid should enter in, a. itochondrial matrix, b. uter chamber of mitochondria, c. Crista, d. xysome, , lo, , 3. To observe cells in an onion peel we use_________., a. Fruit, b. Stem, c. Leaf, d. Flower, , .b, , io, , 4. The less stained central part of onion peel cell is, a. Nucleus, b. Cytoplasm, c. acuole, d. Cell wall, , w, , w, , w, , 5. For observation of an onion pea cells are first seen under _________ magnification., b. 10 u, a. 10 u, c. 10 u, d. 10 u, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 11

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ioche ic l tests, te, , ot, .c, om, , i, o test the p esence o u, t ch, oteins n, ts o suit le pl nt, te i l, e ui e ents, Slides cover slips grains of mai e wheat jowar rice soaked in 80 alcohol potatao, tuber sugar cane ground nut seeds and tur dal powder., est o st ch, inciple Starch grains react with iodine solution Tri-iodide onions due to formation of an inter-molecular charge transfer complex tuning the colour of starch to intence blue-black., , cti it, , sp, , oce u e The starch grains can be mounted either by taking thin small section of the given, material or s uee ing the material and mounting the li uid that oo es out. The section or li uid is, to be stained with very dilute solution of iodine., se e the i e ent st ch, , ins un e the lo po e o co poun, , ic oscope, , og, , Starch grains turn blue after staining in iodine solution. The starch grains appear as follows, for ice Jowar Wheat ai e etc., tion ., The starch granules appear blue on staining with iodine solution. They appear as follows under, low power of compound microscope., i)Rice- starch grains aare small, polygonal, simple or compound and concentric i.e. hilum at the centre., ii)Jowar- starch grains are simple., iii) wheat- starch grains are simple or compound,, iv) Maize- starch grains are simple or compound, polygonal, concentric with elongated hilum., v)Potato- starch grains are simple and eccentric i.e. hilum at one side., esult Starach is present in the given sample,, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , se, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , i u es, , iliu, , w, , w, , w, , Concent ic st ch, in, , ccent ic st ch, in, , 12

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est o su, inciple, Benedict s reagent contains alkaline CuSo4. Sugar when present acts as reducing agent and, changes CuSo4 . Hence the colour change., , ot, .c, om, , oce u e, Take a drop of sugarcane juice in a test tube add 1ml of distilled water and a drop of benedict s reagent solution. Heat the last tube for 2 minutes., se tion, solution turns red in colour, , og, , sp, , esult sugar is present in sugarcane juice, , est o, t, oce u e, Cut thin section of the ground nut seed and keep it in Sudan - III for 10 minutes. Now wash, the section with 50 alcohol and then with water. ount the section in glycerine and observe, under microscope., se tion, The oil drops takes red colour, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , C, , gy, , esult Fats are present in ground nut seeds, , .b, , io, , lo, , ests o p otein, inciple, The test is used to detect peptide bonds of proteins. In presence of peptides copper ions, form complexes in alkaline solution. Hence the colour change., , w, , w, , w, , oce u e, ake a suspension of tur dal powder in water., i., iu et test take 2ml of sample solution in test tube add 1ml of 20, few drops of 1 CuS 4 soln., se tion, A voilet colour appers in the solution., esult In the given sample proteins are present, , 13, , Na H followed by

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Questions, Q. 1, , atch the following pairs., oup, , oup, a. The starch grains are simple and eccentric i.e hilum at one side., , 2. Jowar, , b. The starch grains are small polygonal simple or compound, and concentric. hilum at the center, , 3. Wheat, , c. the starch grains are simple or compound, , 4., , d. The starch grains are simple. Spherical or slightly angular., , Ans-, , 1- b, , sp, , e. The starch grains are simple or compound polygonal concentric, with elongated hila hilum and concentric., 2- d, , 3- c, , 4- e, , 5- a, , ive reasons, a. Starch grains turn blue after staining in iodine solution., Iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution reacts with starch to produce a deep black-blue colour., this reaction is the result of polyiodide chains from reaction between starch and iodine., , am, , p., , Q. 2, , og, , 5. Potato, , bl, , ai e, , ot, .c, om, , 1. ice, , gy, , ch, , b. In suger test greenish or brownish precipitate appears., Under alkaline conditons, the reducing sugars reduce cupric ions(Cu+2)to cuprous form(Cu+) which is, responsible for the greenish or brownish yellow precipitate (cuprous oxide), , lo, , c. In protein test of acetic acid white precipitate appears., , io, , The proteins are denatured and coagulated on heating which gives a white cloudy precipitate in the reaction., , .b, , Q. 3 Are di erent biochemical tests useful in checking of food adulteration? write one example., , w, , w, , w, , Yes, Adulteration of Khava with starch can be checked by using iodine solution., , 14

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bserve the following structures and write the details of types of starch grains., D, , C, , B, , A, , E, , F, , ot, .c, om, , Q. 4, , A- Simple eccentric starch grain of potato., B- compound starch grain of banana, D- Simple concentric starch grain of Pea., E- Compound starch grain of Potato., F- Semicompound starch grain of Potato, , bl, , 1. Which reagent gives blue colour with starch?, a. Safranin, b. Iodin, c. ethylene blue, d. osine, , og, , Multiple Choice Questions, , sp, , C- half compound starch grain., , am, , p., , 2. _________ reagent is used for testing presence of glucose., a. Wrinkler s, b. Bendict s, c. iller s, d. Iodine, , ch, , 3. Which food sample you will select to test the presence of starch?, a. ango, b. Coconut, c. Potato, d. Sugarcane juice, , gy, , 4. Fat storing cells of vertebrates are called __________, a. Adipose, b. elanocyte, c. WBCs, d. BCs, , io, , lo, , 5. Which of the following _________ is rich source of protein in diet., a. Leaf, b. Stem, c. erminating seed s, d. Seed coat, oo, , .b, , cti it, Collect the in o, tion, out i e ent ioche ic l tests o testin o, ulte tion n pe o, n t o in l o to un e the ui nce o te che, , w, , w, , w, , Starch in Khava and its products - Boil a small quantity of sample with some water, cool and, add a few drops of Iodine solution. Formation of blue colour indicates the presence of starch., Urea in milk - Take a teaspoon of milk in a test tube. Add ½ teaspoon of soybean or arhar, powder. Mix up the contents thoroughly by shaking the test tube. After 5 minutes, dip a red, litmus paper in it. Remove the paper after ½ a minute. A change in colour from red to blue, indicates the presence of urea in the milk., , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 15

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ep, , tion o st ine s u sh o onion oot tip o, the stu o itosis, te, , o stu, , e ui e ent, , the i e ent st, , es o, , itosis o, , the onion oot tips, , nion bulb water beaker Carnoy s solution Petridish 1N HCL watch glasses, Acetocarmine stain slides cover-slips brush blade blotting papers compound, microscope etc., , ot, .c, om, , i, , og, , sp, , nt o uction, The cells division which results in the formation of two daughter cells keeping the, chromosome number constant is called mitosis. itosis is a somatic cell division re uired for, growth of plants and animals. It is commonly observed in meristematic tissues. This cell division, is important for growth and development., itosis observed in animal cell is astral whereas in plants it is anastral. The growing parts, of plant show presence of meristmatic region where cells in di ertnt stages of mitosis can be, observed., , bl, , oce u e, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , o, o in oot tips, 1. Select a medium si e good clean onion bulb. ive 2-3 superficial cuts on the stem of onion, bulb and place it onto the surface of beaker full of water. Always care should be taken that, stem portion should remain in touch of water. Within 3-4 days roots will be produced from, the bulb., 2. Cut the roots 2-3 cm long in the morning around 8-10 am. Preserve them in Carnoy s, fixative chloroform absolute alcohol acetic acid 3 2 1 ., o s u sh li e p ep tion, Before slide preparation roots tips should be washed and kept in Petridish containing, water so as to remove fixative., 1. n a clean glass slide keep the onion root tip and with the help of blade remove the elongation, part of root use only dark whitish root tip portion for the process., 2. Transfer the root tip in a watch glass containing 1N HCL. Warm the watch glass for 3-5 minutes, passing it through the ame. Continuous heating should be avoided. HCL helps in hydrolysis, of the root tip cells and heating is re uired for softening the root tip ., 3. From HCL transfer the root tip into another watch glass containing acetocarmine stain. Warm, the watch glass passing through the ame. epeat this until the root tip turns dark purple., Acetocarmine stains nucleus and chromosomes . Heating helps in fastening the process of, staining., 4. Transfer stained root tip onto a slide in a drop of stain. Place the cover slip. For s uash wrap, the slide in to the 3-4 folds of blotting papers and apply slight pressure with the help of thumb., It spreads the cells., 5. bserve the slide under the low magnification 10, of compound microscope and then to, under high magnification 45, for identification of various stages to mitosis. itosis is, an e uational division occurs in somatic cells results in the formation of two daughter cells, receiving the same number of chromosome to that of parent cell., 16

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i u e, , ot, .c, om, , onion oots, , pl n tion o Mitosis, , sp, , nion oot tip, , ocess, , o inesis, , og, , itosis is completed in two stages, C to inesis, , bl, , o inesis takes place in four steps, oph se, , p., , 1. Nucleus becomes large., , am, , 2. Chromosomes get condensed i.e.shorter and thicker., , 3. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane starts disappearing., Met ph se, , ch, , 1. Imaginary line e uatorial plane develops at the center of the cell., 2. Spindle fibres are formed between the two poles., , lo, , n ph se, , gy, , 3. Chromosomes arrange themselves onto the e uatorial plane in such a way that centromeres, line up the plane and arms towards the poles., , io, , 1. Centromere divides and actual separation of daughter chromosomes takes place., , .b, , 2. Chromosomes are pulled toward respective poles due to shortening of the tactic type of, spindle fibres., 3. Thus nuclear material is divided into two e ual halves., , w, , w, , w, , eloph se This phase is a reverse of prophase, , 1. Chromosomes aggregate at the opposite poles become thin long dispersed and uncoil., 2. eappearance of nucleolus and nuclear membrane takes place that results in formation of, two nuclei one at each pole, , C to inesis- Division of cytoplasm is called as cytokinesis, 4. In plant cell cell plate formation takes place at the center of the cell between two, daughter nuclei., 5. It results in the formation of two daughter cells., 17

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cti it, , l, , el the i, , s pe, , ou o se, , tion, , cell wall, , i u e, , Nuclear membrane, condensed chromatin, A, , ot, .c, om, , Spindle fiber, , itosis, one, , chromosome, , B, , sp, , p., , bl, , og, , C, , oot, Cap, , centromere, , am, , D, , Spindle fiber, chromosome, Chromosome, , Spindle fiber, , Doughter nucleus, , gy, , ch, , Phragmoplast vesicles, , io, , lo, , ote The dividing cells undergo cell cycle in which the duration of interphase is longer as, compared to phase i.e mitotic phase prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase .Hence, move the slide to focus on the cells showing di erent stages of mitosis. Prophase and telophase, are more common and you will have to search for metaphase and anaphase, , .b, , se tion n Conclusion, e the i e ent ph ses o Mitosis, , ith ch, , ct istics i en in, , o e i u e s, , C, , w, , w, , w, , A Early Prophase:, (1) Chromatin material condenses into thread like structures called chromosomes., Chromosomes appear as thin and long strands, evenly distributed in the nucleoplasm., (3) Nucleus is large and in the centre of a cell., , B. Late Prophase:, (1) Throughout prophase, gradually chromosomes undergo condensation and coiling, hence in, late prophase they are thick and short., (2) Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear at the end of prophase., 18

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C.Metaphase :, 1. Chromosomes becomes thick and the two chromatids become prominent., 2. A distinct bipolar spindle body is formed., 3. Chromosomes get arranged along the equator of the spindle., 4. Each chromosome is attached to the spinale fibre by its centromere., 5. The centromeres of the chromosomes line up at the equator while the arms (chromatids) are, towards the poles., , sp, , ot, .c, om, , D.Anaphase:, (1) The centromere breaks due to the contraction of spindle fibres., (2) The two sister chromatids (now called daughter chromosomes) of each chromosome separate, and move to opposite poles due to contraction of spindle fibres,, E. Tetophase :, (1) The spindle fibres disppears and the daughter chromosomes reach the respective poles and two, groups get formed., (2) They become thin and long., (3) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and two daughter nuclei are formed, one at each pole., , Q. 2, , p., , bl, , og, , Q. 1 xpalin the term mitosis and meiosis., MITOSIS is equauonal type of cell division in which the chromosome number of the daughter cells is, same as that of the parental cell. It occurs in somatic cells., Meiosis is reductional type of cell division in which the chromosome number of the daughter cells is, half to the chromosome number in the parent cell. It occurs in germ cells., bserve the diagrams identify and write the details, Telophase, , Anaphase, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , Prophase, , w, , .b, , io, , C, A.Prophase., During prophase, the chromosomes supercoil and the fibers of the spindle apparatus begin to form, between centrosomes located at the pole of the cells. The nuclear membrane also disintegrates at this, time, freeing the chromosomes into the surrounding cytoplasm., , w, , w, , B. Tetophase :, The spindle fibres disppears and the daughter chromosomes reach the respective poles and two, groups get formed., They become thin and long., Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and two daughter nuclei are formed, one at each pole., , C.Anaphase., During anaphase, the centromeres split and the sister chromatids begin to migrate toward the, opposite poles of the cell., 19

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ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , Q. 3 Is there any di erance between mitosis between plant and animal cell? what is that ?, , w, , bserve the following diagram se uence carefully. is it correct? If not arrange it in sequential form with labels., , w, , w, , Q. 5, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , Q. 4 xplain the charactristics of Cytokinesis., .The characteristics of cytokinesis:, Cytokinesis is the end method in eukaryotic cell division, which separated the cytoplasm, organelles, and cellular, membrane., Cytokinesis typically taken place at the end of mitosis, after telophase, but the two are independent procedures., Cytokinesis is a physical method in which the constriction and division of cytoplasm into two free cells after the, division of genetic materials., During the cytokinesis, the "cytoplasm" has divided by a process, called CLEAVAGE., The mitosis supports the cell in maintaining proper size., , C, Ans-, , E, , D, , B, 20, , C, , A

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o p ep e te po, , st ine sli es, te, , i, , st ine sli e o, , o p ep e te po, n to, , o, , st ine sli e o, , un o e, , o, , n, , icot n, , i e ste, , onocot ste, , to co p e thei, , ot, .c, om, , o p ep e te po, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , inciple, nderstanding the anatomical structure of living matter helps in correlating the, structure and function of the tissue organ. Anatomy can be studied by taking transverse section or, vertical section of an organ. A thin and planar section is essential for study of anatomical structure., To distinguish di erent regions of the section a colouring solution called stain is used. Specific, stains are used for staining specific cells tissues. ver and understained slides fail to di erentiate, various regions. g Safranin helps in staining dead tissue and acetocarmine is used to stain nuclear, material., e ui e ents oung sun ower dicot and mai e monocot stem watch glasses cover slips, brush sharp new blade safranin stain glycerine and compound microscope etc., oce u e, in, ection Take transverse section of sun ower dicot and mai e monocot stem., For this first hold the stem hori ontally and cut o the slanting edge. Hold the stem vertically, between thumb and index finger. eep the edge of ra or or blade at right angles to the, longitudinal axis of the plant material and cut 7 to 8 thin sections. Place the sections in a, watchglass containing water. ake sure that the section is not obli ue and as thin as possible., Appears transparent, t inin Select 2 or 3 thinnest and complete sections and now transfer the sections into the, watch glass containing dilute safranin. Allow the sections to remain in the stain for 2 to 3, minutes. Wash the section with water for removing extra stain., Mountin Take a clean slide and place a drop of glycerine or water in the centre of the slide., With the help of brush transfer well stained section on the slide. Place a cover slip. Avoid air, bubbles while placing the coverslip. After mounting the section blot the excess of glycerine, or water from the sides of the cover slip. bserve the section under low power objective of a, compound microscope., Multicellular hairs(Trichome), Epidermis, , el the i, , io, , cti it, , w, , .b, , Vascular bundle, , Endodermis, , w, , w, , Pith, , Hypodermis(Collenchyma), o, ste, , oun, i, , un o e, tic, , Medullary ray, 22

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Cuticle, , gy, , Trichome, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , se tions, o un o e ste sho s the ollo in e ions o pe iphe to the cent e, pi e is It is a single outermost protective layer and lined by thin walled parenchyma, cells. It shows presence of multicellular outgrowths called trichomes., Co te It is present just below the epidermis. It consists of three regions vi outer hypodermis middle general cortex and inner endodermis., po e is It is present just below the epidermis. made by many layers of collenchymatous, cells., ene l co te It is made of few layers of thin walled large rounded parenchmatous cells, with intercellular spaces., n o e is It is the innermost layer of cortex. Cells of this layer are barrel shaped thin, walled and parenchymatous., tele The stele consists of pericycle vascular bundles pith and medullary rays., Pericycle It is the outermost layer of stele. It is present between endodermis and vascular, bundles. It is a multilayered structure having sclerenchymatous cells above the vascular, bundles also called hard bast ., ascular bundles Approximately 6-12 vascular bundles are present in a ring. ach vascular, bundles is conjoint collateral and open type. ylem is endarch and composed of vessels, xylem-parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma. Phloem is present towards the outer side., It has sieve tubes companion cells phloem parenchyma and phloem sclerenchyma., edullary rays The parenchyma cells present between vascular bundles form medullary rays., These are useful for lateral conduction., Pith it is the central part of the stem. It is composed of parenchyma cells. As stem grows older, these cells die and a cavity is formed., cti it, i e the suit le l el to i en i, , lo, , Epidermis, Hypodermis, General Cortex, Pericycle, , Phloem, , Cambium, , w, , .b, , io, , Oil duct, Endodermis, , w, , Xylem, , w, , Xylem parenchyma, o, , Pith, , oun un o e ste, n e ent o tissues, 23

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cti it, , el the i, , i en elo, , Epidermis, , Vascular bundle, , ot, .c, om, , Ground tissue, , sp, , o M i e te, , o M i e ste sho s ollo in tissues o oute e e to the cent e o the section, pidermis It is a single outermost layer with a thick cuticle on the outer surface. It is made up, living parenchymatous cells. In monocots the epidermis is devoid of trichomes., 2. Hypodermis it is present just below the epidermis. It is 2-3 layer thick and made up of, sclerenchymatous cells having lignified cell walls. It provides mechanical strength to the stem., 3. round tissue In case of monocot stem the cortex endodermis pericycle and pith are absent., It is made up of parenchymatous cells., 4. ascular bundles These are numerous and scattered in ground tissue. ach vascular bundle, is conjoint collateral and closed i.e. without cambium. Hence secondary growth is absent., ylem is endarch meaning Protoxylem is towards innerside and etaxylem is towards the, periphery . The Phloem lies towards outerside. It consists of only sieve tubes and companian, cell., cti it, el the i, i en elo, , gy, , Cuticle, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , 1., , Hypodermis, , lo, , Epidermis, , io, , Phloem, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , Lysigenous cavity, , Ground tissue, Xylem, i, , o M i e ste, 24

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Questions, , ot, .c, om, , Q. 1 What is stele?, In vascular plants the stele is the central paart of the root or stem containing vascular tissue., , sp, , Q. 2 What are the kinds of vascular bundles found in dicot stem?, in dicot stem two types of vascular bundles are present.They are 1.collateral, 2.bicollateral., , am, , p., , bl, , og, , Q. 3 Di erentiate between the open and close type of vascular bundle., i. Open vascular bundle contains cambium,which is present in dicot plants, ii.Closed vascular bundle does not contain cambium, which is present in monocot plants, , lo, , gy, , ch, , Q. 4 ention any two examples of monocot plants., Maize and jowar, , w, , .b, , io, , Multiple choice uestions, 1. We use Safranin for staining ..............................., a. Cuticle of leaf, b. Hypodermis of dicot stem, c. Cortex of dicot root, d. esophyll of dicot leaf., , w, , w, , 2. Which of the following plants will not show increase in girth of stem over the years?, a. Cucurbita, b. Hibiscus, c. Tube rose, d. Jasmine, Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 25

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ep, i, , tion o, , ep, , tion o, , icot n Monocot e, o, , icot n Monocot e, , to co p e thei, , n to, , to co p e thei, , n to, , oung leaf of onocot wheat rice and Dicot pea mint Watch glasses, Slides blades cover slips brush section lifter safranin stain blotting paper, Compound microscope etc., , ot, .c, om, , e ui e ents, , o, , i e the suit, , le title n l, , le the i, , am, , cti it, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , oce u e The preparation of slide is carried out in following three main steps, ection t in Take transvers section of the plant material. Hold the plant material vertically between thumb and index finger of your left hand. eep the edge of ra or or blade at right, angle to the longitudinal axis of plant material and cut thin sections., t inin Transfer the all section into the watch glass containing water and then only thin, section to the watch glass containing stain safranin . Allow the section to remain in the stain, for 2 to 3 minutes and then wash the section with water for removing extra stain., Mountin Take a clean slide and place drop of glycerin or water in the center of slide. With, the help of brush transfer well stained section to this drop and placed cover slip in such a way, that it would touch the mounting medium on the slide. After mounting the section blot the, excess of glycerin or water from the sides of the cover slip. Care should be taken not to allow, air bubbles to enter the mounting medium., , Xylem, , i en elo, , Adaxial epidermis, , ch, , Phloem, , Palaside, mesophyll, , io, , lo, , gy, , Bundle, sheath, , .b, , air cavity, , w, , w, , w, , Spongy, mesophyll, substomatal, cavity, , T.S. of pea plant, , 26, , stomata, , Abaxial epidermis

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2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., , cti it, , i e the suit, , le title n l, , le the i, , sp, , 1., , tion, icot le, The epidermis which covers both the upper surface adaxial and the lower surface abaxial, of the leaf has a conspicuous cuticle., The abaxial epidermis generally bears more stomata than the adaxial epidermis., The tissue between the upper and the lower epidermis is called mesophyll which contains, chloroplast and helps in photosynthesis., The adaxially placed palisade parenchyma which are arranged vertically and parallel to each, other., The oval or round and loosely arranged spongy parenchyma is situated below the palisade, cells and extend to the lower epidermis., ascular system includes vascular bundles which found in the veins and the midrib., The si e of the vascular bundles are dependent on the si e of the veins., The vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer of thick walled bundle sheath cells., , ot, .c, om, , se, , i en elo, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , Adaxial epidermis, , gy, lo, io, , Mesophyll, , substomotal, cavity, stomata Abaxial epidermis, , Phloem, T.S. of Maize stem, , w, , .b, , Monocot le, pidermis, 1. A single layer is present on the upper as well as lower surfaces of the leaf which shows presence of stomata., 2. Some cells of upper epidermis are larger in si e. These are called bulliform cells or motor, cells., Mesoph ll, In between the epidermal layers is present the region of chlorophyll containing cells called mesophyll which is not di erentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. The cells are spherical or, angular with only a few or no intercellular spaces., ascular bundles, , w, w, , Xylem, , 27

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Multiple choice uestions, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , any small and large vascular bundles are present which are collateral and closed. ach vascular, bundle is surrounded by a layer of thin walled parenchymatous cells called bundle sheath., Questions, Q. 1 How can you distinguish between a dicot and a monocot leaf?, i. A dicot leaf is dorsiventral , while a monocot leaf is isobolateral, ii. mesophyll of dicot leaf is differentiated into upper palaisade and lower spongy tissue while, the monocot leaf shows uniform, undifferentiated mesophyll, iii. vascular bundle of dict leaf does not possess any bundle sheath while that of monocot has a distinct, vascular bundle, Q. 2 What is a monocot and dicot leaf?, Monocot leaves are leaves which appear on plants produced from seeds with single cotyledon like maize,, rice, grass, wheat etc. The monocot leaves are usually described as isobilateral leaves because the both the, upper and lower surfaces have the same color., Dicot leaves are leaves which appear on plants produced from seeds with two cotyledon like groundnut,, mango etc.The dicot leaces are usually described as dorsilateral leaves because the both the upper and lower, surfaces are not same in colour, , The following is an example of Dicot Plant, a. Wheat, b. Pea, c. ice, d. Sugercane, , 2., , Parallel venation is the feature of, a. Leaf of monocot, b. Leaf of dicot, c. Leaf of Pteridophyte, d. Leaf of Higher Bryophyte, , 3., , Stomata are distributed more on abaxial surface than on the adaxial surface in, a. Dorsiventral leaf, b. Isobilateral leaf, c. onocot leaf, d. Jowar leaf, , 4., , Which of the following statement regarding monocot leaf is not true, a. Shows parallel venation, b. esophyll is di erentiated in to spongy and pallisade, c. Show stomata on both surfaces, d. Show presence bulliform cells, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , 1., , w, , w, , 5., , Pallisade parenchyma is absent in leaves of, a. ustard, b. Soybean, c. ram, d. Sorghum, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 28

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Q. 2, , ot, .c, om, , Questions, Q. 1 Which family is known as protein rich family?, Family -Fabaceae is known as protien family because the members of this family produce, protein rich seeds., , nlist edible fruits in members of Family Solanace, , og, , sp, , Family solanaceae- solanum tuberosum (Potato), -solanum lycopersicum (Tomato), , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , Q. 3 Why do some plants have tendrills?, A plant's tendrils can form from its branches, shoots, or leaves. This anatomy helps support the, plant growth and prevents the drooping of the plant so it avoids breaking its stem. Tendrils, grow out of the plant and wrap around fences or any stable structure near the plant., , io, , lo, , gy, , Q. 4 What is oral diagram?, Floral diagram is the graphic representation of floral structure., , w, , .b, , Q. 5 What is diadelphous stamen?, A condition in which stamens are united along their filaments to form two bundles is called as, diadelphous stamen., , w, , w, , Q. 6 Di erentiate between ygomorphic and Actinomorphic ower., Radially symmetrical flowers that can be desected into into identical halves in more than one, vertical plane are called atinomorphic e.g. Datura,, Zygomorphic flowers are bilaterally symmerical and can be cut into equal halves in only one, verical plane e.g. Piscum, , 35

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ot, .c, om, og, , sp, , Q.7 What is placentation?, Arrangement of ovules in the ovary is called as placentation, , am, , p., , bl, , Multiple choice uestions, 1. The legumious plants are important in agriculture because............, a. They are disease resitant, b. They re uire very little irrigation, c. They help in Nitrogen conomy of Nature, d. Crops of legumes can be produced in a year, , ch, , 2. Androecium of papilionaceae family is ......., a. onoadelphous, b. Diadelphous, c. Polyadelphous, d. Triadelphous, , lo, , gy, , 3. In Family Papilionaceae 5 Petals form a uni ue association. in which 3 di erent element, participate these are vexillum alae carina What is the number of these element., a. 1 2 2 respectively, b. 2 1 2 respectively, c. 1 1 3 respectively, d. 2 2 1 respectively, , .b, , io, , 4. Nodulated roots bearing family is, a. imosoideae, c. Solanaceae, , b. Fabaceae, d. alvaceae, , w, , w, , w, , 5. Potato tuber is a stem structure because it, a. Lacks roots, b. Lacks Chlorophyll, c. Contains reserve food, d. Possesses axillary buds., , 6. Which family members are rich source of proteins, a. Cruciferae, b. Fabaceae, c. Liliaceae, d. Compositae, 7. Which type of placentation is found in Fabaceae?, a. Axile, b. arginal, c. Parietal, d. Basal, 36

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o p ep e, , te po, , st ine sli e o, , u, , ous epitheliu, te, , i, , o p ep e, , te po, , st ine sli e o, , u, , ous epitheliu, , ot, .c, om, , e ui e ents Live material of concern tissue methylene blue beakers glass slides coverslips, watch glasses dropping bottle dropper re uired stain glycerin NaCl solution 0.9 w v needle, forceps brush toothpick water wash-bottle dissecting tray microscope., , 3. Add a drop of 0.9, , sp, , oce u e, 1. inse mouth well with water and gently scrap the inside of your cheek with the broad end of a, clean toothpick and discard this material., 2. Scrap again and spread these cells gently on a clean slide., NaCl solution and a drop of methylene blue with the help of a dropper., , og, , 4. After two minutes remove the excess stain and saline using the edge of a filter paper., , se e the i, , i en elo, , n l, , el the p ts, , ch, , cti it, , p., , xamine the slide under the low power of microscope. Draw a labelled diagram of your, preparation., , am, , 6., , bl, , 5. Now put a drop of glycerin on the cells. Place a coverslip over the tissue and gently press it, with the back of a pencil to spread the cells., , io, , lo, , gy, , Flat tile like cells, Basement membrane, Nucleus, , u, , ous epitheliu, , w, , w, , .b, , se tion, bserve the slide under low power and then under high power. ou will notice, that the cells are thin polygonal nucleated without intercellular spaces cells are held together by, cementing material., , w, , Q. 1, , Questions, In which tissue cells are, , at and polygonal ?, , simple squamous epithelium the cells are flat and polyclonal. The cells look like the tiles, present on the road., Q. 2 What is alternative name for s uamous epithelium ?, Squamous epithelium is also known as pavement epithelium, 39

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ect o, , i ht on the, , te o, , hotos nthesis, te, , o tu, o tu, , i e ent i ht intensites, , te o photos nthesis un e, , i e ent i ht intensites, , ot, .c, om, , i, , te o photos nthesis un e, , inciple The intensity of light is one of the principle limiting factors of photosynthetic process, in green plants. A very small fraction of light wavelength can be trapped by the green plants and, utili ed in photosynthesis. Further the e ciency of photosynthesis as measured by 2 evolution, by light as a function of the wavelength of light is termed action spectrum ., , sp, , e ui e ents Beakers 500 ml capacity funnel test tubes glass rods Hydrilla plants Dist., water stop watch 25W 60W 100W electric bulbs table lamps 3 ., i u e, , bubbles rising, , am, , 15cm, , bl, , 2, , p., , Lamp, , og, , as collecting mainly, pushes water down, 2, , Test tube, , Funnel, , lo, , gy, , ch, , Hydrilla, , i, , pe i ent etup, , .b, , io, , oce u e, 1., ake three set of experiments having beaker conical ask Hydrilla plant with di erent light, intensity 25wt 60wt and 100wt ., , w, , 2. In each set fill the beaker with distilled water up to 2 3 mark., 3. Take some fresh and healthy Hydrilla plants and cut their ends., , w, , w, , 4. Insert the cut ends inside the neck of the funnel., 5. Place the funnel inside the beaker in such a manner that all plants remain inside the funnel., 6. Add a few ml of 0.1, , HC, , 3, , soln. for dissolved C, , 2, , source., , 7. Invert a graduated test tube filled with water over the neck of the funnel so that the jet of the, funnel remains inside the tube in vertical position., 8. Place the whole set-up under variable light intensity 25wt 60wt and 100wt., 41

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9. Allow the experiment to continue for about 20 minutes. Then record the evolution of air bubble, gas inside the tube and count Number of 2 bubbles evolved per minute., 2, tion, It is observed that evolution of bubbles from the cut ends of the plants takes place in the, set-up exposed to light of variable intensity and count Number of 2 bubbles evolved in each set, and record the reading., tion t, , se, , le, , tions, , i ht intensit, , oo, , u, , 1, , 25 W, , 08, , 2, , 60 W, , 3, , 100 W, , 12, 20, , in, , No. of bubbles formed per min per fresh plant., , og, , ate of Photosynthesis, , les e ol e pe, , sp, , se, , ot, .c, om, , se, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , n e ences, The rate of photosynthesis increases with incresing intensity of light, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, , 42

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o tu the e ect o i ht u lit on te o photos nthesis, o tu the e ect o u lit o i ht on the te o hotos nthesis, , i, , ot, .c, om, , inciple The uality of light interms of variable wavelengths ed Blue reen light have an, impact on rate of photosynthesis. A very small fraction of light wavelength can be trapped by the, green plants and utili ed in photosynthesis. Further the e ciency of photosynthesis as measured, by 2 evolution by light as a function of the wavelength of light is termed absorption spectrum ., e ui e ents Beakers 500ml capacity funnel graduated glass tubes glass rods Hydrilla, plants Dist. water stop watch ed Blue reen coloured transparent sheets 60W bulbs 3 Table, lamps 3 etc., , og, , sp, , i u e, , am, , p., , bl, , Air Bubbles, , Hydrilla, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , Transperant cellphane sheets as colour filters, , Blue, , reen, i, , ed, , pe i ent etup, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , oce u e, 1. Prepare four photosynthetic experimental sets using Hydrilla plants in beakers in the usual, manner. Add traces of HC 3 salt in each set., 2. Place the experimental sets in separatly illuminated for artificial exposure to light for an hour., ed Blue reen, 3. ecord the evolution of 2 as a result of photosynthesis separately in each experimental set for, 1 minute each reading ., se, , tion, For individual uality of light the photosynthesis rate varies. The higher rate is seen in red, light region., 43

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Q. 5 Why HC, , 3, , is used in these experiments?, , KHCO3 solution provides a source of dissolved CO2 as a row material for, photosynthesis which is used by aquatic plants, , ot, .c, om, , Multiple Choice Questions, 1. ate of photosynthesis does not depend upon __________, a. Duration of light, b. Intensity of light, c. Quality of light, d. Temperature, , sp, , 2. In Polyhouse maximum yield is obtained because of increased __________, b. of 2, a. of C 2, c. of Humidity, d. of carbon, , aximum absorption of light for photosynthesis occurs in ___________, a. ed light, b. ellow light, c. reen light, c. Blue light, , p., , bl, , 4., , og, , 3. Nurseries use ___________ coloured Shed Net for faster seed germination., a. reen, b. ed, c. Blue, d. White, , ch, , am, , 5. ate of photosynthesis is measured by _________, a. Counting 2 bubbles, b. Counting C 2 bubbles, c. easuring water level, d. Counting H2 bubbles, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , 6. ________ light is not used for photosynthesis by plants., a. reen, b. Blue, c. ed, d. Sun, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 45

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o stu, , u, , n entition, te, , ot, .c, om, , nt o uction The study of teeth with respect to their number characteristic arrangement kind, development is called as Dentition., Human being has heterodont kind of teeth. There are four kinds of teeth vi Incisors, Canines,, Premolars and Molars. Human adult has the following dental formula 2˜˜˜, The total number of teeth in an adult human is 32.The teeth helps in mastication of the food into, small particles and mixing with saliva., ach tooth is made up of root and crown.The crown is covered with an enamel. The body of the, tooth is made up of dentine beneath which lies the central cavity containing blood vessels nerves, and pulp., , og, , sp, , i, o stu the entition o M n, M te i l Human teeth xperiment to be performed in partnership between two students, Metho Study the teeth of your partner and write down the observations., , e, , bl, , i u e, , uption, , oups, , olar, , gy, , olars, , ch, , Second, , am, , Lateral inciror, Canine, First olar, , Canine, , Incisors, , 6 - 7 yrs., , 9 - 13 mos., 16 - 22 mos., 13 - 19 mos., , 7 - 8 yrs., 7 - 8 yrs., 9 - 11 yrs., , 25 - 33 mos., , 9 - 11 yrs., , 23 - 31 mos., 14 - 18 mos., 17 - 23 mos., 10 - 16 mos., , 10 - 12 yrs., 9 - 11 yrs., 9 - 12 yrs., 7 - 8 yrs., , 8 - 10 mos., , lo, , in, , 8 - 12 mos., , p., , Central incisor, , he, , 6 - 7 yrs., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , se tion, ( 1 ) Human dentition is heterodont i . e . shows 4 different types of teeth viz incisors , canines , premolars, and molars ., ( 2 ) A human adult has a dental formula 2 : 1 : 2 : 3 ., ( 3 ) The total number of teeth in an adult human are 32 ., ( 4 ) The teeth help in mastication of food and mixing it with saliva ., ( 5 ) Each tooth is made up of root and crown . The crown is covered with an enamel ., , 46

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Questions, Q. 1 How many teeth does an average human adult have?, An average human adult having 32 teeth, , Q. 3 What is the meaning of the term diphyodont?, The term diphyodent refers to presence of 2 sets of teeth in the lifespan, , sp, , Q. 4 Label the diagram given below., , ot, .c, om, , Q. 2 Write the dental formula of an average adult man, 2:1:2:3 is the dental formula of an average adult man, , og, , Incisor, , Soft palate, , bl, , Molar, , Tongue, , am, , p., , Premolar, Canine, , gy, , ch, , Multiple choice uestions, 1. _______ are used for biting the food., a. olars, b. Incisors, c. Canines, d. Premolars, , lo, , 2. The dentition of man is of _________ type., a. Homodont, b. Thecodont, c. onophycodont d. Polyphyodont, , .b, , io, , 3. Premolars and olars are used for _________., a. Cutting, b. rinding, c. Biting, d. Shearing, , w, , w, , w, , 4. __________ are also refered to as Wisdom Teeth ., a. Premolar, b. 3rd olars, c. Incisors, d. Canines, , 5. There are _________ incisors in permanent dentition of upper jaw., a. 4, b. 2, c. 6, d. 8, Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 47

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o tu, , the e ect o en, , es on st ch e, , l u in n, , ts, , te, ect o, i, , li, , o stu, , l se on st ch, , the ction o s li, , l se on st ch, , ot, .c, om, , inciple, Amylase is an en yme which acts on the polysaccharide starch and converts it into the, disaccharide maltose. Salivary glands secrete salivary amylase and pancreatic glands secrete, pancreatic amylase. Amylase acts at 37oC in pH 6.7., M te i ls Test tubes water bath pipettes test tube stand Starch solution 1 gm in 100 ml, distilled water Phosphate bu er of pH 6.7 Salivary amylase inse mouth with lukewarm saline, water gargle for some time and collect in a beaker filter to remove mucous Lugol s Iodine, solution Dilute HCL acid., , le, , gy, , tion, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , se, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , oce u e, 1. Prepare three test tubes and label them 1 2 3., 2. Add 5 ml starch and 3ml of bu er solution in each test tube., 3. In the first tube add 3 ml salivary amylase solution, 4. In the second test tube add 3 ml of distil water., 5. In the third test tube add 3 ml distil water and 10 drops of dilute HCL., 6. Place all three tubes in a 37 C water bath for 15 to 20 mins to incubate., 7. Test the solutions for the presence of undigested starch by Lugol s test. Add a few drops of, Lugol s iodine solution to each of tubes. If the solution has an amber coloration then there is no, starch present., 8. If the solution turns blue or black start is present in the solution .The absence of starch will, indicate that the starch has been converted into maltose., bserve and note down the changes in the test tubes. Write down your inference., , Conclusion, 1. In the first test tube, amylase acts on starch to produce maltose at the approptiaate pH of 6.7, 2.Second test tube without enzyme shows presence of starch as indicated by blue black colour., 3. Third test tube with enzyme but at acidic pH shows presence of stach as it remains undigested., 48

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ect o, i, , o stu, , epsin on e, , hite, , the ction o en, , e pepsin on e, , hite e, , l u in, , inciple, Pepsin is a protease en yme that begins digestion of proteins breaking them into peptides., , ot, .c, om, , Pepsinogen is secreted by gastric glands of the stomach into the stomach and converted into, pepsin due to HCl., M te i ls Test tubes water bath pipettes test tube stand dilute HCl Pepsin 1, oce u e, , dilute Na H., , tion, , le, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , se, , bl, , og, , sp, , 1. Prepare three testtubes and label them 1 2 3., 2. Add 3 ml of egg white solution in all of them., 3. In the first tube add 5 ml of HCl acid., 4. In the second test tube add 3 ml of pepsin solution and 2 ml of dilute HCl ., 5. In the third test tube add 3 ml pepsin solution and 2 ml of Na H solution., 6. Shake well and place all three tubes in a 37 C water bath for 30 minutes to incubate., 7. bserve and note down the color change in the test tubes and write your inferences., , io, , lo, , Conclusion, 1.Test tube shows undigested proteins due to absence of pepsin, 2. Test tube shows clear solution as the egg albumin is digested by pepsin at appropriate acidic pH., 3.Test tube 3 shows undigested proteins as pepsin fails to work in alkaline medium, ulsi c tion o, , .b, , C, , o stu, , the ction o, , ile uice, ile on, , ts, , w, , i, , ts, , w, , w, , inciple When the pre-digested food from the mouth and the stomach reach the intestine it, mixes with bile and pancreatic juice.The bile is produced in the liver concentrated and stored in, the gall bladder. It is secreted in the intestine when re uired. Bile helps in the emulsification of oil, and fats leading to faster digestion of fats., M te i l Test tubes test tube stand pipette water bath bile oil distilled water., oce u e, 1.Prepare two test tubes and label them 1 2., 2.Add 3 ml of oil to each of them., , 49

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ot, .c, om, , 3.In the first test tube add 3 ml of distilled water., 4.In the second test tube add 3 ml of bile juice., 5.Shake well. bserve and note down the inference., se tion, le, , Conclusion, 1.Test tube 1 shows oil and water as two separate layers, 2.Test tube 2 with bile shows tiny droplets of oil suspended in water, Questions, , og, , sp, , 1. What is an en yme?, Enzymes are biocatalysts which accelerate the rate of a biochemical reaction without undergoing, any change in them., , p., , 3. At what pH does amylase shows its e ect., The optimum pH for anylase activity is 6.7, , bl, , 2. Where is bile stored?, bile is produced by liver and stored inside gallbladder, , am, , 4. What will happen if you add Conc. HCl to the substrate during amylase activity?, Conc HCl reduces the pH of the reaction mixture as a result amylase enzyme cannot act on starch, , ch, , 5. What is the inactive form of the en yme pepsin?, Inactive form of pepsin is Pepsinogen, , Multiple choice uestions, , lo, , gy, , 1. Inactive pepsinogen is converted into active pepsin by ______________, a. Na H, b. Citric acid, c. HCl, d. Water, , io, , 2. Salivary amyalse works at a pH of______________, a. 4.2, , b. 1.3, , c. 14, , d. 6.7, , w, , .b, , 3. Bile helps in the _______________ of fats during digestion, a. Digestion, d. Di usion, c. mulsifi cation, d. Breakdown, , w, , w, , 4. Proteins are converted into peptides and amino acids by the en yme ___________, a. Lipase, b. Amylase, c. Creatinine, d. Pepsin, , 5. ____________ n yme converts lipids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol., a. Lipase, b. Amylase, c. Creatinine, d. Pepsin, Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., .........................................................., 50

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o test, , ine s, , ple o, , o, , l n, , no, , l Constituents, te, , i, , o test the p esence o u e, , su, , l u in n, , ile s lts in u ine, , e, , bl, , est o, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , inciple, The metabolic functioning of the body generates many products and byproducts. The, byproducts are removed from the body mainly through faeces and urine. rine analysis is routinely, used for diagnosis of number of metabolic disorders. The normal urine contains urea of about 60150 mg per liter 2 . The sugar is abnormal component of urine. The analysis includes physical, and chemical tests. Normal urine is pale yellow due to the presence of pigment urochrome. Its PH, ranges between 4.8 to 8.0. It contains 95 water and 5 solutes in the form of sodium potassium, magnesium and ammonia present in dissolved state., Certain substances are always present in the urine and called normal constituents. They, are salts of sodium potassium magnesium ammonium and calcium. any organic compounds, like urea uric acid creatinin etc. are also present. Abnormal constituents are sugar albumin bile, pigments blood pus etc., e ui e ents Beakers test tubes test tube holder spirit lamp etc., , p., , Phenolphthalein sample of urine soyabean or gram our as a source of, , am, , Che ic ls e ui e, urease en yme., , se tion, The mixture turns Pink, , ch, , oce u e Take a test tube and add 2ml of urine to this add a pinch of soybean or gram our, freshly ground and 1 drop of phenolphthalein indicator. eep it for 5 min warm if necessary., , gy, , Conclusion, In given sample of urine Urea is present, , io, , lo, , pl n tion n clinic l si ni c nce, The urea is produced in liver as normal catabolic process of excess amino acids. This urea, is filtered out by kidneys and its presence indicates normal functioning of excretory system., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , rea is broken down by en yme urease to produce ammonia and carbon dioxide. The, test uses soybean our as source of urease. The ammonia released in the process makes solution, alkaline which is detected by phenolphthalein indicator., , 51

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est o, , u, , Che ic ls e ui e, , Benedict s solution., , oce u e Take 2 ml of urine in test tube add 1 ml of Benedict s solution in test tube. Boil it, for 2 min. in water bath or on spirit lamp. The appearance of coloured precipitate indicates the, presence of sugar. The colour of precipitate depends on the concentration of glucose., , ot, .c, om, , se tion, blue colour turns Green/Yellow/Red /Brick red and after some time coloured ppt. settle at bottem, of test tube, Conclusion, In given sample of urine glucose is present, , est o, , l u in, , Che ic ls e ui e, , otiens, , am, , C, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , pl n tion n clinic l si ni c nce, Sugar present in blood is in the form of glucose. Its level is kept at the permissible normal, limit by hormone insulin. Due to deficiency of insulin the glucose level rises in blood. This glucose, finds its way in urine. This condition is diabetes mellitus., The sugar is reducing agent. It reduces copper sulphate into cuprous oxide. As per the, uantity reduced it gives di erent colour precipitate., If there is no change in colour remains blue then sugar is absent., But if 0.5 sugar is present then the colour turns yellow., 1 sugar gives orange precipitate., 1.5 sugar gives brick red precipitate., Sample of urine conc. Nitric acid, , ch, , oce u e Take 1 ml of conc. Nitric acid in a test tube. Hold test tube at 450 angle and Add 2, drops of urine sample from the sides of test tube., , gy, , se tion, A white brown ring is produced at the junction of two solutions, , lo, , Conclusion, In given sample of urine Protiens are present, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , pl n tion n clinic l si ni c nce Albumin in urine is precipitated with nitric acid. Albumin, is one of the proteins found in blood. Normally during urine formation these large molecules never, escape ultrafiltration. If presence of albumin is detected then it indicates damage to nephron as in, nephritis or urinary tract infection., , 52

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est o, , ile s lts, , Che ic ls e ui e, , Sample of urine sulphur powder, , oce u e Take 3 ml of urine sample and plain water in another test tube. Sprinkle a very small, uantity of sulphur powder on the surface of both the samples., , ot, .c, om, , se tion, Sulphur powder sinks at the bottem of test tube, Conclusion, In given sample of urine bile salts are present, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , pl n tion n clinic l si ni c nce This test is termed as Hay s sulphur powder test. Bile is, the secretion produced by liver. The chief role of bile is emulsification of fats. The bile salts are, not normally found in detectable uantity in urine. ore than 90 of the bile salts are actively, reabsorbed. The liver normally clears 20 g of bile salt from the blood each day. However when the, liver is impaired the blood levels of bile salts is increased. Due to liver infections like jaundice the, bile salts are produced in much larger uantity. These salts are then excreted as part of urine. The, presence of bilesalts reduce the surface tension of the solution making the sulphur powder sink., The common bile salts are sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate., , lo, , gy, , ch, , Questions, Q. 1 What is the role of urease en yme in detection of urea?, Urea is broken down by enzyme urease to produce ammonia and carbon dioxide. The ammonia, released in the process makes solution alkaline which is detected by Phenolphthalein indicator., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , Q. 2 Which hormone regulates blood glucose level and how?, Insulin hormone regulates blood sugar level, Due to deficiency of insulin the glucose level rises in, blood,, , Q. 3 Name two bile salts present in the bile., 1. Sodium glycocholate 2. Sodium taurocholate, , 53

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Q. 4 Why are proteins absent in urine sample?, Healthy kidenys do not sllow proteins to pass through their filtrate. They are big, molecules and hence can not move out through the walls of the glomerulus. Presence of proteins, in urine indicares damage to kidney., , 4., , sp, og, , bl, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , 5., , p., , 3., , am, , 2., , ch, , 1., , Multiple Choice Questions, The process of formation of urea is called as .............., a. Ammonotelism, b. reotelism, c. ricotelism, d. uanotelism, The structural and functinal unit of kidney is .............., a. alphigian tubules, b. Seminiferous tubules, c. rineferous tubules, d. Haversian canal, Presence of sugar indicate .............., a. Dibetes mellitus, b. Dibetes insipidus, c. Jaundice, d. Hypertension, rea is produced in .............., a. Pancreas, b. idney, c. Liver, d. all bladder, rea is produced by ............. cycle., a. rnithine, b. Crabs, c. elvin, d. Inosinic pathway, , ot, .c, om, , Q. 5 Which cells of pancreas secrets insulin?, Beta cells (B cells) produce insulin and are the most abundant of the islet cells present in pancreas, Q. 6 What are the causes and symptoms of dibetes mellitus?, Sugar present in blood is the form of glucose It's level is kept at the normal level by hormone, Insulin. Due to deficiency of insulin the level rises in blood. This glucose enters in urine.this, condition is known as diabetes mellitus., , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 54

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Diatoms, , og, , sp, , e ., , ot, .c, om, , 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., , ilent e tu es o in o, otist, ost of the organisms are unicellular and eukaryotic., The organisms have well defined nucleus., The organisms are Plant like - Diatoms Animal like - Paramoecium Fungi like - onyoaulax., Cell organelles like Plastids and itochondria are present., ode of nutrition is Autotrophic and heterotraphic., ost of the organisms reproduces asexually. While in few sexual reproduction is present., , e, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , Fig. Diatoms, (1) Diatoms are single celled, eurkayotic photosynthetic organisms,, (2) They possess cell wall made up of silica. It is called frustule., (3) Reproduction by asexual method of multiple fission, (4)Photoaynthetic pigments are carotenoids and fucoxanthin., (5) Shells of dead diatoms constitute diatomaccous earth which has industrial importance in fine, polishing and liquid filtration, oeciu, , adiating, canals, , gy, , Cytoplasm, acronucleus, , lo, , Food vacuoles, , io, , Contractile, vacuole, , .b, , icronucleus, , Pellicle, , ral roove, , Cilia, , w, , w, , w, , (1) Paramoecia are microscropic free living unicellular, eukanyotic protozoan, commonly called, Paramoecia are microscropic free living unicellular, eukanyotic protozoan, commonly called, slipper animalcule., (2)The body is covered with a flexible, thin & firm membrance called pellicle, (3)Multiple, small , hairlike projections called cillia are present all over the body (holo trichous), (4)There is a large, shallow, oblique depression on lateral side called peristome or oral groove, 5)There are two types of vacuoles contractile vacuole for osmoregulation & excretion while, food vacuole for nutrition, (6)Reproduction asexually by binary fission and sexually by conjugation, 56

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7., e, , icus, , ot, .c, om, , 5., 6., , Pileus, , ills, , og, , Annulus, , sp, , 1., 2., 3., 4., , lient e tu es o in o, un i, These are eukaryotic heterotrophs showing extracellular digestion., They may be unicellular or multicellular showing long thread like structures called hyphae., Large fungi - such as mushrooms have compact mass of cells., They exhibit heterotrophic mode of nutrition mostly they are saprophytic some are parasitic, or predators., They reproduce asexualy as well as sexually., Some fungi are symbiotic either live with algae as lichens or as mycorrhi a in association with, roots of higher plants., They some edible fungal organisms like mushrooms are consumed as a food., , p., , Fig.Agaricus, , bl, , Stipe, , gy, , ch, , am, , 1) Agaricus is a saprophytic fungus Which grows in humus rich soil and on rotten woodenlogs., 2) It has a separate, underground mycelium which produces white, creamish, umbrella shaped, fruiting bodies or basidiocarp above the substratum., 3) Basidiocarp has two parts a stalk called stipe and a cap like structure called pileus., 4)The pileus bears a number of plate like structures called gills. The gills produce basidiospore., 5) A ring like annulus is present on the stalk, 6)Some species of mushroom are edible while other are poisonous., Fruticous Lichens e, , sne, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , e, , i, , ichens, , 57

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e, , Sargassum :, , Top, stipe, , Apical, meristem, , Holdfast, , ot, .c, om, , Top, blades, , Bottom stipe, , sp, , Fig. Sargassum, , Batrachospermum : Carposporangia, , Laterals, , Axis, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , e, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , 1. Multicellular, brown algae found in marine habitats., 2. It is highly branched with photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll - a,c, carotenoids, and fucOxanthin., 3. The cell wall is made up of cellulose., 4. Reserve food is laminarin & mannitol., 5. Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation., 6. Asexual reproduction occurs by biflagellate zoospores., 7. Sexual reproduction by gamete formation., , w, , w, , Fig. Batrachospermum, 1.It is a multicellular, fresh water algae found in deeper water, 2.Thallus is filamentous, profusely branched ., 3.Cell wall is made up of cellulose., 4. Photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll-a, chlorophyle-e phycoerythrin etc., 5.Reserve food is floridean starch., 6. Asexual reproduction by non-motile monospores, 7.Sexual reproduction is oogamous., 59

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og, , M, nospe s, C cs, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , e, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , 1. Nephrolepis is a common tropical and substropical fern which grow in moist, cool and shady places., 2. The plant body is a diploid sporophyte which is differentiated into roots, stem and leaves., 3.It is covered with multicellular, hair like structures called ramenta., 4.The roots are adventitious, well-developed and help in fixation and absorption., 5.The stem is undergound, obliquely placed rhizome, commonly called root stock or caudex., 6. Leaves are large, pinnately compound with a central axis or rachis bearing leaflets., 7.Each leaflet is sessile dorsiventral, with a prominent mid-vein and forked lateral veins., 8. The leaflet bears several dark-brown sori ventrally and white, oval hydathodes dorsally at the vein, endings., 9.Each sorus has several sporangia, containing a number of haploid spores., 10. These haploid spores germinate to produce autotrophic gametophyte which bears the male and, female sex organs., 11.Sex organs produce gametes which unite to form zygote., 12.Zygote produces diploid sporophyte., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , Fig. Cycas, Female cone, ale cone, 1.Habit:- It is a slow growing, long-lived, evergreen tree with an unbranched woody stem with a crown, of compound leaves at its apex. Stem surface is covered with an armour of persistent leaf bases., 2. Leaves: (i) Cycas has 2 types of leaves, foliage leaves and scale leaves., (ii) Scale leaves are small, rough, dry and protective in function., (iii) Foliage leaves are pinnately compound and form a terminal crown., (3) Reproduction:-(i) Vegetative reproduction by bulbils., (ii) Sexual reproduction through seeds., (iii) Cycas is dioecious (male and female plants separate) and heterosporous., (iv) Male cycas plant produces a single male cone at the apex. It consists of several, spirally borne microsporophylls. Each microsporophyll bears several microsporangia each packed, with numerous microspores. Pollination occurs by wind. Microspores produce male gametes., (v) Female cycas plant bears loose, spirally arranged megasporophylls each bearing, ovules / megasporangia. Each megasporangium develops into female gametophyte containing an egg., (vi) Fertilization leads to the formation of a diploid zygote which develops into a seed., Diagnostic features:, (1) Palm like, tropical and ornamental plant., (2) Reproductive organs are cones., (3) Seeds are naked., 61

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tu, tu, , enti, , te, , o speci ens n thei i enti c tion, , the speci ens i en elo, , l, , el the i, , in, , o, , s n, , ni, , ite o n the ch, , li, , ete ot ophic Multicellul, , og, , sp, , M, Cells are independent and without any tissue formation., They are asymmetrical or radially symmetrical., They are a uatic animals found in freshwater or sea water., Body is perforated. These pores are called osti . hence the name of the phylum is porifera., Water leaves the body through a single large opening called osculu ., Body is supported by skeleton of silicious or calcareous spicules and sponging fibers., Spicules are either needle shaped dumbbell shaped or star shaped., , bl, , 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., , cte s, , ot, .c, om, , i, , o speci ens n thei i enti c tion, , am, , p., , Ostia, , lo, , gy, , Base, , Coanocyte cell, , ch, , Cylinder, , Osculum, , Fig. Sycon, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , e.g. - ________Sycon_________, (1) Sycon is a marine sponge found attached to rocks., (2) It occurs as a colonial sponge with several cylindrical hollow branches., (3) The body is vase - like with an opening called osculum at the free end. Around the osculum, there is an oscular fringe of spicules., (4) The body is porous and the pores are called dermal ostia which lead into a system of canals, in the body wall. These pass into the internal cavity called spongocoel., (5) The skeleton of the body is made up of calcareous needle like structures called spicules., (6) Sycon is hermaphrodite and reproduces by asexual and sexual methods., cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, , e, , spongilla ,Euplectella, bathsponge., 65

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MC, 1. They are a uatic, , C, marine or fresh water forms., , 2. They may be solitary or colonial., 3. Body- diploblastic radially symmetrical., 4. Body cavity is called coelente on or gastrovascular cavity., e us . Polyp is tube like and medusa is umbrella like., , ot, .c, om, , 5. There are two forms- pol p and, , Tentacle, , Mouth, , Fig. Hydra, , p., , e.g. -Hydra, , bl, , og, , sp, , Coelenteron, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , (1) Hydra is a fresh water form found attached to submerged objects in ponds and pools., (2) Body is radially symmetrical, polyp form, cylindrical, soft and elastic., (3)The body is tubular (polyp). The attached end forms the basal disc. The free end has a hypostome, bearing the mouth., (4) There is a circlet of six to eight tentacles just below the mouth. They are provided with nematocysts., (5) Hydra is diploblastic, acoelomate animal,, (6) Budding is its asexual method of reproduction. It produces gametes during sexual reproduction., (7) The animal shows the reproductive organs -ov ary and testes. The ovary lies towards the posterior, end while the testis lie towards the anterior end. Animal is hermaphrodite because male & female sex, organs are within the same body of the animal., , els in, , o e i, , jelly fish, sea anemone, , w, , w, , w, , e, , .b, , cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, , 1., , M, , M, , ost of the members are parasitic and very few are free living., , 2. They are triploblastic bilaterally symmetrical and acoelomate., 3. Digestive system is incomplete and branched., 4. Body is dorsoventrally attened they are called Platyhelminthes., 66

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Mouth, , Oral sucker, , Excretory pore, , ot, .c, om, , Ventral sucker, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , Fig. Liverfluke, e.g. - Liverfluke, (1) Liver fluke is a flat leaf like endoparasite,found in bile duct of sheep causing the, Gonopore, disease liver rot., (2) It has a pair of suckers. The anterior sucker surrounds the mouth and the ventral, sucker for attachment., (3) A genital aperture occurs between the two suckers. An excretory pore is found, at the extreme posterior end of the body., (4) Body is covered by cuticle with spinules., (5)The animal is hermaphrodite and has two hosts a vertebrate sheep and, invertebrate snail., (6) Several larval stages occur in its life, cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e, Planeria , Taenia, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ite the p sitic, pt tions oun in i e u e, 1.A thick and permeable tegument is present in liver flukes. This tegument protects the animal from the, enzymatic actions of the digestive juices of the host. On the other hand this tegument is permeable to water to be, able to get the nutrients from the surroundings, 2.Absence of locomotory organs as they are not needed by the animals. Some of the free swimming larval forms, like miracidium has cilia which help in movement, 3.Alimentary canal is without anus as there is no undigested food to be egested. Branched intestine helps in, distribution of the digested food to all parts of the body, 4.Oral sucker, acetabulum and spines of the body wall of the adult worm useed for attachment to the host tissues, 5.The adults lack, circulatory system, respiratory system, sensory organs as they are not necessary, Nervous system is poorly developed as it is not completely utilized. But free swimming miracidium larva has, sensory eye-spots, 6.Respiration is anaerobic type, due to the lack of free oxygen, 7.Egg shells of these animals are resistant to protect the developing zygote from unfavorable environmental, conditions, 8.Self-fertilization is ensured by hermaphroditism even in the absence of another companion for copulation., M, C, M, 1. ost of the members are parasites and very few free living., 2. Body is triploblastic bilaterally symmetrical and pseudocoelomate., 3. Digestive system is complete with mouth and anus., 4. Sexes are separate., 67

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Tail, , anus, , pineal setae, , ale, , lateral line, , ot, .c, om, , anus, , Mouth, , Female, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , Fig. Ascaris, e.g. - Ascaris, (1) Ascaris, the round worm occurs as an endoparasite in the intestine of man. Its Excretory, body is cylindrical and unsegmented., (2) Sexes are separate. Male measures about 10 - 15 cm and the female measures 20 - 30 cm., (3) The posterior end of the male is coiled and is provided with a pair of penial spicules. There, is a cloacal aperture., (4) The female has separate anal and reproductive openings., (5) In both sexes there is a mouth at the anterior end bordered by three lips. Behind it there is an, excretory opening., (6) The body is covered by a thick cuticle and is marked by four longitudinal stripes, which, Spicules are dorsal, ventral and lateral in position., (7) Man becomes infected by swallowing the eggs of Ascaris with food and drink., , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e, Ascaris, Planeria, i e the p sitic, pt tions o oun, o, 1.The body is long and cylindrical, pointed at both ends., 2.The mouth is bounded by three lips which help the parasite to attach with mucous membrane of the host’s, intestine, 3.The parasite is devoid of locomotory organs as the parasite lives in the intestine where protection from, enemies and food supply are ensured., 4.The body wall of Ascaris is covered with cuticle, resistant to the digestive enzymes of the host., , w, , w, , 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., , M, They are a uatic terrestrial., They are free living or ectoparasites., Body is triploblastic. Bilaterally symmetrical and coelomate., Body is metamerically segmented., Digestive system is complete., Circulatory system is of closed type., Nervous system is ventral and ganglionated. It consists of nerve ring and ventral nerve cord., 68

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Clitellum, Peristomium, anus, , Fig. Earthworm, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , e.g. -Earth worm, prostomium, (1) The body of earthworm is cylindrical, elongated, bilaterally symmetrical and metamerically, segmented. It measures about 15 cm in length and is made up of about 100 to 120 segments or metameres., (2) The skin is soft, moist and pinkish brown in colour without exoskeleton., (3) Each segment except the 1", last and clitellum shows a complete ring of microscopic setae in, the middle.body shows a pointed anterior end and blunt posterior end. Distinct head and appendagesare absent., (5) The dorsal side is marked by a dark mid-dorsal line and the ventral side shows the genital, apertures and papillae.a mature worm the segments 14. 15 and 16 show a girdle like, thick dark brown, glandularuc or band called clitellum which helps in burrowing and cocoon formation. It also has taxonomic, importance and forms important landmark on the body., On the basis of clitellum the body is divisible into three regions, like, (i) Pre-clitellar region - from 1st to 13th segments, (ii) Clitellar region - 14th, 15th & 16th segments., (iii) Post-clitellar region - 17th to the last segment., Metameric segments, Mouth, , Fig. Leech, , e.g. -leech, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , (1) Leech is an ectoparasite seen in ponds. lakes, rivers and in moist soils., (2) It sucks blood from cattle and other mammals., (3) The body is composed of 33 segments, including the oral and the posterior suckers.Each segment, is further divided externally into annuli., (4) The oral sucker bears the mouth and three jaws., (5) The posterior sucker helps in locomotion and in attaching to the body of the host., (6) It is a hermaphrodite., (7) The salivary glands secrete a compound Hirudin which prevents blood clotting while sucking., cti it, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e Earthworm, Lugworms, i e the p sitic, pt tions o eech, I. . Both ends of the body are provided with suckers, which are the clinging organs by which leech gets, firm grip of the host. These suckers, are also helpful for locomotion., 2. Parapodia and setae are completely absent, because there is no need of these organs. Thus, the host, remains unaware of the parasite., 3. There are three jaws inside the mouth. These act as semicircular jaws and cause a 1'-shaped wound, in the skin of the host Through this wound blood is let out., 4. Blood is sucked up by pharynx as it acts as a suction pump., 5. Salivary glands produce hirudin, which does not allow the blood to coagulate. Thus, a continuous, supply of the blood is maintained., 69, , w, w, , posterior sucker

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i e the i e ence et een eech n, , th o, , EARTHWORM-• Earthworms are worms that belong to the sub class Oligochaeta., • Earthworms can regenerate through asexual reproduction., • Earthworms perform their role in ecology by keeping the soil aerated and fertile., LEECH, • Leeches are worms belonging to sub class Hirudinae., • Unlike other Annelids, Leeches only reproduce sexually but can't regenerate., • Some types of leeches are used for medical purposes., , bl, , og, , sp, , 2., 3., 4., , ot, .c, om, , 1., , M, They are omnipresent. Body is triploblastic Coelomate bilaterally symmetrical and, metamerically segmented., Chitinous exoskeleton and jointed appendages are present., Circulatory system is of open type., Body can be divided into head thorax and abdomen., o e, one, Queen, , Fig. Honey bee, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , e.g. - Honey bee, (1) It is a social insect and lives in a colony showing great division of labour., (2)there are three types of individuals, i.e. queen, drones and workers are seen in the colony., (3) The drone is smaller in size as compared to the queen. It fertilizes the eggs laid by the queen bee. Drones are, haploid males., (4) The queen bee is the largest bee in the colony with a long abdomen. It only lays eggs., (5) The worker bee is a sterile female. It is the smallest among all the bees., (6) Body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen., (7) The head bears a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes., (8) Thorax has 3 pairs of legs and 2 pairs of wings., (9) Mouth parts are rasping and lapping type, modified for collecting the nectar and pollen. The, worker bees have a sting at the posterior end of the body., (10) Economically it is important as we get honey and wax from it., cti it, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e Cockroach, Butterfly, Ant, ite o n the cono ic po t nce o nsects, 1.Insects play a major role in plant reproduction (pollination), recycling, biological control, food,, decomposition.2.The main food product that we get from insect Honeybee is honey.3.Some insects act as, scavengers which get nutrients from dead animal and vegetable matter4.The famous silk material is, produced from the insects called Bombyx and Eupterote (silk moths).5.Most of the plant pollination is done, by insects. This process is called as Entomophily. Eg: Beetles, Flies, Ants, Moths, Butterflies., MM, C, 1. They are semi a uatic or terrestrial., 2. Body is bilaterally symmetrical or asymmetrical coelomate and without segmentation., 3. Body is soft so molluscs and protected by shell., 4. Locomotion by muscular foot., 70

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Shell, , Excretory Pore, Pulnonary opening, Eyes, Anterior tentacles, , foot, , ot, .c, om, , Posterior tenntacle, , Fig. .Snail, , e.g. -Snail, , bl, , cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e, Pila, snail, bivalve, , og, , sp, , 1.The snail is a gastropod, soft-bodied, with head and flattened foot., 2.The soft body is protected by a hard shell., 3.They are found in sea, fresh water., 4.They have two pairs of tentacles on the head., 5.Snails have light sensitive eyespot located on each of the largest tentacles. The smaller pair of, tentacles are used to sense smell and touch., 6.Snails move by crawling, swimming, or floating with currents., 7.Snails feed on decaying plants, while some are scavengers., , o e i, , p., , els in, , am, , ch, , gy, , 1., 2., 3., 4., , M C, M, They are exclusively marine., Body is radially symmetrical pentamerous ., Skin is covered with hard plates and movable spines., Head is not distinct. Locomotion is with the help of tube feet and water vascular system., ambulacral, marginal spins, groove, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , central disc, , Madreporite, , Anus, , Arm, , tube feet, , Mouth, , Tube feet, , Fig. Star fish, , w, , w, , e.g. - Star fish, (1) Star fish is a free living marine animal, showing radial symmetry., (2) The body of Star fish is star shaped with five radiating arms., (3) Mouth Des in the centre of the central disc on the oral side whue anus and madreporite lie on, the aboral side., (4) The locomotory organs are tubefeet which are arranged in rows in the ambulacral arque, (5) The body is covered by calcareous plates or ossicles. They bear very short spines., (6) Sexes are separate without sexual dimorphism., 71

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cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e, Brittle star, featherstar, Sea-cucumber, , M, MC, This phylum is considered as a link between non- chordates and chordates. It has characters, resembling to both the groups of animals., These are exclusively marine bilaterally symmetrical and coelomate animals., They live in -Shaped Burrows., Body is divided into proboscis collar and trunk., , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , 2., 3., 4., , o e i, , ot, .c, om, , 1., , els in, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , Fig. Balanoglossus, e.g. - Balanoglossus, (1) Balanoglossus is marine, solitary,burrowing hemichordata found in sandy costal water of the sea., (2)Body is soft, worm like and unsegmented., (3)The body is divisible into a short proboscis, a short collar and a long trunk., (4) Mouth lies on ventral side between proboscis and collar., (5) Anterior part of trunk shows 'U' shaped gill slits., (6) Trunk contains genital ridge in which gonads are located., (7) At the posterior end of trunk, anus is situated., (8) It feeds on microorganisms., (9) Sexes are separate., (10) Its an example of a connecting link between Nonchordata and Chordata., cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e, Saccoglossus ,Cephalodiscus, Atubaria., i e the Cho, te n, oncho, te ch cte s seen in o e speci ens, Balanoglossus is considered an important connecting link between chordates and non-chordates (vertebrates, and invertebrates) as they have notochord, gill-slits (branchial openings) and the dorsal tubular nerve cord, which are the three main characteristics of chordates., 72

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ot, .c, om, , M C, 1. These are higher triploblastic coelomate bilaterally symmetrical animals with tube within a, tube body plan., 2. They show presence of notochord at least in the early embryonic life. They show presence of, pharyngeal gill slits., 3. Circulatory system is of closed type with red blood cells having haemoglobin., u h lu, e te, t, 1. Notochord is replaced by vertebral column., 2. Brain is lodged in the cranium., , sp, , Cl ss Chon, , icht es chondron cartilage ichtyes, , fish, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , Their endoskeleton is formed of cartilage hence they are called as cartilaginous fishes., These are always marine., xoskeleton is formed of minute placoid type of scales., outh is ventral in position. There are two dorsal fins., Tail fin is formed of two une ual lobes i.e heterocercal asymmetrical, Five to seven pairs of gill slits are present. ill slits are not covered by an operculum., ale copulatory organs called claspers are present., Ferili ation is internal. They are viviparous., 1st dorsal fin, , 2nd dorsal fin, , nostril, , lateral line, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., , am, , p., , 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., , og, , 3., , bl, , 1., 2., , upe cl ss isces, They are a uatic present in fresh marine and brackish water., Pisces are poikilothermic body temperature changes according to the change in temperature, of surrounding ., Locomotion is by muscles and fins. Caudal fin helps in pushing body forward and paired fins, are used for steering., xoskeleton is of dermal scales. ndoskeleton is either bony or cartilaginous., Body is stream lined boat-shaped this feature helps to reduce resistance during swimming., outh is terminal or ventral in position., espiration is by gills., Sexes are separate. ost of the fishes are oviparous some are viviparous., e.g. _______________________________, Super class pisces is divided into two classes as follows, , caudal fin, , Mouth, venral fin, , pelvic fin, pectoral fin, , Fig. Shark, 73, , gill cleft

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steicht es, , steon, , one ichth es, , sh, , og, , Cl ss, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , e.g. Scoliodon, (1) Shark is also known as Dog fish found in the coastal waters of India., (2) The body is spindle shaped and compressed laterally. It is divisible into a head, trunk & tail.There is no neck., (3) The head bears a pair of eyes on the lateral sides. The mouth and nostrils are on ventral side., Lateral line sense organs are present., (4) There are five pairs of vertical gill slits at the back of the head., (5)Two mid dorsal, one mid ventral, one caudal and two pairs of lateral i.e. pectoral and pelvic fins are present, for swimming., (6) The tail fin has unequally developed fin lobes and hence known as heterocercal., (7) The skin is covered by backwardly directed minute placoid scales., (8) Sexes are separate. The males have claspers in pelvic region. These are copulatory organs., (9) Sharks are viviparous i.e. give birth to young ones., (10) It is edible., cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e stingray , electricray, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , 1. They are a uatic. Present in both fresh and marine water., 2. ndoskeleton is mainly bony hence they are called osteichthyes. xoskeleton is formed of, cycloid or ctenoid scales., 3., outh is terminal in position. They show single dorsal fin..Claspers are absent., 4. Tail fin is formed by two e ual lobes i.e homocercal Symmetrical, 5. Four pairs of gills slits are present covered by an operculum., 6. Fertili ation is external and they, y are oviparous., p, dorsal fin, lateral line, eye, , Pectoral fin, , gy, , operculalm, , Caudal fin, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , Fig. Labeo, e.g. -Labeo, (1) It is fresh water fish commonly called Rohu fish, widely used as food fish in our country., (2) Body is somewhat flattened and streamlined., (3) It is covered with overlapping cycloid scales., (4) Mouth is sub-terminal and ventral. A pair of nostrils and large lateral eyes without eyelids are present., (5) There are five pairs of gill slits covered by an operculum., (6)Three median - dorsal, ventral, caudal and paired pectoral and pelvic fins are present for swimming., (7) The tail fin is homocercal i.e. caudal fin is equally lobed., (8) Lateral line sense organs are present., (9) Sexes are separate. The males are without claspers., (10) They are usually oviparous., cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in n t o o e e, ples o this ph lu, e Sardines, Codfish, Salmon, 74

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i e enti te et een C tile enous n, , on, , ish, , Cartilegenous Fish, ndoskeleton, xoskeleton, Tail, Clasper, , Bony Fish, bones, cycloid or ctenoid scales, , cartilage, placoid scale, , symmetrical, absent, , asymmetrical, present, , ot, .c, om, , supe cl ss e po, These animals bear two paris of appendages., upe cl ss et po inclu es cl sses, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , Cl ss, phi i, phi, oth ios li e, It includes the animals which live on land as well as in water., 1. They are exclusively fresh water animals . they are carnivores., 2. They are poikilothermic., 3. Skin is moist glandular with mucous glands and has no exoskeleton., 4. Two pairs of limbs arise from the pectoral and pelvic girdles respectively. They help in, locomotion. Body is di erentiated into head trunk and tail neck is absent. In some tail is, absent in adults., 5., xternal ear is absent. Prominent ear drums or tympanic membranes are present on lateral, sides of head., 6., outh is devoid of teeth. Intestine and digestive glands are well developed., 7. Circulatory system is of closed type. heart is three chambered BCs are biconvex nucleated., 8. espiration is by skin lungs buccopharynx., 9. Nervous system is well developed., 10. Sexes are separate. They are oviparous. Fertili ation is external. Development occurs in water, 11. They show metamorphism., , ch, , trunk, , gy, , sacral hump, , head, nostril, eye, Tympanum, , lo, , fore limb, , io, , hind limb, , webbed toe, Fig. -frog, (1) The body is bilaterally symmetrical.Body is divided into head and trunk., (2)The head is dorso-ventral and triangular.The two nostrils are situated on either side of head., large and bulging. The upper eyelids are thick pigmented while the lower evelids are rudimentory, The third eyelid or nictating membrane covers the eye., (3) The circular tympanic membrane is behind the eyes., (4) It consist of fore limbs and hind limbs Fore limbs, are shorter than hind limbs, which are longer and, stronger as required to hop on the land., (5) The fore limbs consist of four digits while hind limbs consist of five digits. The hind, limbs consist of membraneous web in between the toes., (6) In male frog, during breeding season, a copulatory pad develops along the inner edge of the first finger., (7) A cloacal aperture lies towards the posterior side of the body., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , e.g. Frog, , 75

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Cl ss, , eptili, , epe e to c eep o to c, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, i et o, ition l e, ples o, phi i ns, e, newt , Hyla, salamander, pl in the i e ence et een o n o, Frogs:-1. Need to live near water 2. Have smooth, moist skin that makes them look “slimy”.3. Have a, narrow body 4.Have higher, rounder, bulgier eyes 5. Have longer hind legs 6. Take long high jumps, Have many predators, 7. Toads: 1.Do not need to live near water to survive2.Have rough, dry, bumpy skin 3.Have a wider body, Have lower, football shaped eyes4. Have shorter, less powerful hind legs 5.Will run or take small hops, rather than jump6.Do not have many predators. 7.Toad’s skin lets out a bitter taste and smell that burns the, eyes and nostrils of its predators, much like a skunk does., pl in econo ic i po t nce o, o s, Frogs are right in the middle of the food chain and provide a very efficient transfer of solar energy. They, play an important role in consuming insects and are an important food source for birds, snakes, and, other animals throughout the food web., l, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , 1. These are crawling animals. These are he first true terrestrial vertebrates. Few may be a uatic, or semi- a uatic also found in marshy areas., 2. They are poikilotherms., 3. Skin is dry. Non-glandular and covered by an exoskeleton of epidermal scales or plates or, scutes., 4. Locomotion occurs by limbs. The limbs have well developed pentadactyl digits and claws., They help the animal to walk or creep. Snakes. However are limbless. They crawl on their, belly., 5., xternal ear absent ar drum is depressed., 6. Circulatory system. Circulation is of closed type. Heart is ventral in position., 7. It has two complete auricles but ventricles are incompletely partitioned. Therefore heart is not, perfectly four chambered except in crocodile and tortoise heart is four chambered. they show, respiration by lungs., 8. Sexes are separate and they show prominent sexual dimorphism. Fertili ation is internal. They, are oviparous., 9., ost of the reptiles lay shelled eggs on land., , .b, , eye, , Tail, , ear opening, dorsal crest of spines, , w, , w, , mouth, , Fig. lizard, (1) It is commonly called garden lizard or girgit found in open fields. It feeds on insects., (2) Body is covered with imbricate epidermal horny scales., (3) Head is triangular, consisting of eyes, nostrils and external ear openings (tympanum)., (4) A crest of sharp spines is present on the dorsal surface of the neck and back., (5) Body is divisible into head, trunk and tail. Tail is extremely long and cylindrical., , w, , e.g. Lizard, , 76

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cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l, in t o, ition l e, ples o eptiles, e, , els in, , o e i, , snake, wall lizzard, , ot, .c, om, , (6) It changes colour of the body. The normal colour is olive green but in courtship or threat the body, becomes yellow and neck and sides of the head becomes red., (7) It is oviparous animal., , sp, , in out o e out ole o sn es in n ecos ste, snakes play an important role in our ecosystem by maintaining a balance to the food web. Because, snakes are both predator and pray, they keep the pest population down by feeding on mice and other, small rodents that damage crops and carry disease. Snakes also provide food for larger mammals, birds, and even other snakes., Cl ss, es, is = i, Birds are aerial in habitat. In order to live an aerial mode of life the bird ac uire certain, characters known as aerial adaptation ., 1. They are homoetherms i.e. they keep the body temperature constant., 2. The mode of life is aerial, 3. Forelimbs are modified into wings for ying. Hind limbs are used for walking and running., 4. A uatic birds have webs between their toes. .g. Duck., 5. Body is di erentiated into head neck trunk and a tail., 6. Body is streamlined boat shaped to reduce resistance during ight., 7. Their exoskeleton is made up of feathers. Scales are present on hind-limbs., 8. Skin is thin dry non-glandular., 9. Bones are pneumatic with air cavities. It keep the body light., 10. Jaws are modified into beaks. Teeth are absent. Special structures such as crop and gi ard are, present., 11. espiration takes place by lungs which are connected to air sacs., 12. Brain is enlarged and has a well developed area for e uilibrium cerebellum . ptic lobes well, developed while olfactory lobes are poorly developed., 13. Sexes are separate. Sexual dimorphism is very prominent. They are oviparous and lay shelled, eggs with yolk and albumin. Fertili ation is internal., eye, Head, cere, neck, beak, throat, wings, thorax, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , c, , abdomen, , wing, feathers, leg, tail, , Fig. Pigeon, , claws, 77

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els in, , o e i, , sp, , cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l, in t o, ition l e, ples o, es, e, Peacock, crow, hen, , ot, .c, om, , e.g. Pigeon, (1) Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and tail., (2) Head consist of slit-like nostrils, large eyes., (3) The beak is stout, teeth are absent., (4) Fore limbs are modified into wings for flying., (5) The hind limbs are short, the digits show the presence of claws which are curved and help to, hold the grip while perching on the bark of the tree., (6) Body is stream-lined and made light due to the presence of air cavities in the bones (pneumatic, bones)., , og, , in cienti c n es o n, e i s in ou, e, 1. Bulbul-Molpastes cafer 2. Crow-Corvous Corone 3. Dove-Columbidae Colombiformes, 4. Duck-Anatidae Anseriformes 5. Koel-Eudynamis scolopaccus, , gy, , lo, , io, , external ear, , w, , w, , w, , 5., 6., 7., 8., , Cl ss M, li M, e, e sts nipples, ammary glands are present for the nourishment of the young ones., Body is di erentiated into head neck trunk and tail., They are homoeotherms. xoskeleton is in the form of hair fur nails hooves etc., Skin is glandular. They have sweat glands and sebaceous oil glands. ammary glands are, modified sweat glands., Body cavity is divided into two parts-thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity by a diaphragm., They show presence of external ear pinna ., Teeth are of di erent types incisors canines premolars and molars., Brain is highly developed. Cerebrum shows a transverse band called corpus callosum., , .b, , 1., 2., 3., 4., , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , in out o e out the ole o i s in n ecos ste, birds help maintain sustainable population levels of their prey and predator species and, after, death, provide food for scavengers and decomposers. Many birds are important in plant, reproduction through their services as pollinators or seed dispersers., , eye, snout, , long bristeles, , fore limb, Fig. Rat, 78

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sp, , cti it, se e the i en speci en n co plete the l els in o e i, in the scienti c n e o n, e, ls in ou, e, , ot, .c, om, , e.g. Rat, (1) The body is divided into head, neck, trunk and a cylindrical tail., (2) The body is covered by fur., (3) The black rats are Rattus rattus and the brown rat is Rattus norvegicus., (4) It has well developed hind limbs and fore limbs with claws. Each limbs has five digits., (5) Eyes are with eyelids and are large., (6) They show the presence of external ear (pinna) which are large., Snout is prominent with bristles, and the nostrils at the tip., , og, , 1.Bison-Bos gaurus 2.Cat-Felis domesticus 3. Cheetah-Acinonyx jubatus, 4.Giraffe-Giraffa camelopardalis 5.Horse-Equus caballus, , am, , p., , bl, , in out hich o the, ls oun in n i, e co e e un e the p otection o, li e ct, Mammals like Tigers and Lions are the species that are protected under the act of wildlife., , ch, , Multiple Choice Questions, , lo, , gy, , 1. __________ is a diagnostic features of phylum Porifera., a. Presence of spicules for skeleton., b. Incomplete digestive system, c. xclusive marine habitat, d. Asexual reproduction, , .b, , io, , 2. Physalia Portugese, a. Cnidaria, c. Pisces, , an of War are an example of Phylum _______., b. Porifera, d. Chordata, , w, , w, , w, , 3. __________ is an example of Free living at worm., a. Fasciola, b. Planaria, c. Taenia, d. Ascaris, 4. Presence of setae for locomotion on the body segments is seen in ________., a. Leech, b. Ascaris, c. arthworm, d. Parrot, , 5. Chitinous exoskeleton and jointed appandages are seen in ________., a. Cockroach, b. Snail, c. arthworm, d. Starfish, 79, , il

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cti it, , el the ll i, n, , e i l oots, , bl, , og, , piph tic oots Clin in, , i en ello p ope l, , sp, , se e n l, , ot, .c, om, , Collect the in o, tion o i e ent usi o, oot n esh, entitious oot s ou, su oun in, e, The part of embryo called radicle develops into root system of plants which the main function is, absorption of water and minerals from the soil which is used by the plant to make its food., But, some times roots not just follow their primary function but, also perform other functions as the, storage of food etc this is called modification of roots., Fusiform roots is an example when the roots are used for storage of food. The fusiform roots, found in my area are Radish., Similarly, adventitious roots develop from the parts of plants other than radicle of embryo., This is also used in storage of food. The examples of adventitious fleshy roots found in my area are, sweet potato and ginger., , leaves, , am, , p., , host plant, , Epiphytic root, , piph tic oots vanda, , ch, , i, , lo, , gy, , Plants that grow on other plants trees are called epiphytes., A group of plants called orchids and aroids have many epiphytes., These aerial roots produced from nodes have a special tissue called velamen. The velamen is, adapted to absorb atomospheric water vapour which is used by the epiphyte. e.g Vanda., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , usto i l o suc in oots, Plants which are holoparasites or total parasistes produce such haustorial roots from the stem., The stem of the parasite coils around the stem of the host plant and the haustorial roots penetrates, the xylem and phloem tissue of the host plant to obtain water and food respectively., Such roots are produced by parastitic plants like Cuscuta., , haustorial root, , Host, , Parasite, , i, , usto i l oot Cuscuta, 85

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tilt oots These are seen in screw pine Pandanus and mai e Zea mays ., They develop from the lower nodes of the stem and grow down at angle in a obli ue direction and, supports the main stem., node, internode, , ot, .c, om, , lower nodal part, , adventatious roots, , tilt oot M i e, , sp, , i, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , espi to, oots, enu topho es These roots are common in a group of plants called mangroves., These plants grow in the sea coasts where the soil is covered with water., As a result there is less soil aeration. From the underground lateral roots pneumatophores or, breathin roots develop., These roots come aebove the water level and through minute apertures present on the surface, atomospheric air enters the entire root system., Such roots are found in plants like Rhizophora and Avicennia., lenticle, , o, , i, , i e ent Mo i c tions o, , .b, , tu, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , pneumatophores, , enu, , roots, topho es Rhizophora, , te, , w, , w, , w, , n e oun ste s, any Plants have stems that are subterranean or underground. These stems help in the survival, of the plants during unfavourable enviromental conditions, perennation in vegetative, propogation reproduction and such stems also help in food storage. In fact food storage, is a re uirement for perennation., hi o e It is a hori ontally growing underground stem with nodes and internodes. At the nodes, non-functional Photosynthetically non-functional leaves are present. The leaves are scaly., Adventitious roots are produced from nodes. The axillary buds present in the leaf axils produce, new rhi omes which help in vegetative multiplication of the rhi omes. During favourable, environmental conditions the terminal bud produces aerial shoot system and owers., 86

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A rhi ome that grows vertically in the soil is called a root stock. hi omes are seen in plants like, ginger ingiber o cinale Canna Turmeric Curcuma longa., , ot, .c, om, , leaf, , internode, , scale leaf, adventitious, root, , hi o e, , in e, , sp, , i, , e i l ste s These stems are found at the air soil interface and they bring about vegetative, reproduction propogation very rapidly., unne They are slender stems developing from the axillary buds of parent plant. They grow, out in all directions. They develop adventitious roots at the nodes and also new plants at the, nodes. The runner creeps hori ontally on the soil surcface. It is seen in Oxalis, Centella. and, cynadon., , p., , bl, , og, , u, , ch, , internode, , i, , gy, , runner, , Green leaf, , am, , adventitious roots, , unne, , cynadon, , node, , flower, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , e i l ste s The aerial stems are variously modified to perform special fuctions like, photosynthesis protection vegetative reproduction ad mechanical suppor., h llocl es These modified stems are found in a group of plants called xerophytes plants that, grow in regions with a shortage of water . In most of these plants the leaves are reduced, to scales to prevent water loss by foliar transpiration. In the absence of leaves of the stems, becomes at and green to harness maximum light for photosynthesis such a at green stem, with many internodes is called a phylloclade. In prickly pear opuntia the phylloclade are, eshy., , internode, i, , h llocl, 87, , e opuntia, , spines

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o es They are found in xerophytic plants like Ruscus and Asparasgus the caldode is a at, green stem similar to a phyllocade. But unlike the phyllocalde which as many internodes a, cladode had just one or two internode., , cladodes, , scaly leaf, , ot, .c, om, , Cl, , stem, o e Asparagus, , ils They are structures that help a plant to climb over objects vertically. Tendrils are, produced by plants with weak stems. Tendrils may be produced from vegetative buds or, from oral buds e.g. Cucurbita., , p., , bl, , og, , en, , Cl, , sp, , i, , Leaf, , am, , Tendril, , en, , il Cucurbita, , ch, , i, , Flower, , Identify and study the di erent modifications of leaf and Phyllotaxy Also explain, In orescence Seen in plants, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , Mo i c tions o e es, h llo es These are modifications that help a plant to conserve water by reducing the rate of, water loss by transpiration, In species of Acacia the achis and many achillae of the Bipinnately compound leaf become, highly attened and green phyllodes for photosynthesis., Phyllodes are di erent parts of leaf like petiole rachis or rachillae which generraly are cylindrical, and non-green but which in the plants mentioned above turn at and green. They perform, the fuction of the lea ets which fall o to conserve water, , w, , w, , hyllodes, , w, , leaf lets, , i, , Root, , h llo es, 88

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tu, , o ni, one n, , l tissues li e loo s e c til e, uscles st i te non st i te n c, , li n, i c, te, , tu, M, , cti it, , o, , ni l tissues, li n loo, e, , o, t i te, , se e the ollo in, , i, , line C til e, o M, on st ine n C, i c, sl, , li n one, uscles, , el the, , ot, .c, om, , i, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , o h line c til e, 1. It is found as rings within trachea ends of long bones sternal parts of ribs nasal septum., 2. The cartilage forms the skeleton of vertebrate embryos and cartilaginous fishes. The outermost, protective covering of cartilage is called as pe ichon iu . It is made up of white fibrous, tissue and is supplied with blood vessels., 3. Below it perichondrium-forming cells are present called chon o l sts which are found in, uid filled spaces called l cun e., 4. Chondroblasts within lacunae are found scattered in the matrix of cartilages called chon in., 5. Chondrocytes or cartilage cells undergo division within the lacuna. Thus one two or four cells, are seen within a lacuna., 6. Cartilage provides slight exibility and rigidity to trachea preventing it from collapsing., 7. At joints it prevents friction between bones., , lacuna, , ch, , Matrix, , io, , lo, , gy, , chondroblast, , w, w, , 5., , 6., 7., 8., , Chondrocyte, o, , line c til, , e, , .b, , o, li n one, The bones form the major part of endoskeleton in most vertebrates., In mammalian bone the outermost covering is pe iosteu ., The ground substance is called as matrix., In the bone number of, e si n s ste s are present. ach Haversian system consists of, e si n c n l surrounded by concentric layers of matrix called l ell e., Between lamellae spaces called l cun are present. The bone cells or osteoc tes are present, in l cun ., The osteocytes are connected to one another by c n liculi., The processes given out by osteocytes pass through these canals., Parallel lamellae are present at the periphery and interstitial lamellae are present in between, the Haversian system., 92, , w, , 1., 2., 3., 4., , i, , Perichondrium

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ot, .c, om, , t i te o, elet l Muscle i es olunt, Muscles, 1. This are number of elongated cylindrical fibres which lie parallel to each other., 2. ach muscle fibre shows alternate dark and light bands hence they look like striped or striated., 3. any nuclei are present in each fibre., 4. ach fibre is surrounded by a thin sheath called s cole, ., 5. oluntary muscles of the body as those of hands legs face and tongue are made up of striated, muscles., 6. They carry out voluntary movements of the body., , Fig. Muscular tissue, , og, , Nucleus, , sp, , striations, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , on st ine o, ooth uscle, es n olunt, Muscles, 1. ach muscle cell or fibre is elongated spindle shaped tapering at both the ends., 2. ach cell contains oval shaped nucleus situated centrally which is surrounded by cytoplasm, called s copl s ., 3. ach muscle fibre possess longitudinally arranged myofibrils., 4. Several muscle fibers are joined by loose connective tissue to form bundles., 5. The cells are covered by s cole, , Fig. Smooth muscle, , w, , w, , C, i c Muscle e s, 1. Cardiac muscle fibres are cylindrical., 2. The fibres are branched and unite with each other and are multinucleated., 3. The dark and light bands are present in each fibre but less prominent than that of the striated, muscle fibres., 4. The two-adjacent cells are separated from each other by distinct inte c l te iscs., 5. ach fibre is covered by a very think sheath called s cole, ., 6. These muscles form the wall of heart myocardium ., 94

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cti it, , se e the i e ent Muscles t pes un e the ui, , ot, .c, om, nce o te che, , bl, , og, , Questions, Q. 1 bserve the chart shown below and complte it., , sp, , Fig. Cardiac muscles, , onst i te, , am, , Striated, , p., , Muscles, , smooth, , cardiac, , ch, , elet l, , voluntary, , gy, , n olunt, , .b, , io, , lo, , Q. 2 What is muscle ?, A muscle is a group of muscle tissues which contract together to produce a force. A muscle consists of, fibers of muscle cells surrounded by protective tissue, , bserve the diagrams shown below and identifty the muscle types., Write charactristics of each type., , w, , w, , w, , Q. 3, , Cardiac muscle, , skeletal muscle, 95, , smooth muscle

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-Rectangular in shape, Single nucleus, Contain many mitochondria, Communicate via intercalated discs, Present in myocardium (cardiac muscle), Skeletal muscle cell -Cylindrical, Striated, Multinucleated, Contain many mitochondria, Present in skeletal muscles, Smooth muscle cell -Spindle shaped, Single central nucleus, Arranged in sheets, Present in muscular layers of the vessels, and within internal organs, Q.4 Where are haversian systems found? Write the structure of Haversian system., 1.A hervasian canal, oesteocyte and lamellae form a Haversian system., 2.This system is found in the bone matrix of long bones like femur, humerus and others., 3.The haversian canals consists of veins, arteries, areolar tissues, nerves and lymph. It is also, called as osteon., 4.Haversian canal remains surrounded by concentric rings of lamellar bone in which specialized, cells called osteocytes are embedded in their lacunae., , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , Cardiac muscle cell, , am, , Q.5 Why striated muscles are called skeletal muscles or oluntary muscles sometimes?, , gy, , ch, , Striated muscles are the skeletal muscles which are also known as voluntary muscles. They are, called voluntary muscles because their action is under the control of the somatic nervous system, and their movement can be controlled by our will., , Q.6 What is a normal blood smear?, , io, , lo, , A blood smear is considered normal when your blood contains a sufficient number of cells and the, cells have a normal appearance. A blood smear is considered abnormal when there's an, abnormality in the size, shape, color, or number of cells in your blood., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , Q. 7 What is the main job of the red corpuscles in the blood?, The main job of red blood cells, or erythrocytes, is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the body, tissues and carbon dioxide as a waste product, away from the tissues and back to the lungs., Hemoglobin (Hb) is an important protein in the red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs, to all parts of our body., Q. 8 What are the component of mammalian blood?, Mammalian blood is composed of plasma and three types of cells, red blood cells, white blood cells, and, platelets., Plasma, It is a light yellow-coloured alkaline liquid., It mainly consists of water (90–92%), proteins (7–8%), inorganic salts (1%) and other substances (trace, amounts)., 96

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Multiple Choice Questions, kidney shaped, , 2. oluntary movements of body are carried out with the help of _______., a. Non-striated muscies, b. Striated muscles, c. Neutrophils, d. Acidophils, , ot, .c, om, , 1. _______ is the largest cell in human blood having single, nucleus., a. Lymphocyte, b. onocyte, c. Neutrophil, d. Basophil, , 3. A spindle shaped muscle cell having single oval shaped nucleus is ______., b. Smooth muscle fibre, a. Skeletal muscle fi bre, c. Cardiac muscles, d. Nerve fibre, , og, , p., , bl, , 5. What is the di erence between cartilage and bone?, a. Bone is exible and cartilage is firm, b. Cartilage is exible and bone is firm, c. Bone is a more primitive tissue than cartilage, d. Bone is inside the body and cartilage is outside, , sp, , 4. Presence of intercalated discs is characteristic of _____________., a. Striated muscle, b. nstriated muscle, c. Cardiac muscles, d. oluntary muscle, , ch, , am, , 6. How do muscles attach to the bones move the body?, a. Automatically, b. Pull movement only, c. Push movement only, d. Push and pull, , lo, , gy, , 7. Which of the following statement incorrect?, a. Bone is where most blood cells are made, b. Bone serves a store house for various minerals, c. Bone is a dry and non-living supporting structure, d. Bone protects and supports the body and its organs, , w, , .b, , io, , 8. Blood smear is stained with __________ stain., a. ethylene blue, b. Safranin, c. Leishman stain, d. Carbon fuchsine, , w, , w, , 9. The process of formation of blood corpuscles is called __________., a. Haemolysis, b. Haemo oin, c. Haemopoesis, d. Haemoter, Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 97

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o stu, , the, , te o, , espi tion in o e in, e in tin see s, , u, , le, , tissues, , te, i, , o stu, , the, , te o, , espi tion in o e in, , u le, , tissues e, , in tin see s, , M te i ls e ui e, , ot, .c, om, , inciple The rate of respiration is always higher in younger actively growing meristematic, tissues than that of older and mature parts. There is a direct relationship between the amount of, protoplasm and the rate of respiration the greater the protoplasm the higher is the respiration rate., anong s respirometer fresh ower buds or leaves or germinating seeds, saline water stand, H pellets etc., , og, , sp, , i u e, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , Smaller Bulb, , non s espi o ete, , gy, , i u e, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , oce u e, 1. The anong s respiroscope consists of a bulb like part and a bent tube., 2. Some germinating seeds are taken in the bulb and mouth of the bent tube is kept immersed in, a beaker containing caustic potash, H solution., 3. The respiroscope is fixed in a stand., 4. The enclosed air in the ask is completely cut o from the outside atmosphere., 5. The apparatus is left undisturbed for a few hours., se tion, The rise in the level of water indicates that CO2 is produced by germinating seeds during respiration., Actually, the germinating seeds respire and produce CO2, which is absorbed by KOH solution. This, creates a vacuum in the conical flask. The air present in the bent glass tube moves into the conical flask., This pulls the water in the bent tube further up., Conclusion, Fresh flower buds/leaves tissue/ germinating seeds use O2 for aerobic respiration and evolve CO2, 98

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Questions, Q. 1 Why the rate of respiration is higher in germinating seeds?, , ot, .c, om, , To fulfill the high-energy needs of a germinating seedling, cellular respiration increases, as a seed emerges from dormancy and begins germinating. However, seeds respire at a lower rate, throughout dormancy. As the seeds respire they take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide at, roughly the same rate., , og, , sp, , Q. 2 Why, H is used in this experiment?, Potassium hydroxide is used in this experiment played the role of absorbtion of carbon-dioxide, from the plant surrounding., , am, , p., , bl, , Q. 3 Why do the leaves show negligible rate of respiration in this experiment?, Respiration in plants happens throughout the day and night thereby carbon dioxide is produced., However, during the daytime, the amount of carbon dioxide released is negligible compared to, the amount of oxygen produced as a result of photosynthesis., , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , Q. 4 Which apparatus is used to study the rate of respiration?, A Ganong’srespirometer is a device used to measure the rate of respiration of a living organism by, measuring its rate of exchange of oxygen and/or carbon dioxide., , Multiple Choice Questions, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , 1. Which of the following show higher rater of respiration?, a. Collenchyma, b. Leaf, c. Dry seeds, d. erminating seeds, 2. For which of the following process presence of chlorophyll is not necessary?, a. Photosynthesis, b. Photorespiration, c. espiration, d. rana, 99

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o stu, , the n e o ic espi tion, te, , i, , o stu, , the n e o ic espi tion, , ot, .c, om, , inciple Breakdown of food substances to obtain energy in absence of oxygen is called anaerobic, respiration. It is observed in several anaerobic organisms like yeast and certain types of tissues in, human body anaerobic respiration yield s much less energy per mole of glucose as campaired to, aerobic respiration., M te i ls e ui e, Test Tube Petridish Sa ranin water Add small uantity of sa ranin in, water to make coloured water., erminating seeds saline water stand, H pellets etc., , 2, , og, , C, , sp, , i u e, , am, , p., , bl, , Soaked seeds, , gy, , ch, , Sa ranin water, , e onst tion o, , n e o ic espi tion, , lo, , i u e, , io, , oce u e, 1. Take a small test-tube and fill it with Sa ranin water., 2. Invert this test tube over a petri dish containing Sa ranin water., , .b, , 3. Introduce germinating seeds at the base of test tube., , w, , 4. The germinating seeds are lighter than the Sa ranin water so they oat over the mercury in the, test tube., , w, , w, , 5. If the, H pallets are introduce in the test tube the level of Sa ranin water rises again because, H absorbs C 2., , se tion, 1. After few hours, the mercury level in the test tube falls down due to the accumulation of gas, evolved during respiration of germinating seeds., 2. The evolved gas is CO2. It is indicated by, if KOH pellete is introduced in the test tube, again the, level rises. This indicates that anaerobic respiration has taken place., Thus the germinating seeds respired even in absence of O2, to evolve CO2,, 101

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Concul tion, There is no air in the test tube, but the seeds respire anaerobically and release CO2. Theretore, level of mercury goes down. KOH pallete absorbs CO2, and so the level rises when KOH pallete is, introduced. This indicates that anaerobic respiration has taken place., Questions, Q. 1 Why the rate of respiration is higher in germinating seeds?, , ot, .c, om, , To fulfill the high-energy needs of a germinating seedling, cellular respiration increases as a seed, emerges from dormancy and begins germinating. However, seeds respire at a lower rate throughout, dormancy. As the seeds respire they take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide at roughly the same, rate, , og, , sp, , Q. 2 Why should the seeds be kept moist during the experiment?, The seeds are required to be kept moist so that there is enough amount of water for the growth and, production of the new parts in the seeds. If there is no moisture, the cells in the seeds will dry up., , p., , bl, , Q. 3 How does the use of, H help to show that C 2 is released during respiration in the above, experiment?, Potassium hydroxide is used in the experiment for the absorption of CO2 from the plant released, during respiration. When KOH absorbs CO2, it creates a vacuum in the flask. The air present in the, bent glass tube moves into the conical flask. This pulls the water in the bent tube further up., , gy, , ch, , am, , Q. 4 What would happen if test tube containing, H solution is removed form the conical ask, in the set up?, KOH solution absorbs the CO2 released during respiration of seeds, which creates a partial vacuum, in the conical flask, causing the rise in the water level of the U-shaped delivery tube. Rise in the, level of water shows that CO2 is released during respiration., , io, , lo, , Multiple Choice Questions, 1. In both aerobic anaerobic respiration which same product is formed, a. Lactic acid, b. Pyruvic acid, c. Citric acid, d. rganic acid, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , 2. nly partial breakdown of glucose molecule takes place in, a. Aerobic respiration, b. Anerobic respiration, c. Passive respiration, d. Active respiration, 3. Wastes of anerobic respiration include, a. Lactic acid, b. thenol, c. Carbon dioxide d. nergy, Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 102

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am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , te n l e tu es o coc o ch Periplaneta americana, Ch ct istics, 1. It is laterally symmetrical reddish brown coloured triploblastic coelomate animal., 2. Cocokroach is common houshold pest., 3. It has nocturnal ornnivarous cursorial i.e. it is fast runner., 4. It is elongated dorsoventrally attened body., 5. Body of cockroach is protected by hard wary chitinous exoskeleton ., 6. ach body segment has four plates - dorsal tergum ventral sterum two lateral pleura., 7. Body is segmented and divided into head thorax abdomen., 8. Head is small attached to the thorax by a short neck called cervicum., 9. Head bears compuand eyes antennae fenestrae mouth parts., 10. Compound eyes are with hexagonal facets called ommatidia., 11. Antennae are two elongated jointed structures useful for sense of smell., 12. Fenestrae are white spots present at the base of antennae., 13. Thorax is made up of three parts-prothorax mesothorax metathorax., 14. Thorax on dorsal side produce two pairs of wing First pair is dark thick while second pair, is thin transparent., 15. First pair of wings is protective second pair is useful for ying., 16. Thorax on ventral side bears three pairs of jointed legs for walking running., 17. Abdomen is made up of 11 segments where 10th and 11th are fused., 18. ale cockroach bear a pair of anal styles in 9th segment., 19. In both male female 10th segment bear a pair of cereci which are sensitive to movement of, air sound vibrations., 20. ight pair of spiracle are present in the abdomen., , gy, , ch, , i, o stu the i esti e s ste, o coc o ch ith the help o C, hoto, o el, e ui e ent Photographs or model or ICT of digestive system of cockroach., cti it, se e the u e i en elo n l el the p ts, Salivary gland, , lo, , Salivary reservoir, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , Oesophagous, Crop, , Haemocoel, , Gizzard, Midgut, Rectum, , Malphigian tubules, i, 104, , i esti e s ste, , o coc o ch, , ph ch ts

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tion, The digestive system of cockroach consists of the alimentary canal and the digestive glands., The alimentary canal consists of following parts, eo l c it This cavity lies in front of the mouth and is bound by the mouth parts., Mouth It is small aperture at the anterior side. It opens into pharynx., h n It is a short vertical tube opening into oesophagus., esoph us It is narrow tube running through the neck region., C op The oesophagus dilates into large bag called the crop. It stores food for a short time., i, It is thick walled conical muscular organ for grinding and filtering the food., ep tic c ec e These are eight blind tubes lined internally by glandular cells. These, open at the beginning of mesenteron. They secrete digestive en ymes., Mi ut esente on It is a short tube located between gi ard and hind gut. It is lined, by endodermal cells. In mid gut digestion and absorption of food takes place., in ut It consists of ileum short and tubular0 colon long and coiled and rectum, broad terminal part which opens outside through the anus. At the junction of midgut and, hindgut there are seen 60-80 pale yellow long hair like structures called alpighian tubules, excretory in function ., li, l n s These are paired structures situated one on either side of crop having a, pair of glandular portion and a receptacle or reservoir. Ducts arising from glandular portion, unite to form a common duct. The reservoir of each side also gives o a duct and the ducts, form both the sides unite to form a common duct. The two common ducts join to form an, e erent salivary duct which opens at the base of the hypopharynx., , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , se, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , Questions, Q. 1 nlist the parts of Digestive system of Cockroach., Mouth, Pharnyx, Oesophagus, Crop, Gizzard, Malphigian tubules, Ileum, Colon, Rectum, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , crops is used to store the food. when the food is store in crop the wall of crop release some jucies for, digestion, gizzards are the chitinous teeth which help in mastication of food finally hepatic caeca release the, digestive juices too, , Q. 3 Write the function malpighian tubules., The main function of the Malpighian tubulesis the exc retion of nitrogenous products and other, remains of metabolites., , 105

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ot, .c, om, , Q. 4 Why is cockroach important in day to day life of human being?, Cockroaches are very important in humans day to day life because cockroaches are professional, recyclers., • Cockroaches contain protozoa bacteria in their digestive systems., • This will help to convert the waste into easily absorbed nutrients., • This is the main task for cockroaches in day to day life., • Cockroaches play an important role in degrading the plant material., • The most important role of cockroaches is decomposing without cockroaches more dirt would, load all over the world., , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , Q. 5 Write the location of salivary glands in cockroach, The paired salivary glands in the cockroach are situated one on either side of the crop in the, prothoracic region., Q. 6 ive the names of parts of forgut., 1. Mouth, 2. Pharynx, 3. Oesophagus or crop, 4. Gizzard, 5. Pair of salivary glands, Q. 7 Write the function of first pair of wing and second pair of wing., Cockroach have 2 pair of wings but both of them have different functions., The 1st pair of wing is dark brown color and comparatively thick than the 2nd pair of wing which helps, them to protect from environmental hazards or from the effect of microorganisms., The 2nd pair of wing is thinner than the 1st pair of wings and mainly helps them to flight for a short, distance., Q. 8 How many pairs of leg are present in cockroach., , ch, , A cockroach has three pairs of walking legs, Q. 9 ive the names of three parts of thorax., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , Thorax. The middle tagma, or thorax, comprises three large segments: prothorax (anterior most segment),, mesothorax (middle), and metathorax (posterior), Q. 10 What is di erence between compound eye and simple eye., Compound eyes are made up of clusters of ommatidia, but simple eyes are made up of only one single unit, of eye., Compound eyes are found in most of the arthropods, annelids and molluscs. However, simple eyes are, found among many types of organisms including most of the higher vertebrates., Compound eyes can cover a wider angle compared to simple eyes., The types of simple eyes are more diversified than the compound eyes., The polarisation of sunlight could be understood via compound eyes, but not through simple eyes., Q. 11 What is the function of antennae in cockroach., Cockroach antennae have been extensively used for studying the multifunctional sensory appendage, that generates the olfactory, gustatory, tactile, thermal, and humidity senses., , 106

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Multiple Choice Questions, 1. In cockroach grinding of food material takes place in .............., a. Crop, b. esophagus, c. i ard, d. Pharynx, , ot, .c, om, , 2. Hepatic caecae are located at the junction of ................., a. Foregut and midgut, b. idgut and hind gut, c. Hind gut and foregut, d. Crop and rectum, , p., , 5. Cockroach belongs to class............................., a. Arachnida, b. yriapoda, c. Crustancea, d. Insecta, , og, , esenteron is also called as ......................................., a. ut, b. Fore gut, c. id gut, d. Hind gut, , bl, , 4., , sp, , 3. In cockroach pre oral cavity leads into............................, a. Pharynx, b. esophagus, c. outh, d. Crop, , am, , 6. The dorsal exoskeletal plates present in body segment of cockroach is called as ............., a. Pisclerites, b. Pleura, c. Sterna, d. Terga, , gy, , yes of cockroach are made up of................., a. etina, b. Fenestrae, c. scillar sports, d. mmatidia, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , 8., , ch, , 7. Cockroach is ...................., a. mnivorous, b. Carnivorous, c. Herbivorous, d. Cannibalism, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 107

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ot, .c, om, , outh parts of cockroach are chewing biting type. There are five segmented movable types of mouth parts as follows..., u It is upper lip. It holds the food during feeding., M n i les These are true jaws. These are hard ctitinous structures with serrated margins., These are useful in cutting crushing of food., M ill e These are two accessory jaws on the either side behind mandibles. These are, sensory in function., iu, It is lower lip. It pushes the food in pre-oral cavity., poph n It is tongue a long prominent medially placed appendage., i, , o coc o ch, Wall of gi ard is made by circular muscles. Internal lining of g ard is made up of hard, cuticle arranged in six teeth like structures. i ard is meant for grinding the food., esc i e the st uctu e o, , i, , sp, , cti it, , Teeth, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , Circular, muscles, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , i, e te, i, o Coc o ch, 1.The gizzard is a kind of muscular stomach in cockroach. It consists of sharp teeth which is able, to grind the food into small parts., 2.It is covered with round thick wall with muscular chitins., 3.It consists of six teeth in the stomach which aids in the grinding of the food. It also aids in the, mastication of the food., , che o coc o ch, In cockroach the respiration is by means of trachea which form a longitudinal transverse, network in dorsal ventral lateral side. n each segment small openings called spiracles are, present. Spiracles connect to larger tubes called tracheoles. ach trachea branches into smaller, tubes called tracheoles. Tracheoles surround all the body parts tissues. Air enters through spiracle into trachea. From trachea air enter into trachea from trachea oxygen di uses into cells of, tissue di uses out. Thus trachea are fine tubes internally lined by spiral thickening called intima., 109

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cti it, , se e the i, , i en elo, , n l, , el the p ts, , Spiracle, Atrium, Atrial muscle, , Tracheole, , ot, .c, om, , Atrial epithelium, Nucleus, , Tracheole cell, , sp, , Epithelium, , bl, , Questions, , og, , Trachea, , Intima, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , Q. 1 nlist the names of mouth parts of cockroach and give their functions., The following are the parts of the mouth in cockroach:, 1. Labrum: It is the part of the upper lip. It exhibit gustatory senses. It helps in tasting and handling of food., 2. Mandibles: These are important for the mastication of food., 3. First pair of maxillae: It is used for cleaning the antennae and the first pair of legs., 4. Labium: It is used for the fusion of second pair of the maxillae., 5. Hypopharynx: It performs the function of the tongue. It exhibits the salivary ducts for the mixing of food., , io, , lo, , Q. 2 Why gi ard is called grinding machine for cockroach?, The gizzard is the next structure that is present after the crop. It is also called the proventriculus. It helps in, grinding the food particles due to the presence of six chitinous plates called teeth., , .b, , Q. 3 What is the alternative name for tongue of cockroach? Why?, , w, , w, , w, , 1.The alternative name for tongue of cockroach is hypopharynx., 2.Hypopharynx is considered as tongue in cockroach because it helps in movement of food in the pre oral, cavity of cockroach., 3.The hypopharynx is found medially to the mandibles and the maxillae., 4. It is behind the preoral cavity and before the labium., 5. The hypopharynx is for the most part membraneous and intently with the salivary organs and additionally, salivary pipes., 6. The hypopharynx capacities as a tongue, moving nourishment around in the preoral pit., , 110

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Q. 4 How many spiracles are present in thoracic and abdominal region of cockroach?, , ite the isc iption o, , cti it, , sp, , bl, , i en on p, , e, , ch, , cti it, , am, , 3. The true jaw of cockroach is ..................., a. andible, b. axille, c. Labrum, d. Labium, , p., , 2. The mouth parts in cockroach are of ..................., a. Sucking type, b. Chewing biting type, c. Siphoning type, d. Sponging type, , og, , Multiple Choice Questions, 1. Which of the following is incorrect pair?, a. Labrum, pper Lip, b. onapophyses Tongue, c. Labium Lower Lip, d. andibles Jaws, , ot, .c, om, , 1.The tracheal system of cockroach communicates with the exterior by ten pairs of openings, called spiracles., 2.The first 2 pairs of spiracles are present in the thoracic segments, one pair in mesothorax and, one pair in the metathorax., 3.The remaining 8 pairs of spiracles are present in the first eight abdominal segments., , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , outh parts of cockroach are chewing biting type. There are five segmented movable types of mouth parts as follows..., u It is upper lip. It holds the food during feeding., M n i les These are true jaws. These are hard ctitinous structures with serrated margins., These are useful in cutting crushing of food., M ill e These are two accessory jaws on the either side behind mandibles. These are, sensory in function., iu, It is lower lip. It pushes the food in pre-oral cavity., poph n It is tongue a long prominent medially placed appendage., , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 111

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tu, i, , o stu, , o histolo o i esti e o ns o, o, nc e s, ll intestine n, , the histolo, , o o, , i e, , ls viz, , te, , ns, , e ui e ents Permanent slides of T. S. of Pancreas Small Intestine and Liver., , nc e s, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , o, , ot, .c, om, , cti it, bserve the slides under the microscope and write down your observation and label the, parts of diagram., , ll ntestine, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , o, , gy, , ch, , am, , Fig. Histological structure of Pancreas, It is a composite (mixed) gland which functions as both exocrine and endocrine gland., About 99% of pancreatic cells are arranged in clusters called acini (exocrine gland). These cells produce, digestive enzymes which flow into gastrointestinal tract through a duct., Scattered among exocrine acini are tiny groups of endocrine tissue called islets of Langerhans., Two main types of cells in islets of Langerhans are α–cells and β–cells., The α–cells secrete a hormone called glucagon whereas β–cells secrete insulin., , Fig. Histological structure of Small Intestine, The histological structure of the small intestine is similar to the other organs in the digestive tract. There are, four main layers:, Mucosa (Innermost layer) – Contains the epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosae., Submucosa – Connective tissue layer, which contains blood vessels, lymphatics and the submucosal plexus., ., 112

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p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , Muscularis externa – Consists of two smooth muscle layers; the outer longitudinal layer and inner, circular layer. The myenteric plexus lies between them, Adventitia (Outermost layer) – Comprised of loosely arranged fibroblasts and collagen, with the, vessels and nerves passing through it. The majority of the small intestine adventitia is covered by, mesothelium and is commonly called the serosa., The small intestine is the major absorptive site in the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore has a number, of modifications to aid its function. The mucosa and submucosa form large numbers of folds (or plicae), arranged in a circular fashion in the lumen (therefore called plicae circulares). Additionally, the plicae, contain microvilli to further increase the surface area, which increases absorption., o i e, , Fig. Histological structure of Liver, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , 1.Liver is the largest gland of the body covered by a thin covering called Glisson's Capsule, 2.Internally the liver lobes are divided into Several structural and functional units called, hepatic lobules, 3.Each hepatic lobule is polygonal in shape and contains cords of hepatic cells arranged, around a central vein., 4.In between the cords of hepatic cells there are spaces called sinusoids filled with blood., They contain phagocytic Kupffercells., 5.Hepatic cells produce bile juice which is stored in gall bladder., Questions, , .b, , io, , 1. Name the largest gland of the body., Liver is the largest gland of our body, , w, , w, , w, , 2. Name the cells responsible responsible for secretion of bile., Hepatic cells of liver are responsivle for secretion of bile, 3. What do acini secrete in Pancreas?, acini of pancreas secrete pancreatic juice, 4. Name the cells of islets of Langerhans., Alpha cells, Beta cells and Delta cells, , 113

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5. Name the layers seen in T.S. of intestine, The small intestine wall has four layers: the outermost serosa, muscularis, submucosa, and innermost, mucosa., , ot, .c, om, , 6. What do pancreatic beta cell do?, Beta cells (β cells) are a type of cell found in pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete insulin and amylin., Multiple choice uestions, 1. _____________ cells are responsible for the secretion of dil.HCl, a. Chief cells, b. xyntic cells, c. ucous cells, d. Submucosa, , og, , sp, , 2. The mucosa of the small intestine is folded into numerous finger like projections called, ____________., a. icrovilli, b. illi, c. Lacteal, d. Cilia, , p., , up er cells are seen in _________., a. Pituitary, b. Thyroid, c. Liver, d. Pancreas, , am, , 4., , bl, , 3. ____________gland is both endocrine and exocrine in nature., a. Pituitary, b. Thyroid, c. Liver, d. Pancreas, , gy, , ch, , 5. Which part of pancreas produces and secretes insulin?, a. lomerulus, b. Bowman s capsule, c. Islets of Langerhans, d. Loop of henle, , .b, , io, , lo, , 6. In pancreatic islets of Langerhans alpha cells are found in ______ of the islet while beta cell, are usually found in the _______ of the islet., a. Periphery Center, b. Center Periphery, c. ually in both regions periphery, d. Periphery, ually in both regions, , w, , w, , w, , 7. Secretion of pancreatic juice is stimulated by _________ ., a. astrin, b. Secretion, c. nterokinase, d. nterogastron, , Remark and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., ........................................................................................................................................................, 114

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i l s eleton, It comprises of skull vertebral column, and thoracic cage. ertebral column os made up, of 33 vertebrae. They are cervical neck region, thoracic lumbar sacral and coccygeal., , sp, og, bl, p., , am, , Cent u o o, it is thick disc-shaped, and present on anterior side. It has at upper, and lower surface Amphiplatyan, eu l ch, 1. It present on posterior side., 2. It is a bony ring formed by pedicles and, lamina., 3. Neural arch encloses a cavity known as, vertebral foramen., 4. Neural arch bears transverse processes, spinous process superior and inferior, articular processes., , ot, .c, om, , sic pl n o t pic l e te, All vertebrae of human being are, constructed on the same basic plan. The typical, vertebra has two main parts- namely the, centrum of body and neural arch., , e te, , l colu n o M n, , lo, , io, , pic l Ce ic l e te, , w, , 2., 3., 4., , pic l ce ic l e te, These are small in si e and more in width, than length., Centrum is small and at., ertebral foramen is triangular., Spinous process is short and bifid i.e. split, at tip., Transverse processes are wider short and, bear foramen transversarium., , .b, , 1., , gy, , ch, , Ce ic l e te, e, Seven vertebrae present in neck region, are called Cervical vertebrae. 1st 2nd and 7th, vertebrae are called atypical while 3rd to 6th, vertebrae are typical vertebrae and are called, typical cervical vertebrae., , w, , w, , 5., , 1., 2., 3., 4., , tl s o st ce ic l e te, It is ring like vertebra., Centrum or body is reduced., Spinous process is reduced., ertebral foramen is large divided into, anterior odontoid foramen and posterior, vertebral foramen by ligament., 116, , tl s e te

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1., 2., 1., 2., 3., 4., , ot, .c, om, , sp, , te nu, It is also called chest bone., It is at and elongated., It consists of manubrium body and xiphoid, process., anubrium is an anterior part which, articulates with clavicle and first two pairs, of ribs., The body of sternum is middle part which, articulates with 5 pairs of true ribs. iphoid, process is small cartilaginous terminal part, of sternum. It is connected with diaphragm, and abdominal muscles., , io, , lo, , 5., , og, , 7., , .b, , w, , 2., , w, , 3., 4., 5., , te nu, , n, , i c, , e, , i s, The ribs partially enclose and protect the chest cavity where vital organs the heart and the, lungs are located., The rib cage is collectively made up of long curved individual bones with connections to the, vertebrae., At the chest many ribs connect to the sternum via coastal cartilage segments of hyaline, cartilage that allow the rib cage to expand during inspiration., The human rib cage is made up of 12 paired rib bones each are symmetrically paired on a right, and left side., f all 12 pairs of ribs the first seven pairs are called as true. These bones are connected to the, costal cartilage while the five other false ribs are not., , w, , 1., , bl, , 6., , p., , 5., , am, , 3., 4., , ch, , 2., , gy, , 1., , c u, ith cocc, ns c u, c u, It is triangular compact bone formed by fusion, of five sacral vertebrae., Paired sacral foramina are present in between, these vertebrae and they are four in human., ertebral foramen is triangular., Base of sacrum is broad and articulated with, last lumbar vertebra while apex is narrow and, connected with coccyx., Laterally the two wing like alae of sacrum, articulate with the pelvic girdle., Anterior surface is concave and posterior, surface is convex., c u, n Cocc, The centrum of Ist sacral vertebra projects, anteriorly called sacral promontory., Cocc, It is tapering part of vertebral column., It is small triangular bone formed by fusion of four coccygeal vertebrae., , 118

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6. Three of those connect to non-costal cartilage and last two are deemed to be oating which, means they only connect to the vertebral column., 7. While there are some cases of minor anatomical variation men and women generally have the, same amount of ribs. A di ering rib count between the genders is largely a medical myth., o ppen icul s eleton, Appendicular skeleton is formed of pectoral girdle pelvic girdle and the bones of limbs. It, is formed of 126 bones., pecto l i le shoul e i le, The pectoral girdle consists of two bones the anterior clavicle and the posterior scapula., Cl icle coll, one, 1. It is long cylindrical and slightly s shaped bone., 2. It extends hori ontally across the upper thorax and at the base of neck., 3., edial end of clavicle articulates with, manubrium of sternum., 4. The lateral end of clavicle articulates with, acromion of the scapula., 5. Clavicle prevents the dropping of shoulder, and provides free movements to the arm by, Cl icle, keeping is away from the trunk., c pul, 1. It is at and triangular bone., 2. It is located on the dorsal side of thorax and, it extends from 2nd to 7th ribs., 3. It has superior medial and lateral borders., 4. The medial border is parallel to the vertebral, column., 5. lenoid cavity is present at the junction of, superior and lateral borders. It receives head, of humerus forming ball and socket joint., 6. The posterior surface of the scapula bears, sharp prominent spine, 7. The spine is expanded laterally into, c pul, acromion process., 8. Superior border bears scapular notch and, hook- shaped coracoid process., one o o eli, u e us, 1. It is elongated bone of the upper arm., 2. It articulates with scapula at shoulder and, with radius and ulna at the elbow., 3. The proximal end of humerus has, rounded head greater and lesser tubercles, tuberosities ., u e us, 119, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , tu

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5., 6., 7., 8., , ot, .c, om, sp, , 4., , og, , 3., , bl, , 2., , ius ln, These are two long parallel bones forming, the skeleton of forearm., adium is present on thumb side and ulna is, present to little finger side., The proximal and distal ends of these bones, are articulated to each other., The gap present between these two bones, in the middle is filled with interosseous, membrane., The radius is short and its at proximal end, articulates with capitulum of humerus., Proximal end of ulna has trochlear notch, coronoid process and olecranon process., The olecranon process forms the elbow, joint with humerus., Distal ends of radius and ulna are provided, with styloid process., , p., , 1., , Head fits into glenoid cavity of pectoral girdle., The shaft is cylindrical long and it bears deltoid thuberosity and nutrient foramen., Distal end of humerus consists of medial and lateral epicondyles. Capitulum and trochlea., Lateral ball- like capitulum articulates with radius and medial pulley shaped trochlea articulates, with ulna., , am, , 4., 5., 6., 7., , ln, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , C el ic i le ip i le, 1. It is present in pelvic region of the body., 2. It is formed by two coxal bones or, innominate bones known as hip bones., 3. ach hip bone is large at irregular and, consists of Ilium pubis and ischium., 4. Ilium is situated dorsally and joined to, sacrum by sacro-iliac joint., 5. Pubis is narrow at bone present in front., 6. Two pubis bones join together to form a, joint called pubic symphysis., 7. Ischium forms posterior and inferior portion, of the hip bone. Is supports the body weight, in the sitting posture., 8. The pubis and ischium together form a ring, like obturator foramen., 9. Lateral border of hip bone bears a cavity, known as acetabulum. It receives the head, of femur bone and forms ball and socket, joint., , ius, , 120, , el ic i, , le

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sp, og, i i, , i ul, , w, , w, , w, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , ch, , am, , p., , i i, ul, 1. Tibia and fibula are the two bones present in, the shank region., 2. These two bones are connected by an, interosseous membrane and articulated, with each other proximally and distally by, ligaments., 3. Tibia is large and stout bone present on medial, side., 4. Proximal end of tibia has medial and lateral, condyles articulating with the corresponding, condyles of the femur., 5. Distal end of tibia has strong process called, medial malleolus., 6. Fibula is long slender bone and it is present, laterally., 7. Proximal end of fibula is rounded and it, articulates with tibia., 8. Distal end of fibula develops lateral malleolus., , e u, , bl, , e u, 1. Femur is present in the thigh region., 2. It is the largest longest and strongest bone of, the body., 3. The proximal end of femur has head neck, greater and lesser trochanters., 4. The head of femur is rounded and it fits into, acetabulum of pelvic girdle forming ball and, socket joint., 5. Trochanters provide surface for muscle, attachment., 6. The shaft is elongated cylindrical and it has, ridge called linea aspera., 7. Distal end of femur consists of medial and, lateral condyles and patellar surface for, articulation with patella or knee cap., , ot, .c, om, , ones o hin li, , tell, 1. The patella is also known as the kneecap., 2. It sits in front of the knee joint and protects the, joint from damage., 3. It is the largest ses oi one in the body and, lies within the uadriceps tendon., 121, , tell

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Questions, Q. 1 In which part of the skeleton are factures and dislocations more serious?, In ball and socket joint of the Skeleton are fractures and its locations are more serious ., Q. 2 In which part of the skeleton are factures and dislocations more common?, , am, , p., , bl, , og, , sp, , ot, .c, om, , They most commonly occur in the shoulder or hands, but also happen in the hip, knee, elbow, ankle, fingers, and toes. Symptoms includes intense pain, swelling and bruising, limited movement and a joint that is, visibly out of place. It is important to seek immediate medical attention for a joint dislocation., Q. 3 What part make on the axial skeleton?, The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of a vertebrate., In the human skeleton, it consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts; the skull (22 bones), the ossicles, of the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column., Q. 4 What part make on the appendicular skeleton?, The human appendicular skeleton is composed of the bones of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, the pectoral, girdle, and the pelvic girdle.The pectoral girdle acts as the point of attachment of the upper limbs to the, body.The upper limb consists of the arm, the forearm, and the wrist and hand., The pelvic girdle is responsible for bearing the weight of the body and is responsible for locomotion; it is, also responsible for attaching the lower limbs to the body., Q. 5 Describe the specifi c function of the appendicular skeleton?, 1) Locomotion by the help of legs.2)Attachment of hand & leg muscles.3) Attachment of hands on shoulder &, legs on hip. 4) Balance the body weight on hip bone. 5) There are many functions of fore limb alone., Multiple Choice Questions, 1., Lumber vertebra is found in ________., a. Neck region, b. Abdominal region, c. Hip region, d. Thorax, The total number of vertebrae in man is _____., a. 30, b. 31, c. 32, d. 33, , 3., , In mammals number of cervical vertebra are ___________., a. 5, b. 7, c. 10, d. 12, , 6., , Cranium of man is made of ……………..bones., a. 8, b. 12, c. 10, d. 16, , 7., , Which of the following vertebra is formed from four vertebrae., a. Sacrum, b. Coccyx, c. Atlas, d. Axis, , 8., , Number of bones in human skull is, a. 29, b. 28, c. 107, , gy, , lo, , io, , .b, , d. 26, , Half of the lower jaw of man have…………. Number of boness., b. 4, c. 6, d. 8, a. 1, , w, , 9., , ch, , 2., , w, , w, , 11., , 14., , Joints of femur with pelvic girdle is ___________., a. Hinge joint, b. Non-moveable joint, c. Pivot joint, d. Ball and socket joint, Ball and Socket joint can be seen in __________., a. Wrist, b. Fingers, c. Neck, d. Shoulder, , ........................................................................................................................................................, Remark, and Signature of Teacher ..............................................................................................., 122

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ui elines o, , o ects n its epo t, , itin, , bl, , og, , Title of the project., Name of the student and concerned details., Acknowledgement s., Table of contents., Actual eport., a. Introduction of the topic and need for the project., b. Description of method is used., c. Data collected., d. Analysis of collected data., e. Conclusion., f. Bibliography- references for all the information sighted in the project., , ch, , am, , p., , 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., , sp, , ot, .c, om, , 1. Select the topic for project based on fisibility., 2. Define the objectives of the project., 3. Plan the approach and ethodology for the project., a. Primary sources For information based projects., b. xperimentation for collection study of processes type project., 4. Formulated the data information gathered using various techni ues so as to aid in, Analysis., 5. Arrive at conclusion based on analysis of data prepair the final project report., , C, , .b, , io, , lo, , gy, , 1. Collect di erent types of odified Stems Leaves oot s from your surrounding area., 2. Collect ten di erent types of owers from your area and draw its oral formula and, oral diagram., 3. Collect the information on endangered plant and animal species from aharashtra., 4. A project on Herpetological diversity of aharashtra., 5. Collect the information of Bird s from your surrounding area., 6. To study di erent types of seed germination., 7. To collect seeds and fruits of di erent plants and study their mode of dispersion., 8. isit your nearest Botanical garden oological park Devarai anrai Natural forest., Write a report of this visit concerning with ora and fauna., 9. Take photographs of di erent in orescence and classify them., 10. Prepare the Herbaria from your area of any Five-plant species., 11. Collect the information of economically important fungal organisms., 12. Collect the information of di erent Avenue tree s and their importance., 13. A project on Biopotential of fresh water invertebrates., 14. Collect the information of igratory bird s visiting various habitat s in aharashtra., , w, w, w, , C, , 123